UNIT 4 CONCEPT OF EDUCATION

AND ITS MEANING

Structure
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Objectives
4.3 Concept and Meaning of Education
4.4 Traditions of Education in India
4.5 Aims of Education
4.5.1 Idealism
4.5.2 Naturalism
4.5.3 Pragmatism

4.6 Individualistic and Socialistic Schools of Thought

4.6.1 Individualistic School of Thought
4.6.2 Socialistic School of Thought
4.6.3 Balance between Individualistic and Socialistic Aims

4.7 Aims and Objectives of Primary Education

4.8 Landmarks in Educational Development in Post-Independence Period
4.8.1 University Education Commission (1948-49)
4.8.2 Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)
4.8.3 Education Commission (1964-66)
4.8.4 National Policy on Education (1968)
4.8.5 The Curriculum for the Ten-year School — A Framework (1975)
4.8.6 Higher Secondary Education and its Vocationalisation (1976)
4.8.7 National Policy on Education (1986 Revised version 1992)
4.8.8 National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education — A Framework (1988)
4.8.9 District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) (1993)

4.9 National Policy on Education and Its Implications for Primary Education
4.10 Contemporary Educational Issues
4.10.1 Imbalances and Disparities in Enrolment and Retention

4. 11 Quality of Education
4.12 Let Us Sum Up
4.13 Unit-end Exercises
4.14 Suggested Readings

4.1 INTRODUCTION
National development of any country depends upon the quality of education. It is one of
the important factors which influence national thinking and character-building Education
reflects societal concerns, evolves social ethos and helps in generation of wealth through
human resource development. Education has always been accorded an honoured place
in Indian society. Many educationists and thinker have stressed the fundamental role of
education and its unique significance for development of the society. It performs both
conservative and creative roles in society. On the one hand, it preserves significant socio-
cultural ideals and value of the society which contribute to its development and on the
7
Education in other hand, it acts as an instrument of social change for modernisation and advancement
Contemporary Scene
of the society.

4.2 OBJECTIVES
After reading this unit you should be able to:
! describe the traditions of education in India;
! list and describe aims of education and the philosophies supporting them;
! describe landmarks in educational development in post-independence period;
! bring out the implications of National Policy on Education for the primary education
sector; and
! discuss the contemporary educational issues related to primary education.

4.3 CONCEPT AND MEANING OF EDUCATION

The concept of education is used in a variety of contexts and with different shades of
meaning. The term “education” is used in the narrow and the broad sense. In the narrow
sense, ‘education’ refers to formal schooling — the process by which the society, through
its different educational institutions i.e. schools/colleges specially established for the purpose,
deliberately transmits its cultural heritage — its accumulated knowledge, values and skills
from one generation to another. In the broad sense, education is a life-long process. All
learning does not take place in the formal school system only. A large part of human life
is spent outside the school and thus the individual learns many thing informally living in the
home, the society and in the company of his fellow beings. Thus, any act, or experience
that has a positive and worth while effect on the mind, character and ability of an individual
during his life can be called ‘education’.
‘Education’ is also used to refer both to a process and to a product. As a product,
education means the sum total of knowledge, skills, ideals and values that are acquired
through learning. As a process, it refers to the act of developing these components in the
individual.
The word ‘education’ is derived from the Latin word ‘educare’ which means ‘to bring
up’ or ‘to draw out or ‘to mould’. Education is the realisation of individual potentialities. It
helps in developing the hidden potential treasure in the individual to become the real. This
meaning of education indicates that various capabilities are already present in the child in
some form. Education is a process through which ‘the best’ in him/her is drawn out and
his/her hidden potentialities are unfolded. Since the child himself does not know what
constitutes the best for him/her and the society, the teacher becomes an important agent
in the process of education. S/he has to allow the child to grow. For this s/he has to act as
a facilitator to inculcate proper thinking, reasoning, skills and habits to draw out the best in
the child.
In India, educational concepts have always conformed to the ideals, philosophy and
objectives that the people set before themselves from time to time. The ideals and objectives
were at one time influenced by the Vedas, the Upanishadas, the Puranas and the orthodox
Indian Philosophy. The main tenets of Indian Philosophy are liberation from the bondage
of evil which is a denial of good. According to the Upanishadas, education is that whose
end-product is salvation. Vedic education on the other hand emphasises the evolution of
human personality by making him self-reliant and selfless. According to Aurobindo,
“education is that which helps the growing soul to draw out that in itself which is best and
makes it perfect for a noble use”. To Tagore “Education means enabling the mind to find
out that ultimate truth which emancipates us from the bondage of the dust...”. About
education, Mahatma Gandhi says, “By education, I mean an all-round drawing out of the
best in child and man body, mind and spirit”. All these definitions indicate that child’s in
born power and faculties need to be given adequate scope to grow and flourish. They
8
favour natural growth of the child but at the same time they emphasise that proper guidance Concept of Education
and its Meaning
should be available to him when he/she needs it.
To arrive at the contemporary concept of education, we must understand its four main
characteristics:
1. Education is a human enterprise
It deals with human beings who have intellect, emotions and conscience. It deals with
harmonious development of human personality.
2. Education is a life-long process
It takes place from infancy to maturity. It is the sum total of knowledge and experiences
acquired during the life span of the human being. A society which is progressive in
outlook cannot accept a system of education which is limited in time, it prefers to link
education to life. As a process, education has three primary functions. One, it has to be
‘comprehensive’ to cover all forms of education i.e. formal, non-formal and informal.
Two, it has to be ‘integrated’ with other social and economic developments as an input
for human resource development in the total endeavour for social progress. Three, it has
to be ‘life long’. It should not remain confined to school and college only; it should continue
throughout life.
3. Education is human development
Human development — physical, emotional, intellectual and social — does not take place
in vacuum. It takes place in a common culture where the child learns a common value of
development and skills of adjustment with a changing social environment. A person is
known to be ‘completely developed individual’ when he is not only physically strong,
emotionally stables, intellectually alert and possesses skills and reasoning capacity but
also has the ability to live together and work together with all types of peoples in society
with peace and harmony. The UNESCO international Commission on Education for the
21st century in its report ‘Learning : The Treasure Within’ also emphasises ‘Learning to
Live Together’ as one of the central pillars of education.
4. Education gives direction to the development of human personality through
and educative agent
The agent may be an individual or an institution. Proper direction from an educative agent
help the child to choose the right course of studies recognising his individual differences
and needs.
After understanding these four main characteristics of education, we can now focus on
the contemporary concept of education. It is recognised that education is a moral enterprise
as it deals with harmonious development of human being who have values and ideals
which they wish to realise. The concept of education as a moral enterprise is of great
importance to the growth of a democracy because the watchward of democracy is
responsibility and not autonomy. Equality in a democracy refers not to privileges but to
obligations to serve the right. The democrative way is a means, not for securing to every
person as much as possible of what he wants, but for minimising the injustice caused by
self-centredness. For this, something worthwhile needs to be transmitted to the children
in a way so that they become kind and good human beings. When education is considered
as a moral enterprise then its implication is that teachers are value-laden, students are
value-laden, content is value-laden and teaching-learning process is value-laden. This
meaning of education is too broad in relation to the age old meaning of education as a tool
that transmits traditions, values and skills to the next generation.

