CARDIOVASCULAR SYSYTEM consists of three

interrelated components: blood, the heart,

and blood vessels. The branch of science
concerned with the study of blood, blood-
forming tissues, and the disorders associated
with them is hematology. Most cells of a
multicellular organism cannot move around
to obtain oxygen and nutrients or eliminate
carbon dioxide and other wastes. Instead,
these needs are met by two fluids: blood and
interstitial fluid. Blood is a liquid connective
tissue that consists of cells surrounded by a
liquid extracellular matrix that circulates
within the cardiovascular system. It is consists
of blood plasma (liquid) plus formed elements
(red blood cells, white blood cells, and
platelets).The extracellular matrix is called
blood plasma, and it suspends various cells
and cell fragments. Interstitial fluid is the
fluid that bathes body cells and is constantly
renewed by the blood.
FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD:
1. Transport of gases, nutrients & waste
products. Oxygen that enters the blood is
carried to cells. CO2 produced by cells is
carried in the blood to the lungs from
which it is expelled. Ingested nutrients,
ions & water is transported by the blood
as waste products to the kidney for
elimination.
2. Transport of process molecules. The
Vitamin D precursor is produced by the
skin & transported by the blood to the
liver & kidneys for processing into active
vitamin D. It is then transported to the
small intestine, where it promotes the
uptake of calcium.
3. Transport of regulatory molecules. The
blood ccarries many of the hormones &
enzymes that regulate the body
processes from one part of the body to
another.
FUNCTIONS OF THE BLOOD:
4. Regulation of pH & osmosis
5. Maintenance of body temperature
6. Protection against foreign substances.
Certain cells & chemicals in the blood is
also an important part of the immune
system.
7. Clot formation. When blood vessels are
damaged, blood clotting protects against
excessive blood loss.
Physical Characteristics of Blood
• Blood is denser and more viscous
(thicker) than water and feels slightly
sticky.
• The temperature of blood is 38°C
(100.4°F), about 1°C higher than oral or
rectal body temperature, and it has a
slightly alkaline pH ranging from 7.35 to
7.45 (average = 7.4).
• The color of blood varies with its oxygen
content. When saturated with oxygen, it
is bright red. When unsaturated with
oxygen, it is dark red.
• Blood constitutes about 20% of
extracellular fluid, amounting to 8% of
the total body mass.
• The blood volume is 5 to 6 liters (1.5 gal)
in an average-sized adult male and 4 to 5
liters (1.2 gal) in an average-sized adult
female.
Blood Plasma or simply plasma is a pale
yellow fluid that consists of water, proteins &
other components.
Plasma proteins:
- Albumins
- Globulins
- Fibrinogen, a clotting factor
Serum is a plasma without the clotting
factors. Certain blood cells develop into cells
that produce gamma globulins, an important
type of globulin. These plasma proteins are
also called antibodies or immunoglobulins
because they are produced during certain
immune responses. Foreign substances
(antigens) such as bacteria and viruses
stimulate production of millions of different
antibodies. An antibody binds specifically to
the antigen that stimulated its production
and thus disables the invading antigen.
Formed Elements
The formed elements of the blood include
three principal components: red blood cells,
white blood cells, and platelets.

Red blood cells (RBCs) or erythrocytes

transport oxygen from the lungs to body
cells and deliver carbon dioxide from
body cells to the lungs.
White blood cells (WBCs) or leukocytes
protect the body from invading pathogens
and other foreign substances.
There are several types of WBCs:
neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils,
monocytes, and lymphocytes. Lymphocytes
are further subdivided into B lymphocytes
(B cells), T lymphocytes (T cells), and
natural killer (NK) cells. Each type of WBC
contributes in its own way to the body’s
defense mechanisms.
Platelets, the final type of formed element, are
fragments of cells (megakaryocytes) that do not
have a nucleus. Among other actions, they
release chemicals that promote blood clotting
when blood vessels are damaged. Platelets are
the functional equivalent of thrombocytes,
nucleated cells found in lower vertebrates that
prevent blood loss by clotting blood.

