LITERATURE OF THE PHILIPPINES AND THE WORLD

Poetry

Poetry is a form of literary art based on the interplay of artistic language and rhythmic qualities that
evokes a specific emotional response. It attempts to express human experiences and poet’s personal life. The
use of wordsin a poetic line may connote subtle meanings and symbolism that when probed deeply contain a
more stimulating and elevated thoughts. Good poems convey intricate patterns of emotion and thoughts that
leave the reader in a sense of wonder and fascination.

The following are the elements of poetry.

1. The Poetic Line

One main element that differentiates poetry from prose is the poetic line and use of line breaks. Poetry
expresses a feeling or an idea in one line and continued to the next line. Enjambment – lines that don’t end with
punctuations and can’t be understood independently on its own, is one way to pull the reader to the poem to
keep them reading. It produces a kind of mystery in which it pulls you further to read the poem. Poets also add
emphasis or depth to the poem through enjambed lines. Robert Frost’s “Mending Wall” has pair of lines that
contains enjambment:

Before I built a wall I’d ask to

know What I was walling in
or walling out,
2. The Sound of Words
The use of sound devices is another method in poetry that adds or intensifies meaning. The
organization of words into a pattern of sounds create a certain effect which reinforced the total meaning
conveyed in the poem. Repetition of words in a poem creates an organized sound that appeals to our senses.

The following are the most common sound devices used in poetry.

a. Rhyme – words that sound similar at the end of the

line. Excerpt on Robert Frost’s “Acquainted
with the Night”

Proclaimed the time was neither wrong nor right.

I have been one acquainted with the night.
b. Rhythm – is a literary device where words and syllables are systematically accented and stressed.
Therhythm of a poem is also known as the “beat”.

Example:
I think that I shall never see
a poem lovely as a tree.

The bold words/syllables are stressed and the poetic line has a regular pattern.
c. Alliteration – the repetition of initial vowels or consonants. ( e.g., He clasps the crags with
crooked hands
– The Eagle, Alfred Lord Tennyson)
d. Assonance – takes place when the vowels within the words are repeated, but with different
initialsounds. (e.g., Hear the mellow wedding bells - The Bells, Edgar Allan Poe)
e. Onomatopoeia – are words that imitate the sound of inanimate objects or natural sounds. (e.g.,
Howthey clang, and clash and roar – The Bells, Edgar Allan Poe)
3. Meter – is the basic unit of rhythm in poetry. It consists of stressed and unstressed syllabic pattern
within thelines of a poem. Stressed syllables are usually longer, and unstressed syllables tend to be
shorter.

The following are the most common types of meters in English poetry
The repetition of metrical feet in a line of poetry creates poetic meter, like beats in music. The length of a
poetic meter is labeled with Greek suffixes:
Monometer One foot
Dimeter Two feet
Trimeter Three feet
Tetrameter Four feet
 Types of Examples
Metrical
Feet
a. Iambic – it is the most popular and the most natural toEnglish Whose woods/ these are/ I think/ I know
expression. Each foot consists of an unstressed syllable followed
by a stressed syllable.
b. Trochaic- this is the opposite of iambic meter. Each foot consists Swift of/ foot was/ Hia/ watha
of a stressed or long syllable followed by an unstressed syllable.

c. Anapestic-a metrical foot that contains two unstressed or short For the moon/never beams/without
syllables followed by one stressed or long syllable. bring/
ing me dreams
d. Dactylic – a metrical foot that consists of one stressed This is the/forest pri/ meval
or long syllable followed by two unstressed or short syllables.
Pentameter Five feet
Hexameter Six feet
Heptameter Seven feet
Octameter Eight feet

Here are some examples of the various meters:

iambic pentameter (5 iambs, 10 syllables)

 That time | of year | thou mayst | in me |

behold trochaic tetrameter (4 trochees, 8

syllables)

 Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers

anapestic trimeter (3 anapests, 9 syllables)

 And the sound | of a voice | that is still

dactylic hexameter (6 dactyls, 17 syllables; a trochee replaces the last dactyl)

 This is the | forest pri | meval, the | murmuring | pine and the | hemlocks

Famous Examples of Meter

Meter is found in many famous examples of poetic works, including poems, drama, and lyrics. Here are
some famous examples of meter:

Shall I compare thee to a summer’s day? (iambic pentameter)

Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary, (trochaic octameter)
Out, damned spot! Out, I say! (spondaic trimeter)
The itsy, bitsy spider (iambic trimeter)
Stop all the clocks, / Cut off the telephone (dactylic dimeter)
I wandered, lonely as a cloud (iambic tetrameter)
“Forward, the Light Brigade! / Charge for the guns!” he said. (dactylic dimeter)
Fair is foul and foul is fair. (trochaic tetrameter)
But, soft! What light through yonder window breaks? (iambic pentameter)
‘Twas the night before Christmas, and all through the house (anapestic tetrameter)
4. Imagery

Imagery makes use of words and concrete details that create visual representation and sensory image
of ideas in the reader’s mind. It includes sounds, textures, odors, feel and even tastes that help the reader
imagine a particular piece of literature. It also adds symbolism which imbues objects or characters with a
deeper meaning in contrast to the original one. By the use of imagery, it helps the reader grasp the whole
context and the imaginary world that the author has created.
5. Tone
In simplest form, tone is the writer’s attitude toward a subject or an audience. Tone is generally
expressed through the use and choice of words, or the perspective of the writer on a particular subject. Examples
of tone are gloomy, meditative, anxious, angry, happy, cheerful, etc. Let’s take this excerpt of Robert Frost’s
 poem “The Road Not taken” as an example:

“I shall be telling this with

a sigh Somewhere ages
and ages hence:
Two roads diverged in a
wood, and I,I took the one
less travelled by,
and that has made all the difference”

In this piece, the poet is telling us with a “sigh”, so the lines can be summed up as having an unhappy
tone, which leads us into thinking that the persona of the poem had to make a difficult choice.
6. Figures of Speech
It refers to the use of language not taken in literal sense to amplify a more powerful meaning in the texts.
Figurative language conveys a more colourful writing and complicated meaning which engages the readers to
readwith more creative tone.

Types of
Figures of
Speech
Simile is a type of figure of speech involving comparison
between two dissimilar objects by the use of the words
“like” “as” or “as if”.
Metaphor gives an implicit and hidden comparison
between twounlike things.
Personification gives inanimate objects human-like
attributes andcharacteristics as if they are live being.
4. Apostrophe is an address to the non-existent being as if
he/she is
alive or present, or to inanimate objects as if they were
animated.
5. Metonymy is the use of words that is closely
associated toanother word.
6. Antithesis is the contradiction or opposition of
ideas, words,clauses or sentences.
7. Hyperbole is the extreme exaggeration of
statements and not to
be taken literally.
8. Irony is the use of words and expressions in which the
intendedmeaning is different from the actual meaning,
typically used for
humorous and sarcastic remarks.
LEARNING CHECK:
Examples
 You were brave as a lion.
 They fought like cats and dogs.
 Good books are food and drink to
anavid reader.
 When I saw her smile, a stone
rolledaway from my heart.
 The wind howled in the night
 The smell of the food is
calling hername.
 O, Romeo, Romeo, Wherefore art
thouRomeo?
 Gray hairs should be respected.
 The pen is mightier than the sword.
 Hatred stirs up strife, but love
coversall sins.
 He’s running faster than the wind.
 Morning, noon, and night her
tongue was incessantly doing.
 It was very kind of you to remind me of
my humiliation.

Short Activity. Three-Minute Pause. After reading the elements of poetry, what have you realized? This
activity will quickly assess your understanding about the given topic. Complete the phrases below.

1. I was surprised about ……

2. I became more aware of …..
3. I want to know more about ….

Classification of Poetry

1. Narrative Poetry – is a form of poetry that tells stories through verse. Elements in a narrative a poetry are
present, such as: characters, plot, conflict, resolution, setting and action. It is a metered poem but does
not necessarily rhyme.

A. Ballad – is a type of poetry or verse that is originally set to music. Ballad comes from the French term
 chanson balladee, which means “dancing song”. This type of poetry is intended to be sung with the
accompaniment of music. It was widely popular across Europe during the medieval period.

B. Metrical Romance – a narrative poem that is widely popular in the Renaissance period, specifically
among royals and the upper class. It entails stories about the adventures and trials undertaken by
Knights in order to gain the favour of a damsel. Chivalry and courtly love were the typical themes of
Metrical Romances.

C. Epic – is a narrative poem that is extremely long and features the adventures and extraordinary deeds
of heroes who embody themselves the ideals and values of a culture or nation. It recounts the stories
of great warriors, heroes, kings, etc.

