3 Курс 2 Семестр ЕП 2012-13

3к 2с ЕП 2012-13
1 Structure of a business letter

inquiry - запит delivery - доставлення
reply to inquiry – відповідь на запит offer- пропозиція
Letter of credit (L/C) - акредитив complaint – рекламація, скарга
invoice – рахунок-фактура intended line – червоний рядок (з абзацу)
Bill of Lading (B/L) - коносамент form - бланк
Bill of Exchange – трата, heading- заголовок (листа)
переказний вексель salutation- звернення
Letter of Insurance –страховий поліс subscription- підпис; заключна форма ввічливості
order -замовлення letterhead – заголовок бланку («шапка»)
shipment- відправлення recipient – одержувач, адресат
reference – посилання (на автора листа) sender – відправник
affix signature – ставити підпис enclosure – додаток
Business letters include all kinds of commercial letters, replies to inquiries, Letters of Credit, invoices,
Bills of Lading, Bills of Exchange or drafts, letters of insurance, orders, letters of shipment, letters of
delivery, offers, letters of complaints, replies to those mentioned above, etc.
A business letter should be as short as possible, polite, and its language must be simple.
A private business letter is written by hand, each paragraph begins with an indented line. But if a letter is
sent by an organization it is typed on the form of this organization. In this case it is not necessary to use
indented lines.
A business letter is usually composed of the following elements: heading, date, address, salutation, text,
subscription.
A letter can be typed on the organization’s form. Any form has its letterhead printed typographically. The
letterhead bears the name of the organization or the firm, sending this letter, its address, address for
telegrams, telephone, fax. If you do not use this form, write your address (as a sender) on the upper right
side of the letter. Do not indicate your name here, if will follow your signature. Ukrainian names of foreign
trade organizations are not translated into foreign languages. They are written with Latin letters. Your
telephone number may be written below.
The date is written on the right side above (under your address or under a typographical letterhead of the
form). In Great Britain the date may be indicated as follows: 7th April, 2001 or 7 April 2001. In the USA it
is usually written like this: April 7, 2001.
As a rule, before or after the address of the recipient a reference is indicated which the sender asks to
mention in the reply to the letter. A common reference represents the initials of the person who wrote the
letter and those of the typist who typed it. The name and address of the recipient (inside address) is written
on the left above.
The salutation is written on the left. If you don’t know the reader’s name, the opening salutation is Dear
Sir, Dear Sir or Madam, or Dear Sirs. If you know the reader’s name, the opening salutation is Dear Ms...
or Dear Mr... . In the subscription the expression Yours faithfully is usually used if you are not acquainted
the persons or Yours sincerely if you write to a man (woman) whom you know at least by correspondence.
In American English more common are the expressions Sincerely, Sincerely yours. The signature is affixed
by hand above the typed name of the author.
If some material is added to the letter the word Enclosures or the abbreviation Encl is written in the left
lower corner of the letter.
1 What kinds of letters does business correspondence include? 2 What are the major elements of a business
letter? 3 When is the letterhead used? 4 What does the reference mean in a letter? 5 Where is the address of
the recipient written? 6 How should the text of the letter be written? 7 What phrases are used in the
salutation of business letter? 8 What should be written in the subscription of a letter? 9 What may be
enclosed in a business letter? 10 How is usually the signature affixed? 11 Where is the date of the letter
written? 12 What does the letterhead bear?
1 This is how a business school teacher is explaining the parts of a business letter to a student:
T.: Well then, your company's name and address is printed at the top of the letter.
This is called the letterhead. And the person you are writing to is the reader.
S.: I see. So the letterhead's at the top of the letter, and the reader's name and address is on the left.
T.: That's right. Below the reader's name and address are the references.
1
S.: Oh yes. "Ref" is short for "reference", I suppose.
T.: Yes. The references are usually the initials of the writer's name and the secretary's name. In this
letter JB stands for Joy Bradley and SY stands for Simon Young. Now, what is there on the right?
S.: The twenty - third of January, two thousand and nine. It's the date.
T.: Yes. The date's on the right. Now, on the left, under the references is the opening salutation.
S.: The opening salutation is "Dear Ms Meiners"?
T.: Yes. And below the opening salutation is the body of the letter - this is what you really want to write.
S.: So the body of the letter is between the opening salutation and the closing salutation.
T.: Yes. "Yours sincerely" is the closing salutation.
S.: And then there is the signature and the writer's name and the writer's position in the firm.
T.: That's right. The signature is above the writer's name and the name is above the writer's position
in the firm. What's Simon Young's position?
S.: He's a sales assistant.
T.: Right.
S.: What does "Encl" mean at the bottom?
T.: It stands for "enclosure". It means something is enclosed with the letter.
S.: Oh I see. In this letter the enclosure is the catalogue.
T.: Right.
2 Now read the letter and name its elements:
Brighter Office Supplies Limited
13 Mill Street
Harlow ………. 1
Essex CM202JR
Telephone Harlow 26 721
Telex 81259
Cables/Telegrams BOS Harlow
Ms A Meiners
Simple Stationers Ltd …………………………………………………………………………. 2
15 Mowbray Road
London NW65EJ
23 January 2009 ………………………... 3
Your ref: AM / SN ………………………………………………………………………… 4
Our ref: SY / JB
Dear Ms Meiners, …………………………………………………………………………………... 5
Thank you for your letter of 18 January. Our current catalogue is enclosed as you requested,
but I am afraid our price list is unavailable at the moment as it is being reprinted. However, I
will send you one as soon as they are available. …..….. 6
Thank you for your interest in the company. We look forward to doing business with you in
the future.
Yours sincerely, ………………………………………………………………………….. 7
Simon Young …………………………………………………………………………………... 8
Simon Young ……………………………………………………………………………. 9
Sales assistant …………………………………………………………………………… 10
Encl ……………………………………………………………………………………… 11
GRAMMAR: The Sequence of Tenses – Узгодження часів
After one of the past forms in the principal clause we find past forms in the subordinate object clause:
1) If the action of the object clause is simultaneous with that of the principal clause, the Past Simple or the
Past Continuous is used in the object clause.
He thought I was joking. – Він гадав, що я жартую.
2) If the action of the object clause precedes that of the principal clause, the Past Perfect or the Past Perfect
Continuous is used in the object clause.
I understood that she had already left the office. – Я зрозумів, що вона уже пішла з офісу.
3) If the action of the object clause follows that of the principal clause, the Future-in-the-Past is used in the
object clause: I was sure we would get this contract. – Я була певна, що ми отримаємо цей контракт.
2
Ex.1. Make the actions in the following object clauses simultaneous with those of their principal clause:
1 He was surprised that I …………… (know) his phone number. 2 I knew the children …………… (hide)
somewhere in the room. 3 He told us that he …………… (work) for a large corporation. 4 He said the in-
formation …………… (be) rather interesting. 5 We knew that Ann …………… (have) an English class
every Wednesday. 6 I knew that they …………… (discuss) my new proposal then. 7 He said that he ……
…… (be) interested in marketing. 8 She said she …………… (be) busy. 9 The customer said that he ……
……… (want) to have a word with me. 10 He explained that he …………… (take) driving lessons.
Ex.2. Make the actions in the following object clauses precede those of their principal clause:
1 I knew that he …………… (go) to London already. 2 He asked me why I …………… (not invite) him to
that scientific conference. 3 He said he …………… (not hear) anything about her complaint. 4 She said the
secretary …………… (send) the message already. 5 I knew that she …………… (make) an appointment
with general manager. 6 He said that he …………… (work) hard all the time. 7 He told her that he
…………… (meet) her the year before. 8 I knew that he …………… (be) ill the day before. 9 She thought
he …………… (graduate) from the University. 10 Didn't you know that he …………… (establish) a
business of his own?
Ex.3. Make the actions in the following object clauses follow those of their principal clause:
1 He told us that his daughter …………… (be) a marketer. 2 She said that she …………… (finish) her
report by 6 o'clock. 3 Mr Black said the manager …………… (come back) to New York the following day.
4 The secretary told me that the meeting …………… (take place) the following month. 5 I hoped that he
…………… (apologize). 6 She said she …………… (not attend) our meeting on Monday. 7 I asked him
when the negotiations …………… (begin). 8 He said that the price …………… (not include) the cost of
packing. 9 She decided that she …………… (ring) up there tomorrow. 10 We decided that you ……………
(be) able to help us.
Ex.4. Translate into English:
1 Він сказав, що він сьогодні дуже зайнятий. 2 Менеджер повідомив нам, що в нього є важливі
новини. 3 Вона запитала, коли я піду за покупками. 4 Він пояснив, що ніколи там не був. 5 Я
сподівався, що проведу там всю відпустку. 6 Він проінформував нас, що вони вже обговорили цю
небезпечну ситуацію. 7 Шеф сказав, що я повинна відповісти на цей лист негайно. 8 Вона запитала
мене, де працює мій брат. 9 Секретарка повідомила, що вже надрукувала цей контракт у двох
примірниках. 10 Він знав, що вони вже розробили нову маркетингову стратегію.
2 Writing a business e-mail
1 Why do people use e-mail in business? Make a list of reasons.
2 Read some 'rules' for writing good business e-mails. Which rules do you follow?
How to write an effective e-mail
1. Use a subject line that tells the other person what the e-mail is about. Don't just write Information or
Your e-mail.
2. If you are writing to someone you don't know start by saying who you are and why you are
writing.
3. Use written greetings (Dear Mr Smith) and endings (Yours sincerely), just as you would in а
letter.
4. Use short, clear sentences.
5. Use paragraphs for different subjects. Leave a space between paragraphs.
6. In business e-mails, always use a formal and polite tone. Don’t be too informal or familiar.
7. Don’t use emoticons, e.g., or acronyms, e.g. BTW (by the way).
8. Don't write in CAPITAL LETTERS – this is like shouting.
9. Don't repeat yourself – try not to use the same word more than once in a paragraph.
10. Check your spelling and punctuation - are they correct? If you are worried about your spelling, use a
spell check.
3 Read the e-mail below from a student to a company about their work experience programme.
Which rules in ex 2 does he break?
To: Amanda Lewis, Human Resources Manager
From: Luigi Ferrara
Subject: Information
3
1
Hello Amanda!
2
I'm Luigi from Pescara. 3 Can you tell me about your student programme? I know your company
takes students who want some work experience in their holidays, and 4 I want to apply for the
programme because I want to get some experience of working in a big multinational company and I
also want to practise my English and make it better, because I think it is VERY BAD. Sorry about
that!! I want to know more about the program, so 5 please give me some more information, in
particular the dates, the details of the daily work, how much you pay, where I can stay, etc. I study
marketing so I would like to work in the marketing department if it is possible. BTW, I'm a 20- year-
old student of business living in Italy. Sorry, I forgot to tell you that.
6
Send me your reply soon. Thanks a lot. Bye.
Luigi
4 Look al the phrases in italics (1-6) in the e-mail. Match them with the formal phrases (a-f) below:
a Could you send me more information … d My name is Luigi Ferrara ...
b I look forward to hearing from you. e Dear Ms Lewis
c I am writing to ask about ... f I am interested in applying for ...
