REVIEW

SLOT: E2 + TE2

SWE4010 – Artificial Intelligence (Project Component)

Title: Face Mask Recognition Using TensorFlow

Team Members:

E.V. Jayanth Reddy(20MIS0325)

Sneha Royal(20MIS0004)

N. Somasekhar(21MIS0220)
2. ABSTRACT:
Global pandemic COVID-19 circumstances emerged in an epidemic of dangerous
disease in all over the world. Wearing a face mask will help prevent the spread of
infection and prevent the individual from contracting any airborne infectious
germs. Using Face Mask Detection System, one can monitor if the people are
wearing masks or not. Here HAAR-CASACADE algorithm is used for image
detection. Collating with other existing algorithms, this classifier produces a high
recognition rate even with varying expressions, efficient feature selection and low
assortment of false positive features. HAAR feature-based cascade classifier
system utilizes only 200 features out of 6000 features to yield a recognition rate
of 85-95%. According to this motivation we demand mask detection as a unique
and public health service system during the global pandemic COVID-19
epidemic. The model is trained by face mask image and non-face mask image.
Face mask detection refers to detect whether a person is wearing a mask or not.
In fact, the problem is reverse engineering of face detection where the face is
detected using different machine learning algorithms for the purpose of security,
authentication, and surveillance. Face detection is a key area in the field of
Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition. A significant body of research has
contributed sophisticated to algorithms for face detection in past.

Keywords: COVID-19 epidemic, HAAR-CASACADE algorithm, mask

detection, face mask image, non-face mask image.
4.The proposed model requires less memory, making it easily deployable for
embedded devices used for surveillance purposes.

2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW:

Deepak(1) et al (2019) have considered different techniques and applications of

Artificial
Intelligence for yield prediction and smart irrigation. Timely prediction of
irrigation requirements and crop yields is necessary for farmer’s welfare and
satisfaction. The beforehand prediction significantly contributes to minimizing
production cost and maximizing crop yields. The precise prediction of crops’
yields is also useful for government, as it is effective in planning various
schemes, transport needs, buying mechanisms, storage infrastructure, and liquid
position of the economy before actual selling of crop by farmers to market. This
chapter acknowledges the past breakthroughs and emerging Artificial
Intelligence-based techniques in precision farming specifically for yield
prediction and smart irrigation. Artificial Intelligence-based system provides
sufficient information about crop yields at an early stage and its associated smart
irrigation management system is effective in the judicious use of essential
resources such as water and energy for agriculture.

Tongxi (2) et al (2021) have discussed Statistical crop modeling is pivotal for
understanding climate impacts on crop yields. Choices of models matter: Linear
regression is interpretable but limited in predictive power; machine learning
predicts well but often remains a black box. To develop explainable artificial
intelligence (AI) for exploring historical crop yield data and predicting crop
yield, here we reported a Bayesian ensemble model (BM) that is interpretable
with great explanatory and predictive power. BM embraces many competitive
models via Bayesian model averaging, fits complex functions, and quantifies
model uncertainty. Long-term crop yields are driven by both climate and
technology; the common practice of first detrending and then analyzing the
detrended data has an incorrigible bias. Therefore, BM was also aimed at
decomposing historical yield data to jointly estimate technological trends and
climate effects on crop yield. We compared BM with ElasticNet, Neural
Network, MARS, SVM, Random Forests, and XGBoost. BM excelled at both
predicting and explaining. When tested on synthetic data, BM was the only
method unveiling the true relationships: BM has stronger interpretability; other
methods predicted well but for wrong reasons. When tested on maize yield data
in Ohio, BM detected two technological shifts, attributable to hybrid corn
adoption in the 1940′s and the technological slowing-down in the 1970′s: No
other methods detected such changepoints.
Morales and Villalobos (3) (2023) have discussed The use of ML in agronomy
has been increasing exponentially since the start of the century, including data-
driven predictions of crop yields from farm-level information on soil, climate and
management. However, little is known about the effect of data partitioning
schemes on the actual performance of the models, in special when they are built
for yield forecast. In this study, we explore the effect of the choice of predictive
algorithm, amount of data, and data partitioning strategies on predictive
performance, using synthetic datasets from biophysical crop models. We
simulated sunflower and wheat data using OilcropSun and Ceres-Wheat from
DSSAT for the period 2001-2020 in 5 areas of Spain. Simulations were
performed in farms differing in soil depth and management. The data set of farm
simulated yields was analyzed with different algorithms (regularized linear
models, random forest, artificial neural networks) as a function of seasonal
weather, management, and soil. The analysis was performed with Keras for
neural networks and R packages for all other algorithms.