Example: Iliad and Odyssey, Homer

Biag ni Lam ang, Pedro Bukanedg

2. Lyric Poetry – a formal type of poetry that is short, highly musical that expresses the emotions and feelings
of a poet. The poet may use literary devices such as meter, rhyme, etc. to create a song-like quality. This is
different from narrative poetry in that it does not tell stories but convey a more powerful emotion by an
individual. Originally, this poetry verse was set to be accompanied with a lyre.

A. Ode – a kind of lyric poem that has a formal and calm tone glorifying an event or individual. It has an
irregular metrical form expressing highly exalted themes such as people, natural scenes or abstract
ideas. It is not very lengthy. The manner of speaking is noble and dignified.

B. Elegy – a form of lyrical poetry that is written to express sorrow and grief for the dead. It is a
melancholic poem that laments on a departure of a loved one or the subject’s death. Towards the end
of the poem, the poet generally tries to provide consolation and comfort to ease the pain of the
situation. “O Captain! My Captain” by Walt Whitman is an example of an elegy.

C. Sonnet – is a fourteen-line poem having a specific rhyme, scheme and meter. Sonnet was originated in
Italy and invented by Giacomo de Lentini in the 13th century. Most of the sonnets use iampic
pentameter: five sets unaccented syllables followed by accented syllables for a ten-syllable line. The
most common types of sonnets written are Italian (Petrarchan) Sonnet and English (Shakespearean)
Sonnet.

3. Dramatic Poetry – is a dramatic verse, or any drama written in verse, that encompasses a highly emotional
story. It is a form of narrative that is closely related to acting and which is meant to be recited. The main
defining feature of a dramatic poetry that sets it apart from prose, is that it uses rhyming or meter pattern.

There might also be an overlap between narrative and dramatic poetry. It is important to take note that
narrative poetry often has a single narrator doing the scenes. Secondly, narrative poetry normally sets the scene
and the setting is described, whereas dramatic poetry tends to start with a main character entering the scene and
starts speaking.

Dramatic poetry has evolved across centuries, but still survives until today. We can still witness a dramatic
monologue today, especially in opera.
A. Dramatic Monologue – it may have multiple characters but the speeches are given only by one speaker.
The emotions and intentions are revealed through the actions of the speaker. “My Last Duchess” is an
example of dramatic monologue.

B. Soliloquy - a popular literary device where in a speaker gives his thoughts and reflections by speaking
to himself, thereby revealing his innermost thoughts to the audience.

C. Dramatic Narrative – is a form of dramatic poetry that tells a story. These kinds of poems have a plot,
characters and complicated story usually written in a metered verse.
Prose

In literature, prose refers to the ordinary use of language that exhibits a regular flow of speech and
grammatical conventions. It does not have a formal metrical structure, in contrast with traditional poetry. Prose
is made up of sentences and paragraphs, whereas poetry is made up of lines and stanzas. It becomes the
standard styleof writing because of its simplicity and loosely defined structure which makes it easier to be
adapted to factual writing, spoken dialogue and fictional writing.
 Types of Prose

I. Fiction
Fiction, in literature, are books and stories that are based on imagination rather than on facts. It is
generally written in a narrative form, consisting of places, characters, events, etc.

Myth – a traditional story consisting of narratives that is concerned with deities or demigods and
thatwas made up in order to explain social and natural phenomena.

Example: Visayan Creation Myth, Bagobo Creation Story, Tungkung Langit and Alunsina

Fables– a fictional story in prose that features animals as characters, legendary creatures,
plants and inanimate objects. A moral lesson is usually told at the end of the

story.Example: The Ant and the Grasshopper, The Boy Who Cried Wolf

Legends – is a genre of folklore that is handed down from earlier times to the next generation
about apopular story or person, accepted as historical that which could be true.

Example: The Legend of Maria Makiling, The Legend of Tagalogs

Novels – is a fictitious work of art that is considerably lengthy and complex that deals with human
experiences or imagined stories and characters through a sequence of events. This is
typicallypublished as a book.

Example: Go Set a Watchman by

Harper LeeHarry Potter by J.K
Rowling
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald
II. Non-Fiction
Non-Fiction is a form of literature that encompasses writings that are based on facts and real events.