5 Here are some phrases to use in e-mails. Write starting (S), ending (E), saying why you are writing
(W) or requesting (R) after each one and the ones in ex 4:
1 My name is ... 6 Please e-mail me if you need more
2 I’m a student at... (school / college) information.
3 Dear Amanda (informal) 7 Yours sincerely
4 Thank you for your message. 8 Thank you for your e-mail of 20th August.
5 With best wishes. 9 Please send me details of...
6 Rewrite Luigi’s e-mail using the rules in ex 2 and some of the phrases in ex 5.
GRAMMAR: Reported Speech (statements) – Непряма мова (стверджувальні речення)
When you report what someone has said you often have to make certain changes to verb tenses and other
words. When the reporting verb is in the past, you make the following tense changes:
Present Simple  Past Simple Present Perfect  Past Perfect
Present Continuous  Past Continuous Simple Future  would
Past Simple  Past Perfect Simple must  had to
Past Continuous  Past Perfect Continuous can  could
Main changes of time indicators:
today  that day here  there
now  then last, ago  previous / before
this  that tomorrow  the next day / the following day
yesterday  the day before next  the following
There are occasions where you needn't change the tense:
• where facts are still true
My name is Mary - She said her name is Mary.
• if the direct speech is in the past perfect or has the following modals: must (for deduction), might, ought
to, could, should, would)
You might have broken your leg! – She said I might have broken my leg.
• if the reporting verb is in the present
I'll be back in a minute. – She says she'll be back in a minute.
Ex.1. Match the direct speech word or phrase on the left with its reported speech equivalent on the right:
a. two weeks ago 1. that night
b. last night 2. there
c. today 3. the following month
d. these 4. the day before
e. now 5. the next morning
f. tomorrow morning 6. then
g. yesterday 7. those
h. next month 8. that day
i. here 9. the previous night
j. tonight 10. two weeks before
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Ex.2. Rewrite these sentences, changing the direct speech to reported speech:
1 "We have only finished because we've worked late the whole week."
He said ………………………………………………………………….
2 "I am leaving tomorrow."
Mary explained ………………………………………………………………….
3 "I've forgotten to phone him."
Carol said ………………………………………………………………….
4 "I work for a small advertising agency."
Lucy told me………………………………………………………………….
5 "I went there with my customer last week."
The advertiser said………………………………………………………………….
6 "We are working towards increasing the quality of services."
Manager said………………………………………………………………….
7 "I must finish this work before I leave."
He said………………………………………………………………….
8 "Kyiv is the capital of Ukraine."
He explained ………………………………………………………………….
9 "I want to buy this elegant dress, but I haven't brought any money."
Ann told us………………………………………………………………….
10 "If you answer the questions correctly, you may win $100."
The advertisement said………………………………………………………………….
Ex.3. Rewrite these sentences, changing the reported speech to direct speech:
1 The advertiser said that they had already started the advertising campaign. 2 He said he would phone
back. 3 She explained that her company had opened an office in London. 4 He said that the advertising
campaign had failed to increase sales. 5 He said that they would sign the contract the next morning. 6 The
client explained that they had already discussed the brief with the agency. 7 He told us that the agency was
ready to start that work. 8 Tom said that he had tried to ring up his mother several times on the previous day
but had not succeed in getting through. 9 My employer told me that, in his opinion, I would do better in
some other kind of job. 10 The secretary said Mr. Black was having an appointment then.
Ex.4. Complete each sentence, using say, tell or speak in an appropriate form:
1 He ......... a few words about this account. 2 She can ......... a few European languages. 3 Don't ......... me
that this advert is important. 4 Can you ......... me the way to the nearest advertising agency? 5 She ......... she
is interested in our goods. 6 I can ......... that these goods are in great demand. 7 We ......... with the advertiser
about this problem. 8 Neither of my parents ......... English. 9 The magazine also ......... about advertising in
Italy. 10 She ......... me that she would be late. 11. I ......... to my secretary and she......... she would phone
you. 12. Why don't you ......... what you mean?
3 Doing Business on the Internet
enquiry запит; запитання
corporate website корпоративна веб-сторінка
publicity реклама; паблісіті
E-commerce / online trading електронна торгівля
time-saving method метод, що заощаджує час
Companies can use their presence on the Web to access the growing number of websites of interest. There
are different ways in which businesses can benefit from its functions:
* Businesses use e-mail to deal with customers, to make and respond to enquiries quickly and to
communicate with employees.
* A corporate website may be used for publicity, for selling or for sharing information.
* E-commerce or “online trading” has proved to be very successful for some companies. One of the
advantages of this form of trading is that users can come to the website 24 hours a day.
* Marketing on the Web can be achieved by setting up a website and making it attractive to visitors.
* The Internet is a powerful tool for gathering data. Companies can use it to look up other companies and
their products, access financial information, find market information, foreign exchange rates and so on.
* Using computer networks to transmit audio and video data between two or more people in different
locations (video-conferences) is a time-saving method of communication.
5
* Many companies place their recruitment needs on their own websites or on the websites of recruitment
agencies.
Large corporations place their annual reports on their websites in order to provide a service to their
shareholders.
1 How can companies use their presence on the Web? 2 What do businesses use the e-mail for? 3 What
may a corporate website be used for? 4 What is one of the advantages of the E-commerce? 5 How can
marketing be achieved on the Web? 6 What can companies use the Internet for? 7 What is a time-saving
method of communication? 8 How can companies use the Web for recruitment purposes? 9 Why do large
corporations place their annual reports on their websites?
1 Match words that have a similar meaning:
access benefit respond gather transmit e-commerce
online trading broadcast collect answer gain enter
2 Choose the correct word from the box to complete the gaps. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian:
online (2); PC; marketing; online trading; corporate website; publicity (2); e-commerce; multimedia
1 Recently there has been considerable expansion of ... businesses which provide integrated media services
through networks such as the Internet. 2 … has become a major online service; it reduces company costs.
3 The product has sold well considering it was not given much advance…. 4 Our ... is used for delivering
stock and bond information. 5 … represents 30 per cent of our total business. 6 The firm tried to avoid
adverse ... about its faulty products. 7 ... on the Web can be achieved by setting up a website and making it
attractive to visitors. 8 A database of employees is maintained on your .... 9 He is the owner of a new ...
service, specialising in providing a variety of foodstuffs which can be ordered on the Internet. 10 Cybercash
could provide an important stimulus to ... sales.
3 Fill in the missing prepositions: (with (2), of (2), to, on, for (3), in (3), into, through, as)
Financial services companies are rushing to provide teenagers ... easier ways ... spending their savings
online.
Teenagers are just the sort ... people an Internet retailer wants to sell ..., and the things they want to buy –
games, CDs and clothing – are easily sold ... the Web.
But paying online is a tricky business ... consumers who are too young to own credit cards.
... most cases, parents pay ... these purchases ... credit cards, an arrangement that is often unsatisfactory ...
them and their children.
One way to help them convert notes and coins ... cybercash is ... prepaid cards such ... Internet Cash ... the
US and Smart cards ... the UK.
GRAMMAR: Reported Questions, Requests, Orders – Непрямі питання, прохання, накази
When you report a question, you use the same word order as in the statement. You make the same tense
and other changes as you do for reported statements:
• Wh- and How questions: "Where is the secretary?" He asked Tom where the secretary was.
• Yes / No questions: "Are you preparing your presentation, Jack?" - She asked if / whether Jack was
preparing his presentation.
• Requests: "Would you pass me the report please, Tom?” – She asked Tom if he would pass her the
report. – She asked Tom to pass her the report.
• Orders: "Come back to work!"- Manager told us to come back to work.
Ex.1. Rewrite these sentences, changing the direct speech to reported speech:
1 "What has happened to Jane? Has anyone seen her today?" the boss asked.
…………………………………………………………………………….
2 "Did you buy some more new computers?" she wanted to know.
…………………………………………………………………………….
3 "Why do the prices go up so often?" she wondered.
…………………………………………………………………………….
4 "Have you got a work permit?" the immigration officer wanted to know.
…………………………………………………………………………….
5 "Are you interested in advertising?" asked Susan.
…………………………………………………………………………….
6 "Why do you want to join our company?" she asked me.
…………………………………………………………………………….
6
7 "Are you leaving today or tomorrow morning?" asked his secretary.
…………………………………………………………………………….
8 "Don't speak to him like this!" she warned me.
…………………………………………………………………………….
9 "Always read the contract before you sign it," he advised his client.
…………………………………………………………………………….
10 "Contact our representatives immediately!" Department Manager told them.
…………………………………………………………………………….
11 "Please don't make rushed decisions," she begged him.
…………………………………………………………………………….
12 "Don't wait till tomorrow," said the advertisement.
…………………………………………………………………………….
13 "Could you explain this for me once more, please?" I asked the agent.
…………………………………………………………………………….
14 "Can I have the weekend off?" she asked her boss.
…………………………………………………………………………….
15 "Would you mind paying cash?" said the salesgirl when he took out his cheque-book.
…………………………………………………………………………….
16 "Why don't you trust her?" he wondered.
…………………………………………………………………………….
Ex.2. Rewrite these sentences, changing the reported speech to direct speech:
1 She said that her corporation had become bankrupt and its stock was of no value anymore. 2 I asked her
if she'd like to take my pen but she thanked me. 3 He wanted to know if I was going to calculate the indirect
costs. 4 My employer hoped I wouldn’t be offended if he told me that I would do better in some other kind
of job. 5 He asked me how long it had taken me to complete the job. 6 I wondered whether he had bought a
guidebook to London. 7 He asked what we were discussing. 8 I wondered if they would solve that problem
at the meeting. 9 He asked the manager to accept his resignation. 10 She asked me when I would be in Kyiv.
11 The court ordered the company to pay all their debts before 1 October. 12 He wanted to know when the
new training program would be presented. 13 She wondered where we had held the conference the previous
year. 14 Helen asked Tom if he had got a car. 15 He promised her that if she attended the conference the
following week, she would hear his new theory about classification of the costs. 16 He couldn't understand
how I managed on my salary.
4 Business across Cultures
do's and don'ts правила поведінки gift подарунок
spell out (v) докладно пояснювати acceptable прийнятний
superior начальник, старший bow (v) вклонятися
patience терпіння, терплячість custom звичай
bill рахунок (за послуги, товар, тощо) tip чайові
cause offence to smb (v) образити (скривдити) когось be offended бути ображеним
embarrassment збентеження; розгубленість; polite ввічливий
Before doing business abroad it is important to understand the social and business culture of a country in
which you are going to operate. The following are just a few of do's and don'ts for business people visiting
a foreign country:
* In the USA, it is polite to look people in the eye, to offer your hand, and to smile;
* In France people shake hands much more than Americans or most Europeans; if you fail to shake hands,
you may be considered rude;
* In Japan and Korea bowing, rather than shaking hands, is usual behaviour;
* In Turkey, your coat should be buttoned when you are with superiors;
* Never discuss business over dinner in France;
* Don't pass documents with the left hand in Saudi Arabia;
* Don't expect written contracts in most Moslem countries;
* Don't expect the contract with South Korean businessmen to spell out all the details. Written contracts
are typically documents that change as conditions do;
* In Japan it's very important to get everyone's opinion. Patience is a prime factor in their culture. They
also avoid saying "no" directly;
* Offer gifts in Japan. The Japanese enjoy giving and receiving beautifully presented gifts;
7
* Do not bring liquor to an Arab house. For many Arabs, alcohol is forbidden by religious law;
* In China expensive presents are not acceptable and cause great embarrassment. Give a collective gift
from your company to theirs;
* In British restaurants a tip is included in the bill. In some Mediterranean countries, such as Greece and
Spain, the customer is expected to pay a little extra for satisfactory service;
* Don't criticize royalty in Great Britain;
* In Arab countries, don't admire an object openly. The owner may feel obligated to give it to you.