Bhasha (4) et al (2022) have discussed Agriculture is one of the most important
sources of food and one of the most important social problems. Due to expanding
populations, food scarcity or shortages are presently a problem in many nations.
Crop production prediction is challenging due to several complex factors. Using a
range of features, machine learning (ML), a branch of artificial intelligence (AI)
that focuses on learning, is a practical technique that can estimate yields more
precisely. The major goals of this research are to estimate crop yield production
using a machine learning algorithm and to provide farmers with an easy-to-use
user interface.

Rashid (5) et al (2021) have discussed An early and reliable estimation of crop
yield is essential in quantitative and financial evaluation at the field level for
determining strategic plans in agricultural commodities for import-export policies
and doubling farmer's incomes. Crop yield predictions are carried out to estimate
higher crop yield through the use of machine learning algorithms which are one
of the challenging issues in the agricultural sector. Due to this developing
significance of crop yield prediction, this article provides an exhaustive review
on the use of machine learning algorithms to predict crop yield with special
emphasis on palm oil yield prediction. Initially, the current status of palm oil
yield around the world is presented, along with a brief discussion on the overview
of widely used features and prediction algorithms

Klompenburg(6) et al (2020) have considered Machine learning is an important

decision support tool for crop yield prediction, including supporting decisions on
what crops to grow and what to do during the growing season of the crops.
Several machine learning algorithms have been applied to support crop yield
prediction research. In this study, we performed a Systematic Literature Review
(SLR) to extract and synthesize the algorithms and features that have been used
in crop yield prediction studies. Based on our search criteria, we retrieved 567
relevant studies from six electronic databases, of which we have selected 50
studies for further analysis using inclusion and exclusion criteria. We
investigated these selected studies carefully, analyzed the methods and features
used, and provided suggestions for further research.

Gopi and Karthikeyan(7) (2023) have published Agriculture plays a vital role in
the Indian economy. Crop recommendation for a specific region is a tedious
process as it can be affected by various variables such as soil type and climatic
parameters. At the same time, crop yield prediction was based on several features
like area, irrigation type, temperature,etc. The recent advancements of artificial
intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) models pave the way to design
effective crop recommendation and crop prediction models. In this view, this
paper presents a novel Multimodal Machine Learning Based Crop
Recommendation and Yield Prediction (MMML-CRYP)technique. The proposed
MMML-CRYP model mainly focuses on two processes namely crop
recommendation and crop prediction.

Cagatay (8) et al (2022) have discussed that Predicting crop yield is a complex
task since it depends on multiple factors. Although many models have been
developed so far in the literature, the performance of current models is not
satisfactory, and hence, they must be improved. In this study, we developed deep
learning-based models to evaluate how the underlying algorithms perform with
respect to different performance criteria. The algorithms evaluated in our study
are the XGBoost machine learning (ML) algorithm, Convolutional Neural
Networks (CNN)-Deep Neural
Networks (DNN), CNN-XGBoost, CNN-Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN), and
CNN-Long Short Term Memory (LSTM). For the case study, we performed
experiments on a public soybean dataset that consists of 395 features including
weather and soil parameters and 25,345 samples.

Sridevi (9) et al (2021) have discussed that In recent times, digitization is gaining
importance in different domains of knowledge such as agriculture, medicine,
recommendation platforms, the Internet of Things (IoT), and weather forecasting.
In agriculture, crop yield estimation is essential for improving productivity and
decision-making processes such as financial market forecasting, and addressing
food security issues. The main objective of the article is to predict and improve
the accuracy of crop yield forecasting using hybrid machine learning (ML)
algorithms.

Nyeki(10) et al (2021) have discussed that In order to meet the requirements of

sustainability and to determine yield drivers and limiting factors, it is now more
likely that traditional yield modelling will be carried out using artificial
intelligence (AI). The aim of this study was to predict maize yields using AI that
uses spatio-temporal training data. The paper has advanced a new method of
maize yield prediction, which is based on spatio-temporal data mining. To find
the best solution, various models were used: counter-propagation artificial neural
networks (CP-ANNs), XY-fused
Querynetworks (XY-Fs), supervised Kohonen networks (SKNs), neural networks
with Rectangular Linear Activations (ReLU), extreme gradient boosting
(XGBoost), support-vector machine (SVM), and different subsets of the
independent variables in five vegetation periods.

