1

AN INTRODUCTION TO ENGINEERING

By

ALBERT I. RUGUMAYO

November 2011

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1 FROM SCHOOLTO UNIVERSITY......................................................................................................... 9

1.1 Adapting from School to University......................................................................... 9
1.1.1 Success .......................................................................................................................................... 9
1.1.2 Goal Setting .................................................................................................................................. 9
1.1.3 Strengthening your Commitment............................................................................................... 9
1.1.4 Work Hard ..................................................................................................................................10
1.1.5 Work Smart ................................................................................................................................10
1.1.6 Think Positively ..........................................................................................................................10
1.2 Academic Success Strategies .............................................................................. 11
1.2.1 Structure your Life Situation ....................................................................................................11
1.2.2 The Use of Study Groups ...........................................................................................................11
1.2.3 Use of Academic Staff .................................................................................................................11
1.2.4 Study Skills ..................................................................................................................................12
1.2.5 Time Management ......................................................................................................................12
1.3 The Nature of Learning ........................................................................................ 12
1.3.1 Information Processing and Memory .......................................................................................13
1.3.2 Determinants of Efficient Learning ..........................................................................................13
1.4 Personal Growth and Development ...................................................................... 14
1.4.1 Behavior Modification ................................................................................................................14
1.4.2 Understanding Oneself ...............................................................................................................14
1.4.3 Differences in the way people think ..........................................................................................15
2 SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY .........................................................................18
2.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 18
2.2 The Universe of Engineering ................................................................................ 19
2.3 Engineering, Technology and Engineering Science ............................................. 21
2.4 The Engineering Process ..................................................................................... 23
2.5 New Horizons and the Modern Economy ............................................................. 27
2.5.1New Horizons ................................................................................................................................27
2.6 The Main Engineering Disciplines ........................................................................ 28
2.6.1 Civil Engineering ........................................................................................................................28
2.6.2 Mechanical Engineering .............................................................................................................30
2.6.3 Electrical Engineering ................................................................................................................33
2.6.4 Chemical Engineering ................................................................................................................34
3 CREATIVE WORK METHODS .........................................................................................................39
3.1 Creativity ........................................................................................................... 39
3.2 Characteristics of creative people ...................................................................... 39
3.3 The Creative Process ........................................................................................ 40
3.4 How to Become More Creative .......................................................................... 41
3.4.1 Positive Creative Mindset ......................................................................................................42
3.4.2 An Inquisitive Mind ...............................................................................................................42
3.4.3 Not Intimidated or Constrained by existing paradigm ...........................................................42
3.4.4 Unlearn the Past .....................................................................................................................42
3.4.5 Look Beyond the Obvious .....................................................................................................42
3.4.6 Stubborn Faith- does not give up easily.................................................................................43
3.4.7 Sensitive to the Emergence of Ideas ......................................................................................43
3.5 Practicing Creativity ........................................................................................... 44
3.5.1 Example of Creative Thinking ...............................................................................................44
3.6 What this means ................................................................................................ 44
3.7 The Scientific Method ........................................................................................ 45
3.7.1 Testing Hypothesis ...............................................................................................................45
3.7.2 Common mistakes in applying the scientific method .......................................................46
3.7.3 Hypothesis Models, Theories and Laws .............................................................................46
3.7.4 Science Builds on Previous Knowledge ..............................................................................46

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3.8 Research Methodology ........................................................................................ 47

3.8.1 Classification of Research .........................................................................................................48
3.9 Ernest Nagel on the Nature and Aim of Science .........................................................................50
3.10 Scientific Method: the Traditional view and Popper’s view ....................................................51
THEORY .......................................................................................................................................................52
3.11 The Experimental Method and Procedure .......................................................... 53
3.11.1 Illustrative Experiments ......................................................................................................54
3.11.2 Experimental Investigation .................................................................................................54
3.11.3 Design ....................................................................................................................................55
3.11.4 Measurement Techniques ......................................................................................................55
3.11.5 Procedure ...............................................................................................................................57
3.11.6 Dimensional Analysis ............................................................................................................57
3.11.7 Instrumentation ......................................................................................................................58
3.11.8 Errors in Experimentation ......................................................................................................58
3.11.9 Concepts and Definitions .......................................................................................................58
3.11.10 Classification of errors and their nature ............................................................................60
3.12 The Engineering Method .................................................................................... 60
3.12.1 Project Approach .................................................................................................................61
3.12.2 Requirement – Project Identification and Appraisal .......................................................62
3.12.3 Analysis – Feasibility Study ................................................................................................62
3.12.4 Synthesis and Evaluation - Designs ....................................................................................64
3.12.5 Execution – Implementation ...............................................................................................66
References ................................................................................................................ 75
4 HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY .............................................................................75
4.1 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 76
4.2 The Beginnings of Man ........................................................................................ 76
4.2.1Tools and Fire ..............................................................................................................................76
4.2.2 Farming and the Calendar ..................................................................................................77
4.3 Classical Times .................................................................................................... 77
4.3.1 Egyptian and Mesopotamian Society .................................................................................78
4.3.2 Chinese Society ....................................................................................................................79
4.3.3 Greek Society ........................................................................................................................80
4.4 Medieval Times ................................................................................................. 85
4.4.1 Roman Society .......................................................................................................................85
4.4.2 Arab Society ..........................................................................................................................86
4.5 Renaissance, Reformation And Industrial Revolution ........................................ 88
4.5.1 First Stage of the Scientific Revolution .................................................................................88
4.5.2 The Second Stage of the Scientific Revolution .....................................................................91
4.5.3 The Microscopic World .........................................................................................................94
4.6 Industrial Revolution .......................................................................................... 98
4.6.1 Levers and Machines .............................................................................................................98
4.6.2 Work and Energy ...................................................................................................................99
4.6.3 Perpetual motion ....................................................................................................................99
4.6.4 Power ...................................................................................................................................100
4.6.5 Kinetic energy......................................................................................................................100
4.6.6 Steam Power ........................................................................................................................100
4.6.7 The Steam turbine ................................................................................................................100
4.6.8 The Internal combustion engine ..........................................................................................101
4.6.9 The Jet engine ......................................................................................................................101
4.6.10 Rocket motors ......................................................................................................................101
4.6.11 Circular Motion ...................................................................................................................101
4.7 Science and Technology Today ....................................................................... 102
4.7.1 Characteristics of Science and Technology .........................................................................102
4.7.2 The Scientist and the Engineer ............................................................................................103
4.7.3 Future Vision for the Scientist and Engineer .......................................................................104

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5 THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN UGANDA BEFORE 1900 ................105