Thus, if you are aware of the customs of the country you are visiting, you will not cause offence or be
offended.
1 What should a businessman know before starting business abroad? 2 In which country is it not
recommended to discuss business over dinner? 3 In what countries will you never make written contracts?
4 Where do they change written contracts as conditions do? 5 What is considered polite in the USA? 6 What
behaviour is usual in Japan and Korea? 7 In which country do they avoid saying "no" directly? 8 You
shouldn't bring liquor to an Arab house. Why? 9 What gifts are not acceptable in China? 10 Should you not
criticize royalty in Great Britain? 11 In which country should you shake lands? 12 Is the custom of giving
tips still common in many countries? 13. When do you tip and how much?
custom gift operate spell out rude behaviour avoid expensive tip extra
gratuity costly evade impolite conduct explain in detail act habit additional present
2 Match the words and phrases in the box with the correct definition:
1) formal rules for polite behaviour in a society; 2) something done
in a society because of tradition; 3) money given to somebody for
doing something; 4) rules for behaviour; 5) a person who is higher
in rank or importance; 6) an agreement, usually written and signed
by those making it; 7) something given freely to another, a present;
8) a king or queen and family; 9) showing bad manners, impolite.
rude; polite; be aware of; expensive; extras; offended; custom; acceptable; to spell out;
superiors; gift; do's and don'ts; tip (2)
1 I left the waiter a generous.... 2 It takes time to learn the ... for business people visiting a foreign country.
3 My boss gave me a watch as a birthday.... 4 I gave the cab driver a $ 5... . 5 My ... in the company have
requested that I cut costs. 6 He does not understand the technological process; you will have ... it for him.
7 Wearing a shirt without a tie is ... dress for dinner here. 8 It is British ... to drink tea at four o'clock each
afternoon. 9 She was ... that we didn't accept her invitation to dinner. 10 The basic service costs $ 100 plus
20 percent for the.... 11 This hotel is more ... than I expected. 12 A salesperson must... market prices. 13 It
wasn't very ... to leave without saying thank you. 14 It was ... to walk away while that customer was talking
to you.
4 Fill in the missing prepositions: (for, in (2), without, on (2), at, through, of (2), from)
A guide to doing export business in Japan
 Be prepared ... important cultural and language difficulties. This, may seem obvious but some
businessmen try to get by ... Japan ... hiring a good interpreter who can also explain Japanese traditions
and customs.
 Trade ... personal contact ... a senior level. This is more important that trading ... price.
 Patience pays dividends. It may take several visits before an order comes....
 Quote ... local currency.
 Emphasise your product's country ... origin.
 Offer gifts. However, it is not the value ... the gift, but the fact it is a present... you that counts.
5 Put these statements about customs and culture into the correct order. Translate the sentences:
1) clock / bad / a / is / symbol / of / a / luck. (China)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
2) directly / "no" / avoid / they / saying. (Japan)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
3) never / business / must / you / discuss / dinner / over. (France)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
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4) luckiest / is / the / number /eight. (China)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
5) responsibility / managers / to / expected / are / full / take. (Saudi Arabia)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
6) always / taught / have / not / been / business / do / to / anyone / but / with / friends / they. (Mexico)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
7) business / do / they / quickly / as / possible / as. (Britain)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
8) you / if / shake / fail / hands / to / may / considered / be / rude / you. (France)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
9) take / they / queues / seriously / very / never / and / jump / line / in. (Britain)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
10) make / people / clear / a / distinction / personal / between / business / and / relationships. (Germany)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
11) titles / required / job / are / generally / talking / to / when / colleagues / business. (Mexico)
………………………………………………………………………………………………
GRAMMAR: First Conditional – Умовні речення І типу
if + Present Simple / Continuous, will + V
We use the first conditional:
• to talk about a likely situation and its probable result in the future.
If the weather keeps warm, we'll go to the river. - Якщо погода залишиться теплою, ми підемо на річку.
• to give advice, threats and to make promises.
If I have time, I'll help you with the report. – Якщо я матиму час, я допоможу тобі зі звітом.
Ex.1. Finish these sentences using the first conditional:
1 If he washes my car, .... 7 If I go to the party,....
2 If you smoke,.... 8 If it rains,....
3 If you need a lot of money,.... 9 If I eat a lot of sweets,....
4 If you fail your test in math,.... 10 If we get this loan,....
5 If she loses her weight,.... 11 If you skip classes,....
6 If you phone me tonight,.... 12 If you buy a new flat,....
Ex.2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form:
1 If you ……… (see) Marie, tell her I have a message for her. 2 If he ……… (refuse) to help, I'll have to
manage without him. 3 What will we do if he ……… (not meet) us? 4 If I ……… (get) a work permit, I'll
stay for another three weeks. 5 If you ……… (help) us, the job will only take an hour. 6 If I find his
passport, I ……… (phone) him at once. 7If you leave your car unlocked, someone ……… (steal) it.
8 Unless she ……… (sell) more, she won't get much commission. 9 If I lend you $ 100, when you ………
(repay) me? 10 If we ……… (make) share issues this month, we'll raise our finance. 11 If you manage to
get cheap loans, the firm ……… (stay) in business. 12 If we ……… (need) extra capital, we'll apply at the
bank for a loan. 13 If you ……… (be) in difficulties with money, I'll help you by all means.
1 Якщо я попрошу його, він допоможе нам одержати цю позику. 2 Вони обговорять це питання,
якщо у них буде вільний час. 3 Якщо нас запросять на ці переговори, ми будемо підтримувати вашу
стратегію. 4 Ми одержимо цю інформацію вчасно, якщо він відправить її електронною поштою.
5 Якщо він забуде свою обіцянку, я нагадаю йому. 6 Якщо прибуток не буде розподілений між
акціонерами, вони будуть не задоволені. 7 Якщо ми одержимо цю довгострокову оренду, то
відкриємо ще один гіпермаркет в цьому місті. 8 Ми зможемо купити ці нові приміщення, якщо у
фірми буде додатковий капітал. 9 Якщо наш вчений одержить грант, він зможе закінчити
дослідження цієї важливої для всього людства проблеми. 10 Якщо я куплю цей телевізор у
розстрочку, то я зможу заощадити гроші на подорож до Єгипту.
5 What is Economics About?
Unlike history, mathematics, English and chemistry, economics is a subject that most students encounter
only briefly, sometimes not at all, before they begin college. Economics is a basic discipline, like those just
listed. It is not an applied subject like accounting in which specific skills are taught.
Economics has some similarities to mathematics because logical reasoning and mathematical tools are used
9
in it extensively. It also has some similarities to history because economics studies people as they interact in
social groups.
Like chemistry, economics employs the scientific method, although some of economics has a descriptive
rather than an analytical flavour. Finally, like English grammar, economics has a few simple rules and
principles, but from these principles economics can derive many conclusions.
Economics is the science of making choices. Individuals must decide whether to study another hour or to
go for a walk, whether to buy a six-pack of Pepsi or two litres of milk at the grocery, whether to choose fire
fighting or teaching as an occupation and whether to play golf or to watch TV for an afternoon of recreation.
As a group, people must also choose through their governments whether to build a dam or to repair
highways with their taxes, whether to invest money to business or to expand national parks.
The common element in all these decisions is that every choice involves a cost. (Reading this text means
that you are not enjoying a bike ride).
In fact, economics is the study of the choice that people make and the actions that they take in order to
make the best use of scarce resources in meeting their wants.
Economics is about our everyday life. How do we get our living? Why do we sometimes get more and
sometimes less? Are we producing as efficiently as we could? Are we producing the “right things”? What
are the “right things”? Who should decide this and why? The study of economics helps us to answer these
questions.
1 Do school-leavers know much about economics? Why? 2 Is economics a basic discipline or an applied
subject? 3 What subjects is economics similar to and how? 4 How can economics be defined? 5 Prove that
economics is the science of making choices. 6 Why do people have to make choices very often? 7 What is
common about all decision-making?
1 Read the following words and try to guess their meaning. Mind the stress!
'group - 'logical - in'vest - eco'nomics -
'subject - 'element - pro'duce - occu'pation -
'reason - 'finally - spe'cific - indi'vidual -
'principle - re'source - e'conomist - ana'lytical -
2 Match English and Ukrainian equivalents:
1 an applied subject a кілька простих правил
2 specific skill b прикладна дисципліна
3 a few simple rules c особливі уміння
4 to derive conclusions d вживати заходів
5 to make a choice e використовувати інтенсивно
6 to take actions f задовольняти потреби
7 to meet one's wants g робити висновки
8 to use intensively h взаємодіяти в соціальних групах
9 to interact in social groups i робити вибір
3 Choose the correct word:
1 Economics is a ... discipline. a) basic b) natural c) social
2 ... is an applied subject. a) history b) accounting c) economics
3 Mathematical tools are used in economics.... a) briefly b) extensively c) finally
4 Like other subjects, economics has a few ... and principles. a) rules b) graphs c) lines
5 Every choice involves a.... a) investment b) cost c) time
4 Complete the sentences:
1 Economics is a subject that most students encounter only briefly before they....
2 Economics is not an applied subject in which....
3 It studies people as they....
4 Economics is the science of....
5 Every choice involves ... .
5 Fill in the gaps with: interact, briefly, extensively, make, take, choices, science
1 Logical reasoning and mathematical tools are used in economics.... 2 Most students encounter economics
only ... before they begin college. 3 Economics studies people as they ... in social groups. 4 Economics is
the ... of making.... 5 Economics is the study of the choices that people ... and the actions that they....
GRAMMAR Second Conditional – Умовні речення ІІ типу
If + Past Simple ... , ... would +V
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We use the second conditional:
• to talk about an unlikely or imaginary situation and its probable result:
If I won the lottery, I'd buy a new car. – Якби я виграв у лотерею, я б купив нове авто.
• in the expression "If I were you, I'd ..." to give advice:
If I were you, I'd retire. – На твоєму місці я б звільнилася.
Ex.1. Finish these second conditional sentences:
1. If I passed my English exam, ................................................
2. If my friend got promotion, ................................................
3. If he listened to my advice, ................................................
4. If he invested in government bonds, ................................................
5. If I were you, ................................................
6. If the customer complained, ................................................
7. If you knew him better, ................................................
8. If I could help you, ................................................
9. If she were present, ................................................
10. If you didn't ask me any questions, ................................................
11. If he took better care of his health, ................................................
12. If I saw it with my own eyes, ................................................
13. If I were sacked, ................................................
Ex.2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form (all the sentences refer to the present or future):
1 If nothing better …………… (turn up), he would apply for this job. 2 I wouldn't want to live in this city
even if I …………… (have) all the money in the world. 3 If you …………… (change) your mind, I would
never forgive you. 4 If you …………… (study) harder, you would get better marks. 5 If I ………… (win) a
lot of money, I would feel very happy. 6 If I were you, I …………… (be) more careful. 7 If it …………
(not be) so late, I would phone him. 8 If you really wanted to help, you …………… (can) do it even now.
9 If we reached an agreement, we …………… (sign) the contract. 10 If market prices …………… (rise),
we would talk about a bull market. 11 If you …………… (can) send us this information, we would be very
grateful. 12 Our products …………… (not sell) if we didn't have a strong sales department. 13 If she had
more money, she …………… (spend) her holidays in Italy. 14 If you …………… (provide) a better
service, you would get more customers. 15 We would save money if we …………… (employ) our own
people.