4.4 TRADITIONS OF EDUCATION IN INDIA

India has a long tradition of education. The pre-historic period down to 1000 B.C offers
no evidence of any systematic process of education. Family was, perhaps, the only agency
of education. The head of the family transmitted the knowledge of the Vedas to his sons.
9
Education in Later on, during the Vedic period, when life became more complex, some learned persons,
Contemporary Scene
by virtue of their having vast knowledge and reputation, attracted pupils to come to them
and to live in their respective homes to acquire knowledge. Thus, gradually appeared on
the scene the professional teachers as ‘Gurus’ and the educational institutions called
‘Gurukuls’ or ashrams. There were thousands of. ‘Gurukuls’ in which students lived with
the ‘Guru’ as members of a family. This system of education was essentially a system of
relationship between the ‘Guru’ and the ‘Shishya’ based on a bond of mutual affection,
respect and consideration. The starting point in this system was the urge to learn on the
part of the learner that motivated him to search for a ‘Guru’ and to be accepted into his
fold. Education was predominantly religious but preparations for practical responsibilities
of wordly life were not entirely neglected.
In due course of time, the Brahmins who were more learned then others took over the
complete control of imparting education and they evolved a systematic pattern of education
known as ‘Brahmanic education’. It aimed at imparting religious education as well as
preparing individuals for their future vocations strictly in accordance with their family
tradition (Varna). During the later Brahmanic period, the caste system became rigid and
the lower class ‘Shudras’ were considered unfit for receiving education. The religious
education imparted to others was gradually reduced to the learning of complicated rituals
in Sanskrit which was hardly intelligible to the common man. The Gurukuls were single
teacher residential schools, mostly maintained through donations and alms received from
the society. A pupil was taught how to pray and perform his religious and social duties in
prescribed manner and also the physical work according to his age, status and caste.
Besides, a pupil was also expected to work to meet the personal needs of his Guru and his
family. Thus, the life and activities in Gurukuls were designed to help in the harmonious
development of pupils personality. During this period, the relationship between teacher
and pupil was very cordial and affectionate. Though education was free for boys, girls
education took place only at home, in upper class families.
With the spread of Buddhism, Buddhist education became popular. It developed through
‘monasteries’ which served as religious as well as education agencies. As compared to
Gurukuls, monasteries were organised educational institutions with great facilities in terms
of staff, accommodation etc. Originally, monasteries were intended for the education of
monks and nuns, but later on their educational facilities were made available to all children
from all castes and classes. The Buddhist system of education, free from elaborate
religious rules and rituals, was imparted in Pali, the language of the common man. The
curriculum included secular subjects. The main focus of education was on reading, writing,
arithmetic and character building. Mostly education was imparted verbally. Unlike Gurukuls,
a Buddhist monastery was not a single educational system. It was a federation of smaller
educational groups or schools affiliated to a monastery. Education was systematized and
institutionalized to a greater extent during this period.
In medieval India, when Muslims ruled over major parts of India, Islamic Education was
in vogue. Elementary education was imparted in ‘Maktabs’ and higher education in
‘Madarsas’ which were generally attached to mosques. Since mosques were, scattered
all over the country, education, particularly elementary education, became easily available
to the masses. In the beginning, Maktabs were open only to Muslim children but later on
Hindu children were also admitted. The Maktabs were non-residential day schools in
charge of a teacher called ‘Maulvi’. These schools were set-up both by the State and
well-to-do persons. Religious aims dominated educational programmes and practices. In
general, children were taught Quran, reading, writing and elementary arithmatic. Some
games and sports were also included in the school curriculum. The teacher continued to
enjoy high social status and commanded respect from his pupils by virtue of his vast
knowledge and noble character. As in the past, education of girls continued to be neglected.
Only upper class families educated their girls at home.
With the arrival of British, the system of education underwent a major change. The
western system of schooling with English as the medium of instruction appeared on the
scene. These schools, unlike those in the past, were housed in separate buildings meant
10
only for imparting instruction and the teacher was now a paid agent of the government. Concept of Education
and its Meaning
The main aim of education was creation of class of citizens who would be Indian in blood
and colour but English in taste, in opinions and in intellect. Emphasis was on higher education
of upper classes and this led to the neglect of elementary education for the masses. With
Swadeshi Movement for political freedom, demand for free and compulsory elementary
education was also voiced by national leaders. But this demand was ignored by the rulers
who advocated a policy of consolidation rather than expansion of elementary education.
Departments of Public Instruction were established for educational administration. Schools
were supervised and monitored by an Inspector of Schools. Textbooks were also
prescribed which became the reference point for the teachers. However, most of the
textual material had no relevance to learners’ life experiences. As a result of the colonial
rule our entire indigenous education system was gradually destroyed.
After independence, India as a democratic welfare state accepted ‘Universalisation of
Elementary Education’ (UEE) and ‘equal educational opportunity for all’ as her
constitutional commitments. Now, it is the state who has taken over the responsibility of
educating each citizen, irrespective of his/her caste, creed and socio-economic status.
Since then, the elementary education in the country has been given higher priority than
other levels of education. However, our education system could not be changed even
after 50 years of independence. We still follow the age-old pattern of inspectorate of
schools which precludes community participation in the education of children. The system
of nationalised textbooks still prevails though it does not have much relevance to the life
experiences of the learners. India is a vast country and any centralised scheme of education
will not succeed in our country to meet the needs of more than one billion people. Hence,
policy planners are now moving towards decentralised management of education in order
to achieve the target of UEE.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
1. Describe what you understand by ‘Education’. (About 40 words.)
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
2. List three main characteristic of education.
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
3. Write three features of Vedic education system.
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
4. Describe in not more than two sentences whether Buddhist system of education
has any utility for today.
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
11
Education in
Contemporary Scene 5. Explain in brief why the British rulers ignored elementary education for Indian
masses?
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................

4.5 AIMS OF EDUCATION

An aim is a foreseen end that gives direction to an activity through which it can be
achieved. It provides guidance based on the philosophy which is practiced in a particular
situation by a particular community. Thus, the aim should be purposeful in maintaining the
basic character and desires of the people. The importance of arms in education has been
emphasised by scholars, philosophers and educationists through all ages. As already stated
in the previous section, education is a moral activity as it deliberatly endeavours to modify
the behaviour of the learner in a socially-desired direction with a specific aim in view. The
aim is a yardstick with which we can measure our success or failure.
Every system of education has certain aims which are based on human ideals and
philosophy of life of society. But these ideals and philosophical thoughts change from time
to time and country to country in accordance with its social-political and economic
conditions. In fact aims of education represent a particular socio-political philosophy.
India believes in democracy and thus its educational aims are democratic. Fascist
philosophy develops egoistic tendencies. The communist philosophy lays emphasis on
communist ideology. Thus different schools of philosophy provide different aims of
education.
4.5.1 Idealism
Idealism has been the dominant philosophical theory throughout the ancient period. Western
philosophers like Plato, Hegel, Berkeley, Kant etc. and Indian philosophers like Tagore,
Aurobindo etc. are its main advocates. Although these educationists are not univocal
regarding various aspects of idealism, still the following may be regarded as the basic
assumptions in idealism:
1) It believes Infinite Mind or God is the ultimate reality. He is the creator and all others
are the creation.
2) God or the creator or the Infinite Mind is the source of all human values. The goal
of all human activities is the realisation of the Infinite Mind in one’s own self. Values
in human life, are therefore, eternal and transcendental. Human beings are born to
work out divine purpose in their lives.
The application of the above philosophical principals to education resulted in the development
of educational thoughts. According to the idealists, each child has certain innate abilities.
The task of education is to help him to develop and to grow up in tune with these abilities.
They are of the view that education should help the child develop respect for the nation.
The idealists believe that true knowledge is obtained only through reasoning. Knowledge
is gathered through senses. They give as much importance to study of art and literature
as to the study of science. Both intuitive thinking and scientific thinking are equally
important. Truth, beauty and goodness are absolute and unchanging values.
The idealists lay much importance on the role of the teacher. Importance to the role of the
teacher was also given in the ancient Vedic system. The teacher was expected to prepare
his pupils in the ‘Divine World’. In the theory of Integral Education of Sri Aurobindo and
Mother Terresa, a good teacher is like a good Yogi. He provides an ideal and his nature is
admired by his students.
12
Idealism offers the following aims of education: Concept of Education
and its Meaning
a) to help the child to grow up in tune with his innate potentialities;
b) to help the child realise his responsibilities towards the society and nation;
c) to develop in the child scientific outlook towards life;
d) to help the child to develop the ability to test intuitions rationally and experimentally;
e) to help the child to accept permanent values that put him in harmony with the ultimate
reality; and
f) to motivate the child to explore the truthfulness of information received through
senses.

