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Abhyudit Manke
Professor Daneesh Sethna
International Relations
13th October 2023

Final Term Paper:

New Media Shaping International Conflict

Introduction:
In the age of digital connectivity, the impact of social media platforms cannot be overstated.
They have revolutionised the way we communicate, interact, and access information, giving
rise to both tremendous opportunities and profound challenges. This analytical paper embarks
on a compelling journey to unravel the intricate relationship between social media, with a
specific emphasis on Facebook, and the heart-wrenching Rohingya refugee crisis. This crisis,
marked by its sheer tragedy and complexity, has been significantly exacerbated by the
insidious role that social media plays in radicalizing populations and perpetuating dangerous
misinformation. In the pages that follow, we aim to draw attention to the undeniable fact that
social media, particularly Facebook, is far from an innocent bystander in this humanitarian
catastrophe. It has played a pivotal role in the rapid dissemination of misinformation and has
been instrumental in amplifying the radicalization of individuals and communities, leading to
untold suffering.
In the pursuit of understanding, we are confronted with a stark reality: social media has a
dark side, one that often goes unnoticed in the broader conversation. The Rohingya crisis is
but one stark illustration of this, and we must recognize that the immense potential of social
media platforms to incite violence and deepen conflicts poses a pressing challenge.

Hook:
In a world where the digital age reigns supreme, the influence of social media has reached
staggering proportions. It possesses the power to shape minds, mobilize movements, and
even alter the course of history. Yet, with this extraordinary power comes a chilling duality -
the potential to sow discord, fuel violence, and perpetuate deception. Enter the Rohingya
refugee crisis, a heart-rending saga marked by its sheer scale of suffering and complexity.
This is where the pernicious role of social media, specifically Facebook, cannot be ignored.
It's an unfortunate tale of misinformation, manipulation, and the amplification of extremism.
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Background information:
The Rohingya crisis is not just another distant news headline; it is a heart-wrenching and
ongoing tragedy unfolding at a shocking pace. Every day, thousands of Rohingya people,
men, women, and children, cross the border from Myanmar into Bangladesh. They are
fleeing a violent and systematic offensive launched by the state military against this ethnic
minority group - the Rohingya. The United Nations has reported that since August 2017, an
unfathomable 400,000 Rohingya individuals have been forced to abandon their homes in
Myanmar's Rakhine State. The stories emerging from this crisis are nothing short of
horrifying, with reports of the military engaging in acts of killing, sexual violence, and the
deliberate incineration of entire Rohingya villages. The stark evidence is etched in satellite
imagery that confirms these nightmarish reports.
Myanmar's refusal to grant access to human rights investigators has created a shroud of
uncertainty, making it impossible to assess the full extent of this catastrophe accurately. Yet,
there's no denying that it fits the textbook definition of ethnic cleansing, a term reserved for
some of the darkest chapters in history. The United Nations defines ethnic cleansing as a
purposeful policy aimed at forcibly displacing the civilian population of one ethnic or
religious group from specific geographic areas, often through violent and terror-inducing
means.
What makes Myanmar's case particularly chilling is the deliberate targeting of the Rohingya,
a Muslim minority in a predominantly Buddhist country. The military's brutal tactics have
driven tens of thousands of Rohingya to flee their homes, and many have sought refuge in
neighbouring nations, such as Malaysia, Thailand, and, predominantly, Bangladesh.
This isn't just a recent crisis; it's the latest chapter in a decades-long pattern of discrimination
that began over 50 years ago. In 1962, Myanmar, formerly known as Burma, fell under
military rule through a coup. The military dismantled the country's constitution and replaced
it with a military junta. As is often the case with dictatorships, the regime promoted a form of
extreme nationalism centred on Buddhism. When they needed a common enemy to unite the
population, they singled out the Rohingya as a perceived threat.
Tensions between the Burmese Buddhist majority and the Rohingya date back to World War
II, when the two groups supported opposing sides. The Rohingya allied with the British
colonialists, while the Buddhists largely aligned with the Japanese invaders, hoping for the
end of British rule after the war. Yet, even in contemporary Myanmar, the Rohingya minority
continues to be a vulnerable target.
Despite their long-standing presence, the government has relentlessly pushed them out,
dubiously claiming that they are illegal immigrants from Bangladesh. This campaign against
the Rohingya began in 1978 with "Operation Dragon King," a brutal crackdown that forced
approximately 200,000 Rohingya to flee to Bangladesh. Reports of violence and sexual
assault were rampant, yet, tragically, around 170,000 Rohingya eventually returned to
Myanmar.
In 1982, the government passed the Citizenship Act, recognizing 135 ethnic groups, but
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conspicuously omitting the Rohingya, effectively rendering them stateless. In 1991,

