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The causal structure of spacetime singularities

Ovidiu Cristinel Stoica

Horia Hulubei National Institute for Physics and Nuclear Engineering,
Bucharest, Romania
∗ E-mail: cristi.stoica@theory.nipne.ro

holotronix@gmail.com
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We analyze the causal structure of some big-bang and black hole singularities. We find
that the topology of the lightcones remains intact, despite the fact that the metric is
singular. The topology of the lightcones allows spacelike foliations of the singularities,
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which are therefore compatible with global hyperbolicity and causality. The fact that
the lightcones at different events have the same topology no matter whether the events
are at or outside the singularities suggests that the causal structure is more universal
and fundamental than the metric, which is very different at the singularities.

Keywords: General relativity; causal structure; big-bang; black hole; singularities.

1. Introduction
In General Relativity, the metric of a distinguishing spacetime can be recovered from
the causal structure (the lightcones) up to a scaling factor 1–3 . It is possible for an
apparently regular causal structure to determine a metric with singularities. We
show that important big-bang and black hole solutions have intact causal structure
at the singularities. In this case, the lightlike, timelike and spacelike intervals or
tangent vectors u are determined by the causal structure, and not by the sign of
g(u, u), which can vanish for vectors that are not necessarily lightlike if the metric
is degenerate. Due to the topology of lightcones at singularities, spacetime admits
spacelike foliations. Therefore, important classes of singularities, including black
hole singularities, are compatible with global hyperbolicity. These observations
suggest that considering the causal structure as more fundamental than the metric
can provide insights into the structure of singularities and explain the success of
some results obtained in other articles.

2. The causal structure of big-bang singularities

The FLRW (Friedmann-Lemaı̂tre-Robertson-Walker) metric is
d s2 = − d t2 + a2 (t) d Σ2 , (1)
where I ⊆ R models the time, and the space is a three-dimensional Riemannian
manifold (Σ, gΣ ), scaled by a time dependent factor a(t). Usually
d r2  
d Σ2 = + r2 d θ2 + sin2 θ d φ2 , (2)
1 − kr2
where k ∈ {−1, 0, 1} depending on whether Σ is the 3-sphere S 3 , the Euclidean
space R3 , or the hyperbolic space H 3 .
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Fig. 1. The causal structure of the big-bang singularity.

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We consider that the time is t = 0 at the big-bang, so a(0) = 0. The null

geodesics are the integral curves of the lightlike vectors. To find them, we search
for the tangent vectors u = (ut , ur ) in coordinates (t, r), so that g(u, u) = 0. Since
√
ut = a gΣrr ur , the angle made by the geodesics with the hypersurfaces t = const.
√
is arctan a gΣrr . It increases as a increases, and is zero at t = 0 (Fig. 1).
Hence the lightcones in the tangent spaces are degenerate at the singularity.
Despite this, the topology of the lightcones is the same no matter whether they
originate in or outside the singularity. They appear degenerate due to the atlas.
This is clear in coordinates (t , r), where t = a(t ) d t . Since d t = a(t ) d t , the
metric becomes d s2 = a2 (t ) − d t2 + d Σ2 , which has the same causal structure
as the non-degenerate metric − d t2 + d Σ2 , which in the case Σ = R3 is that of the
Minkowski spacetime.
The fact that the causal structure remains, from topological point of view, intact
at the big-bang singularity, may explain the results in 4,5 , that the Einstein equation
can be cast in a form which is equivalent to the original Einstein equation outside
the singularity, but all the terms in the equation remain finite also at singularity 6,7 .
We will see that something similar happens for the black hole singularities, if we
make a non-singular choice of coordinates.

3. The causal structure of black hole singularities

3.1. The Schwarzschild singularity
The Schwarzschild metric is, in Schwarzschild coordinates,
−1
2m 2m
d s2 = − 1 − d t2 + 1 − d r2 + r2 d σ 2 , (3)
r r
where natural units c = 1 and G = 1 are used. The metric
d σ 2 = d θ2 + sin2 θ d φ2 (4)
2
is that of the unit sphere S .
The event horizon singularity r → 2m is due to the coordinates, and the metric
becomes regular in the Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates 8,9 . The r → 0 singularity
cannot be removed by coordinate changes, because the scalar Rabcd Rabcd → ∞.
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But in the coordinates (τ, ξ), where t = ξτ 4 and r = τ 2 , the metric becomes
4τ 4 2
d s2 = − d τ 2 + (2m − τ 2 )τ 4 (4ξ d τ + τ d ξ) + τ 4 d σ 2 , (5)
2m − τ 2
which is smooth, albeit degenerate at r = 0 10 . It is still a singularity, because no
coordinate transformations can remove it, but in these coordinates the singularity is
only due to the fact that the metric is degenerate. Being analytic, it can be extended
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beyond τ = 0, so spacetime does not end at the singularity, but is continued.