Ashwini and Sellam(11) (2022) have published that This work provides an
extensive review of corn leaves disease prediction. Plant diseases are considered
a significant threat to economic loss and production in worldwide agriculture.
The monitoring and prediction of conditions play a substantial role in
agricultural-based disease prediction. The disease over the plants shows a
significant negative impact on crop cultivation. Thus, an automated system is
essential for predicting crop diseases, aiming to help the farmers predict disease
over the corn leaves. The target of the automated system is to predict the spread
of the disease and damages in the plants. The advancements in Artificial
Intelligence (AI) pave the way for modern technological improvements for
analyzing these conditions in a productive manner where the results show
prominence over technological growth. The sub-group of AI is Machine Learning
(ML) and Deep Learning (DL) approaches.Both these models work efficiently in
disease prediction; however, DL works efficiently with the samples of the vast
dataset and gives superior prediction accuracy compared to other approaches.

Kavitha (12) et al (2023) have published Agriculture is a significant contributor to

India's economic growth. The rising population of country and constantly
changing climatic conditions have an impact on crop production and food
security. A variety of factors influence crop selection, including market price,
production rate, soil type, rainfall, temperature, government policies, etc. Many
changes are required in the agricultural sector in order to enhance the Indian
economy. In this research work authors have implemented various machine
learning techniques to estimate the crop yield in Rajasthan state of India on five
identified crops. The results indicate that among all the applied algorithms;
Random Forest, SVM, Gradient Descent, long short-term memory, and Lasso
regression techniques; the random forest performed better than others with 0.963
R2, 0.035 RMSE, and 0.0251 MAE. The results were validated using R2, root
mean squared error, and the mean absolute error to cross-validation techniques.
This paper intends to put the crop selection method into practice to help farmers
solve crop yield problems

Kavitha and Pratistha(13) (2023) have discussed that India is the world's second-
largest exporter of agricultural products. Agriculture is India's most populated
sector of the economy which plays a key part in the country's overall socio-
economic fabric. Crop yield prediction is crucial yet desirable for every country
to ensure food security. Machine learning can be a very important decision
support tool for the prediction of crop yield which can help in preparing for the
future in a much more substantial way. Many studies have been conducted for
crop yield prediction using multisource data, still, the predictions of the crop of
the Rajasthan region in India have not been investigated. In the present study
well-known machine learning techniques, decision tree, random forest, lasso
regression, and support vector regression have been implemented for crop yield
prediction using multi-source data.

Seeboli (14) (2022) et al have considered Simplistic linear methods for predicting
crop yield leave out important factors like climate, rainfall, soil, irrigation, and
land characteristics. Recent literature points to use of individual Machine
Learning (ML) and Artificial Intelligence (AI) models for better prediction of
crop yield. However, such methods have not been used in the Indian context.
Moreover, given the diversity of land, climate, soil and irrigation facilities in the
country, it is necessary to develop an ensemble approach incorporating a
significant number of ML algorithms to have a better prediction of crop yield
across geographies of the country.

Whitmire(15) et al (2021) have published Predicting alfalfa biomass and crop

yield for livestock feed is important to the daily lives of virtually everyone, and
many features of data from this domain combined with corresponding weather
data can be used to train machine learning models for yield prediction. In this
work, we used yield data of different alfalfa varieties from multiple years in
Kentucky and Georgia, and we compared the impact of different feature selection
methods on machine learning (ML) models trained to predict alfalfa yield. Linear
regression, regression trees, support vector machines, neural networks, Bayesian
regression, and nearest neighbors were all developed with cross validation. The
features used included weather data, historical yield data, and the sown date. The
feature selection methods that were compared included a correlationbased
method, the ReliefF method, and a wrapper method.

Maya and Bhargavi (16) (2019) have discussed about The rapid innovations and
liberalized market economy in agriculture demand accuracy in Crop Yield
Prediction (CYP). In accurate prediction, machine learning (ML) algorithms and
the selected features play a major role. The performance of any ML algorithm
may improve with the utilization of a distinct set of features in the same training
dataset. This research work evaluates the most needed features for accurate CYP.
The ML algorithms, namely, Artificial Neural Network, Support Vector
Regression, K-Nearest Neighbour and Random Forest (RF) are proposed for
better accuracy. Agricultural dataset consists of 745 instances; 70% of data are
randomly selected and are used to train the model and 30% are used for testing
the model to assess the predictive ability.