4.5.2 Naturalism
During the middle ages, education became very formal. Church education or religious
education emphasised theology and Humanism, identified education with the study of
classics and insisted on mechanical training of mental faculties. Naturalism came as a
protest against all this formalism.
Rousseau is the founder of naturalistic movement in education. According to naturalists
there are certain innate elements present in the child. Education should nurture these
elements. The naturalists believe that by nature a child is pure. As he grows up, he is
influenced by the evil in the society and impurities come in. The naturalists find much
educative value in the nature. True education can only be given in a natural environment
away from society. They believe that good is inherent in child and in nature, the purpose
of education is only to develop the child in harmony with nature. The teacher has only a
passive role to play. The naturalists do not lay much importance on the role of the teacher
as stressed by idealists or pramatist. Rabindernath Tagore was also a naturalist, Sri
Aurobindo and Mother Teressa were naturalistst in the sense that they advocated freedom
to the child. The naturalists lay much emphasis on learning by senses. Rousseau termed
this method of teaching as ‘negative education’ which helps the child to become immune
from bad influences. The child occupies the key position. S/he should be allowed to grow
up freely according to his/her own innate nature. No curriculum should be imposed on
him/her. The role of the teacher is only to prepare suitable environment for the child to
grow.
In view of these principles of naturalism, the following are the aims of education:
a) to help the child to understand the educative value of the nature and mis-educative
value of the society;
b) to help the child to grow up into a perfect individual in a natural environment without
sacrificing social aims of education;
c) to help the child to know his/her instincts and help organise them for enrichment of
his/her experiences;
d) to help the child to develop the ability to adjust to the environment;
e) to help the child get control over his or her senses and utilise them for furtherance of
his/her experiences; and .
f) to help the child to develop the ability of “self-expression”.

4.5.3 Pragmatism
Pragmatism is relatively a recent philosophy of education developed in America. Its
propagators are Charles Sanders Peirce, William James and John Dewey. This philosophy
contrasts certain aspects of the Idealism and naturalism. Idealism believes in permanence
of values, whereas pragmatists believe in relativity of values. While idealists lay stress on 13
Education in the spiritual nature of man, pragmatists stress on the social and biological nature of man.
Contemporary Scene
The pragmatists hold democracy as important. According to them educational principles
and practices should be continuously reviewed and updated in the light of recent
developments.
The aims of education according to the Pragmatists are as follows:
a) to help the child to develop his/her all round personality in the social context;
b) to help the child to develop the ability to continuously reconstruct and interpret his/
her experience;
c) to develop an awareness in the child about the relativity of values;
d) to help the child to develop a sense of democratic values in life;
e) to develop problem solving ability in the child;
f) to help the child to develop the ability to live cooperatively within a community; and
g) to help the child to develop the ability of critical intelligence and to apply it in life
situations.

4.6 INDIVIDUALISTIC AND SOCIALISTIC SCHOOLS OF

THOUGHT
The question that perpetually bothers the educationists is whether the individual should be
educated for the sake of the individual himself or for the sake of the society in which he
lives. The problem has given rise to a serious difference of opinion that now exist in the
history of education as the individualist aims and the socialistic aims of education.
4.6.1 Individualistic School of Thought
The supporters of the individualistic aims of education advocate that the main aim of
education is the all-round development of the individual in all its aspects namely, physical,
intellectual, emotional, moral and social. Any hindrance in the way of the individual’s
natural and spontaneous growth deprives him/her of the attainment of his/her life’s goal.
The aims of education should, therefore, be formulated in accordance with this fundamental
objective of life. Education of the individual should be planned in such a way as to bring
about the fullest possible development of the individual’s innate potentialities and to help
him/her attain excellence and perfection in every aspect of his/her life.
Individualistic thinkers and philosophers like T.P. Nunn and Rousseau have emphasised
that the society is the creation of the individual and not his/her creator. The individual has
evolved the society with the intention of having some important purposes served by it. So
society is merely an instrument for the fulfilment of the needs of the individual. Beyond
that it has neither any entity nor any usefulness. If there is any conflict between the needs
of the individual and those of the society, preference will always be given to the needs of
the individual.
The modern educationists like Tagore, Sri Aurobindo, Frobel, Pestalozzi, Montessori etc,
have also given much importance to the individual aims of education. No doubt each of
them evolved a system of education quiet unique to his own ideas and thoughts but each
system invariably aimed to achieving the fullest development of all the characteristics
that one is born with.
4.6.2 Socialistic School of Thought
The arguments in favour of socialistic aims of education are no less convincing. According
to the British philosopher Hobbies and the German Philosopher Hegel every human
being is an individual entity but his/her true existence depends on the society. Outside the
society his/her existence to purely physical in nature. His/her inherent potentialities cannot
develop his/her creative urges, and expressions; his/her intellectual advancement cannot
14
take place unless s/he is assisted by the congenial forces of the society. Hence, the major Concept of Education
and its Meaning
objective of every educative process must be the promotion of the fullest development of
the society.

A strong argument in favour of the socialistic aim is offered by another group of philosophers
who emphasise the organismic theory of society. This theory maintains that society is a
living being of which the individuals are only units. As a body comprises millions of cells
so does a society comprises millions of individuals. A cell remains alive as long as it is a
part of the body, but it dies the moment it is separated from it. Similarly, the individual
retains his/her existence as long as s/he remains a part of the society. S/he may some
how retain his/her physical entity outside the society but his/her cultural, intellectual and
ethical existence cannot take place if the environment is unsocial in nature.

Social aims of education are concerned with the role of the individual as a social being.
His/her growth is not for his/her own good but for the general development of the society
Social aims of education when pursued vigorously give rise to communist or fascist pattern
of education wherein individual freedom is liable to the sacrificed for the sake of social
necessity.

Social aims treat society as above the individual. These aims are concerned with social
efficiency and citizenship training as prerequisites for attainment of individual perfection.
The slogan of extreme social aim has been ‘every thing of the state, for the state and by
the state’.

4.6.3 Balance between Individualistic and Socialistic Aims

None of the arguments presented above by either of the opposing schools of thought are
found totally acceptable. It is now universally agreed upon that there should be a proper
balance between these two extreme point of views. Philosophers like Dewey, Gandhi
and others assert that only in an ideal form of democracy the interests of the individual
and those of the society come to a natural reconciliation. Education should try to make
both the individual and the society flourish in an atmosphere of freedom and goodwill and
not imposition. The aims of the society must be democratic in nature. It needs to deliver
maximum good to the maximum number. If this is achieved, the satisfaction of the
individuals needs will naturally lead to progress and prosperity of the society. A true
balance between the individualistic and the socialistic aims of education lies in reconstructing
the social pattern based on democratic foundation of equality, justice and universal
brotherhood.

4.7 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF PRIMARY EDUCATION

We have so far discussed the aims of education in general terms without specific reference
to a formal stage of education. Individuals during the process of growth and development
pass through different stages and these developmental stages are characterized by their
distinct physical and psychic manifestations. Formal arrangements for the education of
persons in any society are conceived in terms of these developmental stages. As you
know, in India, our educational system consists of pre-school, primary, secondary and
higher education stages. Naturally, the concept of education as it applies to these different
stages exhibits changes in the emphasis given to its different aims and processes. Let us
now examine the aims and objectives of education at the primary stage.

The primary stages of education covers the age range 5-6 to 12-13 years and the classes
I to VII / VIII. The child during this stage is spontaneous, curious, creative and active. It
is a stage for concept formation, and the learning of principles. Education of the child
during this stage as conceived by the Review Committee on the curriculum for the Ten-
year School should focus on the following aims and objectives:

1) Acquisition of tools of formal learning, namely literacy, numeracy and manual skills;
15
Education in 2) Acquisition of knowledge through observation, study and experimentation in the
Contemporary Scene
areas of social and natural sciences;
3) Development of physical strength and team-spirit through sports and games;
4) Acquisition of skills or planning and executing socially useful productive work with a
view to making education work-based;
5) Acquisition of skills of purposeful observation;
6) Acquisition of habits of co-operative behaviour within the family, school and
community;
7) Development of aesthetic perception and creativity through participation artistic
activities and observation of nature;
8) Development of social responsibility by inculcating habits (individually as well as
collectively) of appreciation of the culture and life styles of persons of other religions,
regions and countries, and of readiness to serve the weak and the deprived;
9) Development of the desire to participate in productive and other processes of
community life; and to serve the community.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of the unit.
6. Name two Indian thinkers who advocated principles of idealism in education.
i) ............................................................................................................................
ii) ...........................................................................................................................
7. Enlist two aims of education each according to naturalism and pragmatism.
a) Naturalism b) Pragmatism
i) .......................................................... i) ........................................................
ii) ......................................................... ii) .......................................................
8. Mention three objectives of education at the primary stage of schooling.
i) ............................................................................................................................
ii) ...........................................................................................................................
iii) ..........................................................................................................................