Ex.3. What would you do if ... Answer these questions with a conditional sentence:
1 ... you won lots of money? ………………………………………………………………………………..
2 ... you were a famous film star? …………………………………………………………………………
3 ... you found a wallet on the ground? …………………………………………………………………..
4 ... you were invited to play a part in a film? ……………………………………………………………
5 ... you were trying to lose weight? ……………………………………………………………………….
6 ... you were to change your job? ……………………………………………………………………….
7 ... you saw someone cheating in an exam? ………………………………………………………………
8 ... you wanted to buy someone a really good present? ……………………………………………………
9 ... you were to apply for the manager's job? ………………………………………………………………
10 ... you found a job abroad? ……………………………………………………………………….
11 ... you were promoted? ……………………………………………………………………….
12 ... you were robbed? ……………………………………………………………………….
13 ... you were asked to work overtime? ……………………………………………………………………
14 ... you were president of a big company? ………………………………………………………………
6 Products, Goods and Services
product продукт; виріб; продукція
fast-moving consumer goods ходові споживчі товари
consumer products споживчі товари, товари широкого вжитку
industrial products промислові товари
convenience goods товари повсякденного попиту
shopping goods товари попереднього вибору
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specialty goods товари особливого попиту
white goods такі товари, як пральні машини, холодильники
brown goods такі товари, як телевізори, високотехнологічне обладнання
goods / merchandise товари
succeed (v) досягати успіхів, процвітати
market (a product) (v) знаходити ринок збуту; продавати
introduce / launch (a product) вводити товар на ринок
onto the market (v)
product life cycle життєвий цикл товару
withdraw (v) вилучати; анулювати
money spinner / cash cow високоприбутковий товар або бізнес
loss leader товар, який продають за зниженими цінами, щоб привабити покупця
persuade (v) переконувати, схиляти, умовляти
profitable прибутковий, вигідний, рентабельний
The exchanging of products makes the business world.
A product is something that is produced or manufactured and sold, often in large numbers. Products are
sometimes referred to as goods for example in the expression fast-moving consumer goods, or FMCG.
Products may be grouped into two general categories: consumer and industrial. Consumer products are
classified as convenience, shopping, or specialty goods. Industrial goods are used to make other goods
for resale purposes. These goods include materials, equipment, parts, and services.
We usually call white goods such things as washing machines and refrigerators and brown goods such
things as televisions and hi-fi equipment.
Goods are also referred to as merchandise.
Services are activities such as banking or tourism that contribute to the economy but which may not
directly involve manufacturing. Services may be referred to informally as products.
For firms to succeed in business, they must continue to develop and market products.
New products are introduced or launched onto the market. Products have a life cycle. A product that a
company no longer wants to make available is withdrawn from the market.
A product generating a lot of profit is a money spinner or a cash cow. A loss leader is a product sold very
cheaply in order to attract customers who will then, it is hoped, be persuaded to buy profitable ones.
1 How can you prove that the exchanging of products makes the business world? 2 How can a product be
characterized? 3 What two general categories may products be grouped into? 4 What do we call such things
as washing machines and refrigerators? 5 Can brown goods be also referred to as merchandise? 6 What are
services? 7 If a product generates a lot of profit is it a money spinner or a loss leader? 8 What purposes is a
loss leader used for? 9 Why must firms introduce new products?
goods produce profitable money spinner introduce attract persuade withdraw
beneficial merchandise manufacture appeal to retract cash cow launch convince
2 The words in the box frequently occur before "goods". Find
combinations that mean: 1) items created to be used in everyday
life, e.g. food, clothes, magazines, bicycles, toys; 2) items such as
television sets and radios; 3) items such as refrigerators and washing
machines, so called because they are made of white painted metal;
4) goods such as cars, furniture, refrigerators, televisions, etc. that
last
for a fairly long time; 5) expensive items that are bought from choice and not necessity; 6) goods that can be
imported, usually in limited quantities, without customs duties; 7) goods, esp. food, that can go bad or decay
quickly.
1) the idea that the sale of a product goes through four phases:
introduction, growth, maturity and decline; 2) something that earns a
lot of money; 3) a product sold at a loss to encourage trade; 4) bringing
in more money than is spent; 5) to take something back; 6) the job that
an organization does; 7) to make goods to sell from raw materials;
8) goods for sale.
12
To persuade, brown goods, manufactured, product life cycle; profitable; loss leaders (2),
the merchandise; fast moving; money spinner.
1 The book could be a real.... 2 Soap, toothpaste, batteries and light bulbs are all... consumer goods. 3 You
are welcome to examine... before buying. 4 Shops use... to attract customers. 5 This deal should be highly....
6 Fashion goods have a short.... 7 These goods were... in France. 8 The popularity of home entertainment
will be maintained with sales of ... such as televisions and hi-fi equipment. 9 In Great Britain supermarkets
sometimes sell top brands below cost as …. 10 Trained staff is trying... customers to spend far more.
GRAMMAR: Third Conditional – Умовні речення ІІІ типу
If + Past Perfect … , … would have + V3 / Ved
We use the third conditional:
• to talk about possible situations in the past which didn't happen:
If you had followed my advice, you would have earned a lot of money. (but you didn't) – Якби ви
дотримались моє поради, ви б заробили багато грошей. (проте ви не дотримались)
We can "mix" clauses from second and third conditional sentences (Mixed conditional) if we want to
connect a possible past event with the present or future:
If you had followed my advice (but you didn't in the past), you would be rich. (but you aren't now) – Якби
ви дотримались моєї поради (в минулому, але ви не дотримались), ви б (зараз) були багаті.
Ex.1. Choose the most suitable tense form:
1 Why didn't you phone me? If you phoned / had phoned me, I would have reserved / had reserved a room
for you. 2 If you organized / had organized your conference last month, I was able/would have been able to
take part in it. 3 If he lent / had lent me the money, I would pay / would have paid him back last week. 4 If
you had been there at that moment, what would you do / would you have done? 5 Why didn't you say that
you were short of money? If I knew / had known, I would lend / would have lent you some. 6 She was so
impatient. If she had been / were more patient, she would received / would have received everything she
needed. 7 If I didn't lose / hadn’t lost my key, I wouldn't have / wouldn’t have had to wait outside in the
rain. 8 If the traffic hadn't been / were not so heavy, we would arrive / would hive arrived on time. 9 If I
weren't / hadn’t been promoted then, I would leave / would have left the company. 10 If I hadn't saved /
didn’t save enough money, I wouldn't buy / wouldn't have bought this house. 11 If he didn't gamble / hadn’t
gambled so much, he wouldn't lose / wouldn't have lost all his money. 12 If I knew / had known yesterday
that you were coming, I would meet / would have met you at the airport. 13 You wouldn't get / wouldn’t
have got into trouble last time if you followed / had followed my advice. 14 He never would buy / would
have bought shares in that company if you didn't recommend / hadn't recommended him to do it.
Ex.2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct form:
1 If I had sold my shares then, I …………… (make) a lot of money. 2 If you hadn't taken so many risks,
you …………… (lose) so much. 3 If I had bought that lottery ticket, I …………… (win) one million. 4 It's
a pity you missed the conference. If you …………… (come), you …………… (meet) American scientists
working in this branch of economy. 5 If the company hadn't raised its funds, it …………… (go) bankrupt.
6 If we hadn't issued bonds, we …………… (not raise) finance. 7 If I had known this great news, I
…………… (tell) you. 8 If I had sold my car a couple of years before, I …………… (get) more money. 9 If
I …………… (not make) profit on my shares, I would have never bought this house. 10 If he had invested
on the stock market, he …………… (live) from the income. 11 If you contacted a stockbroker, he
…………… (give) you some very good advice. 12 If I were you, I …………… (invest) on the stock
exchange. 13 If he …………… (work) alone, he would never have finished this work. 14 If he had known
all the facts, he …………… (help) us last Monday.
Ex.3. Finish these sentences using a mixed conditional:
1 If I had won the money, .........................................
2 If I had been better at English, .........................................
3 If I had only known about this earlier, .........................................
4 If he had consulted the stockbroker in time, .........................................
5 If he were an honest man, .........................................
6 If I knew her better, .........................................
7 If he had been more friendly, .........................................
13
8 If I had asked his permission, .........................................
9 If you had established a company of your own, .........................................
10 If she had arranged for free food available to all employees,
11 If we had signed an agreement, .........................................
12 If the new investment plan had been completed, .........................................
13 If our market share were much bigger than our competitors’, .........................................
14 If the company employees were not given the opportunity to travel abroad, .........................................
1 На вашому місці я би не хвилювався; вона знає, які акції купувати. 2 Якби ви працювали сумлінні-
ше, ви б давно завершили роботу над цим проектом. 3 Якби я знав про цей контракт, я б переклав
його ще на минулому тижні. 4 Якби ви проглянули старі фінансові звіти, ви б знайшли цікавий ма-
теріал для вашої доповіді. 5 Я б звільнив його, якби не знав, що він добре виконує свою роботу.
6 Якби я продав свої акції півроку тому, я б заробив багато грошей. 7 Будь я на вашому місці, я б не-
гайно купив гарантовані цінні папери. 8 Якщо компанія опинилася би у важкому фінансовому ста-
новищі, ми б втратили все наше майно. 9 Якщо б я знав про вашу пропозицію раніше, я б не пого-
дився на цю роботу. 10 Якщо б ви все зробили своєчасно, то цей вигідний для нашої фірми контракт
був би вже підписаний. 11 Якби смаки споживачів не змінювались, торгівля б не розвивалася. 12 Як-
би на рекламу не витрачалося стільки грошей, то ми б відкрили нову технологічну лінію.
7 Markets
tangible - відчутний на дотик; матеріальний demander — споживач
to satisfy desires - задовольнити потреби supplier — постачальник
intangible - невідчутний на дотик; нематеріальний market allocation — місце на ринку
goods, commodity - товар excess supply — перевищення пропозиції
service - послуга to decrease — знижуватися, зменшуватися
to adjust - відрегулювати to eliminate — ліквідувати, знищувати
A market is a set of transactions in which a particular kind of commodity is exchanged, and in which the
transactions for this commodity among different individuals and firms are related.
Product markets are divided into two classes: goods and services. A good is something tangible that is
produced, and consumed. For example, when you buy an automobile, you are purchasing a good. A service
is something intangible that is produced and consumed. When you have someone adjust a carburettor, you
are purchasing a service.
Resources are things used to produce goods, services and capital. People come to a market because they
want to buy (demanders) or to sell (suppliers). The interaction of demanders and suppliers determines a
market price and a market allocation of a particular commodity.
Demand is all combinations of relative price and the quantity of a particular commodity that individuals or
firms (demanders) want to purchase in a market.
Excess supply occurs when, at a particular market price, the quantity that suppliers want to provide to the
market exceeds the quantity that demanders want to purchase. And excess demand occurs when this
quantity is less than the quantity that demanders want to purchase. In an open or free market, the relative
price for a commodity will generally decrease when there is excess supply and increase when there is excess
demand. Excess demand will be eliminated if the relative price is free to increase.
A market is equilibrium when the quantity that suppliers want to provide to the market at a specific market
price is exactly equal to the quantity that demanders want to purchase in the market at the same market
price. The importance of equilibrium is that the equilibrium relative price is the only price at which the
interests of demanders and suppliers coincide.