Karan and Mohd(17) (2022) have published that This research explores the
application of Artificial Intelligence (AI) in the Internet of Things (IoT) for crop
yield prediction in agriculture. IoT devices, like sensors and drones, collect data
on temperature, humidity, soil moisture, and crop health. AI algorithms process
and integrate this data to provide a comprehensive view of the agricultural
environment.AI-driven anomaly detection helps identify threats to crop yield,
such as pests, diseases, and adverse weather conditions. Predictive analytics,
based on historical and real-time data, forecast crop yield for informed decision-
making in irrigation and fertilization.AI-powered image recognition detects early
signs of pests and diseases, aiding timely treatment to prevent crop losses.

Vishal (18) et al (2021) have considered that In a country within the economy of
the state, the agricultural sector plays a vital role. several advances within the
field of agriculture have conjointly been enforced in recent years. Serious
analysis is happening everywhere the planet with the event of IoT, massive
knowledge technology and machine learnings regarding however farmers and
even the govt. square measure learning a way to do this. whereas the
fortification of agriculture may be classified and analyzed in several areas, like
crop management, ground management, weed identification, water management,
yield management, eutherian management, we'll think about crop yield
management as a result of we have a tendency to believe it to be the surroundings
within which an excellent deal of technical progress goes to permit the farmer to
urge his crop to his right level.

Iniyan(19) et al (2023) have discussed that Machine Learning is a successful

dynamic device for foreseeing crop yields, just as for choosing which harvests to
plant and what to do about them during the developing season. Since it operates
with a large amount of data produced by several variables, the farming system is
highly complicated. Methods of machine learning can aid intelligent system
decision-making. The following paper investigates a variety of methods for
predicting crop yields using a variety of soil and environmental variables. The
main purpose of this project is to make a machine learning model make
predictions.

Kaiyun(20) Li et al (2022) have published that The incorporation of autonomous

computation and artificial intelligence (AI) technologies into smart agriculture
concepts is becoming an expected scientific procedure. The airborne
hyperspectral system with its vast area coverage, high spectral resolution, and
varied narrow-band selection is an excellent tool for crop physiological
characteristics and yield prediction. However, the extensive and redundant three-
dimensional (3D) cube data processing and computation have made the
popularization of this tool a challenging task. This research integrated two
important open-sourced systems (R and Python) combined with automated
hyperspectral narrowband vegetation index calculation and the state-of-the-art
AIbased automated machine learning (AutoML) technology to estimate yield and
biomass, based on three crop categories (spring wheat, pea and oat mixture, and
spring barley with red clover) with multifunctional cultivation practices in
northern Europe and Estonia.
Dilmurat(21) et al (2022) have discussed that The increased availability of
remote sensing data combined with the wide-ranging applicability of artificial
intelligence has enabled agriculture stakeholders to monitor changes in crops and
their environment frequently and accurately. Applying cutting-edge technology
in precision agriculture also enabled the prediction of preharvest yield from
standing crop signals. Forecasting grain yield from standing crops benefits
highthroughput plant phenotyping and agriculture policymaking with information
on where crop production is likely to decline.

Snehal and Sandeep(22) (2014) have published that By considering various

situations of climatologically phenomena affecting local weather conditions in
various parts of the world. These weather conditions have a direct effect on crop
yield. Various researches have been done exploring the connections between
large-scale climatologically phenomena and crop yield. Artificial neural networks
have been demonstrated to be powerful tools for modeling and prediction, to
increase their effectiveness.Crop prediction methodology is used to predict the
suitable crop by sensing various parameter of soil and also parameter related to
atmosphere. Parameters like type of soil, PH, nitrogen, phosphate, potassium,
organic carbon,calcium, magnesium, sulphur, manganese, copper, iron, depth,
temperature, rainfall, humidity. For that purpose we are used artificial neural
network (ANN).

Sivaranjani and Vimal(23) (2023) have published that Crop Yield Prediction
(CYP) is critical to world food production. Food safety is a top priority for
policymakers. They rely on reliable CYP to make import and export decisions
that must be fulfilled before launching an agricultural business. Crop Yield (CY)
is a complex variable influenced by multiple factors, including genotype,
environment, and their interactions. CYP is a significant agrarian issue. However,
CYP is the main task due to many composite factors, such as climatic conditions
and soil characteristics. Machine Learning (ML) is a powerful tool for supporting
CYP decisions, including decision support on which crops to grow in a specific
season. Generally, Artificial Neural Networks (ANN) are usually used to predict
the behaviour of complex non-linear models. As a result, this research paper
attempts to determine the correlations between climatic variables, soil nutrients,
and CYwith the available data.

