Vision, the act of seeing, is extremely An object appears white because it

important to human survival because it

reflects all wavelengths of visible light.
allows us to view potentially dangerous
An object appears black because it
objects in our surroundings. More than
absorbs all wavelengths of visible light.
half the sensory receptors in the human
body are located in the eyes. The eyes The adult eyeball measures about 2.5
are responsible for the detection of cm (1 in.) in diameter
visible light, the
part of the electromagnetic spectrum
with wavelengths ranging from about
400 to 700 nm. Visible light exhibits
colors: The color of visible light depends
on its wavelength. For example, light
that has a wavelength of 400 nm is
violet, and light that has a wavelength of
700 nm is red.

FUNCTIONS OF THE EYE

• Light Refraction
• Focusing images on the retina
Eyebrows – protect the eyes by
preventing perspiration from running
down the forehead & into the eyes causing
irritation. Also help by shading the eyes
from direct sunlight.
Eyelids – or palpebrae; shade the eyes
during sleep, protect the eyes from
excessive light and foreign objects, and
spread lubricating secretions over
the eyeballs.
Conjunctiva – a thin transparent mucuos
membrane covering the inner surface of
the eyelids & the anterior surface of the
eye.
Lacrimal apparatus – consist of a lacrimal
gland located in the superior lateral corner
of the orbit and a nasolacrimal duct.
Lacrimal gland – produces tears
Lacrimal canaliculi – small ducts in the
medial angle of the eye that collects excess
tears.
Nasolacrimal duct - this duct carries the
lacrimal fluid into the nasal cavity just
inferior to the inferior nasal concha where
it mixes with mucus.
The eyeball is a hollow fluid-filled
sphere. The wall of the eye, which is
composed of 3 layers or tunics (
fibrous, vascular & nervous).
1. FIBROUS TUNIC
Sclera - the “white” of the eye, covers
the entire eyeball except the cornea;
it gives shape to the eyeball, makes it
more rigid, protects its inner parts,
and serves as a site of attachment for
the extrinsic eye muscles.
Cornea - is a transparent coat that
covers the colored iris & permits light
to enter.
2. VASCULAR TUNIC
Is named because it contains most of
the blood vessels of the eye.
Choroid - lines most of the internal
surface of the sclera.
Ciliary body – contains smooth
muscles that called ciliary muscles,
which attach to the perimeter of the
lens by suspensory ligaments.
Lens – is a flexible, biconvex,
transparent disc.
Iris - the colored portion of the
eyeball, is shaped like a flattened
donut. It is suspended between the
cornea and the lens and is attached at
its outer margin to the ciliary
processes. Regulates the amount of
light that enters the eyeball.
Pupil - is where you see a reflection of
yourself when looking into someone’s
eyes. This is the hole in the center of
the iris.
3. NERVOUS TUNIC
Is the innermost tunic.
Retina – the 3rd & inner layer of the
eyeball. The surface of the retina is
the only place in the body where
blood vessels can be viewed directly
and examined for pathological
changes, such as those that occur
with hypertension, diabetes mellitus,
cataracts, and age-related macular
disease.
Two layers of retina:
Outer – Pigmented retina (with the
choroid, keeps light from reflecting
back into the eye)
Inner – Sensory retina (contains
photoreceptor cells called rods &
cones)
Rods - allow us to see in dim light,
such as moonlight; do not provide
color vision.
Cones – provides color vision
Macula lutea - or yellow spot is in the
exact center of the posterior portion
of the retina, at the visual axis of the
eye.
Fovea centralis a small depression in
the center of the macula lutea,
contains only cones. A part of the
retina where light is more focused
when the eye is looking directly in an
object.
Optic disc - is the site where the optic
(II) nerve exits the eyeball. Also called
the blind spot.
The lens divides the interior of the
eyeball into two cavities: the
anterior cavity and vitreous chamber.
The anterior cavity—the space
anterior to the lens—consists of two
chambers. The anterior chamber lies
between the cornea and the iris. The
posterior chamber lies behind the iris
and in front of the zonular fibers and
lens. Both chambers of the anterior
cavity are filled with aqueous humor
a transparent watery fluid that
nourishes the lens and cornea.
Vitreous humor, a transparent
jellylike substance that holds the
retina flush against the choroid, giving
the retina an even surface for the
reception of clear images. It occupies
about four-fifths of the eyeball. Unlike
the aqueous humor, the vitreous
body does not undergo constant
replacement.
Movement of each eyeball
is accomplished by six
skeletal muscles.
ANATOMY OFTHE EYEBALL
THE EYE & VISION
To understand how the eye forms clear
images of objects on the retina, we must
examine three processes: (1) the
refraction or bending of light by the lens
and cornea; (2) accommodation, the
change in shape of the lens; and (3)
constriction or narrowing of the pupil.

ACUITY - is the sharpness of the visual image

and is often tested in clinics with the Snellen
eye test:
How to determine? The number is the
farthest distance (in feet) that a person with
normal acuity can see the letters in that row.
For example, if the number is 20, the subject
has 20-20 vision, meaning the subject can
see at 20 feet. If the number is 100, the
subject has 20-100 vision, meaning the
subject sees at 20 feet what a person with
normal vision can see at 100 feet.
THE EYE & VISION
ASTIGMATISM - is abnormal curvature of
cornea and is done in clinics using the
astigmatism test chart where the subject
is tested for a curvature flaw by facing the
subject in the said test chart 20 feet away.
By covering one eye, the subject should be
asked to stare at the circle in the center of
the chart. If lines appear wavy, curved or
of unequal darkness astigmatism is
suspected. Do the same with the other
eye.

ACCOMMODATION is the ability to adjust

the focusing apparatus to account for the
changes in distance from the viewed
object. Your lens changes shape to
accommodate near vision and as well as
your pupil changes in diameter to help
accommodation.
THE EYE & VISION
COLOR BLINDNESS - or color vision
deficiency can be the result of brain or
nerve damage but is usually an inherited
condition. A result from the absence or
deficiency of one of the three types of
cones. The most common type is red–
green color blindness, in which red
cones or green cones are missing. As a
result, the person cannot distinguish
between red and green. Deuteranopia
individuals with no green sensitive cones
and Protanopia those with no red
sensitive cones.
Test for red-green deficiency is called
Ishihara Test.
THE EYE & VISION
The normal eye, known as an emmetropic eye, can sufficiently refract light rays
from an object 6 m (20 ft) away so that a clear image is focused on the retina.
However, many people lack this ability because of refraction abnormalities.

MYOPIA or nearsightedness is an abnormality which occurs when the eyeball is too

long relative to the focusing power of the cornea and lens, or when the lens is thicker
than normal, so an image converges in front of the retina. Myopic individuals can
see close objects clearly, but not distant objects.
HYPEROPIA or farsightedness or also known as hypermetropia, the eyeball length is
short relative to the focusing power of the cornea and lens, or the lens is thinner
than normal, so an image converges behind the retina. Hyperopic individuals can
see distant objects clearly, but not close ones.

PRESBYOPIA
A condition that occurs with aging, the lens loses elasticity and thus its ability to curve
to focus on objects that are close. Therefore, older people cannot read print at the
same close range as can younger people.