Poetry: An

Introduction

Presentation by Dr. Hend

Hamed
Assistant Professor of
English Literature
What is Poetry?
• Poetry is about expression. Poetry expresses the way we
feel about a certain subject through imagery and other
senses. It helps us deal with our daily life, be it good or bad.
• Poetry is a form that allows for more specific expression
than stories. Stories are written because there is a
complete story to tell.
• In the case of poems, there is a theme that runs throughout
the poem from the first word to the last verse. This theme
or emotion or recollection is expressed as truthfully and
carefully as possible so that the reader can feel the essence
of the passion behind it.
What is Poetry?
• Poetry is the most compressed form of literature. Poetry is
composed of carefully chosen words expressing great depth
of meaning.

• Poetry uses specific devices such as connotation, sound,

and rhythm to express the appropriate combination of
meaning and emotion.

• Poetry captures imagination, and calls attention to the

beauty of language.
 Lyrical
Poetry
Dramatic Poetry Expresses
Dramatizes Personal Narrative
action though thoughts and Poetry
dialogue or emotions.
Tells a story
monologue
 Lyric poetry is a genre of poetry that expresses personal and
emotional feelings. It is usually short and song-like. In the
ancient world, lyric poems were those which were sung to the
lyre. Lyric poems do not have to rhyme, and today do not need
to be set to music or a beat.

 The lyric poem, dating from the Romantic era, does have some
thematic antecedents in ancient Greek and Roman verse, but
the ancient definition was based on metrical criteria, and in
archaic and classical Greek culture presupposed live
performance accompanied by a stringed instrument.
A narrative poem is usually much longer and relates
a story. A lyric poem is shorter and was originally
played to a lyre.
Main Definitions: I. Sound Devices
A. Rhythm and Meter

• Rhythm is the sound pattern created by stressed and unstressed

syllables.

• Meter is the regular pattern of stresses found in many poems and

songs.
Main Definitions: I. Sound Devices
A. Rhythm and Meter

• English poetry employs five basic rhythms of varying stressed (/) and unstressed
(x) syllables. The meters are iambs, trochees, spondees, anapests and dactyls. In
this document the stressed syllables are marked in boldface type rather than the
tradition al "/" and "x." Each unit of rhythm is called a "foot" of poetry.
The meters with two-syllable feet are
• IAMBIC (x /) : That time of year thou mayst in me behold

• TROCHAIC (/ x): Tell me not in mournful numbers

• SPONDAIC (/ /): Break, break, break/ On thy cold gray stones, O Sea!
Main Definitions: I. Sound Devices
A. Rhythm and Meter

• Meters with three-syllable feet are

• ANAPESTIC (x x /): And the sound of a voice that is still

• DACTYLIC (/ x x): This is the forest primeval,

the murmuring pines and the hemlock (a trochee replaces the final
dactyl)
Main Definitions: I. Sound Devices
A. Rhythm and Meter

Each line of a poem contains a certain number of feet of iambs,

trochees, spondees, dactyls or anapests.
A line of one foot is a monometer, 2 feet is a dimeter, and so on--
trimeter (3), tetrameter (4), pentameter (5), hexameter (6), heptameter
(7), and octameter (8).
The number of syllables in a line varies therefore according to the
meter.
Main Definitions: I. Sound Devices
A. Rhythm and Meter
Examples:

• iambic pentameter (5 iambs, 10 syllables)

That time | of year | thou mayst | in me | behold
• trochaic tetrameter (4 trochees, 8 syllables)
Tell me | not in | mournful | numbers
• anapestic trimeter (3 anapests, 9 syllables)
And the sound | of a voice | that is still
• dactylic hexameter (6 dactyls, 17 syllables; a trochee replaces the last dactyl)
This is the | forest pri | meval, the | murmuring | pine and the | hemlocks
I. Sound Devices
B. Rhyme

• A rhyme is a repetition of end sounds in words.

• End Rhymes appear at the end of two or more lines of poetry.

Example:
Ring around the rosies,
A pocket full of posies,
I. Sound Devices
B. Rhyme

• Internal Rhymes appear within a single line of poetry.

• Example:

Abednego was meek and mild, he softly spoke, he sweetly smiled.

I. Sound Devices
B. Rhyme
Rhyme Scheme:
A rhyme scheme is the pattern of rhyming lines in a poem. It is usually
referred to by using letters to indicate which lines rhyme. Thus, the rhyme
scheme of the song below would be: aabbcc

Mary had a little lamb its fleece was white as snow;

And everywhere that Mary went, the lamb was sure to go.
It followed her to school one day, which was against the rule;
It made the children laugh and play, to see a lamb at school.
And so the teacher turned it out, but still it lingered near,
And waited patiently about till Mary did appear.
I. Sound Devices
B. Rhyme
What is the rhyme scheme of this stanza?