Alberto (24) et al (2014) have published that An important issue for agricultural
planning purposes is the accurate yield estimation for the numerous crops
involved in the planning. Machine learning (ML) is an essential approach for
achieving practical and effective solutions for this problem. Many comparisons
of ML methods for yield prediction have been made, seeking for the most
accurate technique. Generally, the number of evaluated crops and techniques is
too low and does not provide enough information for agricultural planning
purposes. This paper compares the predictive accuracy of ML and linear
regression techniques for crop yield prediction in ten crop datasets.
Kutsenogiy(25) et al (2021) have discussed that The possibilities of using
machine learning for estimating the effect of the complex of weather and
agrotechnical factors on the yield of agricultural crops and for yield forecasting
were investigated. Numerical simulations were carried out using materials of
long-term field experiments in the forest-steppe zone of Kemerovo oblast.
Continuous observation data for 2013–2018 for the main crops, wheat and barley,
were used to train the model. The Random Forest Classifier machine-learning
algorithm was used for calculations. The accuracy was defined as the ratio of the
number of correct predictions for the test sample to the total number of test cases.

Nguyen(26) et al (2020) have discussed that Rice is the most important food crop
in Taiwan, directly feeding more than 23 million people in the country.
Information on rice production is thus crucial for crop management and food
policymaking. This study aims to develop a machine learning (ML) approach for
predicting rice crop yields in Taiwan using time-series Moderate Resolution
Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS) data.

Prithi(27) et al (2021) have discussed that Yield forecasting is based totally

entirely on soil, water and vegetation to be a possible subject. Deep-based depth-
based fashions are widely accustomed extract important plant functions for
predictive purposes. Although such strategies are necessary to resolve the matter
of predicting yields there are the subsequent abnormalities: they can't create an
indirect or indirect map between raw facts and yield values; and also the full
functionality of this excess is explained within the high satisfaction of the
published works. Deep durability provides guidance and motivation for the
above-mentioned errors. Combining master intensity and deep mastering, deep
reinforcing mastering creates a comprehensive yield prediction framework which
will plan the uncooked facts in crop prediction rates. The proposed project
creates a version of the Deep Recurrent Q-Network Support Vector Machine
deep mastering set of rules over Q-Learning to strengthen the mastering set of
rules for predicting yield.

Vaishali (28) et al (2020) have published that Soil is an important parameter

affecting crop yield prediction. Analysis of soil nutrients can aid farmers and soil
analysts to get higher yield of the crops by making prior arrangements. In this
paper, various machine learning techniques have been implemented in order to
predict Mustard Crop yield in advance from soil analysis. Data for the
experimental set-up has been collected from Department of Agriculture
Department, Talab Tillo, Jammu; comprising soil samples of different districts of
Jammu region for Mustard crop. For the current study, five supervised machine
learning techniques namely K- Nearest Neighbor (KNN), Naïve Bayes,
Multinomial Logistic Regression, Artificial Neural Network (ANN) and Random
Forest have been applied on the collected data.
Ouiam(29) et al (2022) have published that The overall goal of this study is to
define an intelligent system for predicting citrus fruit yield before the harvest
period. This system uses a machine learning algorithm trained on historical field
data combined with spectral information extracted from satellite images. To this
end, we used 5 years of historical data for a Moroccan orchard composed of 50
parcels. These data are related to climate, amount of water used for irrigation,
fertilization products by dose, phytosanitary treatment dose, parcel size, and root-
stock type on each parcel.

Swati(30) et al (2021) have considered that Crop yield prediction (CYP) is a

critical challenge for decision-makers of any kind of levels, including regional
and national decision-making. Farmers might use effective CYP model to help
them determine what to cultivate or when to grow it. The primary aim of
precision agriculture (PA) is to increase crop growth and yield thereby decreasing
production costs and emissions. Various developmental factors influence
potential yield, including soil properties, irrigation, weather, fertilizer
maintenance, and topography. CYP is critical to worldwide agricultural
production. To improve the global food security, policymakers depend on reliable
forecasts to make timely exports and imports decision. The main aim of this
paper is to predict the crop yield using machine-learning technique.