4.8 LANDMARKS IN EDUCATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

IN POST-INDEPENDENCE PERIOD
As you all know, India got Independence in 1947, the major task before the country after
independence was to review the system of education so as to make it responsive to the
changing needs and aspirations of the people. Consequently, the post-independence
period was marked by reviews of education made by several Commissions, Committees
and Expert Groups. The major landmark in educational development during this period
are: (i) University Education Commission, 1948- 49; (ii) Secondary Education Commission,
1952; (iii) Education Commission 1964- 66; (iv) Curriculum for the Ten-year School —
A Framework, 1975; (v) Higher Secondary Education and its vocationalisation, 1976;
(vi) National Policy on Education, 1986/1992; (vii) National Curriculum for Elementary
16
and Secondary Education: A Framework, 1988; and (viii) District Primary Education Concept of Education
and its Meaning
Programme (DPEP), 1993. Let us study the important recommendations of these
commission and committees so as to understand their role and contribution in developing
National Policy on Education in 1968 and 1986 and its revised version in 1992.

4.8.1 University Education Commission (1948-49)

After independence, the first action of great significance taken by the Government of
India the field of education was the appointment of the University Education Commission
under the Chairmanship of Dr. S. Radhakrishanan, a distinguished scholar and later on
the second President of India. The Commission was appointed to report on Indian University
Education and suggest improvements and extensions that may be desirable to suit present
and future requirements of the country. Some of the major recommendations given by the
Commission in its report are as follows:
1) Our education must be Indian, i.e. built on the foundations of our country’s history
and spirit. Hence, all the courses of studies be designed keeping in view the needs
and demands of independent India.
2) More emphasis should be given to the study of physical science.
3) Tutorial system as a method of teaching needs to be introduced to ensure closer
contact between teachers and students.
4) There is a need for examination reform. There should be objectives tests at shorter
intervals during the course rather than depending only on written test covering the
work of two or more years. A greater emphasis should be on day-to-day records of
oral and written work.
5) Moral education needs to be introduced at every stage of education. .
6) For the medium of instruction for higher education, English be replaced early as
practicable .by regional languages. Pupils at the higher secondary and University
stages be made conversant with the three languages the regional language, the
federal language and English.
7) A three-year degree course should be introduced after eleven years of schooling to
control deterioration of standards at University level.
The University Education Commission was the pace setter for developing a national
policy on education.

4.8.2 Secondary Education Commission (1952-53)

The report of the Secondary Education Commission (1953) with Dr. A. Lakshmanaswamy
Mudaliar as Chairman represents a sincere attempt to examine, every aspect of secondary
education. The Commission had defined Secondary education in such a manner that, in
due course, fitted into the framework of a national Policy on education ‘a self-sufficient’
course preparing students to enter life after completing the course. For the first time in
India, the aims and objectives of secondary education in Indian context were presented.
According to the Commission the role of secondary education is to create democratic
citizens, to develop economic and vocational efficiency to promote leadership qualities
and to preserve enrich Indian cultural heritage and The Secondary Education Commission
made a number of recommendation improve secondary education in the country. Some
of its major recommendation are as follows:
1) A new organisational structure for secondary education with multi-purpose diversified
schemes should be introduced to suit the needs and requirements ability and aptitude
of pupils. For this, eleven-year pattern of school education was recommended i.e.
four or five years of primary education, 3-years of middle / junior secondary stage
followed by four-years of higher secondary stage.
17
Education in 2) Mother-tongue should be the medium of instruction through the entire school stage.
Contemporary Scene
English should not be compulsory after the middle school stage, it should be replaced
by Hindi or any other modern or classical language, Indian or foreign. Hence, three
languages should be studied at secondary stage.
3) Handicraft should be introduced as a compulsory subject at secondary stage besides
the study of languages, social studies, general science and three optional subjects to
be chosen out of one of the seven stream viz, humanities, science, agriculture,
commerce, technology, fine arts and home science.
4) Moral and religious education should be introduced with a view to character building.
5) Undue weightage given to the marks obtained by a pupil should be condemned.
More credit should be given for the day-to-day work in the class and to the opinion
of the class teacher for comprehensive evaluation of pupils’ performance.
6) Guidance and counselling of pupils by their teachers and .by professional guidance
officers should be provided to help them to choose a career suiting their aptitude.
On the basis of the recommendations of the Secondary Education Commission, a large
number of high secondary schools were converted into multi-purpose higher secondary
schools. New multi-purpose schools were also opened in a large number during the second
Five Year Plan.

4.8.3 Education Commission (1964-66)

This Commission was set-up under the chairmanship of Dr. D.S. Kothari. It is also known
as Kothari Commission. It had a number of special features. Of these, two deserve
special mention. First, its comprehensive approach to cover all stages of education and all
aspects of education; and second, its attempt to project a blue-print of a national system
of education for India to create a modern, democratic and socialistic society as visualized
in the Preamble of the Constitution. For the creation of this type of new society, the
Commission suggested that a national system of education based on the five national
goals should be evolved. Education should be developed in order to: i) increase productivity;
ii) achieve social and national integration; iii) strengthen democracy; iv) accelerate the
process of modernization; and v) cultivate social, moral and spiritual values.
The Commission analysed the above stated five goals and made the following
recommendations to achieve them to make education, an instrument of ‘national
development’ .
i) For making education ‘productive’, science should be introduced at every stage of
school education; work experience should be an integral part of all education; and
vocationalisation of secondary education with a bias for agriculture and technology
should be achieved;
ii) Social and national integration should be pursued through a ‘Common School System’
of public education in a phased programme of twenty year, and by making social and
national services an integral part of education at all stages;
iii) For strengthening democracy, minimum elementary education for all children and
wiping out of illiteracy from the country should be achieved. Besides, secondary and
higher education should be expanded so as to provided equal educational opportunities
for all children of merit irrespective of their economic status, caste, religion and sex.
iv) A redical transformation in the educational system should be attempted in order to
accelerate the process of modernisation. For this, modern science and technology
should be harmonised with traditional values for necessary change of outlook;
v) Regarding the development of fundamental social moral and spiritual values, some
periods should be set in the time-table to inculcate these values through school
programmes;
18
vi) 10+2+3 structure of education was recommended to suit the national needs of the Concept of Education
and its Meaning
country. The new pattern suggests ten-years of general education and two- years of
higher secondary education with a vocational stream followed by three years of
under-graduate education. Ten-year of general education is further divided into two
parts --- primary education and secondary education. Primary stage covers the lower
primary stage (classes I-IV / V) and the upper primary stage (classes V / VI-VII /
VIII). Secondary stage covers the lower secondary education (classes VIII / IX-X)
and higher secondary education (classes XI-XII);

vii) School complexes should be established. Each upper primary school should be
integrally related to ten lower primary schools that exist in its neighbourhood so that
they form one complex of educational facilities;

viii) The neighbourhood school concept should be adopted at the lower primary stage
under which all children in the neighbourhood will be required to attend the school in
the locality.

4.8.4 National Policy on Education (1968)

The Education Commission (1964-66) recommended that the Government of India should
issue a statement on the National Policy on Education which should serve as a guide to
the State Governments and local authorities. Accordingly, the Resolution on National
Policy on Education was issued in 1968. Thereafter the Resolution remained the basis of
all educational reforms in India till the formation of the new policy on Education in 1986.

The National Policy 1968 strived to promote national progress, a sense of common
citizenship and culture and to strengthen national integration. It laid stress on the need for
a radical reconstruction of the education system to improve its quality at all stages, gave
much greater attention to science and technology, the cultivation of moral values and a
closer relation between education and the life of the people. The Government of India
accordingly resolved to promote the development of education in the country in accordance
with the following principles:

i) Free and compulsory primary education for all children upto the age of 14 (as per
the Directive Principles of State Policy laid down in the Constitution);

ii) Teachers must be accorded an honoured place in society. Their emoluments and
other conditions should be adequate and satisfactory;

iii) Language policy in education should be geared to the development of regional

languages, and to promote three-language formula at the secondary stage;

iv) Equalization of educational opportunities should be ensured by correcting the regional

imbalance in educational provision;

v) The acceptance of a common educational structure i.e. 10+2+3 system of education

throughout the country;

vi) Introduction of work experience and national service as an integral part of education;

vii) Science and mathematics as an integral part of general education till the end of the
school stage;

viii) Introduction of common text-books of quality throughout the country;

ix) Reforming the system of examination by improving the reliability and validity of
examinations; and

x) Secondary education should be made an instrument of social change by

vocationalisation to meet the diverse needs of the people and the areas.
19
Education in 4.8.5 The Curriculum for the Ten-year School ---- A Framework (1975)
Contemporary Scene
The Curriculum for the Ten-year School -- A Framework, brought out by the NCERT in
1975 attempted to give a concrete shape to the recommendations of the Education
Commission and also to the Resolution on National Policy on Education ---1968. It represents
the first attempt to restructure and reorient the content and process of school education
based on a National Curriculum Framework. The framework was developed keeping in
mind the social, political and economic conditions prevailing in the country. The ten years
of general education with a set of common objectives, common scheme of studies and
other details as suggested in the Framework was gradually accepted by all States and
Union Territories. However, the implementation of the Curriculum framework remained
uneven among States and UTs due to lack of a comprehensive plan to link curriculum
changes with the process of teaching and learning, teacher training and examination
reforms. Besides, the mis-match between the curricular objectives and the actual
transaction of the curriculum in the classroom led to widespread disparities in the levels
of attainment of pupils and in the standard of education among schools.