5.3 Prologue .......................................................................................................... 105
5.4 The Period Before 1500 AD ............................................................................. 106
5.4.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................106
5.4.2 Industry ................................................................................................................................106
5.5 The Period 1500-1850 AD ............................................................................... 112
5.5.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................112
5.5.2 Industry ................................................................................................................................113
5.5.3 Transport and Communication ............................................................................................116
5.5.4 Trade ....................................................................................................................................118
5.5.5 Agriculture ...........................................................................................................................119
5.5.6 Construction ........................................................................................................................121
5.5.7 Water ...................................................................................................................................122
5.5.8 Energy..................................................................................................................................122
5.5.9 Medicine ..............................................................................................................................122
5.6 The Period 1850-1900 ..................................................................................... 123
5.6.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................123
5.6.2 Indigenous Technology .......................................................................................................124
5.6.3 Development of Science and Technology ...........................................................................126
5.7 Epilogue .......................................................................................................... 133
6 THE GROWTH OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY IN UGANDA 1900-2000 ...136
6.3 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 136
7.2 The Political and Socio – Economic Changes .................................................... 136
7.2.1 Colonial Era ...............................................................................................................................136
7.2.2 Post – Colonial Era ....................................................................................................................138
7.3 Education ........................................................................................................... 142
7.4 Agriculture .......................................................................................................... 146
7.5 Health ................................................................................................................ 151
7.6 Water Development ........................................................................................... 156
7.7 Trade and Industry ............................................................................................. 159
7.8 Transport and Communication ........................................................................... 165
7.9 Energy and Power Generation ........................................................................... 168
7.9 The Economy ..................................................................................................... 171
7.9.1 Consequences of the Expulsion of Asians and the Economic War ............................................171
7.9.2 The Economic Policy between 1981 and 1984 ........................................................................171
7.9.3 The Economy in the NRM Era ................................................................................................172
7.10 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 172
7.11 References....................................................................................................... 173
7 BLACKS IN SCIENCE, ANCIENT AND MODERN......................................................................174
7.3 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 174
7.4 The Lost Sciences of Africa ............................................................................. 174
7.4.1 Metallurgy, Lake Victoria Tanzania ....................................................................................174
7.4.2 Astronomy-Kenya ...............................................................................................................175
7.4.3 Astronomy-The Dogon of Mali ...........................................................................................175
7.4.4 Mathematics.........................................................................................................................175
7.4.5 Architecture and Engineering ..............................................................................................176
7.4.6 Navigation ...........................................................................................................................176
7.4.7 Agricultural Science ............................................................................................................177
7.4.8 Medicine ..............................................................................................................................177
7.4.9 Writing Systems ..................................................................................................................178
7.5 African Observers of the Universe: The Sirius Question .................................. 178
7.6 An Ancient Harvest on the Nile ........................................................................ 178
7.7 African Cattle Bones stir Scientific Debate ....................................................... 179
7.8 The Pyramids: Ancient Showcase of African Science and Technology ............ 179

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7.9 Great Zimbabwe: An Ancient African City-State ............................................... 180

7.10 African Experimental Aeronautics: A 2,000-Year-Old Model Glider .................. 180
7.11 Africa In the Mainstream of Mathematics History ............................................. 180
7.12 The Yoruba Number System ........................................................................... 181
7.13 Blacks Contribution to Early History of Western Medicine ................................ 181
7.14 Traditional African Watercraft: A New Look...................................................... 181
7.15 An Outline of Africa‟s Role in the History of Physics ........................................ 181
7.16 The Ancient Akan Script: A Review of Sankora, by Niangoran-Bouah ............. 182
7.17 The Ancient Manding Script ............................................................................. 182
7.18 Black Americans in the Field of Science And Invention .................................... 182
7.19 Space Science: The African-American Contribution......................................... 183
7.20 African-American Contributions to Information Technology.............................. 183
7.21 Conclusion ....................................................................................................... 183
8 GREAT SCIENTISTS .......................................................................................................................186
8.3 Leonardo Da Vinci ........................................................................................... 186
8.3.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................186
8.3.2 The Life of Leonardo da Vinci ............................................................................................186
8.3.3 Leonardo da Vinci’s Major Accomplishments ....................................................................187
8.3.4 The Seven Da Vincian Principles ........................................................................................188
8.4 Cheikh Anta Diop: An assessment of his contribution to Science and African
Cultural Identity and Ideology ................................................................................... 193
8.4.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................193
8.4.2 Biographical Background ....................................................................................................193
8.4.3 Diop’s Ideas Regarding African Identity and Culture .........................................................194
8.4.4 Contribution to Science .......................................................................................................195
9 THE ENGINEERING BODIES.............................................................................................................201
9.1 The Uganda Institution of Professional Engineers ........................................... 201
9.1.1 Background ..........................................................................................................................201
9.1.2 Objectives and Purposes .....................................................................................................201
9.1.3 Current Status ......................................................................................................................201
9.1.4 Activities of the UIPE ..........................................................................................................205
9.2 The Engineers Registration Board ................................................................... 206
9.2.1 Functions .............................................................................................................................206
9.3 The Development of the Professional Engineer in Uganda .............................. 206
9.3.1 The Accredited Academic Course .......................................................................................206
9.3.2 Initial Professional Development.........................................................................................207
9.3.3 The Professional Review .....................................................................................................210
9.3.4 Continuous Professional Development (CPD) ....................................................................210
9.3.5 The Detailed Process ...........................................................................................................211
9.4 Professionalism and Ethics .............................................................................. 213
9.4.1 Professionalism ....................................................................................................................213
9.4.2 Engineering Ethics ...............................................................................................................213
9.4.3 The Code of Ethics for Engineers (Rules of Professional Conduct) ....................................215
9.4.4 Philosophy in Engineering ...................................................................................................217
9.5 References ...................................................................................................... 222
10 THE ENGINEER IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT ................................................................223
11.1 Development and the MDGs ............................................................................ 223
11. 2 Achievement of the MDGs............................................................................... 224
11.3 The Role of the Engineer in Development ........................................................ 228
11.3.1 Client........................................................................................................................................228
11.3.2 Consultant ...............................................................................................................................229
11.3.3 Contractor ...............................................................................................................................231
11.4 The Construction Sector................................................................................... 231

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11.4.1 The Ministry of Works and Transport .................................................................................231

11.4.2 Other Construction Units ......................................................................................................232
11.4.3 Local Governments.................................................................................................................233
11.4.4 The Uganda National Roads Authority ................................................................................233
11.4.5 The Civil Aviation Authority .................................................................................................234
11.4.6 Uganda Railways Corporation ..............................................................................................234
11.4.7 National Housing and Construction Company Limited ......................................................234
11.5 The Water and Sanitation Sector ..................................................................... 235
11.5.1The Ministry of Water and Environment ..............................................................................235
10.1.1 The Directorate of Water Development ...............................................................................235
10.1.2 National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) ..........................................................236
10.1.3 The Ministry of Health ........................................................................................................236
10.2 The Energy Sector ........................................................................................... 237
10.2.1 The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development .............................................................237
10.2.2 The Rural Electrification Agency ........................................................................................238
10.2.3 The Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA) .......................................................................238
10.2.4 Uganda Electricity Transmission Company Limited (UETCL) ..........................................239
10.3 The ICT Sector ................................................................................................ 239
10.3.1 The Uganda Communications Commission (UCC).............................................................239
10.4 The Manufacturing Sector................................................................................ 240
10.4.1 The Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS) ...........................................................240
10.4.2 The Uganda Manufacturers Association (UMA) .................................................................241
10.4.3 The Uganda Small Scale Industries Association (USSIA) ..................................................241
10.5 The Agriculture Sector ..................................................................................... 242
10.5.1 The National Agricultural Research Institute (NARO) .......................................................242
10.6 Uganda National Council for Science and Technology .................................... 243
10.6.1 The Uganda Industrial Research Institute ...........................................................................244
10.7 The Different Roles of an Engineer .................................................................. 245
10.8 References ...................................................................................................... 245
11 APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY .............................................................................................247
11.1 Renewable Energy Technology ....................................................................... 247
11.1.1 Activities and achievements ................................................................................................247
11.1.2 Rural Electrification in Bangladesh .....................................................................................248
11.1.3 Photovoltaics System ...........................................................................................................248
11.1.4 Wind Energy Exploration ....................................................................................................249
11.1.5 A biomass-fired gasifier stove (IGS-2) for institutional cooking ........................................249
11.1.6 Biogas and Liquid Biofuels .................................................................................................250
11.1.7 Biogas ..................................................................................................................................250
11.1.8 Biomass gasification ............................................................................................................251
11.1.9 Liquid Biofuels ....................................................................................................................251
11.1.10 References .......................................................................................................................252
11.2 Water Technology............................................................................................ 252
11.2.1 Rainwater harvesting ...........................................................................................................252
11.2.2 Components of a domestic RWH system ............................................................................253
11.2.3 Typical domestic RWH systems ..........................................................................................253
11.2.4 Sizing the system .................................................................................................................254
11.2.5 User behavior patterns with domestic Rainwater Harvesting ..............................................255
11.2.6 Rainwater quality and health ...............................................................................................255
11.2.7 Human powered water- lifters .............................................................................................255
11.2.8 Hydraulic ram pumps ..........................................................................................................255
11.2.9 References ...........................................................................................................................256
11.3 Housing Technology ........................................................................................ 256
11.3.1 Housing technology in south Asia .......................................................................................257
11.3.2 Technology features ............................................................................................................257
11.3.3 Brick making Co-operatives ................................................................................................258