Nahina(31) et al (2022) have considered Deep learning has emerged as a potential

tool for crop yield prediction, allowing the model to automatically extract
features and learn from the datasets. Meanwhile, smart farming technology
enables the farmers to achieve maximum crop yield by extracting essential
parameters of crop growth. This systematic literature review highlights the
existing research gaps in a particular area of deep learning methodologies and
guides us in analyzing the impact of vegetation indices and environmental factors
on crop yield. To achieve the aims of this study, prior studies from 2012 to 2022
from various databases are collected and analyzed. The study focuses on the
advantages of using deep learning in crop yield prediction, the suitable remote
sensing technology based on the data acquisition requirements, and the various
features that influence crop yield prediction.

Ramesh(32) (2020) have discussed that Today Indian economy depends upon
agriculture. More than 70% of the people in India have taken it as a main
occupation, day by day for a particular crop; the formers are not getting proper
yield as well as profit due to environmental conditions like soil quality, weather,
heavy rainfall, drought, see damages, fertilizers, pesticides. The farmers not able
to produce high production, so taking the historical agricultural data records we
can predict the crop yield using machine learning techniques like Linear
regression, comparative analysis are done with decision tree, KNN algorithms,
using these to achieve the high accuracy and model performance is computed.
Dharmaraj and Anand(33) (2018) have published that The United Nations FAO
(Food and
Agriculture Organization) states that the world population would increase by
another 2 billion in 2050 while the additional land area under cultivation will
only account to 4% at that time. In such circumstance more efficient farming
practices can be attained using the recent technological advancements and
solutions to current bottlenecks in farming. A direct application of AI (Artificial
Intelligence) or machine intelligence across the farming sector could act to be an
epitome of shift in how farming is practiced today. Farming solutions which are
AI powered enables a farmer to do more with less, enhancing the quality, also
ensuring a quick GTM (go-to-market strategy) strategy for crops. The current
paper throws a vision of how the diverse sectors of agriculture can be fuelled
using AI. It also investigates the AI powered ideas in for future and the
challenges anticipated in future.

Anu(34) (2020) have published that The agriculture is one of the factors in the
growth of economy of our country. As changes in environment, it has a great
impact on production and maintenance of agriculture crops. Predicting the crop
yield help the farmers in estimating the crop’s harvest time and further storing
and selling of crops. Correctly estimating of crop yield is crucial in agriculture
field because it will help in managing crops in future. Here, Machine Learning
plays a important role. Use of Machine learning starts from growing of seeding
phase to harvesting of crops.ML incorporate various computer vision techniques
to capture the visuals of crops to analyze crops, checking weather condition to
make effecting decision. The aim of this is to reduce operational costs also.

Nishu and Anshu(35) (2021) have published that Crop yield prediction is an
important aspect of agriculture. The timely and accurate crop yield predictions
can be of great help for policy makers and farmers in planning and decision
making. Generally, statistical models are employed to predict the crop yield
which is time consuming and tedious. Emerging trends of deep learning and
machine learning has come up as a major breakthrough in the arena. Deep
learning models have the inherent ability to perform feature extraction in large
dataset thus more suitable for predictions

Rashid(36) et al (2021) has proposed the method of using weather, soli and
rainfall data. This study uses pre-processing, feature selection (FS) and prediction
model. Initially, the dataset is normalized and the necessary features are selected
by three FS models. The FS models are Lasso Based Feature Selection (LFS),
Correlation Based Feature Selection (CFS) and Mutual Information Based
Feature Selection (MIFS). Then deep learning (DL) based optimization
(Attention with Bidirectional Long Short-Term Memory (A-BiLSTM)-
MayFlyAlgorithm (MFA) is used for crop prediction. This optimization is used to
minimize the loss function; thereby achieving better prediction.
Qiao(37) et al (2021) has proposed a novel 3-D convolutional neural multikernal
network to capture hierarchical features for predicting crop yield. First, a full 3-D
convolutional neural network is constructed to maximally explore deep spatial–
spectral features from multispectral images. Then, a multikernel learning (MKL)
approach is proposed for fusion of intraimage deep spatial–spectral features and
intersample spatial consistency features. Specifically, we assign a group of
nonlinear kernels for each feature in the MKL framework, which provides a
robust way to fit features extracted from different domains. Finally, the
probability distribution of prediction results is obtained by a kernel-based
method. We evaluate the performance of the proposed method on China wheat
yield prediction and offer detailed and systematic analyses of the performance of
the proposed method.