I. Give English equivalents of the following:
взаємодія споживачів і постачальників; надмірна(ий) пропозиція/попит; виробляти товари та
надавати послуги; розміщення ринку; набір угод; набір стимулів; перерозміщувати товари;
задовольняти потреби; значення рівноваги; купувати товар; поділятися на класи; впливати на ринок
II. Fill in the gaps with: excess demand; are divided into; purchasing a service; the importance of
equilibrium; the interaction of demanders and suppliers; excess supply; decreases; increases
1. Product markets ... two classes: goods and services. 2. When you have someone adjust a carburettor, you
are... . 3. ... determines a market price and a market allocation of a particular commodity. 4. ... occurs when,
at a particular market price, the quantity that suppliers want to provide to the market exceeds the quantity
that demanders want to purchase. 5. ... occurs when, at a particular market price, the quantity that suppliers
14
want to provide to the market is less than the quantity that demanders want to purchase. 6. When there is
excess demand, the relative price ... and when there is excess supply the relative price ... . 7. ... is that the
equilibrium relative price is the only price at which the interests of demanders and suppliers coincide.
III. Answer the questions:
1 What is a market? 2 Explain the difference between: a good / a service; demanders / suppliers; supply /
demand; excess supply / excess demand. 3 When will excess demand and excess supply be eliminated?
4 What is equilibrium of a market? 5 Why is market equilibrium important?
IV. Translate into English:
1. Розрізняють ринки товарів і ринки послуг. 2. Товар - це щось відчутне на дотик, що виробляється
та споживається, часто те, що ми можемо придбати на ринку. 3. Послуга - це щось не відчутне на
дотик, що виробляється та споживається, що ми також можемо придбати на ринку. 4. Ресурси - це
те, що використовується для виготовлення товару та надання послуг. 5. Взаємодія споживачів і
постачальників визначає ринкову ціну та розміщення на ринку. 6. Пропозиція - це поєднання
відносної ціни та кількості якогось товару, який фірми або окремі особи хочуть постачати на ринок.
7. Споживання - це поєднання відносної ціни та кількості якогось товару, який фірми або окремі
особи хотіли б придбати на ринку. 8. Надмірна пропозиція складається тоді, коли кількість товару,
яку постачальник хоче поставити на ринок за ринковою ціною, перевищує кількість, яку споживачі
бажають придбати. 9. В умовах вільного ринку відносна ціна на товар буде падати при зростанні
пропозиції та підніматися при зростанні попиту.
GRAMMAR: Modals – Модальні дієслова (1)
Ability (здатність, спроможність): can, could, be able to
1 Can and cannot (can't) are commonly used to talk about ability to do something in the present:
He can speak several foreign languages.
2 Could is used to talk about someone's general ability to do something in the past.
I could read when I was five.
Was / were able to is used to talk about someone's specific ability (to do something on one occasion):
I was able to see personal manager without an appointment.
3 To talk about ability with perfect and future forms, the be able to structure is used.
Will you be able to send this fax?
Permission (дозвіл): can, could, may, be allowed to
1 a) Can and could are used to ask for permission in the present. May is also used but it’s quite formal:
Could / Can I call you back? May I use your phone, please?
b) When talking about whether something is (isn’t) permitted we use can / can't and be (not) allowed to:
Passengers are not allowed to smoke during take-off. You can leave your letter at the reception.
2 To talk about permission in the past we use could / couldn't and was / were not allowed to.
We were not allowed to ask any questions.
3 When talking about permission with future and perfect forms be allowed to is used:
He will not be allowed to invest in this business.
Ex.1. Complete these sentences using the correct form of can, could, may, be able to, be allowed to:
1 When I pass my driving test, I ______ hire a car. 2 When he first came to London, he ____ read English
but he (negative) _____ speak. 3 When we were in the old office, we ______ access all the files. 4 This
sweater was priced at $ 50, but I _______ get a discount because of this little mark on the sleeve. 5 Students
_______ bring notes into the exam tomorrow. 6 My sister never ________ to travel alone. 7 _____ I send
him a message? He is at the meeting at the moment. 8 ______ you phone the boss today? 9 He _______
solve this problem yet. 10 "May I borrow your car? – No, you _______." 11 Who _______ appoint the
receivers to find someone to rescue the company? 12 _______ he pay off the debts of the company? 13 I've
been looking for your papers but I ______ find them yet. 14 If he doesn't tell me what his problem is, I
______ (negative) help him. 15 She ______ to raise money for her failing company.
1 Я б з задоволенням прийняв ваше запрошення, але я не можу відмінити свою зустріч. 2 Якщо він
щось вирішив, то ніхто не може на нього вплинути. 3 Я дуже ціную вашу допомогу. Я знав, що я
можу довіряти вам. 4 Чи можу я сказати йому всю правду? Я впевнений, що він нічого не знає про
важкий фінансовий стан компанії. 5 Коли я там працював, тільки головний менеджер міг
підписувати такі документи. 6 Працівникам нашої компанії не дозволяється палити в офісах.
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7 Тільки суд може призначити ліквідаторів неплатоспроможної компанії. 8 Ця компанія на межі
банкрутства; їй не дозволяється працювати з клієнтами. 9 Ви можете залишити всю інформацію у
секретаря. 10 Їм не дозволили відстрочити платежі. 11 Якщо ви зможете врятувати цю компанію, ви
отримаєте подяку від президента. 12 Якщо вони не зможуть розрахуватися з боргами протягом
місяця, їх оголосять банкрутами.
Ex.3. Complete these sentences using could (not), was (not) / were (not) able to:
1 My eyes hurt and I ………………… read very fast. 2 When Mary was young, she was a very good
secretary. She ………………. type 70 words per minute. 3 The file was damaged but he
……………………… save a copy. 4 I didn’t have any paper left to print it out, but I …………………….
get some in the next office room. 5 It was difficult to find her but I …………………………… do it.
6 Karen looked through the document carefully once more and this time she ………….…… see a mistake.
7 The presentation failed but fortunately we …………………. rescue the project.
Ex.4. Complete these sentences using can / can’t / could / couldn’t + the verb from the list:
see, fax, speak, take, make, sleep
1 I’m sorry, but we ……………….……. you the papers today. 2 I ……….…….…….. a call last night
because my mobile was out of order. 3 She’ll get the job because she …………………….. four languages.
4 I was tired but I ………………………. . 5 I like this hotel room. You …………………. the mountains
from the window. 6 In our company you ………………………. a two-week holiday at Christmas.
8 Export and Import
visible exports (imports) експорт (імпорт) товарів earn (v) заробляти
invisible exports (imports) невидимий експорт (імпорт) purchase (v) купувати
freight фрахт, перевезення вантажу the IMF МВФ
borrow (v) позичати (у когось - from) exceed (v) перевищувати
trade surplus надлишок торгового балансу surplus надлишок
trade deficit дефіцит торгового балансу foreign currency іноземна валюта
Exporting and importing are two aspects of foreign trade.
Exports are goods and services produced in one country but sold in another. Trade in goods is known as
visible exports and trade in services is known as invisible exports. Exports are important because they
allow a country to earn foreign exchange which can be used for buying imports from abroad.
Imports are those goods and services which are consumed in one country but which have been purchased
from another country. Imports of goods such as food, raw materials, or manufactured goods are known as
visible imports; imports of services such as insurance, tourism, freight are known as invisible imports.
Imports are paid for by foreign currency earned by exporters, or by borrowing from foreign governments
and agencies like the International Monetary Fund.
If exports exceed imports there is a trade surplus. If imports exceed exports there is a trade deficit.
1 What are the principal aspects of foreign trade? 2 What are exports? 3 What are imports? 4 What do we
call visible exports? 5 What do we call invisible exports? 6 Why are exports important? 7 What are imports?
8 What is known as visible imports (invisible imports)? 9 What are imports paid for by? 10 What is a trade
surplus? 11 When do we speak about a trade deficit?
foreign exchange exceed buy important goods freight
transported goods merchandise significant purchase surpass foreign currency
2 Match the words and phrases in the box with the correct defi-
nition: 1) an item, a service, an idea that is sent from one country to
another to be sold; 2) an item, a service, an idea that is brought into
one country from another; 3) goods, as opposed to services, that are
sold to other countries; 4) services such as banking, insurance and
tourism that are brought from other countries; 5) an agency of the
United Nations that lends money to encourage trade and economic development in poor countries; 6) a
situation where a country exports more goods than it imports; 7) condition in which there are more goods
imported than exported; 8) the transport of goods by sea or air.
Exporting; imports; restrictions; import; invisible exports; visible import;
imported; exports; exceeded; purchased.
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1 She... a new car. 2 Sales of the new product... our estimates. 3 Canada... wheat in great quantities. 4 This
wine is... from France. 5 Foreign technology is a significant.... 6 This country.... luxury items to Northern
Europe. 7 Tourism is the most important part of the Cypriot.... 8 Sixty percent of the goods they... come
from Asia. 9 Sometimes governments put... on foreign trade. 10 This... company will be 100 years old next
year.
4 Fill in the missing prepositions: (of (2), in, at (2), by (3), on (2), for, through, to)
A country spends money... goods it imports and gains money... its exports.
Valuable though foreign trade is... keeping domestic prices down... creating competition... home and
providing large markets abroad, governments may have to put restrictions... it, which they usually do...
subjecting imports... customs duties or... restricting some types... exports.
Customs authorities must make sure that imported goods are not sold ... a lower price than that... their
country... origin.
5 Translate into English:
1 Міжнародна торгівля – це основний фактор розвитку співробітництва між різними країнами
світу. 2 Експорт та імпорт важливі аспекти міжнародної торгівлі. 3 Експортування – це продаж
товарів та послуг в іншу країну. 4 Імпортування - це купівля товарів та послуг в іншій країні. 5
Купівля послуг, таких як страхування, туризм, перевезення вантажу – це невидимий імпорт. 6
Експортери заробляють валюту, якою країна розраховується за імпортні товари. 7 Якщо експорт
перевищує імпорт, існує надлишок торгового балансу. 8 Якщо імпорт перевищує експорт, ми
говоримо про дефіцит торгового балансу. 9 Експорт товарів – пріоритетний напрям розвитку
зовнішньої торгівлі будь-якої країни. 10 Економіка кожної країни значною мірою залежить від
зовнішньої торгівлі.
GRAMMAR: Modals – Модальні дієслова (2)
must, have to, should, ought to, need
(obligation and necessity)
1 a) Must is used for strong obligations:
*rules or laws: Investors must pay taxes.
*advice or recommendations: You must take your medicine regularly if you want to get better.
*obligations that the speaker imposes on him or herself: I must get up early tomorrow.
b) Mustn't is used to express strong disapproval, or that something is prohibited: You mustn't smoke here.
2 a) Have to is used when the obligation comes from someone else or an external authority: You have to
wear a uniform - that is the company rule.
b) Don't have to is used to express the idea that there is no law, rule or requirement to make you do
something: I don't have to get up early on Sundays.
3 a) Need, need to is used to talk about necessities, rather than obligations: I need to get my hair cut.
b) Needn't expresses the speaker's opinion that something isn't necessary:
You needn't fill in the form – the receptionist will do it for you.
4 Should and ought to are used to express milder obligations; they are often used when giving advice:
You should always keep receipts when you buy clothes.