Formation of Blood Cells

Hematopoiesis or hemopoiesis is the process of
blood cell production. Before birth, hemopoiesis
first occurs in the yolk sac of an embryo and
later in the liver, spleen, thymus, and lymph
nodes of a fetus. Red bone marrow (located in
the trabeculae of spongy bone tissue) becomes
the primary site of hemopoiesis in the last 3
months before birth, and continues as the
source of blood cells after birth and throughout
life. All the formed elements of blood are
derived from a single population of stem cells or
hemocystoblasts which have the capacity to
develop into many different types of cells.
Red Blood Cells (RBCs)
Or Erythrocytes contain the oxygen-carrying
protein hemoglobin, which is a pigment that
gives whole blood its red color. A healthy adult
male has about 5.4 million red blood cells per
microliter (μL) of blood,* and a healthy adult
female has about 4.8 million. (One drop of blood
is about 50 μL.) Normal RBCs are disk-shaped
with edges that are thicker than the center of the
cell. The shape of an RBC facilitates its function. A
biconcave disc has a much greater surface area
for the diffusion of gas molecules into and out of
the RBC. Red blood cells are highly specialized for
their oxygen transport function. Each RBC
contains about 280 million hemoglobin
molecules. A hemoglobin molecule consists of a
protein called globin, composed of four
polypeptide chains (two alpha and two beta
chains); and a ringlike nonprotein pigment called
a heme. At the center of each heme ring is an
iron ion that can combine reversibly with one O2
molecule allowing each hemoglobin molecule to
bind four O2 molecules.
Formation & destruction of RBCs
Erythropoiesis the production of RBCs, starts in
the red bone marrow with a precursor cell called
a proerythroblast . The proerythroblast divides
several times, producing cells that begin to
synthesize hemoglobin. Ultimately, a cell near
the end of the development sequence ejects its
nucleus and becomes a reticulocyte. Loss of the
nucleus causes the center of the cell to indent,
producing the red blood cell’s distinctive
biconcave shape.
White Blood Cells (WBCs)
Unlike red blood cells, white blood cells or
leukocytes have nuclei and a full complement of
other organelles but they do not contain
hemoglobin. WBCs are classified as either
granular or agranular, depending on whether
they contain conspicuous chemical-filled
cytoplasmic granules (vesicles) that are made
visible by staining when viewed through a light
microscope.

Granular leukocytes include neutrophils,

eosinophils, and basophils; agranular
leukocytes include lymphocytes and
monocytes.

Leukopenia – an abnormally low level of

white blood cells (below 5000/μL)
Hematocrit - is the percentage of total
blood volume occupied by red blood cells.
GRANULAR Leukocytes
After staining, each of the three types of granular leukocytes displays conspicuous granules
with distinctive coloration that can be recognized under a light microscope. Granular
leukocytes can be distinguished as follows:
Neutrophil.
The granules of a neutrophil are smaller than those of
other granular leukocytes, evenly distributed, and pale
Lilac. Because the granules do not strongly attract
either the acidic (red) or basic (blue) stain, these WBCs
are neutrophilic (= neutral loving). The nucleus has two
to five lobes, connected by very thin strands of nuclear
material.

Eosinophil.
The large, uniform-sized granules within an eosinophil
are eosinophilic (= eosin-loving)—they stain red orange
with acidic dyes. The granules usually do not cover or
obscure the nucleus, which most often has two lobes
connected by either a thin strand or a thick strand of
nuclear material.
Basophil
The round, variable-sized granules of a basophil are
basophilic (= basic loving)—they stain blue-purple with
basic dyes. The granules commonly obscure the nucleus,
which has two lobes.