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11.3.4 Enabling housing standards .................................................................................................258

11.3.5 References ...........................................................................................................................259
11.4 Agriculture Technology .................................................................................... 259
11.4.1 The role of modern science and technologies in agriculture for poverty alleviation ...........260
11.4.2 Need for application of new technologies ...........................................................................260
11.4.3 Conventional technologies for sustaining food production .................................................260
11.4.4 Harnessing Biotechnology to Enhance Food Security .........................................................261
11.4.5 Food processing and industrial uses ....................................................................................261
11.4.6 Smallholder irrigated agriculture .........................................................................................261
11.4.7 Informal irrigation in Zambia ..............................................................................................262
11.4.8 Groundwater development. ..................................................................................................262
11.4.9 Constraints to sustainable agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa ...........................263
11.4.10 References .......................................................................................................................264
11.5 Technical Brief on Labour Based Technology .................................................. 264
11.5.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................264
11.5.2 Choice of Technology..........................................................................................................264
11.5.3 Equipment Intensive Technology ........................................................................................265
11.5.4 Labour Intensive Technology ..............................................................................................265
11.5.5 Labour Based Technology ...................................................................................................265
11.5.6 Common Misconceptions ....................................................................................................265
11.5.7 Benefits ................................................................................................................................266
11.5.8 Project Preparation ..............................................................................................................266
11.5.9 Suitability of Activities ........................................................................................................266
11.5.10 Comparison of Activities ................................................................................................267
11.5.11 Summary of Activities ....................................................................................................268
11.5.12 Project Implementation ...................................................................................................268
11.5.13 Management of the Labour Force ...................................................................................268
11.5.14 Example from Thailand ..................................................................................................269
11.5.15 References .......................................................................................................................273
11.6 Education Technology ..................................................................................... 273
11.6.1
Utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for education in Africa
273
11.6.2 Utilization of electronic and communication technology ....................................................273
11.6.3 Developing digital libraries in South Africa ........................................................................274
11.6.4 Combined use of ‘old’ and ‘new’ technologies ...................................................................274
11.6.5 Use of mobile technology ....................................................................................................275
11.6.6 Trends in ICT applications in primary and secondary schools ............................................275
11.6.7 Trends in ICT applications in non-formal education ...........................................................275
11.6.8 Can ICTs improve access to education for girls and women? .............................................275
11.6.9 References ...........................................................................................................................276
12 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE AFRICAN ENGINEER ......................277
12.1 Introduction ...................................................................................................... 277
12.2 Situational Analysis for National Development and Sustainable Development . 277
12.3 Challenges of Sustainable Development for the African Engineer ................... 278
12.4 Challenges of Engineering in Uganda .............................................................. 278
12.4.1 Introduction .........................................................................................................................278
12.4.2 Relevance of Engineering Programmes ...............................................................................278
12.4.3 Status of Research and Development Activities ..................................................................279
12.4.4 Training for Engineers .........................................................................................................279
12.4.5 Entrepreneurship ..................................................................................................................279
12.4.6 Marginalization of Domestic Firms .....................................................................................280
12.5 Building Sustainable Practices in Africa and Securing Regular Access to Work
Opportunities in Africa .............................................................................................. 280
12.5.1 Policy for Development of Local Construction Industry in Uganda by Ministry of Works,
Housing and Communications (MoWHC) ..........................................................................................280

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12.5.2 How Foreign Aid Projects have undermined the Development of Domestic Consulting
Engineering Capacities in Africa .........................................................................................................281
12.5.3 Developing of Capacity in Uganda and Africa – the Role of Member Firms, Member
Associations and GAMA .....................................................................................................................281
12.5.4 Capacity Building Initiatives by the Engineers Registration Board - Tanzania...................282
12.5.5 Quality Management and Effective Service Delivery in Consulting Services ....................283
12.5.6 Capacity Building for Consultancy in the Telecommunications Sector ..............................283
12.5.7 Marketing, Branding and Image Building for the African Consulting Engineer .................284
12.5.8 The Role of the Consulting Engineers in Waste Management in Africa .............................284
12.5.9 Other Achievements of the African Engineer ......................................................................285
12.6 Addressing the Challenges .............................................................................. 285
12.6.1 Linkages to be built between I&C and EERD Institutions ..................................................285
12.7 African Renaissance ........................................................................................ 286
12.7.1 The Role of Information and Communication Technologies in Science and Technology in
Africa 288
12.7.2 The Renaissance through Science and Technology .............................................................289
12.7.3 Science and Technology: Towards Prosperity in Africa .....................................................290
12.7.4 Lowering Infrastructure, Information and Finance Barriers ................................................291
12.7.5 Engineering and Gender Issues............................................................................................292
13.7.6 References ...........................................................................................................................294

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1 FROM SCHOOLTO UNIVERSITY

1.1 Adapting from School to University

When you join university form secondary you should have one clear objective in your
mind, which is to succeed in obtaining a good engineering degree. The Key success
factors can be considered as:

I. Effort – hard work

II. Approach – work smart
III. Attitude – positive thinking

Very able students with very good A‟ Levels or very good diplomas sometimes perform
averagely, while those seemingly less capable students perform very well and are
subsequently successful in their careers

1.1.1 Success
Success is the achievement of goals or the achievement of something desired, planned
or attempted.
This means unless you have something desired, planned or attempted, there can be no
success.
Some students lack clear goals and lack commitment towards their educational or career
goals. There is therefore a need to have
i) a Clear Educational Goal
ii) Commitment and motivation towards achieving that goal.

1.1.2 Goal Setting

This means having a specific idea of what you want to achieve in the long and short
term. For instance, if two students score 70% in a test; one is very happy and content
and decides to study less, while the other wants to put in more time to obtain above
80%. The success of either student can be measured against self imposed goals. Goals
give a person‟s life a sense of direction.
One way of doing this is by writing down your goals. Your most important goal now is to
graduate in engineering.

1.1.3 Strengthening your Commitment

Some of the strategies toward strengthening your commitment are
Clarifying your goals
You need to ask yourself why you want to achieve that goal and what will it add to the
quality of your life if you succeed. For instance the rewards and opportunities an
engineering degree can offer, which requires learning as much as you can about
engineering.
Developing a road map
A step by step road map will help you considerably in defining your intermediate goals,
which would lead to the ultimate goal of graduation in engineering.

It is commonly said that the difference between a successful person and the one who is
not so successful is that the successful person when knocked down in the face of
problems, will pick themselves up whereas the unsuccessful person will stay down. Do
not allow problems to derail you. The problem could be with a particular course, a

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lecturer, finance, a relationship or health. Do not let these problems divert you from
achieving your goal.
By strengthening your commitment, you will develop determination towards achieve your
goals. Determination is a key attribute required for achieving your goal.

You must be willing to risk failure but must passionately hate it.
You must believe in yourself that you can do it.

The real challenge after setting a goal and making it important to you is achieving the
goal. Achieving your goal requires adjustment of attitude and behavior towards achieving
that goal. Every day you need to make choices that support the achievement of your
goal.