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Fig. 2. Schwarzschild solution’s null geodesics in the (τ, ξ) coordinates.

By finding the lightlike vectors we find that the null geodesics (see Fig. 2) are
given by
dξ 4ξ 2
=− ± . (6)
dτ τ (2m − τ 2 ) τ
The lightcones in (τ, ξ) have the same topology no matter whether they are at the
singularity or outside. When moving back to four dimensions, all the lightcones
have the same topology as the Minkowski lightcone.

3.2. The Reissner-Nordström singularity

The Reissner-Nordström metric 11,12 is
Δ 2 r2
d s2 = − dt + d r2 + r2 d σ 2 , (7)
r2 Δ
where Δ := r2 − 2mr + q 2 . This time the event horizon singularities correspond
to the real solutions of the equation Δ = 0, but they can also be removed by
Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates.
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To smoothen the true singularity r = 0, we use the coordinates (τ, ρ), given by
t = τ ρT and r = ρS , where S, T ∈ N 13 . The metric becomes

2 S2 4S−2 2
d s2 = −Δρ2T−2S−2 (ρ d τ + Tτ d ρ) + ρ d ρ + ρ2S d σ 2 . (8)
Δ
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Fig. 3. Reissner-Nordström solution’s null geodesics in the (τ, ρ) coordinates, for T ≥ 3S and
even S.

The metric is analytic if S ≥ 1 and T ≥ S + 1.

In the original Reissner-Nordström coordinates, the electromagnetic potential
A = − qr is singular at r = 0, and the electromagnetic field F = d A is singular
as well. In the new coordinates the electromagnetic potential is finite everywhere,
including at the singularity ρ = 0,

A = −qρT −S−1 (ρ d τ + T τ d ρ) , (9)

and so is the electromagnetic field

F = q(2T − S)ρT −S−1 d τ ∧ d ρ. (10)

The null geodesics are given by

dτ Tτ S
=− ± ρ3S−T−1 . (11)
dρ ρ Δ
If T ≥ 3S, the coordinate ρ remains spacelike in a neighborhood of (0, 0) (see Fig. 3).
In coordinates (τ, ρ) the null geodesics are tangent to the axis ρ = 0. The lightcones
stretch as ρ → 0, until they become degenerate.
Just as in the previous cases, the topology of the lightcones is the same no
matter if they originate at or outside the singularity.
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4. Discussion
As the Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates show, we have the freedom to change
the atlas to find better coordinates. Sometimes the new coordinates remove the
singularity, and sometimes they just remove the infinities in the metric tensor gab ,
which becomes degenerate. This may lead to situations when the lightcones are
not diffeomorphic with the Minkowski lightcone, although they are homeomor-
phic with it. We have seen that this is the case in the FLRW, Schwarzschild and
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Reissner-Nordström singularities. While the lightcones have the same topology as

the Minkowski lightcone, at singularities they are not always diffeomorphic with it.
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Fig. 4. A–C. Various cases of lightcones. A. Non-degenerate lightcone. B. Lightcone degenerate

along spacelike directions. C. Lightcone degenerate along timelike directions.

Figure 4 shows three possible cases, extracted from our analysis. A represents
a non-degenerate lightcone, associated with a non-degenerate metric, or with a
degenerate metric that is obtained by rescaling a non-degenerate metric with a
scaling factor that vanishes at some points (isotropic singularities 14 ). B and C
represent degenerate lightcones associated to metrics degenerate in spacelike (Sec. 2,
Sec. 3.1), respectively timelike directions (Sec. 3.2).
This does not mean that the metric cannot be used to analyze singularities.
Recently new geometric tools became available, which can be used to provide de-
scriptions of the singularities involving only finite invariant quantities 6,7 . Einstein’s
equation could be rewritten in a form equivalent to Einstein’s outside the singular-
ity, but such that it remains finite at some singularities 6,7 . These tools proved to be
useful in finding finite descriptions of the big-bang singularities 4 , and of the black
hole singularities 10,13 . The structure of back hole singularities turned out to be com-
patible with global hyperbolicity 15 . Moreover, an unexpected positive side effect
of this treatment of singularities was that they are accompanied by some dimen-
sional reduction effects postulated in several different approaches to perturbative
Quantum Gravity 16 . Now the fact that this approach worked for some problems
of singularities gains additional justifications from the causal structure itself. More
details can be found in 17,18 and references therein.
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