The Fundamentals of Materials Science

Lesson #1: THE FUNDAMENTALS OF MATERIALS SCIENCE

Learning Objectives:
At the end of this lesson, the learner will be able to:
Discuss the Spectrum Components of Materials and analyze the flow of relations that exist
between the raw materials and the performance of engineered products.
Describe the properties of every material classification and differentiate its Mode of
Occurrence in Nature
Explain the Electron Theory of Materials, and describe the Atomic Bonding in Solids,
Seven Crystal System, Bravais Lattices, Crystallographic Directions and Planes, and X-
ray Diffraction as to its effects to the characteristics of each material.

Course Materials:
Etymology and Definition
Materials Science is a discipline that is concerned primarily with the search for basic knowledge
about the internal structure, properties and processing materials.
Materials Engineering is a discipline that deals with the use of fundamentals and applied
knowledge of materials --- correlating the properties, designing or engineering the structure of a
materials --- so as to convert it into products with predetermined properties desirable and suited
to the necessity of the society.
The Spectrum Components of Materials
PROCESSING STRUCTURE PROPERTIES PERFORMANCE
The process in which materials shall undergo must be regulated so as to ensure the resulting
properties of the structure, which in turn influence the performance of the new product. The
structure of the material therefore clearly depends on how it is processed. More so, material’s
performance certainly is a function of its properties. Thus, the interrelationship between each
component is said to be “linear”.

Watch: Basic Chemistry Concepts Part I in YouTube, Atomic Bonds - Chemistry Basics Part II,
Atomic Hook-Ups - Types of Chemical Bonds: Crash Course Chemistry #22 in YouTube, Single
Crystal, Polycrystalline, Amorphous {Texas A&M: Intro to Materials in YouTube, The Scanning
Electron Microscope in YouTube, Crystallographic Points Directions and Miller Indices in
YouTube, Unit Cell - Simple Cubic, Body Centered Cubic, Face Centered Cubic Crystal Lattice
Structures in YouTube, Intermolecular Forces - Hydrogen Bonding, Dipole-Dipole, Ion-Dipole,
London Dispersion Interactions in YouTube, Hydrogen Bonding and Common Mistakes in
YouTube.

Important Terms
Allotropy - is the possibility of existence of two or more different crystal structures for a substance
(generally an elemental solid)
Amosphous - is a material having a noncrystalline structure
Anisotrophic - a material exhibiting different values of property in different crystallographic
directions
ASTM - means American Society of Testing and Materials
ASTM Grain Size (G.S.) - is the Standard Grain Counts

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 The Fundamentals of Materials Science

Atomic Packing Factor (APF) - is the fraction of the volume of the unit cell that us occupied by
“hard sphere” atoms or ions
Atomic Mass Unit (amu) - is an expression that may be used to calculate atomic weight which
is equal to ½ of the atomic mass of carbon
Bohr Atomic Model - is an early atomic model in which electrons are assumed to revolve around
the nucleus in discrete orbitals
Bonding Energy - is the energy required to separate two atoms that are chemically bonded to
each other. It may be expresses on a per atom basis, or per mole of atom.
Bound Electrons - is the type of valence electrons that are somewhat stacked to their parent
atom
Bragg’s Law - is a relationship which stipulates the condition for diffraction by a set of
crystallographic planes
Coulombic Force - is a force between charged particles such as ions; the force is attractive when
the particles are of opposite charge.

Crystalline - is the state of solid materials characterized by a periodic and repeating three-
dimensional array of atoms, ions or molecules.
Crystal System - is a scheme by which crystal structure are classified according to unit cell
geometry. This geometry is specified in terms of relationships between edge lengths and
interaxial angles.
Diffraction (x – ray) - is a constructive interference of x-ray beams that are scattered by atoms
of a crystal
Dipole (electric) - is a pair of equal yet opposite electrical charges that are separated by small
distance.
Electron state (level) - one of the sets of discrete, quantized energies that are allowed for
electrons. In the atomic case each state is specified by four quantum number.
Electron volt (eV) - is a convenient unit of energy for atomic and subatomic systems, it is
equivalent to the energy by an electron when it falls through an electric potential of 1 volt.
Electronegative - is the tendency accept valence electrons. A term used to describe non-metallic
elements.
Electropositive - is the tendency of an atom to release valence electron. A term used to describe
metallic elements.
Grain - is an individual crystal in s polycrystalline metal or ceramic
Grain Boundary - is a normally filled electron energy state from which electron excitation may
occur
Isotopes - are atoms of the same element that have different atomic masses
Isotropic - means having identical values of a property in all crystallographic directions
Lattice - is the regular geometrical arrangement of points in crystal space
Lattice Parameters - is the combination of unit cell edge lengths and interaxial angles that defines
the unit cell geometry.
Mole - is the quantity of a substance corresponding to 6.023 x 1023 atoms or molecules