Elavarasan and Vincent(38) (2020) has proposed to constructs a Deep Recurrent

Q-Network model which is a Recurrent Neural Network deep learning algorithm
over the Q-Learning reinforcement learning algorithm to forecast the crop yield.
The sequentially stacked layers of Recurrent Neural network is fed by the data
parameters. The Q- learning network constructs a crop yield prediction
environment based on the input parameters. A linear layer maps the Recurrent
Neural Network output values to the Q-values. The reinforcement learning agent
incorporates a combination of parametric features with the threshold that assist in
predicting crop yield. Finally, the agent receives an aggregate score for the
actions performed by minimizing the error and maximizing the forecast accuracy.
The proposed model efficiently predicts the crop yield outperforming existing
models by preserving the original data distribution with an accuracy of 93.7%.

Bali(39) et al (2021)has discussed about a deep learning-based Recurrent Neural

Network (RNN) model to predict wheat crop yield of northern region of India.
The present study also employed LSTM to unravel the vanishing gradient
problem inherent in RNN model. Experiments were conducted using 43 years
benchmark dataset and proposed model results were compared with three
machine learning models. Evidently, the results obtained from RNN-LSTM
model(RMSE: 147.12,MAE: 60.50), Artificial Neural Network(RMSE:
732.14,MAE: 623.13), Random Forest (RMSE: 540.88, MAE: 449.36) and
Multivariate Linear Regression (RMSE: 915.64,MAE: 796.07), proved the
efficacy of model. Also, predicted crop yield values were found to be more close
to true values for RNN-LSTM model proving efficiency of the proposed work.

Dhivya and varsan(40) (2021) has proposed a model which initially performs an
efficient pretraining technique by DBN for enhanced model development and
feature vector generation. This characteristic feature vector is fed as an input to
the FNN for further processing. The superiority of the proposed fuzzy neural
network-based deep belief network is analyzed by comparing it with other deep
learning algorithms. The proposed model efficiently predicts the results
outperforming the other models by preserving the original data distribution with
an accuracy of 92%.

Bi and Luning(41) (2021) has discussed a genetic algorithm (GA)-assisted deep

learning solution method for the crop yield prediction. The proposed method
consists of two phases, i.e., the global search phase and the local search phase. In
the global search phase, GA is used to search for the best initial weights of the
neural network. In the local search phase, random perturbation is added to avoid
the local optimum and vanishing gradient problems. A case study of crop yield
prediction is conducted to compare the proposed method and other gradient-
based methods. The results show that the proposed method outperforms the
gradient-based methods in terms of convergence speed and prediction accuracy.

Shidnal(42) et al (2021) has discussed the nutrient deficiency of a paddy crop.

Tensor Flow’s (Google’s Machine Learning Library) is used to build a neural
network to classify them into nitrogen, potassium, phosphorous deficiencies or
healthy independently. It is necessary to have an optimal balance between
nitrogen, potassium and phosphorous content. Tensor Flow’s model identifies the
deficiency using a set of images. The result is fed to “machine learning driven
layer” to estimate the level of deficiency on a quantitative basis. It specifically
makes use of k meansclustering algorithm. It is then evaluated through the rule-
matrix to estimate the cropland’s yield. A fair prediction of 76–77% was
observed with two tired machine learning models.

Prasad(43) et al (2021) has proposed a machine learning based random forest

(RF) algorithm was used to predicate cotton yield at three distinct times before
the actual harvest in the state of Maharashtra in India using R package. Long-
term agromet-spectral variables derived from multisensor satellites with actual
crop yield from 2001 to 2017, were used to generate co-linearity of predictor
variables and further, calibrate and validate the RF model. The performance of
the RF model was found reliable and faster in predicting the crop yield with the
most influencing variables with 69%, 60% and 39% of coefficient of
determination (R2) in the final yield for September, December and February
months, respectively using CART decision tree and recursive feature elimination
method in R programming.

