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Materials for ship construction
Steels may be broadly considered as alloys of iron and
carbon, the carbon percentage varying from about 0.1% in mild
steels to about 1.8% in some hardened steels. These may be
produced by one of four different processes: the open hearth
process, the Bessemer converter process, the electric furnace
process, or an oxygen process. Processes may be either an acid or
basic process according to the chemical nature of the slag
produced. Acid processes are used to refine pig-iron low in
phosphorus and sulfur that are rich in silicon and therefore produce
an acid slag.

Hull Structures
Materials for ship construction
The furnace lining is
constructed of an acid material so
that it will prevent a reaction with
the slag. A basic process is used
to refine pig-iron that is rich in
phosphorus and low in silicon.
Phosphorus can be removed only
by introducing a large amount of
lime, which produces a basic slag.

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Materials for ship construction
The furnace lining must then
be of a basic refractory to prevent a
reaction with the slag. About 85% of
all steel produced in Britain is of the
basic type, and with modern
techniques is almost as good as the
acid steels produced with superior
ores. Only the open hearth, electric
furnace, and oxygen processes are
described here as the Bessemer
converter process is not used for
shipbuilding steels.

Hull Structures
Open hearth process
The open hearth furnace is capable of producing large
quantities of steel, handling 150–300 tonnes in a single melt. It
consists of a shallow bath, roofed in, and set above two brick-lined
heating chambers. At the ends are openings for heated air and fuel
(gas or oil) to be introduced into the furnace. Also, these permit the
escape of the burned gas, which is used for heating the air and fuel.
Every 20 minutes or so the flow of air and fuel is reversed.

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Open hearth process
In this process a mixture of pig-iron and steel scrap is melted
in the furnace, carbon and the impurities being oxidized. Oxidization
is produced by the oxygen present in the iron oxide of the pig-iron.
Subsequently carbon, manganese, and other elements are added
to eliminate iron oxides and give the required chemical composition.

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Heat treatment of steels
The properties of steels may be altered greatly by the heat
treatment to which the steel is subsequently subjected. These heat
treatments bring about a change in the mechanical properties
principally by modifying the steel’s structure. Those heat treatments
that concern shipbuilding materials are described.

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Steel sections
A range of steel sections are rolled hot from ingots. The more
common types associated with shipbuilding are shown in photo. It is
preferable to limit the sections required for shipbuilding to those
readily available, i.e. the standard types; otherwise a steel mill is
required to set up rolls for a small amount of material, which is not
very economic.

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Shipbuilding steels
Steel for hull construction purposes is usually mild steel
containing 0.15–0.23% carbon and a reasonably high manganese
content. Both sulfur and phosphorus in the mild steel are kept to a
minimum (less than 0.05%). Higher concentrations of both are
detrimental to the welding properties of the steel, and cracks can
develop during the rolling process if the sulfur content is high.

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Shipbuilding steels
Steel for a ship classed with Lloyd’s Register is produced by an
approved manufacturer, and inspection and prescribed tests are
carried out at the steel mill before dispatch. All certified materials are
marked with the society’s brand and other particulars as required by
the rules.

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High tensile steels
Steels having a higher strength
than that of mild steel are employed
in the more highly stressed regions
of large tankers, container ships, and
bulk carriers. Use of higher strength
steels allows reductions in thickness
of deck, bottom shell, and framing
where fitted in the midships portion
of larger vessels; it does, however,
lead to larger deflections.

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High tensile steels
The weldability of higher
tensile steels is an important
consideration in their application in
ship structures and the question of
reduced fatigue life with these
steels has been suggested. Also,
the effects of corrosion with lesser
thicknesses of plate and section
may require more vigilant
inspection.

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Hull Structures
High tensile steels
Higher tensile steels used for hull construction purposes are
manufactured and tested in accordance with Lloyd’s Register
requirements. Full specifications of the methods of manufacture,
chemical composition, heat treatment, and mechanical properties
required for the higher tensile steels are given in Chapter 3 of
Lloyd’s Rules for the Manufacture, Testing and Certification of
Materials. The higher strength steels are available at three strength
levels, 32, 36, and 40 (kg/mm2), when supplied in the as-rolled or
normalized condition.

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Aluminum alloy
There are three advantages that
aluminum alloys have over mild steel
in the construction of ships. Firstly,
aluminum is lighter than mild steel
(approximate weights being 2.723
tonnes/m3, mild steel 7.84
tonnes/m3), and with an aluminum
structure it has been suggested that
up to 60% of the weight of a steel
structure may be saved.