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Molecule - is a group of atoms that are bounded together by strong primary unteratomic bonds
Noncrystalline - is the solid state where there is no long-range atomic order, sometimes termed
as amorphous, glassy or vitreous
Pauli Exclusion Principle - is the postulate that for an individual atom, at most two electrons,
which necessarily have opposite spins, can occupy the same state.
Periodic Table - is the arrangement of the chemical elements with increasing atomic number
according to the periodic variation in electron structure
Polar Molecule - is a molecule in which there exists a permanent electric dipole moment by virtue
of the asymmetrical distribution of positively and negatively charged regions.
Polycrystalline - refers to crystalline materials that are composed of more than one crystal or
grain
Polymorphism - is the ability of a solid material to exist in more than one form or crystal structure.
Primary Bonds - is an interatomic bonds that are relatively strong and for which bonding energies
are relatively large.
PTFE - means Polytetrafluoroethylene is the generic name of Teflon.
Quantum Mechanics - is a branch of physics that deals with the atomic and subatomic systems,
it allows only discrete values of energy that are separated from one another
Quantum Numbers - is a set of numbers (n, l, m1, ms) the values are which are used to label
possible electron states. Three of the quantum numbers are integers, which also specify the size,
shape and spatial orientation of an electron’s probability density; the fourth number designated
spin orientation
n - principal quantum number which signifies the atomic shells (K. L. M, N…)
l - second quantum number which signifies atomic subshells (s, p, d, f)
m1 - third quantum number which determines the number of energy states for each subshell
ms - fourth quantum number which designated spin orientations
Refractory Material - is a metal ceramic that maybe exposed to extremely high temperatures
without deteriorating rapidly or without melting.
Secondary Bonds - are inter-atomic and intermolecular bonds that are relatively weak and for
which bonding energies are relatively small. Normally atomic or molecular dipoles are involved.
Single Crystal - is a crystalline solid for which the periodic are repeated atomic patterns extends
throughout its entirety without interruption.
Unit Cell - is the basic structural unit of a crystal structure. It is generally define in terms of atom
(or ion) positions within a parallelepiped volume
Valence Electrons - are electrons that are found in the outermost filled atomic shell, which
participate in interatomic bonding
Wave-mechanic model - is an atomic model in which electrons are treated as being wavelike.

Factors for which the Classes of Materials depend upon

1. Chemical composition
2. Mode of occurrence in nature
3. Internal Structure
4. Economic Importance
5. Industrial uses and application used in designing in Engineering Construction

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Mode of occurrence in nature

a. Organic Materials - materials which are directly taken from carbon
e.g. Plastics, synthetics, synthesized rubber
b. inorganic materials - materials which are directly taken from numeral rocks
e.g. Sandstone, siltstone, quarts, formalide
c. Biological materials - materials that are the result of the life cycle of organism.
e.g. Rawhide, bones, horns and natural rubber
Properties of Engineering Materials
A. Physical properties - describe the characteristics of the materials in the absence of
applied force, like:
1. Dimension (L3W1H3) 2. Shape (appearance)
3. Specific gravity 4. Viscosity
5. Moisture content (large scale of density) 6. Micro Structure
7. Macro structure (small scale of density) 8. Porosity (presence of pores)
B. Mechanical Property - the property of engineering materials which refers to the behavior
which the application of force/loading, like:
1. Strength 2. Malleability 3. Stiffness 4. Durability 5. Plasticity
6. Hardness 7. Brittleness 8. Test of materials (mechanical tests)
C. Chemical property - the characteristics of a material that relates to the behavior of
chemical condition.
These properties are the following
a. Corrosion - a chemical attack in a certain material by its environment.
Types of Corrosion
1. Atmospheric Corrosion (due to oxygen) 2. Water Corrosion
3. Soil Corrosion 4. Chemical Corrosion
5. Electrolytic Corrosion
b. Alloying - the process of melting two materials together in order to form a metallic
homogenous material.