Ex.1. Complete these sentences using the correct form of must, have to, need, should, ought to:
1 You _______ not worry about the article. - I'll translate it later. 2 The drivers in Ukraine ______ wear
seat belts. 3 You _______ have medical insurance when you go abroad. 4 You _______ to buy a licence if
you want to set up your own business. 5 The customers _______ not pass this point. 6 They _______
transfer money yesterday. 7 A CPA _______ pass a series of examinations, after which he receives a
certificate. 8 You ______have the financial statement ready by the end of the month. 9 He ______ invite her
to the meeting. 10 You _______ to fill in this application form. 11 You _______ consult an expert to
identify this document. 12 You ______ not take a car to get to the office. I'll gladly give you a lift. 13 He
______ send a letter of apology. 14 This is serious, he ______ not joke about it. 15 My boss was ill and I
_______ attend that press conference. 16 They ______ follow his advice.
1 Керівництво встановлює правила, а ви повинні виконувати їх. 2 Ціна на цей новий товар дуже
висока. Ви повинні знизити її. 3 Я вважаю, що він повинен піти у відставку після цього засідання.
4 Почекай трошки, я повинен продивитися ці документи. 5 Тобі не слід втручатися в їхні справи.
6 Йому довелося відповісти на багато запитань після засідання Ради Директорів. 7 Вам слід
17
дослухатись до її порад. 8 Ви повинні вивчити попит споживачів перш, ніж розпочинати
виробництво цієї продукції. 9 Ти мусиш її відвідати. Вона дуже хвора. 10 Коли я змінив роботу, я
змушений був переїхати на іншу квартиру. 11 Офіціанти повинні сплачувати податок на гроші, які
вони одержують від клієнтів. 12 Ви повинні приходити на роботу вчасно. Ви не повинні
запізнюватись. 13 Немає потреби його проводжати. Він знає, де вихід.
must, may, might, could, can't, should, ought to
(сertainty, possibility, probability)
1 We use must or can't + infinitive to say that we are certain about something; we have some evidence to
reach this conclusion.
We use must to indicate "positive" certainty: She must be very happy. She has finished her experiments.
We use can't to indicate "negative" certainty: That can't be our business partner. He is arriving tomorrow.
We don't use mustn't or can to talk about certainty.
2 We use may, might or could + infinitive when we are speculating that something is possible.
She may / might / could pass her exam this time. (It's possible that she will pass her exam)
3 We use should and ought to + infinitive to show that something is probable now or in the future.
He should / ought to pass his exams. (He will probably pass)
Ex.3. Complete the following sentences with an appropriate modal verb form:
1 You _____ be joking. The house isn’t worth that much. 2 It's not a good time to visit Italy. The weather
______ be awful at this time of the year. 3 She _____ be ill. She looks so pale. 4 It _____ be true. 5 You
______ see interesting samples at the exhibition. 6 It ______ be late as the offices are closed. 7 This
contract ______ be profitable. 8 It's impossible. It ______ be the correct answer. 9 She ______ be at home. I
saw her in the office ten minutes ago. 10 I ______ have some new information for you tonight. 11 He has
been working all day. He ______ be very tired. 12 There ______ be another rise in the price of sugar soon.
13 He _____ get this job. He has got all the necessary qualifications. 14 I am not sure whether I can help
you. I ______ not have enough time.
1 Hе може бути, щоб ви знали всіх її співробітників! 2 Мабуть вона працює над річним звітом. 3 Я
не буду заважати тобі. Мабуть у тебе є важливі справи. 4 Я зайду в наш офіс. Бос повинен зараз бути
там. 5 Навряд чи я зможу скласти цей звіт. 6 Бухгалтера немає, він повинен бути у керівництва
фірми. 7 Ви напевне затвердите бюджет завтра. 8 Мабуть успіх компанії буде залежати від
наполегливої праці кожного з нас. 9 Мабуть вона дуже щаслива. Рада Директорів затвердила її
проект. 10 Не може бути, щоб ви ще працювали над бюджетом! 11 Вже 2 години. Він може
повернутися будь-якої хвилину. 12 Я не знаю достеменно, але лист можливо зараз у неї. 13 Хоча вже
й пізно, він, можливо, все ще очікує нашої інформації. 14 Я нічого не чув про нього. Мабуть він де-
небудь за кордоном чи вже повернувся до Києва.
9 Money and its functions
crime злочин medium of exchange засіб обміну
whale кит measure of value мірило вартості
beads намисто; буси yardstick мірило; мірка; критерій
coin монета bookkeeping бухгалтерія; рахівництво
paper bills паперові банкноти store of value засіб заощадження
value ціна, вартість; цінність retain зберігати; утримувати
trust довіряти accumulate накопичувати
In songs and popular language "money" stands for many things. It's a symbol of success, it's a source of
crime, and it makes the world go round.
Money is anything used by a society to purchase goods, services or resources. Different groups of people
have used all sorts of objects as money - whale's teeth, stones, beads, gold and silver, for example. Today,
the most commonly used objects are metal coins and paper bills.
For money to have value, it must perform certain functions, it must be easy to use, and it must be trusted.
Money has three main functions in any society:
• Serves as a Medium of Exchange. Money, the medium of exchange, is used in one half of almost all
exchange. Workers exchange labour services for money. People buy and sell goods in exchange for money.
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• Serves as a Measure of Value. Money serves as a measure of value because the prices of all products and
resources are stated in terms of money. Money is used as a yardstick for all bookkeeping, budgeting and
management.
• Represents a Store of Value. Money is a store of value because it may be held and spent later. It is a
means for retaining and accumulating wealth.
1 What is money? 2 What objects did different groups of people use as money many years ago? 3 What are
the most commonly used objects today? 4 What are the main characteristics of money? 5 What functions
must money perform? 6 Why is money used as a medium of exchange? 7 Why does money serve as a
measure of value? 8 Why can money be characterized as a store of value? 9 What do you enjoy spending
money on? 10 How do you feel about borrowing money? Would you worry about being in debt?
purchase value perform exchange represent spend retain accumulate wealth
riches increase keep pay money for smth change symbolise complete worth buy
2 Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. Define the part of speech of the underlined words:
1 He doesn't have much monetary sense; he's always wasting his money. 2 The government monetized its
bonds and spent the money on new projects. 3 That new saleswoman is already a moneymaker for our
company. 4 She married a man from a moneyed family. 5 He’s such a money-grubber that he won't answer
a question unless you tell him how much you will pay him.
3 The words in the box frequently occur before "money". Find combinations that mean:
1) money that is being used by the public as opposed to money left in
bank accounts; 2) money easily available on loan at a low rate of
interest; 3) extra money or high wages paid to people working in
dangerous conditions; 4) money that is difficult to borrow because of
high interest rates; 5) money that is not circulated or invested and
does not earn interest; 6) an item that can be easily exchanged in the
way that money can, although it is not money itself. It includes cheques and postal orders but not banknotes
or coins; 7) money lent on condition that it must be repaid immediately if necessary; 8) money offered by
someone to show that he/she is honest and truthful and will keep to all agreed terms and conditions; 9) the
reward paid by the owners of a rescued ship or goods to the person or organization that saved it / them;
10) change for small purchases; 11) money which is moved from country to country to get the best return;
12) money paid to someone in return for keeping silent about a crime.
1) banknotes; 2) a means of payment, esp. coins and
banknotes, given and accepted in buying and selling; 3) a
means for retaining and accumulating wealth; 4) a single
standard or "yardstick" that is used to assign values to, and
compare the values of products and resources; 5) anything
that is accepted as payment for products and resources; 6) the
recording of all money received into and paid out of a company in a book or on a computer file; 7) the
worth of something in terms of the money or goods for which it can be exchanged; 8) a large amount of
money, goods or property.
spent; functions; a yardstick; accumulating; trust; exchange;
retained; value; the medium of exchange; money
1 Our central aim is to make.... 2 Credit cards and cheques are increasingly used as.... 3 Returned goods
can be exchanged for goods of an equivalent.... 4 You will be given a higher salary in... for doing a more
responsible job. 5 I... my business partner completely. 6 She... most of her parents' property, but some went
to her children. 7 My savings are... interest. 8 A 10% profit after taxes is widely seen as... for making money
in a business. 9 One of the most important... of my job is to see that goods are delivered on time. 10 He...
$200 to fix his car.
GRAMMAR: Modals with the Perfect Infinitive – Модальні дієслова з перфектним інфінітивом
Can, may, might, must, could, should, ought to are also used to talk about possibility, probability and
certainty in the past.
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Must + Perfect Infinitive expresses the speaker's certainty that something has happened.
If she is not here by now, something must have happened.
Could / may / might + Perfect Infinitive express the idea that there is a possibility that something has
happened: She looks miserable. She could / may / might have lost her job. (Perhaps she has lost her job)
Can't / couldn't + Perfect Infinitive express the speaker's certainty that something has not happened:
She can't / couldn't have gone; her coat is still here. (I’m sure she’s still here.)
May not / might not + Perfect Infinitive express the idea that it is possible that something didn't happen:
Nobody is in the office. They may not / might not have received our message.
Should / ought to + Perfect Infinitive indicate that an action considered desirable was not carried out:
You ought to / should have warned your employer. (I think it was a good idea to warn your employer.)
Shouldn't / oughtn't to + Perfect Infinitive indicate that an action considered undesirable was carried out:
You shouldn’t / oughtn't to have told her this news. (I think it was a bad idea to tell her the news.)
Ex.1. Complete the following sentences with an appropriate modal verb from the box below:
should, couldn't, ought to, must, can't, shouldn't, may
1 She ______ have lost her way; she must have missed the train. 2 Has she phoned yet? She ______ have
phoned two hours ago. 3 I'm not waiting much longer. He ______ have been here hours ago. 4 The bus
______ have been at the airport. He promised to meet us. 5 He is back already. He ______ have started very
early. 6 Do you remember reading about it in the newspapers? No, I ______ have been abroad at the time.
7 We had a very good dinner for $10 at a restaurant yesterday. You ______ have had a very good dinner if
you only paid $10. 8 I saw your boss in the theatre yesterday. You _____ have seen him; he is still abroad.
9 The letter ______ have been posted long ago. 10 You _______ have greeted him first. 11 She _______
have made such a mistake. 12 You _______ have left your glasses in the car. 13 Give him a ring. He
_______ have arrived by now. 14 They______have followed her advice. Now they regret not to have done
so. 15 You _______ have spoken to your employee in such a tone. I am sure, you have hurt him. 16 He
______ have left without saying good-bye. 17 He ______ have concealed something from his employer.
18 They _______ have delayed the discussion of the problem.
Ex.2. Complete the sentences with should (shouldn’t), could, may (may not), needn't, can't + have:
1 You ………………. been here a week ago. 2 He ……………….. signed that contract. He was on business
trip last week. 3 If he needed money, he ……………… asked me. 4 "Where’s the secretary?" "No idea. She
……………….. gone home." 5 He ………………… got a new job. I'll phone him tonight. 6 She hasn't
come. But she ……………. got your message. 7 You ………… made that speech in front of an audience;
nobody appreciated it. 8 You really ………………… informed your employer of those changes! 9 The de-
legation ………………. arrived yet. 10 You ………………. warned him. Why didn't you? 11 He …………
spoken to the manager. I've already spoken to him. 12 You ………….. bought that house. 13 I …..………...
borrowed him money. It was my mistake. 14 He …………….. invested all the money. I’m sure he hasn't.