4.8.6 Higher Secondary Education and its Vocationalisation (1976)

The introduction of the new pattern of 10+2 education envisaged the vocationalisation of
higher secondary education at an extensive scale. Accordingly, NCERT prepared a
document and spelled out details of implementing the scheme in 1976. The characteristic
feature of the last two years of schooling (called the higher secondary) is diversification,
the aim of which is to avoid forcing students into the academic channel alone and to offer
them opportunities to choose subjects of studies keeping in view their aptitude, interest
and abilities. A necessary feature of the higher secondary education is the provision of a
large number of vocational streams which would be terminal. However, the system itself
would be so designed that a student may be allowed to transfer from the academic to the
vocational stream and vice versa.
The aim of vocationalised higher secondary education as envisaged by the Curriculum
committee is to provide education to a student which would allow him to contribute his
best to the development of the society around him and to employ his skills to his own
satisfaction and that of the society. Hence, it was suggested that those vocations should
be selected in which there are employment opportunities either at present or in the near
future in a given district.

4.8.7 National Policy on Education 1986 (Revised version 1992)

Every country develops its system of education to meet the challenges of the changing
time. In our situation, the developing educational system must build upon the gains of the
past and the present for a better future for our people and indeed, of mankind. With this
background, the document ‘Challenge of Education’ published by the MHRD, Government
of India (1985) was debated in the country at various national and state level seminars,
conferences and study circles for formulation of the National Policy on Education.
Thereafter, the draft of the policy was prepared and discussed in the meetings of the
State Ministers of Education, the National Development Council and the Central Advisory
Board of Education. In the light of the discussions, the National Policy on Education
(NPE) was finalised which was adopted by the parliament during the Budget Session in
May, 1986. It outlines general formulations indicating the directions and thrust areas in
education. During the 1986 Monsoon Session of the Parliament, the Programme of Action
(POA-1986) was prepared. It provides an indication of the nature of actions which will
be needed for the implementation of the policy directions. This was for the first time in
the history of educational development in independent India that such a follow up programme
was prepared for policy implementation. The implementation of various parameters of
the National Policy on Education -1986 were reviewed by two committees, namely the
Rammurti Committee (1990) and the Janardhana Committee (1992). Accordingly, the
NPE-1986 was revised in 1992 with minor modifications.
20
NPE-1986 / 1992 was formulated on the fundamental principle that ‘education is a unique Concept of Education
and its Meaning
investment in the present and the future’. This implies that education is essentially for all,
that education can promote the goals of socialism, secularism and democracy enshrined
in our Constitution, and that education develops manpower for different levels of economy.
The salient features of NPE-1986 / 1992 are as follows:
i) A National System of Education based on (i) equal opportunities to all students both
in terms of access to education of a comparable quality and conditions of success,
(ii) common education structure, (iii) a national curriculum framework and (iv)
minimum levels of learning for each stage of education;
ii) Special emphasis on the removal of disparities and equality of educational opportunities
by attending to the specific needs of all those who have so far been denied equality;
iii) Top priority is to be given to universal elementary education (UEE) which includes
three components ----universal enrolment, universal retention and improvement in the
quality of education;
iv) Education Commission (1964-66) had recommended 10+2+3 as a common structure
of education throughout the country. Regarding the future break-up of the first
10 years, NPE-1986 recommended that efforts will be made to move towards an
elementary system comprising 5 years of primary education and 3 years of upper
primary, followed by 2 years of secondary education;
v) A national curriculum framework which contains a common core along with other
components that are flexible to be developed. The Common Core comprising the
components of the history of India’s freedom movement, constitutional obligations;
content essential to nurture national identity; India’s common cultural heritage;
egalitarianism, democracy and secularism; equality of sexes; protection of the
environment; removal of social barriers; observance of the small family norms and
inculcation of scientific temper;
vi) In order to ensure a comparable standard .of education, minimum levels of learning
(MLLs) will be laid down for each area of learning at all stages of education. The
MLLs will serve as a reference in the development of instructional material, selection
of suitable teaching-learning strategies and evaluating learners' progress;
vii) In transaction of curriculum, rote memorisation should be replaced by a child-centred
and activity-based process of learning;
viii) There is an urgent need for value education in view of the growing erosion of
essential values in society. With a well-designed curriculum content and transactional
strategies, it is possible to make education a forceful tool for inculcation of universal
and eternal like honesty, truthfulness, courage, tolerance, love for justice etc.
ix) Evaluation should be continuous and comprehensive process incorporating both
scholastic and non-scholastic aspects of education. The policy recommended that at
the school stage, public examination will be held at the levels of classes X and XII.
x) Involvement of parents, community members and voluntary agencies is essential to
foster closer links between the school and the community. It will be helpful to reduce
absenteeism and dropouts, improve relevance of education with greater access to
community resources;
xi) Suitable school facilities should be provided to improve the quality of education.
Under the scheme of ‘Operation Blackboard’, primary schools will be provided with
a minimum of physical and learning materials which will include two large rooms,
toys, games materials, blackboard, maps, charts and other learning material. The
secondary and higher secondary schools which are at present under-equipped will
be suitably equipped with laboratories and libraries to facilitate effective transaction.
21
Education in 4.8.8 National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education ---
Contemporary Scene
A Framework (1988)
The National Policy on Education -1986 contains new directions for the reorientation of
the contents and process of education. These guidelines are further elaborated in the
National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary Education ---- A Framework, which
was developed by NCERT in 1988. The main objective of the curriculum framework was
to build on the positive experiences of the past educational reforms and to reflect the
present concerns. The curriculum articulates the educational objectives of the national
system of education through a common scheme of studies for elementary and secondary
education with a built-in flexibility ensuring greater initiative to the teacher, the school and
the local educational authorities. The National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary
Education ---- A Framework developed in this context has the following basic features:
i) Broad-based general education to all at the elementary (primary and upper primary)
and the secondary stages;
ii) A common scheme of studies for elementary and secondary stages. At elementary
stage, six subjects areas indicating time allocation to each are included e.g. languages
(30%), Environmental Studies (15%), Mathematics (15%), Work Experience (20%),
Arts (10%), Health and Physical Education (10%);
iii) Inclusion of the ten common core components as indicated in the NPE-1986;
iv) Defining Minimum Levels of Learning (MLLs) for each area of learning at all
stages of education;
v) Provision for flexibility in terms of selection of content and learning experiences,
which would facilitate the attainment of minimum levels of learning;
vi) Emphasis on child-centered and activity-based processes rather than the teacher-
centered approach during the transaction;
vii) Recasting of the examination system and introduction of continuous and
comprehensive evaluation of scholastic and non-scholastic aspects of education;
viii) Applicability of the curriculum to all learners, irrespective of their modes / channels
of learning in order to ensure comparability of attainment and to facilitate horizontal
and vertical mobility of the learner for further education; and .
ix) Provision of essential facilities for effective transaction of curriculum in all school/
non-formal learning centres.
This national curriculum framework has served as a reference point for all activities in
the area of curriculum development since 1988.