A. Biography – is a detailed description or account of one’s life written by someone else. It includes
basicfacts of a person like education, relationship, work, and death. Experiences and life stories
of a person can also be tackled in a biography.
B. Autobiography - an account of one’s life or history of a person’s life written by him/herself.
C. Journal- a record of reflections and observations of a person or of what happened over the course
of a day.
Other examples of non-fiction include: academic papers, book reports, diaries, encyclopedia,
literarycriticism, textbooks, history, memoirs, scientific papers, journalism, letters, and many
others.
The Elements of a Short Story

1. Setting - provides a description of where and when the story is set. It also represents the social and
cultural context in which the characters of the story exist. The setting of the short story may play a role
in its plot andtheme, or just merely a backdrop of where the story takes place. It is important to know
whether the story happens in the past, present or future as it affects the atmosphere, language and the
social conditions of thestory.

2. Plot - consists of the main sequence of events and actions that relate to the central conflict. How the
plot is structured in short stories is centered mostly around one significant experience. Twists and turns
of events do not necessarily make a story good but based on how much is revealed about the
characters and how thetheme of the story create an impact on the readers. The following are elements
of a plot.
3. Characterization - are people, animals, or creatures imagined by the writer. They perform actions and
speakdialogues following a story a line or plot. Short stories usually have fewer characters compared to
novels. They fall under two categories:

a. Major Characters – are those characters who are central to the conflict of the story.

Protagonist – is the main character and the most important person in the story
Antagonist - is the force in the story that opposes the story
Foil – a character that provides a contrasting qualities or traits to the protagonist

b. Minor Characters – they have less influence on the story and often provide support to the major
characters. Minor characters are essentially two-dimensional, or flat characters. Flat characters are
sometimes referred to as “static” characters, which means that they do not change over the course
of the story.
4. Point of View - it refers to the vantage point from which the story is told. It pertains to who tells the
story and the way it is told. The point of view is established by a narrator or the person telling the story.
It can be told from different point of views:

a. First person – the narrator is a character of the story who reveals only personal thoughts and
feelings andwhat he or she sees and is told by other characters.
b. Objective – the narrator who is unnamed or unidentified. This narrator does not belong to
the charactersof the story and does not assume the perspective of the characters.
c. All-knowing Narrator or Omniscient – The narrator is an all-knowing outsider who can enter
the minds ofmore than one the characters.

Exposition The exposition introduces the characters, creates the tone, establishes the setting
and
other information that are crucial in the story.
Rising Action This part is built up with an inciting incident which sets the story into action.
Climax The highest point of the story where actions become more intense. It is the
moment of
highest interest and emotion where outcomes of the story can be predicted.
Falling Action The part of the story where it starts moving from a climax to a more satisfying
conclusion.
Conflicts are starting to be resolved moving to close the story.
Resolution The resolution is the ending of the story where it resolves the conflict and
concludes theactions.

5. Conflict – it pertains to the clash between two opposing forces that create essence and plot for the
story. Itoccurs when the main character struggles with internal or external conflict. The following are
identified conflicts:

a. Man versus Man – friction between one person against another

b. Man versus Nature – a conflict between characters and forces of nature, or environment such as
naturaldisasters. It expresses the insignificance of a single human life in the cosmic scheme.
c. Man versus Society – the main character struggles with the social codes in their world. The values
and thecustoms that everyone has lived by in the society challenged the convictions of the main
characters.
d. Man versus Self or Internal conflict – a kind of conflict wherein the main character struggles with the
inner self e.g. self-doubt, self-destructiveness, etc.
6. Theme - is the underlying message and central idea of a literary work. However, it is important to
distinguishthe difference between the subject and the theme of a story. The subject is the chosen topic
that the writer wants to write e.g., justice, while the theme makes a statement about or expresses an
opinion on the said topic.
7. Foreshadowing – it is giving hints or clues about something that are about to happen, or at the later
part of the story. Foreshadowing could be hinted through dialogues, descriptions, symbolisms and
reaction of the character. In Ernest Hemingway’s opening line of A Farewell to Arms foreshadows an
early death, “This leavesfell early that year.”
8. Irony – the contrast between what is expected or what appears to be and what actually is.

a. Verbal Irony – the contrast between what is said what is actually meant
b. Situational Irony – occurs to a situation that is totally different of what is expected from what is the
result.
c. Dramatic Irony – occurs when the audience knows more about the actions of the characters than
themselves. For example, when the audience knows that Juliet is only asleep-not dead – but Romeo