Myanmar's military launched "Operation Clean and Beautiful Nation," resulting in another
mass exodus of approximately 250,000 Rohingya to Bangladesh.
As the years passed, tensions escalated. In 2012, an alleged rape and murder incident
involving four Muslim men and a Buddhist woman in Rakhine triggered violent attacks by
Buddhist nationalists, often with the support of security forces. These attacks targeted
Muslim neighbourhoods, leaving tens of thousands of Rohingya displaced. Human Rights
Watch categorized it as an ethnic cleansing campaign.
By this point, the Rohingya were persecuted, disenfranchised, and stateless. In 2016, a
Rohingya militant group, the Arakan Rohingya Salvation Army, emerged, coordinating small-
scale attacks on border police stations. An attack on August 25, 2017, led to the deaths of 12
police officers and marked the beginning of the current crisis against Rohingya civilians.
State security forces retaliated brutally, causing around 400 deaths and the mass exodus of
some 400,000 Rohingya to Bangladesh. In the wake of the August attack, 210 villages were
razed to the ground, igniting one of the fastest-growing humanitarian crises in recent years.
Yet, shockingly, Myanmar's de facto leader and Nobel Peace Prize laureate, Aung San Suu
Kyi, has barely acknowledged these attacks. Recent reports have even suggested that the
military has planted landmines along the Bangladesh border to prevent the Rohingya from
returning. The Myanmar government has systematically driven the Rohingya out of the
country over the past five decades, stripping them of their citizenship, subjecting them to
terror, and destroying their homes, all while seeking to ensure they never return. It's a grave
injustice, and it's a crisis that demands our collective attention, compassion, and action.
(Vox, 2017)

Thesis Statement:
This paper argues that social media, with Facebook as a focal point, plays a pivotal and often
overlooked role in exacerbating the Rohingya refugee crisis, primarily by facilitating the
rapid spread of misinformation and the radicalization of individuals and communities. It
highlights the urgent need for responsible and ethical engagement with social media
platforms to address the pernicious dangers they pose, ultimately advocating for the
imperative of safeguarding humanity and contributing to a more compassionate and just
world.

Body:
To first analyse this problem I would like to talk about the Limited effects theory in mass
media and communication.
Limited Effects Theory proposed by Paul Lazarsfeld in his book The People’s Choice: How
the Voter Makes Up His Mind in a Presidential Campaign presents a new perspective that is
built upon the Hypodermic Needle Theory. It challenges the notion that the mass media can
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directly and uniformly shape individuals' beliefs and behaviours. Instead, it highlights the
importance of understanding the social and cultural contexts in which media consumption
takes place and recognizes the role of opinion leaders and existing social affiliations in
mediating the impact of mass media. It proposes the idea of a two-step flow of
communication; Opinion leaders, critical media users who are not easily manipulated, spread
information from the mass media to others, and they act as effective media influence barriers.
(Griffin, 2012)