1.1.4 Work Hard

Genius is 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration
A well known physical analogy can be used

Distance = speed x time

Completing a task requires (distance) requires (mental energy) speed and time. It all
depends on how much time you allocate your studies and this is a measure of
commitment. All this is in your control as a student.

1.1.5 Work Smart

This assumes that:
You have sufficient motivation to be an engineer and you value your education.
You have clarified your goals and you and you have developed a road map towards
achieving them.
You are not overburdened by friends or social problems
It requires that you use time profitably with your peers and your lecturers. You will find
that working in groups with your peers will enhance your academic skills significantly.

1.1.6 Think Positively

Among the negative attitudes or tendencies are
Weak commitment towards your overall goal
Unrealistic view of what is expected of engineering studies
Low self confidence
Low self worth
Unwillingness to seek help
Procrastination
Avoidance of areas of weakness or perceived unpleasantness
Reluctance of study with other students
You need to overcome these fears and attitudes in order to succeed.

You must realize that you are investing in yourself to prepare for the future and your
returns will be a direct relation to your investment in terms of time energy commitment.
Whenever you make a conscious decision to avoid learning or growing or developing for
instance avoiding a tough question or missing class you are going against and hurting
yourself.

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1.2 Academic Success Strategies

These can be based on three main approaches; i) the need to structure your life
situation ii) the use of study groups and iii) study skills and iv) the use of academic staff
and v) time management.

1.2.1 Structure your Life Situation

Once you have set your goals, there is need to structure your life situation to maximize
your time and minimize distractions and interferences in your academic study. The
demands of your time from work, commuting, family friends and other social
responsibilities should be regulated.
One such approach assumes that a student can work a minimum of 60 hours a week.
With respect to lectures it means he would require at least two hours of study for every
lecture. If you have 20 hours of lectures, it would mean you need to study a minimum of
40 hours.
Your family and friends need to know that your studies are priority number one. You may
find you have less time for friends who have taken other courses or who did not join this
campus, partly because your interests may not be so similar any more. You should take
advantage and develop new friends who can support you tremendously during your
career.

1.2.2 The Use of Study Groups

The lone approach to study may apply to secondary school although it is not very
effective anymore. Even in schools students are encouraged to study in groups. The
challenge with engineering studies is that the concepts are more complex and the
volume of work greater and the pace much faster.
Study groups have shown to enhance the performance of students considerably, lead to
more commitment by students towards their study, create more caring and supportive
relationships that often continue even after university. By being able to communicate
your ideas in a study group, you will enhance your communication skills, confidence self
esteem and enjoy the learning experience. Several students have attributed their
outstanding performance to their study groups. Furthermore, they simulate actual work
experience in the engineering world, because, practicing engineers work in groups and
consult each other. The collaborative spirit that is a result of working in groups is a
winning approach in many kinds of industry.

1.2.3 Use of Academic Staff

Most lecturers are highly specialized, but few have taken any courses on how to teach.
Students therefore have to cope with the highly varied cadre of lecturers. Some take roll
call, others give a lot of homework, others grade it. Others are friendly, others are aloof,
demanding, easygoing, skillful or inept, laid back, formal and business like.

Academic staff are very knowledgeable in their respective fields and support your
learning through lecturing, assessments, setting exams, obtaining places for industrial
training and are mentors and can give you a reference for a job or even recommend you
for a scholarship.
You need to create an impression on your lecturers about your seriousness of purpose
by avoiding bad habits such as coming late to class, sleeping or conversing in class,
leaving class early, failing to complete the homework in time. You need to be courteous
to them by addressing politely and respectfully.

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You can regularly consult them in class or their offices , where you find difficulty in your
learning.

1.2.4 Study Skills

One of the single most important rules is
Do not go for the next session in a course without mastering the material presented in
the previous class session. This is a key to academic success. Some students study
from test to test and not from lesson to lesson. The concepts in sciences, mathematics
and engineering are demanding and require a little intake at a time so as to facilitate
proper absorption and internalization of the knowledge. You need to avoid
procrastination, otherwise you create a backlog of information to be learned and in the
end it cannot be done properly.
Some lectures are very clear and some students feel they do not need to go over the
material again, forgetting that the lecturer is the one who understands it well. It is then up
to the student to master it very well till he too can give a lecture.
One of the strategies is to prepare for a lecture. By doing so you have already gained
interest In the topic and since learning is about reinforcing knowledge your learning will
be enhanced by the lecture.
You should concentrate during lectures and get back on track after being side tracked.
You need to make a conscious effort to do this, which can be enhanced by note taking
asking questions. Most engineering subjects are learnt best by solving problems than by
just studying and reading and since your objective is to master the topic, do not just do
the assignment given to you. Try to answer other problems as well.

1.2.5 Time Management

A key to success in your studies is how you regulate your time between competing
priorities. One approach is to schedule your time with a weekly plan or even on a daily
basis. Like a to do list. This is very important because it helps you keep track of your
activities. You then have to make a serious commitment towards your schedule. Include
time for extracurricular and social activities. You always need to avoid rescheduling your
study time because of other social activities. This would lead to the excuses syndrome
whereby someone specializes in giving excuses for not meeting their targets.

1.3 The Nature of Learning

Learning is a life long continuous process. We experience various types of learning at

various times in many ways. Conditioning is a basic form of learning. It is the
acquisition of fairly specific patterns of behavior in the presence of well-defined stimuli.

i) Classical Conditioning was discovered by Pavlov who found that dogs could be
trained to salivate at the sound of a bell. The reaction could be transferred to
another stimulus that would not normally produce this reaction.

ii) Operant Conditioning occurs when some desired or voluntary behavior is

rewarded or reinforced while undesired behavior is ignored or punished, for
example a rat could be trained to press a bar to release pellets of food.

Human behavior may be strongly influenced by secondary reinforcers, whose value is

learned through association with other reinforcers. Money is associated with food and
clothing is a powerful reward. Learning is much more than behaving in a certain way.

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Most learning does not involve classical or operant conditioning. We learn through direct
experiences (conditioning) or other people‟s experiences. It may also be influenced by
symbolic reinforcers like affection, compliments and attention.

1.3.1 Information Processing and Memory

We receive information from our various senses; sight, hearing, smell. Stimuli from
these senses come into our sensory registers where it is retained for a few seconds. If
nothing happens, this is forgotten. Visual information is processed very quickly, auditory
lasts longer.

Raw data that enters the sensory register must be processed for meaning. There is a
filtering process that can turn off unwanted signals. Information that we do not give
attention to is discarded and lost. The selected information enters short term memory.

Everything we know and need to think about is stored in long-term memory. Some is
verbal, visual, taste, sound and smell. The more association or indexes an item has, the
easier it will be to remember. Material in long-term memory can be forgotten because of
competing information.

Fig 1.1 Information Processing

1.3.2 Determinants of Efficient Learning

There are three main determinants:

i) Material to be learned

The more meaningful the material to be learned, the more easily it is learned.
Material that can be related to what is already known, is more likely to be
remembered than meaningless facts. The novelty of the learning process, can
also affect learning process.

ii) Psychological state of learner

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Extremely high and extremely low levels of anxiety result in poor performance.
Moderate anxiety helps.

iii) Learning Strategy

Rehearsal of material, questions, lists, organize study in different ways.

1.4 Personal Growth and Development

Resistance to change is very common attitude among human beings and even the
young ones. Most people prefer the status quo. The philosophy of Total Quality
Management espouses that no matter how good you are, we should always try to
improve our quality. At the individual level, It becomes personal total quality
management, whereby an individual always seeks to improve themselves, whatever the
circumstances. People who achieve great success like the top athletes are always
practicing to improve on their performance. They make decisions that support their
overall goal of remaining the top athlete in the particular discipline. They do not sit on
their laurels.
Positive feelings help you produce positive actions that will support you achieve your
overall goal. Negative feelings may lead you to negative actions that go against your
goal.
Sometimes the root causes of negative feelings lie in someone‟s subconscious and
there may be need of psycho analytic therapy to change the negative attitude to positive
attitude.