A. Types of Materials
1. Metallic Materials
- are inorganic substances which are composed of one or more metallic elements, but some
way may also contain some nonmetallic elements.
- have large number of free electrons that are said to be partially independent from their
parent atoms, which allows speedy transfer of electric charge and thermal energy.
- of high thermal and electrical conductivities which classifies them as extremely good
conductors of electricity and heat.
- are generally opaque and reflects visible light in reaction to electromagnetic waves of light
frequency signals, lustrous as we may say.
- are essential elements in constructing structures (buildings, bridges, vehicles, etc.) for these
are generally strong but allows deformation.
e.g. iron, copper, aluminum, titanium
Types of Metallic Materials
1. Ferrous metals - contains great percentage of iron
e.g. steels and cast irons
2. Nonferrous metals - do not contain iron or just a relatively small amount of iron
e.g. aluminum, copper, zinc, nickel, titanium

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2. Polymeric Materials
- are consist of organic compounds of long molecular chains or networks, generally non-
crystalline but some consists of a mixture of crystalline and non-crystalline regions, mostly
carbon-based and hydrogen-based.
- include the families of plastics and rubbers and other chemically non-metallic based
elements
- have low densities, low softening or decomposition temperature, and some are highly
flexible and deformable
- have very poor ability to reflect light, but the less mobile electrons in plastics are more able
to adjust their vibrations to light there by not absorb them, so them, there are more
transparent or translucent
- have bound electrons that are somewhat attached to their parent atoms which make them
poor conductor of electricity and heat
- are generally non-renewable since its prime raw material is oil which certainly can not be
regenerated and so in response to the depleting resources it is necessary to:
a. Discover additional reserves
b. Develop materials having comparable properties but less adverse environmental
impact
c. Increased recycling efforts and possible developed new recycling technologies
e.g. epoxy, polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
3. Ceramic Materials
- are organic materials which consist or metallic and nonmetallic elements chemically
bonded together, mostly oxides, nitrides and carbides
- they maybe crystalline, non-crystalline or both.
- highly comparable to metals and polymers for grate harness (mechanically resistant), high
temperature strength (thermally resistant), high wear resistance (chemically resistant) and
good insulative properties, but very brittle
e.g. clay products, glass, refractory materials, carbides
4. Composite Materials
- are mixture of two or more types materials
- mostly composed of chosen filler and a compatible resin binder to obtain the required
specific properties.
- component materials are not dissolved with each other rather maintain their physical identity
by an interface between them
Types of Composite Materials
1. Laminated or Layered – sandwich structures bonded using adhesive or welds
e.g. plywood, cardboard and safety glass
2. Fiber composites – fibers suspended in a matrix of plastic, cement, rubber or metal
e.g. fiberglass, steel-belted tires
3. Particle composites – particles suspended in a matrix of plastic, cement, rubber or
metal.
e.g. concrete, molding compounds
5. Electronic Materials
- are materials used in electronics especially in solid-state and micro-electronics.
- are generally termed as semiconductors because of their electrical characteristics which is
midway between conductors and insulators
e.g. Silicon, Germanium, Gallium Arsenide

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6. Biomaterials
- are the materials that make up the implant components replacing the diseased or damaged
parts of the human body bit it is a grate requirement that such substances must be non-
toxic and definitely compatible with our body tissues.
e.g. metals, ceramics, polymers, composites, semiconductors

B. Electron Theory of Materials

Properties of materials are dependent on its structure
Guiding principle
Transformations occurs simultaneously when the energy of the final is lower than the energy
of the initial state.
Atoms - the fundamental blocks of all materials.
- Consists of a very small nucleus which is
composed of protons and neutrons that have
approximately the same mass equal to 1.67 x 10-
27
kg. surrounded by electrons 9.11 x 10-31 kg.
- The geometric atomic arrangements as well as
the interactions that may exist between the
constituent atoms or molecules defines that
would property of the material
- it maintains the chemical identity and the
specific characteristics of the material
- Both electrons and protons are electrically
charged with 1.60 x 10-19 Coulomb
Atomic Number (Z) - simply define as the
number if protons in the nucleus of each
chemical element or the number of
electrons for electrically neutral atom,
ranges from H atom (1) to plutonium (94).
Atomic Mass (A) - may simply be expresses
as the sum of the masses of protons and
neutrons comprising the nucleus. Though
it is a fact that for a given element the
number of protons for each of its atom are
constant, the number of neutrons (N) may
vary, such are called isotopes.
The Number of Available Electrons States in Some of the Electron Shell and Subshells