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Aluminum alloy
This is in fact the principal
advantage as far as merchant ships
are concerned, the other two
advantages of aluminum being a
high resistance to corrosion and its
nonmagnetic properties. The
nonmagnetic properties can have
advantages in warships and locally
in the way of the magnetic compass,
but they are generally of little
importance in merchant vessels.

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Aluminum alloy
Good corrosion properties can be utilized, but correct
maintenance procedures and careful insulation from the adjoining
steel structure are necessary. A major disadvantage of the use of
aluminum alloys is their higher initial and fabrication costs. The
higher costs must be offset by an increased earning capacity of the
vessel, resulting from a reduced lightship weight or increased
passenger accommodation on the same ship dimensions.
Experience with large passenger liners on the North Atlantic service
has indicated that maintenance costs of aluminum alloy structures
can be higher for this type of ship and service.

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Hull Structures
Fiber-reinforced composites (FRCs)
Composite materials combine two elements with very different
characteristics to provide a material with good structural capability.
The fiber provides the strength and the matrix in which it is
contained, usually a plastic, holds the fiber in place. The fiber can
be arranged to provide directional strength so the composite can be
tailored to very specific structural requirements.

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Fiber-reinforced composites (FRCs)
Composites have a lengthy history, for example mud bricks
reinforced with straw are a composite, as is reinforced concrete. For
marine applications glass fiber reinforced plastic (GRP), first
introduced in the 1950s, is the main material for small boats. It can
be considered to be the most forgiving of all construction media.
There can be problems with poor construction technique, and this
can result in expensive repairs, for example due to hull and deck
cores becoming water saturated and laminates blistered. However,
well-built GRP boats can still be operational after 50 years.

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Testing of materials
Metals are tested to ensure that their strength, ductility, and
toughness are suitable for the function they are required to perform.
Material properties are important to the capability of the structure.
The properties outlined below are appropriate in determining the
suitability of a material for ship construction. The strength of the
material is its ability to resist deformation. Yield stress and ultimate
tensile strength measure the ability to resist forces on the structure.
Hardness of a material describes its ability to resist abrasion.

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Testing of materials
Hardness is important, for example, in bulk carriers where
the cargo handling produces abrasive action on the cargo hold
structures. Hardness is usually measured on a scale (Rockwell
or Brinell), based on test results. Ductility is the ability of a
material to be deformed before it fails. Brittleness is the opposite
of ductility and describes a material that fails under stress
because it cannot deform. Softer metals, such as aluminum, are
ductile. Hard materials such as cast iron are strong but brittle.
Toughness is the ability of a material to absorb energy.

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Classification society tests for hull materials
Both mild steel and higher tensile steel plates and sections
built into a ship are to be produced at works approved by the
appropriate classification society. During production an analysis
of the material is required and so are prescribed tests of the
rolled metal. Similar analyses and tests are required by the
classification societies for steel forgings and steel castings, in
order to maintain an approved quality. Destructive tests are
made on specimens obtained from the same product as the
finished material in accordance with the societies’ requirements,
which may be found in the appropriate rules. These tests usually
take the form of a tensile test and impact test.

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Grades of steel used in ship construction
While there is a plethora of materials used in shipbuilding,
steel remains the most widely used. And for good reason: Steel
is strong enough to withstand the fatigue that a lifetime spent on
the open seas will thrust upon it. In the shipbuilding industry,
steel is categorized by four grades of toughness:

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Hull Structures
Grades of steel used in ship construction

GRADE A STEEL: This mild steel is used for ship structures

measuring less than 20 mm, such as bulkheads.

GRADE B STEEL: This slightly stronger steel is used for structures

measuring 20 to 25 mm.

GRADE D STEEL: Grade D steel is strong enough to resist cracks

and is used for structures that measure more than 25 mm thick.

GRADE E STEEL: This type of steel is heat treated for the ultimate
strength and is used for structures measuring 50 mm or more, making
it the ideal material for high-stress parts of the ship, such as the keel.