4.8.9 District Primary Education Programme (DPEP) (1993)

The National Policy on Education, 1986 and the Programme of Action-1992 reaffirmed
the national commitment that free and compulsory education of satisfactory quality should
be provided to all children upto the age of 14 years before we enter 21st Century. Since
independence, the country has been striving to achieve the target of universalisation of
elementary education (UEE). But this target still remains unachieved. One of the reasons
for this is that the planning or the attainment of UEE has been mainly at the national and
state levels. This has resulted in regional imbalances with regard to progress towards the
attainment of UEE. This situation demands that the planning process should be decentralised
and made participatory with a view to addressing the access for girls and disadvantaged
groups.
With this background in view, the District Primary Education Programme (DPEP), a
centrally-sponsored programme, was launched in 1993 providing special thrust to achieve
Universalisation of Primary Education (UPE). The overall goal of the programme is to
22
reconstruct primary education as a whole in selected districts instead of piecemeal Concept of Education
and its Meaning
implementation of various schemes. For realising the goal, the DPEP envisages district
specific projects, with specific activities, clearly defined responsibilities, definite time
schedule and specific targets. Each district project framework is tailored to the specific
needs of and possibilities in the district. The goals of each project include reduction of
existing disparities in educational access, provision of alternative systems of comparable
standards for the disadvantaged groups, a substantial improvement in quality of schooling
facilities, obtaining genuine community involvement in running of schools and building up
local capacity. The DPEP is contextual and has a marked gender focus. The specific
targets of the programme are to provide access to primary education for all children,
reducing drop-out rate to less than 10%, increasing learning achievement of primary
school students by atleast 25% and reducing the gap among different gender and social
groups to less than 5%. The programme had covered 163 districts in 15 states upto 1998.
The objective of the programme is to gradually extend the coverage of all educationally
backward districts with female literacy below the national average; and also the districts
where Total Literacy Campaigns (TLCs) have bee successful leading to enhanced demand
for elementary education.

District plans under DPEP are formulated with the active association of the community,
NGOs, teachers and teacher educators. Appraisal of the plans is done with reference to
the criteria of equity, participative processes, feasibility, sustainability and replicability.

Check Your Progress

Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
9. List any three major recommendations of the Education Commission
(1964- 66) with regard to improvement of Primary Education
i) ............................................................................................................................
ii) ...........................................................................................................................
iii) ..........................................................................................................................

10. Describe the main features of National Policy on Education 1986 / 1992 with
regard to elementary education.
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................

4.9 NATIONAL POLICY ON EDUCATION AND ITS

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRIMARY EDUCATION
In 4.8.4 and 4.8.7 you have already studied the salient features and major thrust areas of
National Policy on Education -1968, 1986 and 1992. We will now discuss their implications
for the primary education.

i) Universalisation of Elementary Education (UEE): The National Policy on Education

gave top priority to UEE. It envisages that free and compulsory education of satisfactory
23
Education in quality should be provided to all children up to the age of 14 years before the
Contemporary Scene
commencement of the twenty-first century. Keeping in view the policy objctives, the
targets for various Five-Year Plans have been fixed under three broad parameters universal
access, universal retention and universal achievement.
Under universal access, educational facilities at the primary stages have increased during
the last five decades. Between 1950-51 and 1997-98, the number of primary schools has
increased from 2.10 lakh to 6.10 lakh and the number of upper primary schools from
30,600 to 1.85 lakh. Enrolment at the primary stage has escalated more than five fold and
at the upper primary stage thirteen-fold. Accessibility of schooling facilities is no longer a
major problem. At primary stage 94% of the country’s rural population now have schooling
facilities within a distance of one kilometer. At the upper primary stage also 83.98% rural
population have a school within 3 kilometer distance. The emphasis is now on ‘Education
for all’ (EFA) which has increased the number of pupils in the system. The ‘Sarav Shiksha
Abhyan’ has the target of UEE to be achieved by 2010.
Under universal retention, there has been a reduction of droupout rate between classes I-
V and I-VIII from the existing rate of 36.3% and 56.5% to 20% and 40% respectively.
For universal achievement, the policy emphasised the need for laying down minimum
levels of learning (MLLs) for each stage of education so as to ensure that some minimum
academic standards are maintained across the country. In view of this, MLLs have been
drawn up for the primary stage by the NCERT in 1991. There is a move to extend MLLs
to the upper primary stage as well.
The NPE also stressed the need to make primary education a joyful experience for
children by making it more child-centered and activity-based. Along with the MLLs,
several experiments have been conducted by States in the name of ‘joyful learning’
which were largely supported by UNICEF and have focussed on creating ‘child friendly
and joyful’ environment for children in grades 1 and 2 primarily, by encouraging learning
through play and activity.
A number of new initiatives have also been carried out by government and non-government
agencies to find solutions to the problem of universalising primary education in locally
relevant ways. Some of these are Lok Jumbish, Diganter, Bodha Karmi project in Rajasthan,
Eklavya and Rajiv Gandhi Mission in Madhya Pradesh, Rishi Valley Project in Andhra
Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh Basic Education Project, Bihar Education Project etc. Under the
District Primary Education Programme (DPEP), which is being implemented in 14 states,
many innovative efforts have made to develop curricula and textbooks for providing
effective teaching- learning experiences to the children.
The National Elementary Education Mission (NEEM) has been set up to give a boost to
the efforts being made by the government and non-governmental Organisations to achieve
the goal of UEE.
ii) Education for Equality: The National Policy places special emphasis on removal of
disparities and providing equal educational opportunities to the disadvantaged section of
the society. In view of this, various measures viz. supplying free text and uniforms, awarding
scholarships, opening more girl schools, appointing lady teachers etc. have been adopted
by the government to promote education of the girl child and to remove gender disparities.
But gender disparities still persist in regard to enrolment and retention at primary and
upper primary levels. The dropout girls is much higher than that of boys at both the levels.
Suitable incentives have also been recommended for all educationally backward sections
of the society, including schedule caste and schedule tribe students. Priority is being
accorded to opening primary schools in tribal areas. Special instructional material is also
being developed for classes I and II with arrangements for switching to the regional
languages.

iii) Development of National Curriculum Framework: The policy envisaged that a

national curriculum framework containing a common core along with other flexible
24
components is the need of the hour. Accordingly, a framework of National Curriculum Concept of Education
and its Meaning
for the Elementary and Secondary Education has been brought out in which ten core
components suggested by the NPE-1986 / 1992 have been incorporated. These ten core
elements cut across subject areas and are designed promote national identity and unity,
character building and inculcation of social and moral values among children.

iv) Common Educational Structure: Elementary education refers to the combination

of two stages of education earlier known as the primary school stage and the middle
school stage. National Education Policy of 1968 gave it a greater academic currency by
putting it as a stage covering the lower primary school stage (classes I-IV / V) and the
upper primary school stage (classes V / VI-VII / VIII). There has been a lot of variance
in the years of schooling available under the earlier primary and middle school stages and
the new lower primary and the upper primary school stages. In some stages lower primary
school stage covers classes I-IV, while in others, it covers classes I-V. Similarly, the
upper primary school stage covers classes V-VII in some states and classes VI to VIII
in other states. But the National Policy on Education-1986/1992 suggests eight years of
elementary school stage which may conveniently be divided into two stages: classes I-V
(Primary) and classes VI-VIII (upper primary). It is closer to the constitutional commitment
for universalisation of elementary education covering the age group of 6-14 years.

v) Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation Process: Improving the process of

evaluation is another thrust area of the Policy. The process of evaluation can bring about
a qualitative improvement in education. For this, continuous and comprehensive evaluation
has been suggested to ensure extensive coverage of syllabus on the one hand and to take
care of the non-scholastic aspects of education on the other. The teacher will have to
develop expertise to use various techniques of evaluation. .

vi) Learning Facilities: The NPE-1986 suggested suitable learning facilities should be
provided for quality education. Accordingly, the scheme of ‘Operation Blackboard’ was
launched in 1987-88 which had three components: provision of at least two teachers, two
classrooms and essential teaching-learning material in each primary school. A large number
of primary schools has been covered under this scheme. The scheme was revised during
the Eighth Five-Year Plan (in 1993- 94) and expanded to provide the third teacher to
primary schools where enrolment exceeds 100. The scheme was intended to improve
school environment, enhance retention and learning achievement by providing minimum
essential facilities in all primary schools. Hundred per cent central assistance has been
provided for appointment of an additional teacher in single teacher schools.

vii) School Community Partnership: The Policy gives due emphasis on closer links
between the school and the community to improve the quality of education. In order to
ensure maximum utilisation of material and human resources of the community, the teacher
will have to develop cordial relations with the parents, community members and voluntary
agencies. For this, he / she will have to initiate such action, as will ensure the involvement
of the community on a continuous basis.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
12. List three parameters that are meant to achieve the goal of universalisation of
elementary education.
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
25
Education in
Contemporary Scene 13. Describe the scheme of ‘Operation Blackboard’.
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................