1.4.1 Behavior Modification

The three steps in behavior modification are as follows: i) Knowledge which means you
know what to do, ii) Commitment means you want to do it and iii) Implementation means
you do it.
Knowledge about what to do is usually readily available, commitment requires the right
strategy and avoidance of negative attitudes and Implementation requires positive
actions. Furthermore, making change requires you accept responsibility for your actions
and steer your life forward.

1.4.2 Understanding Oneself

Understanding oneself is a lifelong process and a key tool that can assist in behavior
change. There are number of useful frameworks. One is Maslow‟s Hierarchy of Needs,
which can give you an idea of what needs should be satisfied if you are to succeed in
your studies. The other is the Hermann brain dominance Instrument.
According to Maslow‟s theory, and as illustrated in Fig 1.., needs must be satisfied from
the bottom up. If a lower level need exists, you will be highly motivated to satisfy that
need. When the lower level needs are satisfied higher level needs become important
and you become motivated to meet those needs.
At the lowest level of the pyramid are physiological needs for food water air and shelter.
If these are met, you can focus on your academic work.
The second level is the safety needs, which include freedom from fear of physical and
psychological threats. A hostile classmate or even lecturer can lead to reduced
concentration on studies.

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Fig 1.2 Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs (Source: Maslow,1954)

The third level is the social need, which includes the need to belong, to be accepted and
to receive support and affection from others. These needs are usually met by family and
friends. From secondary school to university, it is a new environment and some students
have to make new friends in order to adjust.
The fourth level is the need for esteem, recognition and appreciation by others in order
to able to feel good about yourself. Recognition by peers and superiors is central for self
respect.
Self actualization is the fifth level and here an individual becomes what he is meant to
be.

1.4.3 Differences in the way people think

The Herrmann Brain dominance Model is a very useful model that explains how you
think and learn. It categorizes the way we think into four quadrants. The way we think is
closely related to the way we learn and the way we learn suggests how we should best
be taught. Furthermore, it can assist you in appreciating your own uniqueness and the
uniqueness of others.
For instance, many engineering students are likely to fall in quadrant A, whereas those
engineers in manufacturing and production show preference for Quadrant B thinking and
those in design and development show a preference for quadrant D thinking.
Hermann draws makes other observations as follows:
Differences are normal positive and creative
Appreciating and using these mental differences makes change easier to deal with
because it makes us more creative.
As we appreciate the full spectrum of mental gifts, ours and others, we can make better
choices in our lives
If those who manage others will acknowledge and honor personal preferences and give
people the chance to match their work with their preferences, they can achieve
significant gains on productivity.

There is great variability in the way people think and learn and approach problem
solving. The Four Quadrant Model of Thinking was developed by Herrmann.

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Left-Oriented Descriptors Right-Oriented Descriptors

Quadrant A Quadrant B Quadrant C Quadrant D
Factual Ordered Musical Artistic
Logical Detailed Spiritual Holistic
Rational Sequential Talkative Flexible
Theoretical Controlled Emotional Imaginative
Mathematical Conservative Empathetic Synthesizing

He found that 70% were single dominant, 60% double dominant, 30% triple dominant
and 3% are quadruple dominant. He concluded that individuals with different profiles
tend to behave in specific predictable ways with regard to time, creativity, dress, money
problem solving and intuition as shown in Fig 1.3.

Cerebral Mode Thinking Processes

LOGICAL HOLISTIC
ANALYTICAL INTUITIVE
QUANTITATIVE SYNTHESIZING
FACT BASED INTEGRATING

Left Mode Right Mode

Thinking Processes Thinking Processes

PLANNED EMOTIONAL
ORGANISED INTERPERSONAL
DETAILED FEELING BASED
SEQUENTIAL KINESTHETIC

Lumble Mode
Thinking Processes

Fig. 1.3 The whole brain model (Source: Herrmann, 1990)

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Fig. 1.4 An example of a profile chart for an engineer,(Source :Herrmann,1990)

References

1. Mugisha,H.M., How to Study, An Effective Study Guide, Archway Publications, 1992,

Mbarara, Uganda
2.Sebunya, L., Doors of Opportunity, Issues in Personal Development and Achievement,
MK Publishers 2002, Kampala, Uganda.
3. Covey, S.R., The 7 Habits of Highly Effective People, Restoring the Character Ethic,
Simon and Schuster 1999, London, UK.
4. Heller, R., Managing for Excellence, DK Publishing 2001, New York, USA
5.Landis, R.B., Studying Engineering, A Roadmap to a Rewarding Career, 2nd Edition,
Discovery Press,2000, Los Angeles CA, USA.
6. Wright, P.H., Introduction to Engineering 3rd Edition, John Wiley and Sons, 2002, New
York, USA.
7. http://www.educationau.edu.au/archives/cp/04h.htm
8. http://hsc.csu.edu.au/pro_dev/teaching_online/how_we_learn/information.html
9. http://chiron.valdosta.edu/whuitt/col/cogsys/infoproc.html
10. Maslow, A (1954). Motivation and Personality, Third Edition, Harper and Row
Publishers, New York, USA.
11. Herrman, N., The Creative Brain, Brain Books, Lake Lure, NC, 1990.

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2 SCIENCE, ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

2.1 Introduction

Science is the body of, and quest for, fundamental knowledge and understanding of all
things natural and man-made; their structure, properties, and how they behave.

Pure Science is concerned with extending this knowledge for its own sake.

Applied Science extends this knowledge for a specific purpose.

The broader definition of science includes the Social Science, which explore aspects of
human society and these include; anthropology, archaeology, economics, geography,
history, linguistics, political science and, in some contexts psychology.

Engineering is the knowledge required, and the process applied, to conceive, design,
make, build, operate, sustain, recycle or retire, something of significant technical content
for a specified purpose; - a concept, a model, a product, a device, a process, a system,
a technology.

An Engineer is a professional man with sufficient theoretical knowledge and practical

experience, to enable him take responsibility, for technical innovation.
The word 'Engineer' is derived from Latin ingeniatorem meaning one who is ingenious at
devising. It was originally for those specialized in construction of military equipment and
fortification in the modern sense with no clear distinction between the architect and the
engineer.
To be able to handle technical matters requires familiarity with economics, accountancy
and law and organizational ability especially in consultancy where economics and legal
aspects are central in the conduct of business.

Technology is an enabling package of knowledge, devices, systems, processes, and

other technologies, created for a specific purpose. The word technology is used
colloquially to describe a complete system, a capability, or a specific device.
Technology is derived from techne an art or skill and logia science or study. As a
technical noun technology means the study and a reasoned account of technical
processes.
The term is applied to any area of study which has a scientific component but which also
includes a body of practical knowledge not yet subject to theoretical analysis.

Innovation is the successful introduction of something new. In the context of the

economy it relates to something of practical use that has significant technical content
and achieves commercial success. In the context of society it relates to improvements in
the quality of life. Innovation may be wholly new or a significantly better version of
something that already exists.

The above activities, science, engineering, technology and innovation are closely
interrelated, and frequently overlap.

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The essential feature of such processes is that they enable man to transform the
physical world around himself in the following ways.

i) By increasing the efficiency of his body via tools; from small hand tools to
automatic machine tools, by giving it mobility through transport systems or
housing it in greater comfort than nature provides.

ii) By increasing the efficiency of his senses, via instruments, which enable
repeatable measurements to be made, which amplify sight and sound or
measure phenomena not directly perceivable by senses.

iii) By increasing the efficiency of his intellect via aids to memory, intelligence and
communication e.g. printing, photography, computing machines and
telecommunication systems

The above were termed the Extension of Man by the great British scientist J.D Bernal
(1970).