Source:
Materials Science and Engineering
An Introduction by William D. Callister Jr.
and David G. Rethwisch

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 The Fundamentals of Materials Science

Expected Electron Configurations for Some of the Common Elements

Source: Materials Science and Engineering An Introduction by William D. Callister Jr. and David G. Rethwisch

Atomic Weight - the weighted average of the atomic weight masses of the atom’s naturally
occurring isotopes which may be expresses as amu per atom (molecule) or mass per mole of
material where 1 mole of a substance consists 6.023 x 1023 (Avogadro’s number ) atoms or
molecules. 1 amu / atom ( or molecule ) = 1 g / mol
C. Atomic Bonding in Solids
Potential Well Concept - there exists a separation distance, r0 for which the energy of an atom
is minimum.
Attractive Force (FA) - an interatomic force attraction that depends in the type of bonding that
exist between atoms whose magnitudes varies with the distance.
Repulsive Force (FR) - a strong interatomic force of repulsion that comes as a result of
overlapping between the outer electron shells of the given atoms.

Net Force (FN) = FA + FR

Energy (E) = ʃ F dr

Net Energy (EN) = ʃα FN dr = ʃα FA dr + ʃα FR dr = EA + ER

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D. Types of Atomic Bonding

Primary Interatomic Bonds
1. Ionic Bonding
- characterized by the “transfer of valence electrons e” from one atom to the other (equivalent
to ions which are held by electrostatic forces)
- the bond is non-directional which is simply means that the magnitude of the bond
surrounding the ion is equal in all directions
- is formed between strongly positive elements (metals) and strongly negative elements (non-
metals)
- is where electropositive elements gives off elements to the electronegative element thereby
achieving inert gas electronic configuration.
- has strong electrostatic force of attraction between charged ions, thus the attractive bonding
forces are coulombic; and the “attractive energy EA” and the “repulsive energy ER” is a
function of the interatomic distance.
e.g. NaCl, MgO, Mica

2. Covalent Bonding
- characterized by the “sharing of electrons e” to obtain inert gas electronic structure
- the bonds are strongly directional which only exist in the direction between the atoms
participating in the sharing of electrons
- can be very strong as diamond (melting point  35500 C )
- can also be very weak as bismuth (melting point = 2700 C )
- the number of covalent bonds can be possibly be determined by subtracting the number of
valence electrons of an atom from 8 (which is actually the number of valence electrons at
stable state.)
e.g. H2, Cl2, F2, CH4, H2O, HNO3, HF, Diamond, SIO2, GaAs, InSb, SiC

3. Metallic Bonding
- occurs on elements with only a few electrons in tmheir outermost orbital wherein valence
electrons are given up by individual atoms resulting in a geometric array of positive ions
surrounded by a free electron cloud.
- a type of bonding that exist within the Group 1A and IIA elements and all other elemental
metals having one, two, or at most three valence electrons which are said to be free that
forms the sea of electrons surrounding the “nonvalenced electrons and atomic nuclei”,
known as ion cores.
- non directional which allows plastic deformation
- can be very strong as tungsten  850 KJ/mol (8.8 eV / atom ) , melting point = 43100 C 
- can also be very weak as mercury  68 KJ / mol (0.7 eV / atom ) , melting point = -390 C .
e.g. Ag, Al, Au, Tungsten, Mercury, Fe

Secondary Bonding
1. Van der Waals bond
- a type of bond that is physically weak typically 10KJ / mol (0.1 eV / atom )
- a type of secondary bond that is evident for inert gases.
- a type of secondary bond in which a temporary dipole induces another dipole in an adjacent
atom; the two dipoles then experience a coulombic force of attraction.
2. Hydrogen bond
- type of bond in which a hydrogen atom is shared between two strongly electronegative
atoms such as N, O, F or Cl.

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 The Fundamentals of Materials Science

Bonding Energies and Melting Temperatures for various Substances

Atomic and Ionic Radaii

Bond Lengths - is the distance of

minimum energy between two adjacent
atoms, which is equal to the sum of the two
radii. (a) in a pure metal, all atoms have
the same radius. (b) in an ionic solid, the
radii are different because the two
adjacent ions are never identical.