AGRANULAR Leukocytes
Even though so-called agranular leukocytes possess
cytoplasmic granules, the granules are not visible
under a light microscope because of their small size and
poor staining qualities.
Lymphocyte
The nucleus of a lymphocyte stains dark and is round or
slightly indented. The cytoplasm stains sky blue and
forms a rim around the nucleus. Lymphocytes are
classified by cell diameter as large lymphocytes (10–14
μm) or small lymphocytes (6–9 μm). Although the
functional significance of the size difference between
small and large lymphocytes is unclear, the distinction is
still clinically useful because an increase in the number
of large lymphocytes has diagnostic significance in acute
viral infections and in some immunodeficiency diseases.
Lymphocytes are the major soldiers in lymphatic system battles. Three main types of
lymphocytes are B cells, T cells, and natural killer (NK) cells. B cells are particularly effective in
destroying bacteria and inactivating their toxins. T cells attack infected body cells and tumor
cells, and are responsible for the ejection of transplanted organs. Immune responses carried
out by both B cells and T cells help combat infection and provide protection against some
diseases. Natural killer cells attack a wide variety of infected body cells and certain tumor cells.
Monocyte
The nucleus of a monocyte is usually kidney-
shaped or horseshoe-shaped, and the cytoplasm
is blue-gray and has a foamy appearance. The
cytoplasm’s color and appearance are due to very
fine azurophilic granules (azur- = blue; -philic =
loving), which are lysosomes. Blood is merely a
conduit for monocytes, which migrate from the
blood into the tissues, where they enlarge and
differentiate into macrophages (large eaters).
Some become fixed (tissue) macrophages, which
means they reside in a particular tissue; examples
are alveolar macrophages in the lungs or
macrophages in the spleen. Others become
wandering macrophages, which roam the tissues
and gather at sites of infection or inflammation.
Platelets
Besides the immature cell types that develop
into erythrocytes and leukocytes, hemopoietic
stem cells also diff erentiate into cells that
produce platelets. Under the influence of the
hormone thrombopoietin, myeloid stem cells
develop into megakaryocyte colony forming
cells that in turn develop into precursor cells
called megakaryoblasts. Megakaryoblasts
transform into megakaryocytes, huge cells that
splinter into 2000 to 3000 fragments. Each
fragment, enclosed by a piece of the plasma
membrane, is a platelet. Their granules contain
chemicals that, once released, promote
blood clotting. Platelets help stop blood loss
from damaged blood vessels by forming a
platelet plug.
HEMOSTASIS
Is a sequence of responses that stops bleeding.
When blood vessels are damaged or ruptured,
the hemostatic response must be quick,
localized to the region of damage, and
carefully controlled in order to be effective.
Three mechanisms reduce blood loss: (1)
vascular spasm, a reaction when arteries or
arterioles are damaged, the circularly arranged
smooth muscle in their walls contracts
immediately (2) platelet plug formation, the
accumulation and attachment of large
numbers of platelets forming a mass and (3)
blood clotting (coagulation), the process of gel
formation, a series of chemical reactions that
culminates in formation of fibrin threads.
When successful, hemostasis prevents
hemorrhage, the loss of a large amount of
blood from the vessels.
BLOOD TYPES
The surfaces of erythrocytes contain
a genetically determined
assortmentof antigens composed of
glycoproteins and glycolipids. These
antigens, called agglutinogens,
occur in characteristic
combinations.

ABO Blood Group

The ABO blood group is based on two glycolipid antigens called A and B. People whose RBCs
display only antigen A have type A blood. Those who have only antigen B are type B.
Individuals who have both A and B antigens are type AB; those who have neither antigen A
nor B are type O. Blood plasma usually contains antibodies called agglutinins that react with
the A or B antigens if the two are mixed (agglutination or clumping is when antigen–antibody
response in which RBCs become cross-linked to one another.). These are the anti-A antibody,
which reacts with antigen A, and the anti-B antibody, which reacts with antigen B. Hemolysis
is the rupturing of RBCs and the releasing of hemoglobin into the blood plasma.
Rh Blood Group
The Rh blood group is so named because the Rh antigen, called Rh factor, was
first found in the blood of the Rhesus monkey. The alleles of three genes may
code for the Rh antigen. People whose RBCs have Rh antigens are designated
Rh+ (Rh positive); those who lack Rh antigens are designated Rh− (Rh negative).
Normally, blood plasma does not contain anti-Rh antibodies. If an Rh− person
receives an Rh+ blood transfusion, however, the immune system starts to make
anti- Rh antibodies that will remain in the blood. If a second transfusion of Rh+
blood is given later, the previously formed anti-Rh antibodies will cause
agglutination and hemolysis of the RBCs in the donated blood, and a severe
reaction may occur.