Chapter 1: The First Civilizations of North America

The Power of a Hidden Past - North America harbored thriving native civilizations for a
staggering 15,000 years before the arrival of Europeans, a fact often either disregarded or
dismissed.
A Continent of Cultures: Approximately 15,000 years ago, the first peoples migrated, possibly
due to the shifting climate caused by the Ice Age. Over the next 10,000 to 2,500 years, diverse
cultures emerged across the continent, including:
The Rich Cultural Heritage of Ancient Mexico: Cultures like the Olmecs and Mayas flourished.
Farmers, Potters, and Builders of the Southwest: Various groups in the southwestern region,
such as the Mogollon (known for pottery), Hohokam (experts in irrigation farming), Anasazi
(cultivators of corn, beans, and squash), and Pueblos (skilled builders), established unique
ways of life.
Chiefdoms of the Eastern Woodlands: Inhabiting the eastern woodlands, these societies initially
relied on the land's resources and later evolved into accomplished farmers, city builders, and
mound creators.
Life on the Great Plains: The people of the Great Plains centered their livelihood on hunting and
gathering, adopting a nomadic lifestyle aligned with the changing seasons.
Survival in the Great Basin: Residents of the Great Basin, covering what is now NV, UT, WY,
and E. Cali, had women providing the bulk of their sustenance through seeds and stored
provisions during times of scarcity, while men hunted large and small game.
Plenty of the Pacific Northwest: The fertile lands of the Pacific Northwest gave rise to highly
stratified societies as time passed.
The Frozen North: In the frigid northern regions where agriculture was challenging due to the
harsh climate, inhabitants subsisted on seals, fish, moose, and caribou.
America’s Agricultural Gifts: The accidental innovation of early American farmers, starting with
the transformation of teosinte into corn, has had a profound impact on human history, providing
the foundation for advanced civilizations in the Americas and contributing significantly to global
diets. Native American agricultural breakthroughs, including crops like potatoes, beans, and
peanuts, have played a crucial role in averting famine, boosting populations, and improving
diets worldwide.
Landscapers: Native peoples in the pre-contact Americas demonstrated grand-scale
transformation of their environment, as seen in the extensive engineering projects of the Andes
and Mesoamerica, which created intricate systems of terraces and canals for maximizing
agriculture. Moreover, recent research suggests that even the Amazon rainforest, long
considered untouched by human influence, was significantly shaped by indigenous cultivation,
with more than 70 domesticated tree species altering the landscape over millennia.
The Influence of Geography and Climate: The delay in the adoption of agriculture in the
Americas, caused by dramatic climate variations, such as different growing seasons and
temperature ranges, hindered the spread of innovations, hindering the rise of advanced
civilizations. The north-south orientation of the Americas created barriers to communication and
technology transfer, ultimately limiting the health, population, and power of indigenous peoples
when Europeans arrived in 1492, unlike the rapid diffusion of innovations in Eurasia.
Animals and Illnesses: The profound disparity between the Eurasian world and the Americas
revolved around animals and diseases. While Eurasians had historically endured and developed
immunity to a range of infectious diseases due to close contact with domesticated animals, most
Native American populations had been relatively free from major communicable pathogens. The
scarcity of domesticated animals in the Americas, attributed to the extinction of mega-fauna and
the lack of suitable candidates for domestication, left indigenous Americans susceptible to
deadly diseases brought by European colonizers after 1492, contributing to widespread
devastation.
North America on the Eye of Contact: By the late 15th century, North America, excluding
present-day Mexico, was home to 5 to 10 million people, while the total pre-contact population
across the Americas was estimated at 57 to 112 million. This diverse population encompassed
numerous societies with distinct languages, cultures, and societal structures, reflecting various
combinations of farming, hunting, fishing, and gathering, as well as differing kinship systems,
political organizations, and religious practices. The rich history of North America included cities,
towns, and prosperous farms, characterized by tremendous diversity, with the north-south
orientation of the Americas contributing to the isolation from European diseases until 1492,
making the arrival of Europeans particularly devastating.