A scientist looks at the world and tries to explain what he sees. An engineer looks at the
world and tries to provide what is missing.

2.2 The Universe of Engineering

The Universe of Engineering is a term used and reflects the huge and growing extent of
activities in which engineering is practiced by engineers and many others both within
and without the profession; and its continuing expansion into new fields of activity. The
present scope of the engineering profession is very much greater than is generally
recognized. This can be appreciated better by considering the engineering disciplines
and applications to everyday life.

A. The Disciplines
I. Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, Bio-sciences and Materials Science

These are fundamental studies, knowledge and understanding of disciplines in applied

mathematics and applied science.

II. Civil Engineering including Structural Engineering and Building Services

These are engineering disciplines associated with the creation, improvement and
maintenance of both the built and natural environment.

III. Mechanical Engineering and Aerospace, Marine and Agricultural

Engineering

These are engineering disciplines associated with machines and motion.

IV. Electrical Engineering including Power Generation and Transmission

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These are engineering disciplines associated with the generation, transmission and,
distribution and application of electrical power.

V. Chemical Engineering and Mining, Oil, Gas and Nuclear Engineering

These are engineering disciplines associated with the process of natural and synthetic
materials, liquids and gases.

VI. Electronics Engineering including Communications, Computing and

Control Engineering and the field of IT

These are the hardware and software engineering disciplines associated with
electronics, photonics, and their application in fields such as communications, computing
and control. The disciplines associated with Information Technology including the
collection, processing and distribution of information.

VII. Medical Engineering and Bio-Engineering

These are disciplines involved in developing products and systems to diagnose, monitor
support and treat patients.

B. The Applications

I. Healthcare and Social

Services and products to improve the quality-of-life of individuals and groups in society.
This includes medical pharmaceutical systems, supplies and services.

II. Leisure and Entertainment

Services and products for entertainment, cultural, social and sporting pursuits.

III. Education

Services and products for school, college and university-based education together with
distance-learning, vocational and lifelong learning.

IV. Commerce, Trade and Finance

All systems and services for the local and international trade in goods and finance. This
includes the retail trade, distribution, banking, insurance service and electronic
commerce.

V. Communications and IT

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The creation, processing, management and distribution, or information by physical

media or by broadcast and by communications network. Voice, video and information
transmission systems using satellite, radio and cable.

VI. Defence and Security

Systems, services and products for the provision of national defence and security on a
world-wide scale. Civil security and emergency services. Private and commercial
security services and products.

VII. Transport

The mobile, but not the built, element of transport networks together with the supporting
fixed installations. Transport includes personal, commercial and public vehicles for air,
sea and land.

VIII. Agriculture and Food

Farms, process plant and services for livestock, crops and other natural or synthetic
ingredients that are processed into food and drink.

IX. Engineered Materials

Process plant and services developing and producing materials such as plastics for
direct application or further processing into products and systems. The field includes
advanced materials for pharmaceutical, human implants, electronic/photonic, aerospace
and similar demanding applications.

X. Energy and Natural Resources

Plant, systems and services for:

a) The generation and distribution of electrical energy, oil gas and other fuels
b) Acquiring, processing and distributing water and liquid wastes
c) Acquiring, processing and distributing minerals and raw materials.

XI. Built Environment

All civil construction, planning and services including private, public and commercial
buildings, factories, road and rail networks, harbours, waterways, airports and public
spaces.

2.3 Engineering, Technology and Engineering Science

Engineering is a verb and as an activity is the practice of organizing the design and
construction of any artifice, which transforms the physical world to meet some

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recognized need We do this by increasing the efficiency a) of our body b) of our senses
c) of our intellect.
i) Product Technologies
An engineer can make use of a number of different technologies in pursuit of his aim.
Examples of avenue a) are: machine tool technology, automobile technology; examples
of avenue b) are: various instrument technologies metrology and avenue c) are:
technologies of printing photography and computing. Collectively these can be regarded
as Product Technologies. Product technologies can remain constant and unchanged for
decades and fall into disuse when some totally different technology arises which serves
the need better.

ii)Materials Technologies
In practice we have a number of technologies based on materials needed for these
product technologies. These include iron, steel, oil, coal and rubber, ceramics.
Technology is a word signifying a body of knowledge associated with a particular
industrial activity.

Technologies are more than a mere collection of sophisticated rules of thumb. Craft and
Technics are based on rules of thumb. Once research has explained why such rules are
effective, by discovering unifying principles, for a limited class of phenomena, they
become well-grounded rational rules; a technology is said to have appeared. When
information covering a broader class of phenomena can be organized into a
comprehensive body of theory using unifying concepts principles and formulae,
something else is born. Some common principles have been found within technologies
of metals, ceramics, plastics etc.

There are a large number of bodies of knowledge concerned with fundamental principles
underpinning various technologies. Apart from properties of materials we have strength
of materials, fluid mechanics, engineering thermodynamics, mechanics of machines.
These are engineering sciences. They may or may not be linked to associated sciences
for instance engineering thermodynamics, but there is little in common between the
strength of materials at macroscopic level and what the solid state physicist has
obtained at the microscopic level or even mechanics of machines and relativistic
mechanics.
A combination of engineering sciences, materials sciences, product technologies
produces an appropriate engineering discipline. For instance civil engineering will
include concrete, timber and iron and steel; materials technologies and bridge, roads
and buildings; product technlogies as well fluid mechanics, strength of materials, theory
of structures, geotechnics, engineering mathematics as engineering sciences. There are
several cross cutting courses which are appear in a number of disciplines for instance
fluid mechanics is taken in civil, mechanical and chemical engineering.
There are also support disciplines that are required in the development of materials and
product technologies. These include, engineering drawing, communication skills, ICT,
law, finance, economics, management, ethics, sociology and development studies.
These relationships have been demonstrated in Fig 2.1.
Engineering education involves the mastery of the appropriate discipline, civil,
mechanical, electrical or chemical engineering and training in the support disciplines.
Postgraduate study covers the specialized technical knowledge in the particular broader
discipline, for instance; power engineering (electrical engineering), water resources
engineering (civil engineering), production engineering (mechanical engineering) and
process engineering (chemical engineering). Research provides new technologies, new

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processes and new managemnt strategies and with ongoing research, there are always
new questions that need to be addressed.thus stimumulating futther research and
generating knew knowledge.
Better in terms of labour cost, material cost, energy cost or with less deleterious effect
on environment and health of population. A change in technology is associated with an
invention or innovation, rather than research, although supporting research is required to
bring an invention or innovation to fruition.
Engineering sciences differ from science proper in the way it is appropriate to ask
whether their theories are true or false. They need only to be accurate for design
purposes; sometimes considered as a rule of thumb, and uses a factor of safety. A
theory can be of great practical use yet inadequate from the scientific point of view. For
example, Nuclear Power stations are designed based on the crude model of the atom.
This does not mean it is the best model which science can formulate. Successful
practice does not by itself validate a theory.

One cannot do science without knowing science because science is knowledge. One
can do engineering or technology, without knowing engineering science, because
engineering and technology are about making things. Practical knowledge can co-exist
with theoretical ignorance and theoretical knowledge with practical ineptitude. Therefore
practice alone cannot be an adequate test of the truth of a theory.
The level of approximation in engineering or technology would not be applicable to
science, because the scientist often works in a controlled environment from which he
can formulate his theories. If his results are to be extrapolated to the real world, a factor
of safety would have to be introduced.
Science and engineering progress after previous hypotheses have been disproved. The
consequences of a wrong scientific hypothesis may remain in the laboratory, while the
consequences of a wrong engineering hypothesis may produce catastropihic results
and are subject to intense media interest, because the results are visible; for instance, a
bridge collapse.