To make use of this theory we have to understand how popular Facebook is in Myanmar.
Facebook's dramatic ascendancy in Myanmar during the early 2010s is nothing short of a
digital revolution. In 2014, Myanmar had a mere 1.2 million Facebook users; by January
2019, that number had surged to a staggering 21 million, making up nearly 40% of the
country's population. What's even more astonishing is that Facebook virtually monopolized
the social media landscape, claiming over 99% of the market share. As a cybersecurity
analyst based in Yangon succinctly put it, "Facebook is arguably the only source of
information online for the majority in Myanmar."
Several factors contributed to Facebook's unparalleled dominance. The introduction of
Facebook's "Free Basics" initiative in developing regions, coupled with strategic partnerships
with telecommunications providers such as Norway's Telenor, played a pivotal role in driving
this phenomenal expansion. Telenor's offer in 2014 allowed customers to access Facebook on
mobile devices without incurring data charges, a compelling proposition in a country where
internet connectivity was expanding but often of subpar quality. Facebook's agreements with
mobile phone manufacturers and retailers to preload the application onto Burmese mobile
devices further cemented its ubiquitous presence. The exceptional prevalence of Facebook in
Myanmar is a remarkable case study that emphasizes the platform's power as a source of
information and connectivity.
(How Activists Are Using Facebook in Myanmar for Democratic Ends, but Facebook Itself
Also Facilitated Hate Speech, 2021)
Facebook's unprecedented dominance in Myanmar raises significant ethical and social
questions. It wields tremendous influence and responsibility in shaping public narratives and
opinions. As the primary source of information for millions, it has a profound impact on the
country's political, social, and cultural landscape.
Within the complex digital landscape of Myanmar, Facebook assumes a role of paramount
importance, so much so that it has become virtually synonymous with the internet itself. In
this context, Facebook plays a critical function as the primary conduit for information and
communication. However, this close association with the platform has led to some
concerning developments.
In this environment, where people have grown heavily reliant on Facebook as their principal
source of information, influential figures like Ashin Wirathu, a prominent Buddhist monk
who advocates for the ethnic cleansing of Rohingya Muslims, have risen to prominence.
Furthermore, Facebook's algorithms tend to prioritize content that garners the most user
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engagement. Given that Facebook's revenue model hinges on data collection and advertising,
the platform has a vested interest in retaining users for as long as possible. Regrettably, this
often means that radical figures producing polarizing and incendiary content, complete with
calls to action, receive disproportionate attention. This situation perpetuates division, fuels
hate speech and keeps users returning for more.
Understanding this dynamic through the lens of Limited Effects Theory sheds light on how
media consumption in Myanmar is often driven by pre-existing beliefs. In a predominantly
Buddhist nation, content that aligns with these beliefs is favoured, resulting in the
reinforcement of a national identity built around Buddhism, often at the exclusion of minority
groups, such as the Rohingya.
In the face of these challenges, it becomes imperative to advocate for a more responsible and
ethical use of social media, especially Facebook, in Myanmar. It's not merely about
diminishing Facebook's role but about leveraging its potential for positive change. We need to
encourage a balanced media diet, promote critical thinking, and raise awareness about the
consequences of hate speech and misinformation. As global citizens, it is our collective
responsibility to ensure that platforms like Facebook contribute to a more inclusive,
compassionate, and just society, rather than perpetuating division and discrimination.
Concurrently, there existed a glaring absence of concerted efforts on Facebook's part to
control the proliferation of hate speech, misinformation, and radicalization within the
Myanmar context. These critical deficiencies were multi-faceted, collectively contributing to
a crisis of grave consequence.
First and foremost, a significant shortcoming lay in the lack of moderators and fact-checkers
proficient in the Burmese language, impairing the platform's ability to effectively identify and
moderate the dissemination of fake news and misinformation. This insufficiency not only
undermined Facebook's responsibility as a global platform but also allowed harmful content
to proliferate unchallenged.
Additionally, the platform's software limitations were acutely evident as it struggled to
comprehend the intricacies of the Burmese language. Consequently, instead of identifying
and flagging problematic content, the algorithm inadvertently amplified such material,
contributing to the escalation of hate speech and radicalization.
A further impediment was the absence of a user-friendly content reporting mechanism for
Facebook users themselves. The platform's failure to integrate languages effectively rendered
it challenging for individuals to report harmful content, leaving users helpless in the face of
escalating tensions and misinformation.
These systemic shortcomings within Facebook's operational framework not only failed the
people of Myanmar but also underscored a dire need for a more robust and responsible
approach. The imperative to address these issues is not merely a suggestion but a moral
obligation, as Facebook's actions or inactions profoundly impact the sociocultural fabric and
well-being of nations. It is high time for us to demand accountability and reform from one of
the world's most influential platforms, striving for a more compassionate and responsible
digital landscape.
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(“Why Facebook Is Losing the War on Hate Speech in Myanmar,” 2018)

Conclusion:
In summary, the Rohingya refugee crisis represents a poignant example of modern
humanitarian concerns, marred by widespread violence and the suffering of an entire
community. However, this analysis has illuminated a covert accomplice in this tragedy -
social media, with Facebook at the forefront. Rooted in the Limited Effects Theory, our
examination has unveiled how Facebook's overwhelming presence in Myanmar, coupled with
its algorithmic limitations and operational deficiencies, has amplified division and
contributed to the radicalization of various groups.
The Rohingya crisis is a stark reminder of the inherent dangers in the digital age. Only
through in-depth analysis can we hope to drive change and advocate for a more responsible
and ethical approach to these influential tools. This study underscores the imperative of
safeguarding humanity from the inadvertent consequences of unfettered social media. It is a
call to action, urging us to work towards a future where these platforms, exemplified by
Facebook, serve as catalysts for compassion, justice, and understanding in a complex world.

Works Cited:
1. Vox. (2017, September 25). The “ethnic cleansing” of Myanmar’s Rohingya
Muslims, explained [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=04axDDRVy_o
2. Griffin, E. A. (2012). A first look at communication theory.
3. How activists are using Facebook in Myanmar for democratic ends, but Facebook
itself also facilitated hate speech. (2021, June 24). LSE Southeast Asia Blog.
https://blogs.lse.ac.uk/seac/2021/06/23/how-activists-are-using-facebook-in-
myanmar-for-democratic-ends-but-facebook-itself-also-facilitated-hate-speech/
4. Why Facebook is losing the war on hate speech in Myanmar. (2018, August 15).
Reuters. https://www.reuters.com/investigates/special-report/myanmar-facebook-hate/