UNIT 3: Cryptanalysis.

WARM-UP
1. Discuss the following definitions of the term "cryptanalysis" and choose
the acceptable one for you. Give your reasons.
1. Cryptanalysis − the science of "puzzle solving".
2. Cryptanalysis is the converse process of cryptography.
3. Cryptanalysis is a method of assembling multiple pieces of information
together to produce a provable conclusion based on their convergence.
4. Cryptanalysis is the procedures, processes, methods, etc., used to translate
or interpret secret writings, as codes and ciphers, for which the key is unknown.
Cryptanalysis − the science of "puzzle solving": This definition captures the
essence of cryptanalysis as a problem-solving activity. Breaking a code or cipher
can indeed be likened to solving a puzzle, where one must decipher the hidden
message. However, this definition is somewhat informal and may not encompass
the full range of techniques and methodologies involved in cryptanalysis.

Cryptanalysis is the converse process of cryptography: This definition highlights

the relationship between cryptanalysis and cryptography, positioning them as
complementary processes. Cryptography involves creating codes and ciphers to
secure information, while cryptanalysis involves breaking them. This definition
provides a clear connection between the two fields but might oversimplify the
intricate nature of cryptanalysis.

Cryptanalysis is a method of assembling multiple pieces of information together

to produce a provable conclusion based on their convergence: This definition
emphasizes the analytical aspect of cryptanalysis, suggesting that it involves
gathering and synthesizing information to arrive at a conclusive result. While this
definition captures some aspects of cryptanalysis, it may be too specific and not
fully representative of the various techniques employed.
 Cryptanalysis is the procedures, processes, methods, etc., used to translate or
interpret secret writings, as codes and ciphers, for which the key is unknown: This
definition is quite comprehensive and aligns well with the traditional
understanding of cryptanalysis. It encompasses a range of techniques and
approaches to decrypting coded or ciphered messages, emphasizing the central
concept of an unknown key.

Considering these definitions, I find Definition 4 to be the most acceptable. It

encapsulates the essential elements of cryptanalysis, including the procedures,
methods, and the challenge of dealing with unknown keys. Cryptanalysis involves
systematic efforts to decipher secret writings, such as codes and ciphers, and this
definition accurately reflects the core principles and activities associated with the
field.
2. Answer the following questions:
1. Is cryptanalysis a science?
Yes, cryptanalysis is considered a science. It is the scientific study and practice
of analyzing and breaking codes and ciphers, with the goal of understanding the
principles of cryptographic systems and finding vulnerabilities. Cryptanalysis
involves the use of mathematical techniques, logical analysis, and sometimes
computational methods to decipher encrypted information.
2. What is the focus of cryptanalysis?
The primary focus of cryptanalysis is to analyze and break cryptographic
systems, with an emphasis on deciphering encrypted messages or discovering
weaknesses in encryption algorithms. Cryptanalysts aim to understand the inner
workings of cryptographic methods, often by attempting to recover the plaintext or
encryption key without proper authorization.
3. Where is cryptanalysis used?
Cryptanalysis is used in various fields where secure communication is essential.
Some common areas include:
 Military Communications: Cryptanalysis is crucial in assessing
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 and breaking enemy codes and ciphers.
 Information Security: In the protection of sensitive information
and data.
 Cryptography Research: Cryptanalysts work to identify and
address vulnerabilities in cryptographic algorithms.
 Law Enforcement: To decipher encrypted communications related
to criminal activities.
 Cybersecurity: Analyzing and countering potential threats to
digital systems.
4. What is the role of cryptanalysis in cryptography?
The role of cryptanalysis in cryptography is twofold:
 Testing and Strengthening: Cryptanalysis helps identify
weaknesses in cryptographic algorithms and systems. By analyzing potential
vulnerabilities, cryptographers can improve the design and implementation
of cryptographic techniques to make them more secure.
 Breaking and Understanding: Cryptanalysis is used to break
codes and ciphers, providing insights into how cryptographic systems work.
This understanding is essential for both attackers and defenders, influencing
the development of more robust encryption methods.
5. How important is cryptanalysis in cybersecurity?
Cryptanalysis is highly important in cybersecurity. It plays a crucial role in:
 Assessing Vulnerabilities: Cryptanalysis helps identify
weaknesses in cryptographic protocols and algorithms that could be
exploited by malicious actors.
 Incident Response: Understanding the methods used in a
cyberattack often involves cryptanalysis to decipher encrypted
communications or analyze compromised systems.
 Developing Countermeasures: Cryptanalysis contributes to the