E. Structure of Materials
Crystal Structures
- the manner in which atoms or ions are arrayed in space within the crystalline materials.

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 The Fundamentals of Materials Science

Crystalline Solids
- solids that contain a regular
and repeating atomic or
molecular arrangement
- include metals, some
ceramics, some polymers

Lattice
- the 3-D space filling
repeating pattern on
which atoms are places
to forms a crystal

Unit Cell - smallest volume that completely describes the pattern

Lattice constants - edge lengths
along the major axes (a, b, c)
Interaxial angles - angles
between axes ( , ,  )
Basic Type of Unit Cell
a. Simple unit cell
b. Body-centered unit cell
c. Face-centered unit cell
d. Base -centered unit cell
Bravais Lattices - mathematical
derivation of the possible number
of ways of arranging atoms in
space. Consist of seven-group or
crystals system and a total of 14
lattices.

Coordination Number - the number of atomic or ionic nearest neighbors

Number of atoms / unit cell
Relationship of the cube side (ao) and the atomic radius (r)
- find a direction in which the atoms are touching
- Equate the
expression for atom
center-to-center
distance in terms of
ao to the equivalent
distance in terms of
r.

Atomic Packing Factor - the fraction of space filled by spherical atoms

- ratio of the volume occupied by atoms to the total available volume

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 The Fundamentals of Materials Science

Body Centered Cubic (BCC)

Metal Structure which has two metal atoms per
unit cell, with an atomic packing factor of 0.68.
Since atoms are in contact along the body
diagonals, the equation below applies.
Materials with a bcc metal structure have atom
contact along the body diagonal (b.d.) of the unit cell

Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

Metal Structure which has four metal atoms per
unit cell, with an atomic packing factor of 0.74.
Since atoms are in contact along the face
diagonals, the equation below applies.
Materials with a fcc metal structure have atom
contact along the face diagonal (f.d.) of the unit cell

Hexagonal Closed Packed (HCP)

Metal Structure which has six metal atoms per
unit cell, with an atomic packing factor of 0.74.
Since atoms are in contact along the face
diagonals, the equation below applies.
Materials with an hcp metal structure have atom
contact along the face diagonal (f.d.) of the unit cell

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 The Fundamentals of Materials Science

Principal Metallic Crystal Structure

1. Body Centered Cubic (BCC)

Source:
Materials
Science and
Engineering
An Introduction
by William D.
Callister Jr. and
David G.
Rethwisch

2. Face Centered Cubic (FCC)

3. Hexagonal Closed Packed

(HCP)

Source:
Materials Science and
Engineering
An Introduction by William D.
Callister Jr. and David G.
Rethwisch

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 The Fundamentals of Materials Science

Activities/Assessment to work at home:

1. Research and discuss the Advantages and Disadvantages of the different types of
materials.
2. Explain deeply the The Spectrum Components of Materials using your own examples.
3. Illustrate and differentiate crystalline and amorphous materials.
4. Recognize and tabulate the different types of materials found in your home, including the
waste you dispose every day.
5. Interview a Materials Engineering Practitioner, and learn how Electronics Engineers could
have a job in such Field.

Reading and Viewing Materials:

1. Materials Science and Engineering, An Introduction 8th Edition by William D. Callister Jr.
and David G. Rethwisch
2. The Science and Design of Engineering Materials 2nd Edition by James P. Schaffer, Ashok
Saxena, Stephen D. Antolovich, Thomas H. Sanders Jr., Steven B. Warner
3. Elements of Materials Science and Engineering 6th Edition by Lawrence H. Van Vlack
4. What is materials science? Shown in YouTube
5. Engineering Materials - Metallurgy in YouTube
6. Introduction to Materials shown in YouTube
7. Lecture 03: Crystal systems and structures: Lattice in YouTube
8. Lecture 04: X-ray diffraction: Crystal structure determination in YouTube
9. Materials Engineer - Careers in Science and Engineering shown in YouTube
10. Materials Engineer Salary (2019) – Materials Engineer Jobs shown in YouTube
11. A week in the life of a Materials Science and Engineering student shown in YouTube
12. Careers in Materials Science and Engineering shown in YouTube
13. Materials Science and Engineering at MIT shown in YouTube
14. MIT – Department of Materials Science and Engineering shown in YouTube

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