1 He може бути, щоб він дав згоду виконати таку кількість роботи за такий короткий строк. 2 Не
може бути, щоб вони досі не вирішили цього питання. 3 Зараз вони, можливо, вже закінчили свій
дослід. 4 Тобі потрібно було зателефонувати йому вчора; ти знав що він хворий. 5 Звичайно, ти
повинна була попередити їх раніше. Чому ти цього не зробила? 6 Його здоров'я покращилося. Він,
можливо, кинув палити. 7 Він, можливо, не усвідомив одразу всієї важливості повідомлення.
8 Щось, можливо, затримало його. Він повинен був вже повернутися. 9 Можливо ти не зрозумів її.
Вона не хотіла образити тебе. 10 Вони, можливо, не скоротили свої витрати. Ось чому вони зараз є
боржниками. 11 В неї, мабуть, не було жодного шансу попередити мене заздалегідь. 12 До цього
часу він, можливо, сплатив вже всі борги.
10 Aggregate supply
supply – постачання national income accounting – облік національного
aggregate supply – сукупна пропозиція доходу
capital goods – засоби виробництва keeps track of production – слідкує за
to be productive – щоб бути продуктивною economy’s performance – функціонування
affect – впливати (на) економіки
Just as economists study the amount of goods and services brought to market by a single producer, they
also study the total amount of goods and services produced by the economy as a whole. Thus, they
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examine aggregate supply – the total amount of goods and services produced by the economy in a given
period, usually one year.
A number of factors affect an economy’s aggregate supply. Two of these are the quantity of resources
used in production and the quality of those resources. For example, an economy must have an adequate
supply of natural resources and capital goods to be productive. It also needs a skilled and highly motivated
labour force.
A third factor affecting aggregate supply is the efficiency with which the resources are combined. If they
are combined in a productive way, aggregate supply will increase.
In order to measure aggregate supply, statistics must be kept. To keep with this task economists use
national income accounting – a system of statistics that keeps track of production, consumption, saving and
investment in the economy. National income accounting also makes it possible to trace long-run trends in
the economy and to form new public policies to improve the economy.
The most important economic statistics kept in the national income accounts is Gross National Product
(GNP). This is the dollar measure of the total amount of final goods and services produced in a year. It is one
of the most important and comprehensive statistics kept on the economy’s performance.
1 What do economists study? 2 What is aggregate supply? 3 What factors affect an economy’s aggregate
supply? 4 When will aggregate supply increase? 5 What must be kept in order to measure aggregate
supply? 6 What is national income accounting? 7 What helps to trace long-run trends in the economy and
form new public policies? What is it aimed at? 8 What is GNP?
I. Find equivalents:
1 adequate supply of natural resources a загальна кількість товарів та послуг
2 keep with a task b кваліфікована робоча сила
3 final goods c засоби виробництва
4 trace long-run trends in the economy d відповідний (достатній) запас природних багатств
5 skilled labour force e сукупна пропозиція
6 national income accounting f поліпшувати стан економіки
7 capital goods g валовий національний продукт
8 improve the economy h виконувати завдання
9 aggregate supply i кількість і якість
10 total amount of goods and services j облік національного доходу
11 single producer k окремий виробник
12 Gross National Product l готова продукція
13 the quantity and the quality m намічати перспективні напрямки в економіці
II. Match the synonyms:
Adequate, to grow, skilful, to affect, goods, merchandise, amount, trend, to ameliorate, consider, to
improve, sufficient, to trace, to increase, to influence, examine, manufacturer, tendency, total, quantity, to
track, producer, aggregate, skilled.
III. Fill in the blanks with prepositions or adverbs if necessary:
1 Economists examine aggregate supply – the total amount ... goods and services produced ... the economy
... a given period. 2 A number ... factors affect ... an economy’s aggregate supply. 3 Two ... these are the
quantity ... resources used ... production and the quality ... those resources. 4 ... order to measure aggregate
supply, statistics must be kept. 5 One ... the factors affecting ... aggregate supply is the efficiency ... which
the resources are combined. 6 The most important economic statistics kept ... the national income accounts
is Gross National Product. 7 This is the dollar measure ... the total amount ... final goods and services
produced ... a year.
IV. Match the terms with their definitions:
1. efficiency а. Goods ultimately bought and used by consumers.
2. capital goods b. A measure of the nation’s total output of goods and services per year.
3. services c. Something created to produce other goods and services.
4. final goods d. Intangible item of value, such as the work of physicians, lawyers,
teachers, actors.
5. labour force e. A measure of how much we get what we use.
6. Gross National Product f. All the goods and services provided by the economy.
7. Aggregate Supply g. A system of statistics, that keeps track of production, consumption,
saving and investment in the economy.
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8. national income accounting h. Individuals, 16 years of age or older, working or looking for work.
V. Define which of the following items best completes the statement:
1) The GNP can best be described as a measure of...
a. the nation’s economic welfare c. the retail value of all market production in the
b. the value of all goods and services produced in the nation
country d. goods and services produced by the government
2) A nation’s standard of living will rise if...
a. GNP and population increase at the same rate c. population increases faster than GNP
b. GNP increases faster than population d. production and consumption decrease
3) Assume that prices are rising while production remains unchanged. In these circumstances, GNP measured
in current dollars will...
a. increase c. decrease
b. remain the same d. cause prices to fall
VI. Complete the following sentences:
1 Economists examine aggregate supply... 2 The factors affecting aggregate supply are... 3 In order to
measure aggregate supply... 4 National income accounting is... 5 National income accounting also makes it
possible... 6 The most important economic statistics kept in the national income accounts are... 7 GNP is...
VIII. Translate into English:
1 Економісти розглядають сукупну пропозицію як загальну кількість товарів та послуг,
вироблених, як правило, за один рік. 2 На сукупну пропозицію впливає кількість цих ресурсів. 3
Щоб бути продуктивною, економіка повинна мати відповідний (достатній) запас природних багатств
та засобів виробництва. 4 Третій фактор, який впливає на сукупну пропозицію, – це ефективність, з
якою комбінуються ресурси. 5 Розрахунок національного прибутку дає можливість накреслити
перспективні напрямки в економіці і виробити нові напрямки державної політики, щоб поліпшити
стан економіки. 6 Валовий національний продукт – це вартість у доларах усієї сукупності готової
продукції та послуг, вироблених і наданих за рік.
GRAMMAR: The Infinitive – Інфінітив
1. The infinitive has the following forms:
Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous
Active Voice to ask to be asking to have asked to have been asking
Passive Voice to be asked – to have been asked –
2. The infinitive can be used as:
the subject (підмет) It was hard to raise this question.
the predicative ( частина присудка) The main problem is to get to the office on time.
an object (додаток) She tried to speak calmly.
an attribute (означення) There was nothing to argue about.
an adverbial modifier (обставина) I have come to see the manager.
3. Some verbs can be followed by object + infinitive:
I'd like you to pay now.
a) verbs followed by an object + infinitive with "to":
advise, allow, ask, expect, forbid, force, get, hate, help, intend, invite, permit, order, prefer,
recommend, remind, tell, want, persuade, like, warn, wish, would like, encourage
My boss always encouraged me to work as hard as I could.
b) verbs followed by an object + infinitive without "to":
let, make, feel, see, hear, watch, notice
Let me explain the rule.
Ex.1. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian. State the form and function of the Infinitive:
1 She was the last to solve the problem. …………………………………………………………………..
2 To do it accurately was the main problem. …………………………………………………………………
3 This is a prestigious company to work in. ………………………………………………………………….
4 It was kind of your boss to have offered it to you. …………………………………………………………
5 Our plan was to finish this work by the end of the month. …………………………………………………
22
6 I was lucky to have been chosen for this job. …………………………………………………………….
7 This is a very good hotel to stay at. ………………………………………………………………………
8 There’s a lot of work to be done today. …………………………………………………………………..
9 She was the first to be given a rise. ………………………………………………………………………
10 It's nice to be working right now. ………………………………………………………………………
11 He hopes to be chosen for this position. ………………………………………………………………….
12 Our boss doesn't like to be interrupted while he’s working. ……………………………………………..
13 Do you know him well enough to ask him for some money? ……………………………………………
14 I don’t want to be misunderstood. ……………………………………………………………..
15 All the necessary changes may be made any moment. …………………………………………………
16 I hope to find a job in accounting. …………………………………………………………….
17 I'm sorry not to have kept my promise. …………………………………………………………………..
18 It was a big mistake for them not to keep him as accountant. …………………………………………….
Ex.2. Put "to" or "-" into the gaps:
1 We made him ... do it all over again. 2 I recommended him ... learn the laws of my country. 3 The boss
made the secretary ... repeat the message. 4 They won't let you ... leave the Customs area till your luggage
has been examined. 5 Will you help me ... fill in this application form? 6 Please let us ... know about his
decision as soon as possible. 7 I'd like him ... accept this invitation. 8 I don't want anybody ... use the results
of my experiments. 9 He made me ... sign this paper. 10 I saw him ... leave the office. 11 Nobody noticed
him ... come in. 12 I don't want anybody ... know about our plans. 13 She knew him ... be a good marketer.
14 I believe this ... be the only way out.
1 Він не хотів, щоб касир перераховував гроші. 2 Всі вважають, що він дуже успішний
підприємець. 3 Це змусить менеджерів компанії подумати, як вирішити проблему захисту свого
виробника. 4 Це змусило уряд підвищити ціни на імпортні товари. 5 Я сподівався, що ця новина
змусить його підвищити тобі заробітну платню. 6 Я не хочу, щоб ви контролювали мою діяльність. 7
Він не сподівався, що це питання розглянуть так швидко. 8 Ніхто не сподівався, що ця перспективна
компанія стане банкрутом. 9 Ніхто не знав, що примусило їх змінити їхні плани. 10 Я хочу, щоб ви
проглянули цей звіт. 11 Що змусило його зробити цей крок? 12 Дозвольте мені дати вам пораду. 13
Мені б не хотілося, щоб ти так погано думав про нього. 14 Вони не сподівалися, що ми закінчимо
цей звіт без їхньої допомоги.
11 Aggregate demand
decision-making units – самостійна господарча expenditures – витрати, видатки
одиниця, наділена правом приймати рішення household – домашнє господарство, сім’я
aggregate demand – сукупний попит purchases – закупівлі
The economy of any advanced country is very complex. It involves millions of individual decision-making
units – individuals, business and governments make billions of decisions daily.
Microeconomics is the branch of economics that deals with decision-making and other behaviour by
these individual units. Another branch of economics, known as macroeconomics, deals with large groups or
aggregates. Because GNP deals with the output of the country as a whole, it is macroeconomic concept.
As a first step in understanding the macroeconomics we think of the economy as being made up of
several different parts called sectors. These sectors represent individuals, business, government and foreign
markets. The sum of expenditures of these sectors is known as aggregate demand. When aggregate demand
or spending falls over a period of one to two years, the economy tends to go into recession, while a rise in
aggregate demand tends to lead to booms in the economy.
One part of the economy is the consumer sector. The basic unit in this sector is the household, which is
made up of all persons who occupy a house, flat, or room.
The business or investment sector is made up of proprietorships, partnerships, and corporations. It is the
productive sector responsible for bringing the factors of production together to produce output.
The public sector is the part of the economy of a country that is owned or controlled by the government.
It includes the local, regional and state levels of government.
The foreign sector includes all consumers and producers outside the country.
Ukraine, for example, exports aeroplanes and farm products to foreign buyers. It also imports a large
number of different items from foreign countries. It makes no difference whether foreign buyers are
23
governments or private investors or if purchases are made from governments or private individuals. They
are all part of the foreign sector.