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 development of effective countermeasures and security protocols to protect
against evolving cyber threats.
 Ensuring Trust: The ability to break cryptographic systems
demonstrates their reliability. The continuous evolution of cryptanalysis is
essential for maintaining trust in the security of digital communications and
transactions.

READING
1. Read a text about cryptanalysis and answer the following questions.
1. What are the main tasks of cryptanalysis?
 The main tasks of cryptanalysis include:
 Recovering the plaintext of a message without access to the key.
 Discovering weaknesses in a cryptosystem that may lead to the
recovery of the plaintext or the key.
 Conducting attacks to attempt to break or compromise the encryption,
with the goal of either revealing the plaintext or the encryption key.
2. What is involved in "attack" in the context of cryptanalysis?
 In the context of cryptanalysis, an "attack" refers to an attempt to
compromise the security of an encryption system. It involves various methods and
strategies to recover the plaintext or the key used for encryption.
3. Enumerate the types of cryptanalytic attacks and describe them.
 The text describes four general types of cryptanalytic attacks:
 Ciphertext-only attack: The cryptanalyst has the ciphertext of several
messages and aims to recover the plaintext or deduce the key.
 Known-plaintext attack: The cryptanalyst has both the ciphertext and
the plaintext of several messages, seeking to deduce the key.
 Chosen-plaintext attack: The cryptanalyst chooses the plaintext to be
encrypted, gaining more power to deduce the key or algorithm.

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  Adaptive-chosen-plaintext attack: A special case where the
cryptanalyst can modify their choices based on previous encryption results.
4. Give your interpretation of Kerckhoffs’s assumption: "If the strength of
your new cryptosystem relies on the fact that the attacker does not know the
algorithm’s inner workings, you’re sunk".
 Kerckhoffs's assumption suggests that the security of a cryptosystem
should not rely on keeping the details of the algorithm secret. Instead, the strength
of the system should be based on the secrecy of the key. This is a recognition that,
in practice, algorithms may be discovered or reverse-engineered, and true security
should come from the strength of the key, not from the obscurity of the algorithm.
5. How do you understand the statement: "Good cryptographers rely on
peer review to separate the good algorithms from the bad".
 This statement emphasizes the importance of subjecting cryptographic
algorithms to peer review by experts in the field. Peer review involves independent
evaluation and scrutiny by knowledgeable individuals, helping to identify and
rectify potential weaknesses or vulnerabilities in an algorithm. The implication is
that algorithms subjected to thorough peer review are more likely to be reliable
and secure, as they have withstood the scrutiny of the cryptographic community.
Trust in the cryptographic strength of an algorithm is better placed when it has
been openly reviewed and tested by experts.

CRYPTANALYSIS
The whole point of cryptography is to keep the plaintext (or the key, or both)
secret from eavesdroppers. Eavesdroppers are assumed to have complete access to
the communications between the sender and receiver.
Cryptanalysis is the science of recovering the plaintext of a message without
access to the key. Successful cryptanalysis may recover the plaintext or the key. It
also may find weaknesses in a cryptosystem that eventually lead to the previous
results.