Whose woods these are I think I know

His house is in the village though;
He will not see me stopping here
To watch his woods fill up with snow.
I. Sound Devices
C. Alliteration
The repetition of initial sounds in two or more neighbouring words /
syllables.
Examples:

• The wild and wooly walrus wait and wonders when we will walk by.
• While I nodded, nearly napping, suddenly then came a tapping. (Edgar
Allan Poe’s “The Raven”).
I. Sound Devices
C. Alliteration
Some sounds used in poetry:

1. sibilant /s/ /sh/ /ch/ /x/

2. plosive /b/ /p/ /t/ /d/
3. liquid /l/
4. (sometimes) fricative, voiced /th/ 'the' /v/ and unvoiced /th/
'theatre' /f/
5. (rarely) nasal /m/ /n/
I. Sound Devices
C. Alliteration
Some sounds used in poetry:
What is the effect of the sibilant /s/ sound?

The effect depends on context, and also the meanings of the words
around it.
It can be:
- soft
- hissing or insidious
- sinister
I. Sound Devices
C. Alliteration
Some sounds used in poetry:
Plosive sounds:
Plosive /b/ /p/ /t/ /d/ sounds create an abrupt, sharp, sometimes
shocking effect. Look for plosives blended with sibilants or liquids - as a
short, sharp shock after the softer mood OR, where both are interlaced
(sib/plo/sib/plo/sib/plo) think about which feels stronger - is it a
juddering effect, stuttering (be creative with your interpretation: what
does it make you think of?)
I. Sound Devices
C. Alliteration
Some sounds used in poetry:
Liquid sounds:

Liquid /l/ this can flow, creating a sense of quick, light movement - or
of water - ‘light slipped down the lee of the hill’, or sound thick, heavy
when combined with dull sounds - as in 'ladle', 'paddle' and 'paddle'.
I. Sound Devices
C. Alliteration
Some sounds used in poetry:
Fricative sounds:
These are divided into voiced (hard) and voiceless (soft). It's fun to notice the connection:
the <f> in 'knife', is soft, and becomes hard in the plural 'knives'. The same thing happens
in 'loaf' and 'loaves'.
Voiceless fricatives can create an airy effect.

Example:
In the poem 'Flag' by John Agard, he repeats voiceless fricatives at the start of the first two
stanzas: 'flag', 'fluttering' 'unfurled', to create a free, flowing and airy effect - of freedom.
I. Sound Devices
D. Assonance
A repetition of vowel sounds within words / syllables.
Examples:
• Fleet feet sweep by sleeping geese.
• The stony walls enclosed the hole space.
• Make the grade.
• I made my way to the lake.
• … on a proud round cloud in white high night. (E.E. Cummings).
I. Sound Devices
E. Consonance
Consonance refers to repetitive sounds produced by consonants within
a sentence or phrase. This repetition often takes place in quick
succession such as in pitter, patter.
Examples:

• She ate seven sandwiches on a sunny Sunday last year.

• Shelly sells shells by the seashore.
I. Sound Devices
F. Repetition
Words / Phrases repeated in writing to give emphasis.
Example
To the swinging and the ringing,
Of bells, bells, bells –
Of the bells, bells, bells, bells
Bells, bells, bells –
To the rhyming and the chiming of the bells! (Edgar Allan Poe’s The
Bells).
I. Sound Devices
• When commenting on sounds: remember - it's not just noise! It's
words. Words have meanings. So you need to figure out how the
sounds add to (or contrast with) the meaning.
• You can't just take a one size fits all approach.
Sibilants aren't always gentle. Sometimes they're sinister.
Sometimes flowing sounds are positive. Other times they may flow
too fast as if they're out of control.
Plosives are sometimes harsh in a bad way, sometimes energetic and
bouncy. When combined with liquids, they can sound sensual.
Main Definitions: II. Figures of Speech

Figurative language is the language

that goes beyond the normal
meaning of the words used. READ
BETWEEN THE LINES!
II. Figures of Speech
A. Simile
A figure of speech in which a comparison is made between unlike or
dissimilar objects using the words like or as.
Examples:

• Friends are like parachutes.

• She is as wise as an owl.
• He eats like a pig.
II. Figures of Speech
B. Metaphor
A figure of speech in which a comparison is drawn between two
dissimilar or unlike things without the use of like or as.
Examples:
• A good laugh is sun shine in a house.
• The world is a stage and all the men and women merely players.
(William Shakespeare’s As You Like It).
II. Figures of Speech
C. Personification
A figure of speech in which animals, ideas, or objects are given human
characteristics or form.
Examples:

• The tree bowed and waved to me in the wind..

• The flowers nodded.
II. Figures of Speech
D. Oxymoron
A figure of speech in which two opposite ideas are joined to create an
effect.
Examples:

• He showed cruel kindness when he talked with me.

• In order to lead, you must walk behind.
• This man is seriously funny.
II. Figures of Speech
E. Hyperbole
A figure of speech where exaggeration is used for emphasis.

Examples:

• I’ve told you not to do that a hundred times before!

• She is a gem, and everybody knows that.
II. Figures of Speech
F. Pun
A play on words by using a word that suggests two or more meanings
or by exploiting similar sounding words.
• Examples:

• Romeo: “Not I, believe me. You have dancing shoes with nimble soles,
I have a soul of lead”.
• Now is the winter of our discontent made glorious summer by this Son
of York. (Richard II)
II. Figures of Speech
G. Irony
Irony is a figure of speech in which words are used in such a way that their intended
meaning is different from the actual meaning of the words. It may also be a situation that
may end up in quite a different way than what is generally anticipated. In simple words, it
is a difference between the appearance and the reality.