4.10 CONTEMPORARY EDUCATIONAL ISSUES

You are already familiar with the major landmarks in educational development after India
won her independence. Various Commissions and Committees have reviewed the
achievements and attempted to develop a vision for future. It is also widely acknowledged
that while achievements in the field of education, particularly elementary education, are
appreciable and noticeable, much still needs to be done in terms of quality and relevance
of elementary education. The country has committed self to provide primary education of
good quality to all children. In this sub-unit we will discuss contemporary issues related to
elementary education.

4.10.1 Imbalances and Disparities in Enrolment and Retention

Provision of Universal Elementary Education (UEE) to all children till they complete the
age of 14 has been accepted as a national goal. Since 1950 determined efforts have been
made to achieve this goal. Although over the years there has been considerable increase
in the number of children in schools, the target of universal enrolment and retention has
not been achieved as yet. Several million children continue to remain outside the fold of
primary education and quite a large number of those enrolled dropout early without
completing the first cycle of education. Ironically, the country has the world’s larger
number of out-of-school children and adult illiterates.
The increase in enrolment has been uneven and there are many imbalances and disparities
which are as follows:
i) There is considerable variation in enrolment indices for various states in the country.
While the gross enrolment ratio (GER) at the primary stage in the country as a
whole and in most of its states exceeds 100 per cent, there are quite a few states
where the ratio is considerably lower. These include Bihar, Haryana, Jammu and
Kashmir, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Meghalaya. At the upper primary stage,
these states and in addition, Andhra Pradesh, Orissa and Sikkim have GER lower
than the national average. Thus, there is a strong regional diversity so far as UEE is
concerned.
ii) Gender disparities are conspicuous with regard to enrolment. If we compare girl’s
education with that of boy’s it still lags behind considerably. The proportion of
enrolment of boys and girls in primary classes (I-V) is 3:2 and in upper primary
classes (VI-VIII), it is 2: I.
iii) Even in the educationally advanced stages, there are some areas/ pockets which
are relatively backward where special attention is needed.
iv) Education has made rapid progress among some sections while there are other
sections, especially the disadvantaged sections, including the scheduled castes and
the scheduled tribes and other economically weaker sections, who have not been
able to benefit from the educational facilities that have been provided. Gender
disparties are all the more conspicious among the disadvantaged sections.
v) The percentage of children out of school in rural areas is higher than that in urban
areas.

26
vi) Even though enrolment has increased relatively more in urban areas, there are many Concept of Education
and its Meaning
sectors of society in the urban areas, specially those living in urban slums, who are
yet to be brought under the school umbrella.
The Universal retention up to the age of 14 is the most difficult aspect of UEE. Even if
every child is enrolled in primary school in class I at the age of six, it is necessary to retain
him in school for at least eight years till he/she reaches class VIII or attains the age of 14.
At present, this does not happen. The sixth All-India Educational Survey (NCERT, 1995),
has revealed that 50% of children enrolled in Class I dropped out before completing the
primary stage of education. The drop-out-rate of primary school children varies between
nearly 0% in Kerala to over 60% in Bihar. Similarly, the dropout rate of girls is much
higher than that of boys at primary and upper primary stages. There are districts where
female literacy rate varies from less than 10% (e.g. Barmer in Rajasthan) to 94% (e.g.
Koffayam in Kerala). This indicates the magnitude of wastage in primary education.
The failure to achieve the target of UEE can be attributed to rampant poverty in rural
areas, hilly and remote areas, urban slums, and also among the disadvantaged sections of
the society. Besides, inter-regional disparities, wide gaps between enrolment and retention
of boys and girls, rural-urban divide, pressing demands of the weaker sections of society.
Besides, spin-off problems resulting from ever-growing population continue to plague the
system and have been a constant cause of concern for policy planners.
In order to achieve UEE and remove disparities with regard to enrolment and retention,
some strategies have been worked out in consultation with various states and union
territories. These include
l laying more emphasis on retention and achievement rather than on merely
enrolment. .
l strengthening alternatives of schooling, particularly, the non-formal education system
for working children, girls and children from other disadvantaged sections of the
society.
l shifting focus from educationally backward states to educationally backward districts.
l adopting districts-specific and population-specific plans.
l providing universal access to schooling facilities particularly to girls, disaggregrated
groups and out-of-school children through micro-planning approach.
l decentralising planning and management through Panchayati Raj Institutions/Village
Education Committees.
l convergence of different schemes of elementary education such as early child-
hood care and education and school health and nutrition programmes etc.

4.11 QUALITY OF EDUCATION

Poor quality of elementary education imparted in unattracted educational settings is another
major issue which is equally responsible for pushing children out of school and low
achievement of pupils. The issue of quality of elementary education has to be seen in a
broader perspective which includes curriculum load, methods of teaching, evaluation
process, inadequate school facilities and teaching-learning material, non-availability of
caring and competent teachers and decentralised planning and management. Let us discuss
each one of these issues in brief:

i) Curriculum Load
Most parents and teachers believe that curriculum for primary classes is quite ‘heavy’
because of mismatch between the quantum of syllabus and the conditions in which it is
transacted. Overlap and repetition of content across different subject areas also increase
27
Education in the curriculum load. Syllabus content does not have much relevance to the child’s
Contemporary Scene
environment. Due to heavy curriculum load, children often become nervous and frustrated
with the result that most of them either fail or leave the school. Yashpal Committee
Report (1993) rightly mentioned that the burden of non-comprehension creates more
serious problems than the simple physical load of school bag. Hence, there is a need to
review the curriculum so that its load is reduced.
The National Committee appointed by the MHRD (1990) identified Minimum Levels of
Learning (MLLs) at primary stage. MLLs have been a major influence on primary education
curriculum across the country during the 1990s. It has made teachers sensitive to the idea
of directing their teaching-learning towards development of some competencies in children-
and not merely towards passing on of information. This is referred to as ‘competency-
based teaching’. However, in some respects the MLL programme has tended to take
primary education away from the right track and given it a very narrow focus. MLLs
were identified for only three of the six curricular areas i.e. Language, Mathematics and
EVS, while the other three areas i.e. Art Education, Health and Physical Education and
Work Experience which are also very important from the point of all-round development
of the child, were clearly neglected. MLLs were intended to have a well-defined though
limited role of helping the teacher monitor and guide the progress of children by using
these as some indicators of progress. However, in reality they are mostly seen as ‘the
total curriculum’ for the primary stage for each of the five classes. It is as if as set of
important questions for examination were to be treated as the syllabus for a particular
subject! Hence, place of MLLs in the curriculum at primary stage needs to be reviewed
in a balanced manner.
ii) Methods of Teaching
It is imperative that the transaction of curriculum has direct impact on learning
achievement. Therefore, methods of teaching should provide ample opportunity to the
learners to explore, to discover and to learn. NPE-1986/1992 has clearly mentioned that
learner-centered approach should be emphasised to give the learner the central place in
the process of teaching and learning. It is generally observed that in actual classroom
situation, teacher-centered approach is in vogue. More emphasis is on completing the
lesson or syllabus using chalk and talk method. Hardly any focus is given to child-centered,
activity-based teaching-learning process. There is a need to provide to the pupils self-
learning materials and activities for making learning a joyful experience for them.

iii) Evaluation
Quality in elementary education necessitates high learning achievement so that dropout
and failure at examination may be reduced to the minimum. NPE-1986 therefore made a
plea for defining minimum levels of learning at all stages of education. Attainment of
MLLs requires continuous comprehensive evaluation for reliable and valid evidence of
their attainment. But due to our continued dependence on end results in terms of child’s
position in annual / terminal examinations, the concept of continuous evaluation has in
fact added to the pressure on child in terms of preparation for increased number of
examinations during the year. The process has further led to the neglect of development
of affective and psycho-motor aspects of child’s personality.
Evaluation is mostly used in schools as a grading device but it should be used as an
effective feedback mechanism. Feedback from evaluation needs to be interpreted carefully
for remedial work. Weaknesses not remedied at the right time lead to further deterioration
in learning, increased frustration and also dropouts from school. Hence, there is a need to
adopt and implement the concept of continuous comprehensive evaluation in its right
spirit.