1 What does microeconomics deal with? 2 Macroeconomics deals with large groups or aggregates, doesn’t
it? 3 Why is GNP considered as macroeconomic concept? 4 What do the sectors of the economy represent?
5 What is the basic unit in the consumer sector? 6 What is the business or investment sector made up of? 7 Is
the business sector of the economy responsible for bringing the factors of production together to produce
output? 8 What does the public sector include? 9 Does the foreign sector include all consumers and
producers outside Ukraine?
I. Match the antonyms:
To export, income, to import, demand, to consume, to produce, supply, private sector, expenditure, buyer,
external, microeconomics, public sector, macroeconomics, boom, unlike, native, internal, different,
recession, similar, like, foreign, seller.
ІI. Match the terms with their definitions:
1. microeconomics a. A fall in business activity lasting more than a few months, causing
stagnation in a country’s output.
2. macroeconomics b. Quantity of goods and services produced or provided by a business
organization or economy.
3. aggregate demand c. The study of the individual parts of the economy, with special attention to
the market process and how it works.
4. recession d. The total demand for goods and services in the economy.
5. boom e. The peak of the business cycle; the economy is expanding and aggregate
demand is rising quickly.
6. output f. The study of the economy as a whole.
7. public sector g. Regular fluctuations in the level of economic activity in an economy.
8. investment h. Part of the economy that is owned and controlled by the state, namely
central government, local government, and government enterprises.
9. business cycle i. Using money to purchase real capital (equipment, new tools, industrial
buildings) to be used in the production of goods and services.
ІІІ. Define which of the following items best completes the statement:
1 An increase in aggregate demand would most likely mean an increase in spending by ...
a. business c. consumers
b. government d. all of them
2 The macroeconomics is:
a. government’s share of the nation’s output c. everything produced in the nation
b. goods and services that are produced but not sold in the marketplace d. none of these
3 Rising unemployment, together with a reduction in business spending and production, is characteristic
of ..
a. boom c. recession
b. contraction d. expansion
ІV. Fill in the blanks below with the most appropriate terms from the list:
aggregate demand; recession; decision-making; economics; corporations; consumers; items; services;
proprietorships; the public sector; producers; goods; booms; the private sector
1 Microeconomics is the branch of ________ that deals with ________ and other behaviour by these
individual units. 2 The sum of expenditures of these sectors is known as _________. 3 When aggregate
demand or spending falls over a period of one to two years, the economy tends to go into ________, while a
rise in aggregate demand tends to lead to ___________ in the economy. 4 The business or investment sector
is made up of __________, partnerships, and ___________. 5 In a free market economy, __________ is
responsible for allocating most of the resources within the economy. 6 Most _________ and __________
provided by __________ in any economy are allocated on the basis of need rather than on ability to pay.
7 Foreign sector includes all _________ and _______ outside the country. 8 Ukraine imports a large number
of different _________ from foreign countries.
V. Complete the following sentences:
1 Microeconomics is.... 2 Macroeconomics deals with.... 3 As a first step in understanding the
24
macroeconomics we think of the economy as.... 4 These sectors represent.... 5 The sum of expenditures of
these sectors is known as.... 6 One sector of the macroeconomics is.... 7 The basic unit in this sector is....
8 Another sector is.... 9 It is the productive sector responsible for.... 10 The public sector includes.... 11 The
foreign sector includes....
VI. Translate into English:
1 Мікроекономіка – це галузь економіки, зв’язана із прийняттям рішень та іншими діями
самостійних господарських одиниць, які наділені правом приймати рішення. 2 Сума витрат секторів
макроекономіки відома як сукупний попит. 3 Основна одиниця споживчого сектору – домашнє
господарство. 4 До складу сектору бізнесу або капіталовкладень входять одноосібна власність,
партнерство та корпорації. 5 Іще один сектор макроекономіки – це державний сектор, який включає
місцевий, регіональний та державний уряд. 6 До складу зовнішнього сектору входять усі споживачі
та виробники за межами країни.
VII. Replace the Ukrainian words and phrases by their English equivalents in the correct form:
(Макроекономіка) is the study of the functioning (економіки в цілому), and it deals mainly with the total
output and income of the economy, (загальним рівнем занятості), and movements in the average level of
all prices. The heart of macroeconomics consists of analyzing the determinants of (сукупної пропозиції)
and (сукупного попиту). In the short run, the main problem in macroeconomics is why (сукупний попит)
sometimes exceeds (сукупну пропозицію), thereby bringing on (інфляцію), and why aggregate demand
sometimes falls short of aggregate supply, thereby bringing on (безробіття) and deflation – or at least less
inflation. Over the long run, macroeconomics is concerned primarily with (економічним зростанням) –
increases in the productive capacity of the economy and in average (реальним доходом) per person.
GRAMMAR: The Gerund – Герундій
1. The gerund has the following forms:
Active Passive
Simple writing being written
Perfect having written having been written
2. We use the gerund:
* as the subject of a sentence: Exporting will be our main objective next year.
* as the object of a sentence: I've always enjoyed reading.
* after certain verbs:
admit, mind, appreciate, avoid, consider, can't stand, can't help, delay, enjoy, finish, imagine,
involve, postpone, propose, risk, stop, suggest
The manager proposed changing the name of the company.
• after prepositions:
after, before, by, when, while, without
The company launched this product without doing the necessary research.
• after verbs and expressions followed by prepositions:
be interested in, be good at, be fond of, be for / against, be used to, instead of, feel like, think
of / about, look forward to, succeed in, approve of, insist on, object to
I'm interested in learning more about this technology.
• after expressions like: it's no use, it's not worth, it's no good : No use asking him. He won't tell the truth.
Ex.1. Put the verbs in brackets into the gerund form. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian:
1 Stop ............... (argue) and start ............... (work). 2 The boss is against ............... (make) any complaints.
3 I’m thinking of ............... (retire) and ............... (go) to Canada. 4 If he puts his money into that business
he risks ............... (lose) everything. 5 If a thing is worth ............... (do) at all it is worth ............... (do) well.
6 He hates ............... (borrow) money. 7 I can't stand their (waste) so much time. 8 I thanked him
for ............... (solve) the problem quickly. 9 I suggest ............... (postpone) the meeting. 10 It's no
good ............... (complain). Nothing can be done. 11 I can't help ............... (think) about the interview. 12
We avoid ............... (keep) late hours. Our working day begins very early. 13 The secretary
admitted ............... (steal) the money. 14 I believe he’s capable of ............... (solve) this problem.
Ex.2. Finish these sentences using a gerund:
1 My favourite activity is ........................................................................................ .
2 He can't stand ........................................................................................
25
3 He is good at.....................................................................................................
4 Some people just can't help.....................................................................................................
5 We are used to .....................................................................................................
6 I’m interested in .................................................................................................... .
7 This company is worth .....................................................................................................
8 The customer wants to know who was responsible for ............................................................................... .
9 I feel like .....................................................................................................
10 He admitted .....................................................................................................
11 I’m thinking of .................................................................................................... .
12 ........................................................................................ was the key to the company's success.
13 It's no use .....................................................................................................
14 Avoid ....................................................................................................................
Ex.3. Complete these sentences using the gerund form of one of the verbs below:
give, get, make, have, lose, help, work, discuss, get, worry, meet, analyse, cry, buy, reduce
1 He is interested in ............... the shares of this company. 2 It's no use ............... over spilt milk. 3 This job
involves ............... our international transactions. 4 We are looking forward to ............... the new Sales
Manager. 5 It isn't worth ............... about it. 6 You risk ............... bad results. 7 As we don't agree about
company policy we avoid ............... this subject. 8 We don't mind ............... overtime, if it helps the
company. 9 You mustn't insist on ............... him. He doesn't want it. 10 By delaying we risk ............... this
contract. 11 I can't imagine not ............... a computer in my office. 12 He apologized for …............ this
serious mistake. 13 He is very pleased with ............... the job he wanted. 14 It's no good ............... her
advice - she never listens. 15 Overstaffing should be solved by ............... the workforce.
(12) GRAMMAR: The Participle – Дієприкметник
1. The participle has the following forms: Active Passive
Present (Participle I) writing being written
Perfect (Participle I) having written having been written
Past (Participle II) – written
2. Participles can be used like:
a) verb forms with the auxiliaries be and have (to make continuous, perfect and passive verb forms):
He was answering questions when I came in. He has forgotten my name.
You'll be informed soon.
b) adjectives: Your offer seems exciting. The office window is broken.
c) adverbs: She ran screaming out of the room.
d) clauses: Having spent all his money, he asked his father to help him.
Being unable to help, we gave her some food.
3. The structure object + participle (clause) is used after verbs оf sensation (e.g. see, hear, feel, watch, notice, smell)
and some other verbs (e.g. find, get, have, make): I found him speaking to a customer.
I saw your secretary sending a fax to our business partner. You ought to get your car repaired.
Ex.1. Use Participle I and Participle II to open the brackets. Translate the sentences into Ukrainian:
(A) 1 We spent about an hour ………………… (take) our papers to the office. 2 Generally …………………
(speak), this problem is rather difficult. 3 (Work) …………………… a year in Germany he returned to Ukraine.
4 He sat in his arm-chair …………………… (smoke) a cigar. 5 Our new manager is that young man ..................
(wear) glasses. 6 (Say) …………………… this, he left the room. 7 (Be) …………………… busy, he postponed
his trip to Italy. 8 I stood …………………… (watch) the people entering the office. 9 He went to work, .............
….....… (leave) the letter on the table. 10 The conference …………...….. (take) place at the university is
devoted to ecological problems. 11 While …………………… (wait) for you I’ve translated this article.
(B) 1 She entered the room ………………… (accompany) by her superiors. 2 My boss looked …………….....
(worry). 3 The letter will lose its importance if ………………… (not deliver) immediately. 4 (Press) ..........……
for time, he couldn't even phone his wife. 5 She’ll certainly help if ………………… (ask). 6 When ……………
(invite) he always takes part in our discussions. 7 The problems …………………........... (discuss) were of great
importance. 8 Those …………..….....…… (interview) will start training next week. 9 The ……..….…… (lose)
document was found at last. 10 The secretary didn't even look at me as if too …….......…… (occupy) with what
she was writing. 11 I’m going to have my car …….….......…… (repair) next week. 12 In Turkey your coat
should be ………...….....…… (button) when you are with superiors. 13 Don't expect …….………..…… (write)
contracts in most Moslem countries.
Ex.2. Use the correct form of the Participle to open the brackets:
1 When ……………… (pay) by cheque, you must show a bank card. 2 (Know) ……………… that he was in
trouble, I offered to help him. 3 (Find) ……………… nobody in the office, I left. 4 (Write) ……………… in
26
very bad handwriting, the message was difficult to read. 5 Time ……………… (permit), we’ll stay for a few
days in London. 6 The solution ……………… (adopt) was welcomed by our manager. 7 All things ....................
…… (consider), there’s little hope of his arrival. 8 I was driving a car …………… (lend) me by my close friend.
9 The required sum of money ……………… (save up), I could buy a new computer. 10 We found her ...............
(work) in the office. 11 I heard them ……………… (argue) again. 12 (Hope) ……………… to find the lost
letter, he searched everywhere. 13 (Think) ……………… he had made a mistake somewhere, the accountant
went through his calculations again. 14 When ……………… (ask) to help them she refused without hesitating.
27

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1 Structure of a business letter

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