2.4 The Engineering Process

As mentioned in Section 2.1, Engineering is described as “the knowledge required, and
the process applied, to conceive, design…” This implies two distinct components to
engineering; knowledge, and process.
Engineering Knowledge: is the growing body of facts, experience and skills in science,
engineering and technology disciplines; coupled with an understanding of the fields of
application.
It is the “Know What”.
It is mainly “experience-based” knowledge, which is more difficult to describe and
communicate than “codified knowledge” because it must be put in the context of an
application.
Engineering knowledge ranges from the more traditional such as civil, mechanical,
electrical, chemical, automotive, aeronautical, to the newer such as, electronic,
communications, medical, bio-technical. More are being added to these regularly

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ENGINEERING SCIENCES PRODUCT TECHNOLOGIES

Machine Tools
Thermodynamics
Automobiles
Fluid Mechanics Aircraft
Strength of Materials Printing Systems
BASIC SCIENCES
Radio and Television
Engineering Geology
Physics Mobile Phone
Soil Mechanics Computer Systems
Chemistry Rock Mechanics Roads and Bridges
Buildings
Biology Theory of Structures Irrigation Systems
Applied Mechanics Ships
Mathematics Agricultural Machinery
Materials Science
Power Plants
Surveying and Geomatics Water and Waste
Treatment Plants
Aerodynamics
Measuring Equipment
Engineering Mathematics Pumps and Turbines
SUPPORT DISCIPLINES
Mechanics of Machines Robots
Internet and Wireless
ICT Metrology Nuclear Plants
Engineering Manufacturing Engineering Medical Equipment
Drawing Pharmaceuticals
Control Theory
Economics
Chemical Engineering
Sociology
Biochemical Engineering
Law MATERIALS TECHNOLOGIES
Environmental Engineering
Ethics
Electronics (Digital and Iron and Steel
Management Analogue) Aluminium
Finance Electrical Machines Oil and Gas
Development Uranium
Power Engineering
Studies Rubber
Telecommunications
Paper
Engineering
Ceramics
Micro Electronics Glass
Robotics Concrete
Geotextiles
Nuclear Engineering
Food
Medical Engineering
Plastics
Nanotechnology Biomass
Electricity and Magnetism Timber
Copper
Electrical Circuit Theory
Water

Fig 2.1 Classification of Science, Engineering and Technology

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Engineering Process: is the creative process which applies knowledge and .

It is the “Know How”.
It requires knowledge and understanding of the underlying science, engineering, and
constraints, of the context in which it is being practiced, and special skills, both taught
and gained by experience, to make it happen. It requires the exercise of judgment.
Engineering Process is practiced in all engineering activity, from concept and design, to
operation and maintenance, to a greater degree in the former than the latter.

To Engineer is the verb describing this process. It does not exist in other languages. It is
defined as “to make things happen”, using knowledge and experience. It is a
multidisciplinary activity, requiring the capability among other things, to manage people
with diverse knowledge and skills. It calls for the capability to choose solutions from
imperfect options, to create order out of disorder.

The Engineering Professors Conference (UK) report “Quality in Engineering” produced

in July 1989, gives a comprehensive list of engineering processes, comparing them with
the corresponding science processes. It is reproduced here in its entirety.

Key Engineering Processes Key Scientific Processes

Discovery (mainly by controlled

Invention, design, production.
experimentation).
Analysis, generalization and synthesis of
Analysis and synthesis of designs.
hypothesis.
Holism, involving the integration of many
Reductionism, involving the isolation and
competing demands, theories, data and
definition of distinct concepts.
ideas.
Making more or less value-free
Activities always value-laden.
statements.
The search for, and theorizing about,
The search for and theorizing about
processes, (e.g., control, information,
causes, (e.g., gravity, electromagnetism).
networking).
Pursuit of sufficient accuracy in modeling
Pursuit of accuracy in modeling.
to achieve success.
Reaching good decisions based on Drawing correct conclusions based on
incomplete data and approximate models. good theories and accurate data.
Design, construction, test, planning, quality
assurance, problem-solving, decision-
Experimental and logical skills.
making, interpersonal, communication
skills.
Trying to ensure, by subsequent action, Using predictions that turn out to be
that even poor decisions turn out to be incorrect to falsify or improve the theories
successful. on which they were based.

In short, the Engineering Process is about responding to a requirement and involves:

 Analysis
 Synthesis
 Evaluation
 Execution

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which can be shown as Fig 2.2

iteration

REQUIREMENT ANALYSIS SYNTHESIS AND EXECUTION

EVALUATION

RESOURCES KNOWLEDGE
experience

Fig. 2.2 The Engineering Process

The process of analysis, synthesis, evaluation and execution are generic to many
creative and problem-solving activities. The particular attributes that relate this model to
an “engineering process” comprise the contents of the knowledge base, the resources,
skills and “technical” domains in which the process is applied. An engineering process
generally works to meet a requirement within constraints such as time, cost or a
performance envelope. These constraints influence each of the four process steps and
often require iterative actions to refine a solution.
The engineering process is about decisions and optimised solutions as opposed to
conclusions.
It should be noted that engineers and others who are well practiced in the skills acquired
for the engineering process, particularly project management are well equipped and
experienced for senior management posts in many fields.
In many developed countries, nearly 50% of the Gross Domestic Product is dependant
on engineering related industries, which design new or better products, devices,
systems, technologies and manufacturing processes. These include the following:

 Aerospace and Defence

 Automobiles
 Chemicals
 Construction and Building Materials

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 Diversified Industries
 Electricity
 Electronic and Electrical Equipment
 Food Producers and Processors
 Forestry and Paper
 Gas Distribution
 Household Goods and Textiles
 Information technology Hardware
 Mining
 Oil and Gas
 Packaging
 Pharmaceuticals
 Software and Computer Services
 Steel and other Materials
 Telecommunication Services
 Tobacco
 Transport
 Water

2.5 New Horizons and the Modern Economy

The term “Modern Economy” was and continues to be created by engineering. That this
is so needs to be more widely known, written and spoken about. It is also important to
make understood that the activities of the so-called “older economy” embrace almost
immediately new knowledge and technology as it becomes available which results in
further new technology. The two are blended together, particularly to improve
productivity.
It is essential that the Engineering Institutions are aware of what is going on at the
frontiers of knowledge, the New Horizons. An up to date list may be of little value,
nevertheless the following has been offered.

2.5.1New Horizons

Active noise control and active vibration control

Adaptive systems and controls, e.g. genetic algorithms
Advanced computer technology, e.g. fault tolerant architectures
Artificial Intelligence and Knowledge-based Systems
Bio-engineering
Biomaterials
Computer-based and networked learning and training systems
Data compression, error recovery and data encoding/security
Data warehouses, search algorithms and knowledge extraction
Diagnostic sensors
Digital broadcast
Digital signal processing
DNA drugs
Electronic materials, e.g. III-V compounds like Gallium Nitride
Energy conversion, e.g. solid polymer electrolyte batteries, fuel-cells

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Flat screen displays, e.g. light-emitting polymers

GPS Navigation and Geographic Information Systems
Handwriting recognition
Home of the future
Imaging, processing and recognition
Integrated transport systems
Language translation-and text analysis for meaning
Laser-based machining and laser-based surgery
Media technology, including engineering for the performing arts
Medical engineering e.g. Minimally invasive surgery
Micro-Electromechanical Systems (MEMS)
Molecular engineering
Nanotechnology
Personal and mobile communications, e.g. 3rd Generations Mobile
Photonics including semiconductor lasers, and fibre-optic technologies
Product coding and product tracking, e.g. radio frequency “RFID”
Robotics
Simulation and dynamic models, e.g. Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD)
Software engineering including automatic code generation
Sound and vision integration
Space engineering
Speech recognition
Stereo-lithography and rapid prototyping technologies

2.6 The Main Engineering Disciplines

There is need to mention just some of the major disciplines in the main areas of
engineering. These relate to civil, mechanical, electrical and chemical engineering and
are outlined below.