Examples:
- Water, water everywhere,
and all the boards did shrink;
Water, water everywhere,
Nor any drop to drink
Thank Heaven! the crisis,
The danger is past,
And the lingering illness
Is over at last,
And the fever called "Living"
Is conquered at last.

The Rhyme of the Ancient Mariner - Coleridge Annie – Edgar Allan Poe
II. Figures of Speech
H. Paradox
The term Paradox is from the Greek word “paradoxon” that means contrary to
expectations, existing belief or perceived opinion. It is a statement that appears to
be self-contradictory or silly but may include a latent truth. It is also used to
illustrate an opinion or statement contrary to accepted traditional ideas. A paradox
is often used to make a reader think over an idea in an innovative way.
Examples:
• All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others. (Orwell’s
Animal Farm).
• I must be cruel to be kind. (Shakespeare’s Hamlet).
II. Figures of Speech
I. Allusion
Allusion is a brief and indirect reference to a person, place, thing or idea of historical,
cultural, literary or political significance. It does not describe in detail the person or thing to
which it refers. It is just a passing comment and the writer expects the reader to possess
enough knowledge to spot the allusion and grasp its importance in a text.
Examples
-“Learnèd Faustus, to find the secrets of astronomy
Graven in the book of Jove’s high firmament,
Did mount him up to scale Olympus’ top,
Where, sitting in a chariot burning bright,
Drawn by the strength of yokèd dragons’ necks,
He views the clouds, the planets, and the stars.” (Marlowe’s Doctor Fausts, Act III).

[Jove’s high firmament refers to the outer stretches of the universe. “Olympus’ top” is an
allusion to Greek Mythology where Mount Olympus is home of gods. Similarly, “a chariot
burning bright” refers to a Greek Myth of “god Apollo” who is said to drive the sun in his
chariot.]
II. Figures of Speech
J. Ambiguity
The presence of two or more possible meanings in a single passage.
Also, a fallacy in which the same term is used in more than one way.
Examples:
• Foreigners are hunting dogs – It is unclear whether dogs were being hunted,
or foreigners are being spoken of as dogs.
• The passerby helped the dog bite victim – Is the passerby helping a dog
bite someone? Or is he helping a person who has been bitten by a dog? It’s not
clear.
II. Figures of Speech
K. Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia indicates a word that sounds like what it refers to or describes. The
letter sounds combined in the word mimic the natural sound of the object or
action, such as hiccup. A word is considered onomatopoetic if its pronunciation is a
vocal imitation of the sound associated with the word.
Examples:
• The buzzing bee flew away.
• The sack fell into the river with a splash.
• The books fell on the table with a loud thump.
The different sounds of animals are also considered examples of
onomatopoeia. (Meow, baa, etc.)
Main Definitions: III. Imagery

• Imagery means to use figurative language to represent objects,

actions and ideas in such a way that it appeals to our physical senses.
• Usually, it is thought that imagery makes use of particular words that
create visual representation of ideas in our minds. The word imagery
is associated with mental pictures. However, this idea is but partially
correct. Imagery, to be realistic, turns out to be more complex than
just a picture.
III. Imagery: Functions

• The function of imagery in literature is to generate a vibrant and

graphic presentation of a scene that appeals to as many of the
reader’s senses as possible. It aids the reader’s imagination to
envision the characters and scenes in the literary piece clearly.
• Apart from the above-mentioned function, images , which are drawn
by using figures of speech like metaphor, simile, personification,
onomatopoeia etc. serve the function of beautifying a piece of
literature.
III. Imagery: Examples

It was dark and dim in the forest.

The words “dark” and “dim” are visual images.

The children were screaming and shouting in the fields.

“Screaming” and “shouting” appeal to our sense of hearing or auditory
sense.
III. Imagery: Examples

He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee.

“whiff” and “aroma” evoke our sense of smell or olfactory sense.

The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric.

The idea of “soft” in this example appeals to our sense of touch or
tactile sense.
III. Imagery: Examples

The fresh and juicy orange are very cold and sweet.
“ juicy” and “sweet” when associated with oranges have an effect on
our sense of taste or gustatory sense.
III. Imagery: Examples
John Keats’ “To the Autumn” is an ode rich with auditory imagery examples.
In the last five lines of his ode he says:

“Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;

And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;
Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft
The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft,
And gathering swallows twitter in the skies.”

The animal sounds in the above excerpt keep appealing to our sense of
hearing. We hear the lamb bleating and the crickets chirping. We hear the
whistles of the redbreast robin and the twitters of swallows in the sing. Keats
call these sounds as the song of autumn.
IV: Symbol and Motif

• A symbol is an object, a picture, a written word, or a sound

that is used to represent something. A motif is an image,
spoken or written word, sound, act, or another visual or
structural device that is used to develop a theme.
• A symbol can be repeated once or twice, while a motif is
constantly repeated.