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 An attempted cryptanalysis is called an attack. A fundamental assumption in
cryptanalysis, first enunciated by the Dutchman A. Kerckhoffs in the nineteenth
century, is that the secrecy must reside entirely in the key. Kerckhoffs assumes
that the cryptanalyst has complete details of the cryptographic algorithm and
implementation. While real-world cryptanalysts don’t always have such detailed
information, it’s a good assumption to make. If others can’t break an algorithm,
even with knowledge of how it works, then they certainly won’t be able to break it
without that knowledge.
There are four general types of cryptanalytic attacks. Of course, each of them
assumes that the cryptanalyst has complete knowledge of the encryption algorithm
used:
1. Ciphertext-only attack. The cryptanalyst has the ciphertext of several
messages, all of which have been encrypted using the same encryption algorithm.
The cryptanalyst’s job is to recover the plaintext of as many messages as possible,
or better yet to deduce the key (or keys) used to encrypt the messages, in order to
decrypt other messages encrypted with the same keys.
Given: C1 = Ek(P1), C2 = Ek(P2),...Ci = Ek(Pi)
Deduce: Either P1, P2,...Pi; k; or an algorithm to infer Pi+1 from Ci+1 =
Ek(Pi+1)
2. Known-plaintext attack. The cryptanalyst has access not only to the
ciphertext of several messages, but also to the plaintext of those messages. His job
is to deduce the key (or keys) used to encrypt the messages or an algorithm to
decrypt any new messages encrypted with the same key (or keys).
Given: P1, C1 = Ek(P1), P2, C2 = Ek(P2),...Pi, Ci = Ek(Pi)
Deduce: Either k, or an algorithm to infer Pi+1 from Ci+1 = Ek(Pi+1)
3. Chosen-plaintext attack. The cryptanalyst not only has access to the
ciphertext and associated plaintext for several messages, but he also chooses the
plaintext that gets encrypted. This is more powerful than a known-plaintext attack,
because the cryptanalyst can choose specific plaintext blocks to encrypt, ones that

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might yield more information about the key. His job is to deduce the key (or keys)
used to encrypt the messages or an algorithm to decrypt any new messages
encrypted with the same key (or keys).
Given: P1, C1 = Ek(P1), P2, C2 = Ek(P2),...Pi, Ci = Ek(Pi), where the
cryptanalyst gets to choose P1, P2,...Pi
Deduce: Either k, or an algorithm to infer Pi+1 from Ci+1 = Ek(Pi+1)
4. Adaptive-chosen-plaintext attack. This is a special case of a chosen-plaintext
attack. Not only can the cryptanalyst choose the plaintext that is encrypted, but he
can also modify his choice based on the results of previous encryption. In a
chosen-plaintext attack, a cryptanalyst might just be able to choose one large block
of plaintext to be encrypted; in an adaptive-chosen-plaintext attack he can choose a
smaller block of plaintext and then choose another based on the results of the first,
and so forth.
Known-plaintext attacks and chosen-plaintext attacks are more common than
you might think. It is not unheard-of for a cryptanalyst to get a plaintext message
that has been encrypted or to bribe someone to encrypt a chosen message. You
may not even have to bribe someone; if you give a message to an ambassador, you
will probably find that it gets encrypted and sent back to his country for
consideration. Many messages have standard beginnings and endings that might be
known to the cryptanalyst. Encrypted source code is especially vulnerable because
of the regular appearance of keywords: #define, struct, else, return. Encrypted
executable code has the same kinds of problems: functions, loop structures, and so
on. Known-plaintext attacks (and even chosen-plaintext attacks) were successfully
used against both the Germans and the Japanese during World War II.
And don’t forget Kerckhoffs’s assumption: If the strength of your new
cryptosystem relies on the fact that the attacker does not know the algorithm’s
inner workings, you’re sunk. If you believe that keeping the algorithm’s insides
secret improves the security of your cryptosystem more than letting the academic
community analyze it, you’re wrong. And if you think that someone won’t