Kutsenogiy(44) et al (2021) has proposed the model which was trained using
information on current agricultural practices and weather conditions of the
previous year (average monthly temperatures and precipitation) as input data, the
accuracy for wheat was 0.81, 0.87 for barley, and 0.84 on average for the crops.
To estimate the information content in the data of weather fluctuations of the
previous year and the effect of the agronomic factors of the current year on the
accuracy of the yield forecast, the model was trained in two alternative ways
using modified input data. In one case, they considered only the weather image of
the previous year based on the monthly average temperature and precipitation.
The second case accounted for the agricultural practices used, while the weather
data were reduced to just one value, the average annual temperature. The
accuracy for the crop (without distinction between barley or wheat) in the case of
considering only the weather factors of the previous year was 0.7. In the case of
accounting mainly for agricultural practices, with minimal consideration of
weather factors, the accuracy was 0.73.

Bhojani(45) et al (2020) has proposed an algorithm with new activation function

provides promising results in a shorter time with more accuracy. Sigmoid and
hyperbolic tangent activation functions are widely used in the neural network.
The activation functions play an important role in the neural network learning
algorithm. The main objective of the proposed work is to develop an amended
MLP neural network with new activation function and revised random weights
and bias values for crop yield estimation by using the different weather parameter
datasets.

Abhishek and Anu(46) (2017) has proposed a work which employed two types of
Artificial Neural Networks i.e., a Generalized Regression Neural Network
(GRNN) and a Radial Basis Function Neural Network (RBFNN) to predict the
yield of potato crops, which have been sown differently (flat and rough). Crop
parameters like leaf area index, biomass and plant height were used as input data,
while the yield of potato fields as output dataset to train and test the Neural
Networks. Both GRNN and RBNN predicted potato crop yield accurately.
However based on quick learning capability and lower spread constant (0.5), the
GRNN was found a better predictor than RBFNN. Furthermore, the rough
surface field was found more productive than flat field.

Prateek(47) et al (2019) has proposed a method which consists of training one-

dimensional crop model (DSSAT) on data generated by two dimensional model
calibrates and validates (HYDRUS-2D), that accounts for water accumulation in
the SWRT membranes. Then we used DSSAT model to find the best irrigation
schedules for maximizing crop yield with the highest plant water use efficiency
(Tambussi et al., 2007; Blum, 2009) using for the EMO methodology. The
optimization procedure minimizes water usage with the help of rainfall water and
increases corn yield prediction as much as six times compare to a non-optimized
and random irrigation schedule without any SWRT membrane. The framework
also demonstrates an integration of latest computing software and hardware
technologies synergistically to facilitate better crop production with minimal
water requirement.

Najeebullah(48) et al (2021) has proposed a study which presents an efficient

approach to predict the Rabi and Kharif crop yield using a relatively new and
robust machine learning (ML) model named random forest (RF). The standard
precipitation evaporation index (SPEI) with different time lags (e.g., 1 to 12
months) are utilized as predictive variables. The SPEI was estimated using the
climate prediction center (CPC) precipitation, and temperature dataset for the
period 1981–2015 are employed. The feasibility of the RF model is validated
against some other well-known ML models such as support vector regression
(SVR), k-nearest neighbors (K-NN), and bagged CART models. The results
showed a significant relationship between crop yields and the SPEI. The RF
model showed the highest performance with the minimum values of absolute
error measures (e.g., root mean square error (RMSE) and mean absolute error
(MAE)) in the testing phase (0.1826–0.1383) and (0.1234–0.1092) for cotton and
wheat production, respectively.

Hong(49) (2021) has discussed an innovative approach of yield forecasting using a

dynamic factor model. Based on the proposed approach, we then design an
enhanced weather index-based insurance (IBI) policy. The dynamic factor
approach is motivated by its ability to effectively summarize the information in a
large set of explanatory variables with common factors of a much lower
dimension. This makes it possible to use an extensive set of variables in crop
yield prediction without worrying about identification issues. Using both county-
level and state-level crop production data from the state of Illinois, U.S., the
empirical results show that the dynamic factor approach produces more accurate
in- and out-of-sample forecasting results compared to the classical statistical
models.

Guoqi(50) et al (2021) has proposed that the machine learning-based RFR

modelling approach can be used to implement optimal nutrient management
strategies for sustainable crop production, which is sensitive and better adapted to
environment-induced abiotic stresses. The objectives were to (1) construct
machine-learning random forest regression (RFR) models for canola yield
prediction; and (2) develop site-specific N recommendations using the RFR
modelling approach. Soil characteristics, weather, plant growth and spectral
index data collected from 2013 to 2015 were used to train the RFR models and
the 2016 data for model validation in terms of making N decisions.
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