iv) Inadequate School Facilities

Lack of appropriate physical facilities, poor teacher-pupil ratio and poor teaching- learning
28 materials add to the lower the quality of school. To improve the human and physical
resources available in primary schools, a scheme of ‘Operation Blackboard’ was launched Concept of Education
and its Meaning
in 1987-88. Hundred per cent central assistance is provided for appointment of an additional
teacher in single-teacher schools. 48% of the funds are provided for construction of
school building by the Ministry of Rural Areas and Employment. On the basis of
observations of audit and evaluation reports, it has been observed that several States
have not utilised the funds sanctioned for teaching-learning equipment under Operation
Blackboard. This situation can be attributed to lack of sufficient flexibility and decentralised
procurement and supply of teaching-learning materials.

v) Non-availability of Caring and Competent Teachers

Inadequacies related to teachers pose a very serious problem. Inadequacies stemming
from non-availability of appropriate infrastructural facilities and poor socio-economic
background of pupils can be compensated to a large extent if the teachers are
caring, competent, sincere and committed to the profession. Teacher preparation
programmes continue to be dull and stereotyped with the result that the half-heartedly
trained teachers lack core competencies and motivation to work properly. Such
teachers are unable to meet the needs of the school with a large hetrogeneous population
of pupils. Teacher Education Curriculum should meet the professional needs of prospective
teachers. Pre-service training programmes need conceptual’ clarity of the role of
teachers to prepare teachers to their fullest potential. Provision of need-based in-
service training further develops teacher competencies which in turn improve school
effectiveness.

vi) Lack of Decentralised Planning Process

A large number of central and state sponsored programmes launched for quality primary
education have been found deficient in delivering the goods as they were top heavy and
were not properly contextualised. It is now being realised that the planning process needs
to be decentralised and based on disaggregated targets. The Panchyats and Local Bodies
are expected to look after primary education. Each Panchyat will constitute a Village
Education Committee (VEC) which will be responsible for the administration of education
programmes at the village level. These VECs will help in operationalisation of micro-level
planning and school mapping in the village through systematic house-to-house survey and
periodic, discussion with parents. The district level body will implement, supervise and
monitor all educational programmes, including those in the non-formal and adult education
sectors. From the district level, the process of decentralisation percolates to the village
level.
Check Your Progress
Notes: a) Write your answers in the space given below.
b) Compare your answers with those given at the end of this unit.
14. Enlist three major issues related to quality of elementary education.
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
15. Mention three disparities that exist with regard to enrolment and retention.
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
..............................................................................................................................
29
Education in
Contemporary Scene 4.12 LET US SUM UP
This unit brought to you some details of educational philosophies--- idealism naturalism
and pragmatism, individualism and socialism. It discussed the change in educational set
up from time to time ---- vedic period, Buddhist, Muslim and British era. It also brought to
you information about the national concerns and priorities after independence. Steps taken
at the government level for spread of education particularly primary education were
discussed in detail. Salient features major thrust areas of National Policy on Education, its
implication for primary education in terms of universalisation of elementary education,
education for equality, National curriculum framework, common educational structure,
evaluation process learning facilities, and school-community partnership were elaborated.
It also focused on contemporary evaluation views such as imbalances and disparities in
enrolment and retention and quality of education.
In the beginning, family was the only agency of education. During vedic period, the ‘Gurus’
imparted education in their homes or ashrams called ‘Gurukuls’. During the Buddhist
period, education developed through ‘monastries’. In medieval period, Islamic education
was in vogue in ‘Maktabs’ and ‘Madrasas’. In British era, schools housed in separate
buildings imparted instruction through a paid government teacher, with English as the
medium of instruction. As a legacy of the colonial rule, the entire indegenous education
system was gradually destroyed. After independence the main focus was on
universalisation of elementary education to build an enlightened citizenry for a democratic,
socialistic and secular society. However, our education system has not changed adequately
even after 50 years of independence.

4.13 UNIT-END EXERCISES

1. What are the traditions of education in India before Independence?
2. Explain the present concept of Education.
3. Distinguish between individual and social aims of education. How can both these
aims be balanced?
4. Discuss the aims of education with reference to naturalism and pragmatism.
5. What are the aims and objectives of primary education as conceived by the Review
Committee on the Curriculum for the ten-year school?
6. What are the salient features of the National Policy on Education-1986 / 1992 ?
7. Write a short note on National Curriculum for Elementary and Secondary
Education ---A Framework.
8. What are the implications of National Policy on Education 1986/1992 for primary
education?
9. What efforts have been made to provide equal educational opportunities to the
disadvantaged sections of our society?
10. Discuss contemporary issues related to elementary education. What steps have
been initiated to provide quality elementary education to the children?
11. What do you mean by School Community Partnership? Explain as briefly as possible.

4.14 SUGGESTED READINGS

Agarwal, J.C. (1993); Landmark in the History of Modern Indian Education, Second
Revised Edition, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.
Arora, G.L. and Chopra, R.K. (eds.) (1998); Self-Learning Materials for Teacher
30 Educators, Vol. II, NCERT, New Delhi.
Government of India, MHRD (1986); National Policy on Education-1986, (With Concept of Education
and its Meaning
modifications undertaken in 1992). Department of Education, New Delhi.
Naik, J.P. (1982); The Education Commission and After, Allied Publishers Pvt. Limited,
New Delhi.
NCERT (1983); The Teacher and Education in Emerging Indian Society.
NCERT (1988); Teacher and Education in the Emerging Indian Society - A Text
book for Elementary Teacher Education.
Pandey, H.M. (1987); Education for Emerging Indian Society, Burman & Sons, Calcutta.

ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

1. Education enables development of human potentials. This aims at all-round
development — body, mind and spirit. It is also to enable them to live and work
together in society with peace and harmony.
2. i) Education is a human enterprise
ii) Education is a life-long process .
iii) Education gives direction to the personality development
3. Vedic education emphasises a) liberation from bondage of evils; b) self-reliance; c)
self-learners.
4. Buddhist system of education imparted education in the language of common man,
its curriculum included secular subjects. It focused on building character and the
skill of reading, writing and arithmatic. These features are equally important in today’s
context.
5. British rulers were mainly interested in creating a class of citizens whose opinion
and skills would match their requirement. Hence their focus was on higher education
of upper class. Elementary education of masses was neglected.
6 i) Rabindra Nath Tagore ii) Shri Aurobindo
7. a) i) To help the child to grow into a perfect individual in a natural environment
without sacrificing social aims of education;
ii) To help the child to develop tire ability of self expression.
b) i) To help the child to develop the ability to continuously reconstruct and interpret
his experience;
ii) To help the child to develop the ability to live cooperatively within a community.
8. Acquisition of
— tools of formal learning i.e. literacy, numeracy and manual skills,
— knowledge through observation, study and experimentation in the areas of social
and natural science
— habits of cooperative behaviour within the family, school and community.
9. Recommendations:
i) 10+2+3 structure of education
ii) Modern science and technology to be harmonised with traditional values.
iii) Introduction of science and work experience at every level of school education
and vocationalisation of secondary education with a bias for agriculture and
technology.
31
Education in 10. i) Top priority to universal elementary education with emphasis on universal
Contemporary Scene
enrolment, retention and improvement in quality of education.
ii) Common core components for national curriculum framework comprise
i) history of India’s freedom movement, constitutional obligations, Nurturance
of national identity; Egalitarianism, Democracy and secularism; Equality of
sexes; Protection of the environment; Removal of social barriers; Observance
of small family norms and inculcation of scientific temper.
iii) Laying down minimum levels of learning to ensure comparable standard of
education.
iv) Adoptation of child-centered and activity-based process of learning ill transaction
of curriculum.

v) Suitable school facilities to improve the quality of education. Primary schools

to be provided with at least two large rooms and learning materials such as
toys, games materials, blackboard, maps, charts under the scheme ‘Operation
Blackboard’,

11 . DPEP aims at providing access to primary education for all children, reducing drop-
out rates to less than 10%, increasing learning achievement of primary school children
by 25% and reducing the gap among different gender and social groups to less than
5%.

12. i) Universal access

ii) Universal retention,

iii) Universal achievement

13. Operation Black board has three main components i.e. provision of two teachers
(one of them preferably female) minimum physical resources (two rooms) and
teaching material.

14. i) Curriculum load

ii) Method of teaching

iii) Evaluation

15. i) Variation in enrolment indices across and within the states

ii) Disparity in enrolment vis-a-vis gender and disadvantaged social sections

iii) Variation in dropout rates as per area gender and social sections.

32