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Property of Grade A, B, D, E shipbuilding steel plate
Property Grade A Grade B Grade D Grade E

% of Carbon 0.21 max 0.21 max 0.21 max 0.18 max

2.5 times %C
% of Manganese 0.8 times %C min 0.6 times %C min 0.7 times %C min
min

% of Silicon 0.5 max 0.35 max 0.1 – 0.35 0.1 – 0.35

% of Phosphorous 0.035 max 0.035 max 0.035 max 0.035 max

% of Sulphur 0.035 max 0.035 max 0.035 max 0.035 max

% of Aluminum – – 0.015 min –

Ultimate Tensile Strength (N/mm2) 400-520

Yield Strength (N/mm2) 235

% Elongation 22

Temperature at which Impact test is

NA 0 -20 -40
done (deg Cel)

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BBN steel: Steel for Shipbuilding
BBN steel is one of the world’s leading suppliers of steel for
shipbuilding. All our grades are certified to ASTM/ASME specification
and can be classified according to any of the relevant societies. Our
steels for shipbuilding include:
AH36: A common steel for shipbuilding that is typically formatted as
heavy plates and fabricated surfaces for large, heavy-duty vessels like
commercial ships and bulk carriers.
DH36: Another common shipbuilding steel used to construct and
retrofit ship superstructures.
EH36: A desirable steel for shipbuilding that is available in
prefabricated sections and heavy plates for hull construction and
superstructure design

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Hull Structures
Shell plating
The shell plating forms the watertight skin of the ship and at
the same time, in merchant ship construction, contributes to the
longitudinal strength and resists vertical shear forces. Internal
strengthening of the shell plating may be both transverse and
longitudinal and is designed to prevent collapse of the plating
under the various loads to which it is subjected.

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Shell plating
The bottom and side shell plating consists of a series of flat
and curved steel plates generally of greater length than breadth
butt welded together. The vertical welded joints are referred to as
‘butts’ and the horizontal welded joints as ‘seams’. Stiffening
members both longitudinal and transverse are generally welded
to the shell by continuous fillet welds. Framing is notched in way
of welded plate butts and seams.

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Bottom Shell plating
Throughout the length of the ship the width and thickness of
the keel plate remain constant where a flat plate keel is fitted. Its
thickness is never less than that of the adjoining bottom plating.
Strakes of bottom plating to the bilges have their greatest
thickness over the 40% of the ship’s length amidships, where the
bending stresses are highest. The bottom plating then tapers to a
lesser thickness at the ends of the ship, apart from increased
thickness requirements in way of the pounding region

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Side Shell plating
As with the bottom shell plating, the greater thickness of the
side shell plating is maintained within 40% of the vessel’s
midship length and then tapers to the rule thickness at the ends.
The thickness may be increased in regions where high vertical
shear stresses occur, usually in way of transverse bulkheads in a
vessel permitted to carry heavy cargoes with some holds empty.
There is also a thickness increase at the stern frame connection,
at any shaft brackets, and in way of the hawse pipes, where
considerable chafing occurs.

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Side Shell plating
The upper strake of plating adjacent to the strength deck is
referred to as the ‘sheerstrake’. As the sheerstrake is at a large
distance from the neutral axis it has a greater thickness than the
other strakes of side shell plating. Also, being in a highly
stressed region it is necessary to avoid welded attachments to
the sheerstrake, or cutouts that would introduce stress raisers.
The upper edge is dressed smooth, and the welding of bulwarks
to the edge of the sheerstrake is not permitted within the
amidships length of the ship.

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Side Shell plating
Scupper openings above the deck over the same length,
and at the ends of the superstructure, are also prohibited in
larger vessels. The connection between the sheerstrake and
strength deck can present a problem, and a rounded gunwale
may be adopted to solve this problem where the plating is heavy.
This is often the case over the midship portion of large tankers
and bulk carriers. Butt welds are then employed to make
connections rather than the less satisfactory fillet weld at the
perpendicular connection of the vertical sheerstrake and
horizontal strength deck stringer plate.

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Side Shell plating
The radius of a rounded gunwale must be adequate (not
less than 15 times the thickness) and any welded guardrails and
fairleads are kept off the radiused plate if possible. A smooth
transition from rounded gunwale to angled sheerstrake/deck
stringer connection is necessary at the ends of the ship. All
openings in the side shell have rounded corners, and openings
for sea inlets etc. are kept clear of the bilge radius if possible.
Where this is not possible openings on or in the vicinity of the
bilge are made elliptical.

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Grades of steel for shell plates
In large ships it is necessary to arrange strakes of steel with
greater notch ductility at the more highly stressed regions.
Details of Lloyd’s requirements for mild steel and over 40% of the
length amidships are given. The rules also require thicker plating
for the members referred to in table outside the amidships region
to have greater notch ductility.

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Grades of steel for shell plates

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