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disassemble your code and reverse-engineer your algorithm, you’re naïve. The
best algorithms we have are the ones that have been made public, have been
attacked by the world’s best cryptographers for years, and are still unbreakable.
Cryptanalysts don’t always have access to the algorithms. If the algorithm is
being used in a commercial security program, it is simply a matter of time and
money to disassemble the program and recover the algorithm. If the algorithm is
being used in a military communications system, it is simply a matter of time and
money to buy (or steal) the equipment and reverse-engineer the algorithm.
Those who claim to have an unbreakable cipher simply because they can’t break
it are either geniuses or fools. Unfortunately, there are more of the latter in the
world. Beware of people who extol the virtues of their algorithms, but refuse to
make them public; trusting their algorithms is like trusting snake oil.
Good cryptographers rely on peer review to separate the good algorithms from
the bad.
ACTIVE VOCABULARY
an eavesdropper підслуховувач
a sender відправник
a receiver приймач, одержувач
to recover відновити
weaknesses слабкості, недоліки
to enunciate оголошувати
to reside бути, знаходитись
implementation реалізація, запровадження,
уведення в дію
ciphertext-only attack напад при наявності тільки
шифротексту
to deduce the key вивести ключ
known-plaintext attack напад при відомому відкритому
тексті
to infer зробити висновок
chosen-plaintext attack напад з можливостю вибору
відкритого тексту
to yield more information отримати більше інформації
unheard-of нечуваний
to disassemble a code розібрати код

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 to beware остерігатися
to extol the virtues of the algorithms вихваляти переваги аглоритмів

EXERCISES
1. Explain the words and word-combinations.
An eavesdroppers, to yield, a cryptanalyst, to disassemble, to trust snake oil,
peer review.
1. An eavesdropper:
 An eavesdropper is someone who secretly listens to or monitors the
private conversations of others without their knowledge or consent. It often implies
an act of intrusion or spying.
2. To yield:
 "To yield" means to produce or provide, to give way under
pressure, or to surrender. In different contexts, it can refer to giving in, giving up,
or generating a result.
3. A cryptanalyst:
 A cryptanalyst is an individual who specializes in analyzing and
deciphering codes, ciphers, and encrypted messages. Cryptanalysts are often
employed in the field of cryptography to break codes and understand the content of
encrypted information.
4. To disassemble:
 "To disassemble" means to take apart or dismantle something,
often a machine or structure, into its individual components or parts. It is the
opposite of assembling, where components are put together.
5. To trust snake oil:
 This phrase likely refers to the idea of putting trust in something
that is deceptive, fraudulent, or ineffective. The term "snake oil" historically refers
to a fraudulent or unproven remedy or product, often sold as a cure-all. Trusting

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in "snake oil" means placing confidence in something that is likely to be unreliable
or even harmful.
6. Peer review:
 Peer review is a process by which scholarly articles, research
papers, or other academic work is evaluated by experts in the same field before it
is published. The purpose of peer review is to ensure the quality, validity, and
credibility of the work before it is disseminated to the wider academic community.

2. Fill in the word(s) from the list below. Use the word(s) only once.
Executable, plaintext, communications, assumption, reside, extol, bribe, attacks,
messages, recover.
1 to recover the plaintext 6 to extol the virtues of the algorithms
2 known-plaintext attack 7 the secrecy must reside in the key
3 to decrypt any new 8 encrypted code executable
messages
4 Kerckhoffs’s assumption 9 cryptanalytic attacks
5 to bribe someone 10 a military communications system

3. Cross the odd word out.

1) adversaries, attackers, eavesdropper, attender;
2) hidden, silent, cryptic, secret;
3) cryptanalyst, cryptographer, cryptologist, cryptology;
4) decode, encode, encrypt, code;
5) message, cipher, body, piece of information;
4. Match the words and word combinations with definitions.

1 a
known- converts electronic data into a form that cannot
plain text be read or understood normally, and reconverts
attack b it back into a readableform for the user who has the
correct key or password.

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 2 b
an is the attempt by a cryptanalyst to break a cipher
unbreakable based on knowledge about the plain text of a
cipher e message prior to its encryption.
3 c
ciphertext- means to change or to make something fit a
only attack d different use
4 encryption d
is an attack with an attempt to decrypt ciphertext
algorithm a
when only the ciphertext itself is available.
5 e
to modify c is a cipher for which the message or key cannot
be obtained through cryptanalysis, even with an
unlimited amount of computational power, data
storage, and calendar time.

5. Put the words in the following sentences in order. The first word in each
sentence has been underlined.
1. The National Security Agency keeps their algorithms secret from
outsiders.
2. Computers may be used to break simple ciphers.
3. The transformation of the plaintext to ciphertext is entirely
dependent on the key.
6. Fill in the correct word(s) from the list below: decrypted, break, frequently,
encipherment, encrypted, secure.
Substitution and transposition ciphers appear to be difficult to 1) break
However, if enough messages are 2) encrypted with any cipher, the cipher is
easily broken. Repetition of a series of letters may lead code breakers to the key of
any cipher system. In a substitution cipher, once a letter is associated with another
letter, a pattern emerges and the cipher is easily 3) decrypted .

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 In order to make a cipher even more 4) secure a key word or number may be
used. Transposition ciphers might be recognized by the letter frequencies (the
number of times a common letter, such as e, is used compared to the number of
times a less 5) secure used letter, such as q, appears) for the language used.
Solution of such ciphers without the key is possible by rearranging the letters in
various geometric designs and at the same time forming a new word by reordering
the letters of the coded word or phrase (such as from satin to stain) until the
method of 6) encipherment is discovered.
7. Fill in the correct word derived from the word in bold.
1. Techniques for encrypting data naturally took advantage of the power of
computers.
2. Early cryptanalysis techniques included computing the frequency with
which letters occur in the language that is being intercepted.
3. While cryptanalysis has improved as well, some systems may exist that
are unbreakable by today's standards.
4. Current systems require very powerful computer systems to encrypt and
decrypt data.
5. Cryptanalysts also know that certain combinations of letters are more
common in the English language than others are.
8. Find a mistake.
1. Then complex substitutions and transpositions are performing on the
plaintext, using the key as a guide.
2. Some cryptographers are believing that the National Security Agency
(NSA) of the United States has enormous, extremely powerful computers that are
entirely devoted to cryptanalysis.
3. Understood the process of code breaking is very important when
designing any encryption system.
4. The more ciphertext that is available, better the chances of breaking the
code.

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 1. Then complex substitutions and transpositions are performed on the plaintext,
using the key as a guide.
2. Some cryptographers believe that the National Security Agency (NSA) of the
United States has enormous, extremely powerful computers that are entirely
devoted to cryptanalysis.
3. Understanding the process of code breaking is very important when designing
any encryption system.
4. The more ciphertext that is available, the better the chances of breaking the
code.
9. Choose the correct answer.
1. Cryptanalysis is the art of ______ ciphertext to extract the plaintext or the
key.
A analyzing B analyze C being analyzed D analyzed
2. The science of cryptography has kept _______ the technological
explosion of the last half of the 20th century.
A together B within C with D up with
3. The plaintext that is to be encrypted _________ to bits, or binary
digits of 1s and 0s.
A converted B converts C is being converted D is converted
4. Before computers _____ available, expert cryptanalysts would look at
ciphertext and make guesses as to which letters were substituted for which
other letters.
A are B were C are being D were being
5. In the English language, _______ letters e, s, t, a, m, and n occur much
more frequently than do q, z, x, y, and w.
A some B the C− Da
6. For example, q and u occur together, and __________.
A so are t and B t and h are, too C so do t and h D so t and h do
h

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 7. Once the key is changed, no more ciphertext ________ using the former
key.
A produces B will produce C will be produced D produce
8. Even if users _______ the RSA cipher properly, there is still plenty that
codebreakers can do to glean information from intercepted messages.
A employed B would employ C will employ D employ
9. If you allow the cipher alphabet _____ any rearrangement of the plain
alphabet then you have over 400,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 such distinct
ciphers.
A be B to be C being D been
10. Mary Queen of Scots was one of _________ figures of the 16th century −
Queen of Scotland, Queen of France, pretender to the Engllish throne − yet her fate
would be decided by a slip of paper, the message it bore, and whether or not that
message could be deciphered.
A the most B most C significantest D more significant
significant significant

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