2.6.1 Civil Engineering

i) Environmental and Water Resources

Environmental engineers are concerned with the provision of essential services, such as
safe drinking water and sanitation, and the sustainable management of human and
industrial wastes. The environment must be protected from pollution and from over
exploitation of water resources. Society requires protection from floods and droughts.
Where environmental damage occurs, appropriate clean up is required, and problems
range from local pollution to impacts on global climate. As an environmental engineer,
you could face the challenge of managing rivers, providing emergency water supplies for
refugees, harnessing microbial processes to treat human wastes, or providing cost-
effective clean-up of contaminated land.

ii) Geotechnics

Will it stand or fall? Everything that we construct, whether it be a skyscraper, bridge,

dam or tunnel, involves the ground for support. Geotechnical engineers work with the

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fascinating and infinitely varied range of materials known as soils and rocks which
provide this support. Consequently they have a pivotal role in civil engineering design.
Future development and renewal of our ageing infrastructure will involve considerable
subterranean construction. This will stretch our present capabilities and require new
innovations. Global warming will certainly affect us but in what way and by how much?
There are interesting times ahead for future geotechnical engineers.

iv) Hydraulics

Hydraulic Engineering is about predicting and controlling the manner of fluid flows. This
includes pipe flows, open channel flows such as rivers and estuaries, many aspects of
coastal engineering as well as offshore of ocean engineering. At one end of this
spectrum you might be concerned with the design of gates or barriers. At the other, you
might be defining the slamming forces associated with the impact of an extreme wave
(with heights as much as 10m) on an offshore production platform. In both cases, the
consequences of failure can be catastrophic with the success or otherwise of the design
being largely dependent upon the fluid mechanics.

v) Structures

Structural Engineering is about waging an ongoing battle with the forces of Nature. First
there is gravity, as buildings need to support their own weight, as well as the weight of
the people and facilities they host. Then there is wind, especially important in super-tall
structures such as the planned Shanghai World Financial Centre or the existing
Petronas Twin Towers (1,463ft). As a civil engineer, you could develop innovations such
as space frames, aerodynamic walling, or even intelligent elevators to push the
challenge even higher. However did you think about earthquakes and hurricanes? The
battle is not over yet.

vi) Transportation

Transportation engineering looks at how we move people and goods. Sounds simple?
Well, just take a look around. In fact transport poses some of the most difficult problems
facing our society. How can we relieve the congestion in our town centers? What
should we do to reduce the toll of death and injury on our roads? How can we reduce
the air pollution caused by traffic, and the impact of transport activity on global warming?
As a Civil Engineer you will not only construct transport systems but also analyze how
they are used by individuals and businesses and help devise solutions that increase
their efficiency and safety, whilst protecting the environment. Who knows, you may even
discover how to make trains run on time!

vii) Construction

In engineering, ideas do not remain in the head or on a computer, or on paper. They

become reality. Civil Engineers and Environmental Engineers create the world we live in
out of the resources we can extract from nature. To construct something, the engineer
has to understand the materials being used, the way things fit together, and the way
something behaves before it is finished. Decisions have to be made about how to
construct what has been designed. Questions like which bit needs to be constructed
first; what should we do last; is it better to build it somewhere else and bring it here
finished?

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viii) Design

A key activity of most civil and environmental engineers is the design of engineering
systems. These may be buildings, dams, bridges, highways, pipes, water supply and
numerous others. Design is distinguished from analysis in that it is 'open-ended'. There
is no right or wrong solution, only better or worse. Design requires all the skills of the
civil engineer including creativity, problem solving, lateral thinking, analysis, buildability
and cost effectiveness.

ix) Analysis

All civil and environmental engineers need to become skilled at analysis. It involves
gaining a detailed understanding of the engineering system concerned and then being
able to predict mathematically its performance in use. Analysis can be distinguished
from design in that solutions tend to be either right or wrong. Analysis may be carried
out by hand calculation or, for more complex situations, by computer. Computer tools
may be industry standard or developed by the individual engineer themselves.

2.6.2 Mechanical Engineering

i) Control Theory

Automatic control involves control of physical parameters such as the temperature of a

room, the speed of a car (cruise control), the operation of machines in a complex
automated manufacturing plant, the motion of robots that deliver meals in a hospital and
the flight of an unmanned space ship. Each of these systems must be controlled to user
defined performance specifications and, when set to automatic mode, performs its
operation with no or minimum human intervention. This is done by using measurements
obtained by different sensors and using the information for feedback to adjust the
controlled variable to the desired level.
The design of controllers for such systems and the various techniques used are
discussed in a senior level required course in control theory. In addition to the theory
discussed in class, students get hands-on experience by designing controllers for
physical systems and implementing them in the laboratory.

ii) Design

The objective of mechanical engineering design is to bring together most of the specialty
fields for the purpose of creating a useful product/process for society. The design
engineer must be knowledgeable in basic sciences and mathematics as well as
engineering. The goal of the design process is to generate a number of ideas that will
allow for the production of a product or creation of a useful process. To generate these
ideas the design engineer must have a strong background in manufacturing, computers
and modern materials. In summary the design engineer of today and tomorrow is a
multi-faceted professional dedicated to the demands of society and the environment
through the creative process.

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x) Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Mechanics is the study of how fluids (both liquids and gases) flow. Some of the
obvious problems that involve fluid dynamics are the study of how air flows over the
wings of airplanes causing them to fly, how strong a pump is required to push water
through a system of pipes and how fast a boat will move through the water.

Fluid Mechanics, however, is also involved in the study of problems in which the role of
fluid flow is less obvious. The cooling of computer chips and car engines involves the
flow of fluids which carry the heat away. Lubrication involves the presence of a thin liquid
layer (a small amount of oil for instance) that greatly reduces friction and can eliminate
squeaks in door hinges, make wheels turn more easily and prevent engine parts from
rubbing each other into destruction.

The process of manufacturing things out of melted metal obviously involves the study of
how liquid metals flow. Melted glasses and plastics are also examples of fluids whose
flow often needs to be understood in order to design manufacturing processes.

xi) Heat Transfer and Thermodynamics

Heat Transfer is the study of how heat is transmitted from place to place. We are all
familiar with the fact heat does move: a metal bar that is heated at one end will become
warm at the opposite end as the heat flows from one end to the other. This is an
example of conduction heat transfer which is the study of how heat moves through
stationary objects.

Heat can also be carried along in a fluid. Before air conditioning, people used to cool
themselves by placing a fan behind an ice cube and blowing cold air on themselves. In
this case the air, having been cooled by the ice, carries heat away from our skins as it
moves by us. The faster the air moves the more heat will be carried away - this effect is
responsible for the "wind chill factor" as well. If the wind is blowing we get colder than if it
is not. This type of heat transfer is called convection, and since it relies on fluid flow it is
closely related to fluid dynamics.

Finally heat can be radiated by thermal radiation. Standing in sunlight one can feel the
sun's warmth even though the sun is millions of miles away and separated from us by a
vacuum. There is no air or water in space to carry the heat to the earth, but the sun's
thermal radiation reaches us nonetheless. This is an example of radiative heat transfer.

Heat transfer has a huge number of applications. Engines must be cooled in order to
function properly, houses and buildings must be kept warm in the winter and cool in the
summer, air and ocean currents are strongly affected by heat, mammals must maintain
constant temperature to survive, heat is required to melt metals and plastics for
manufacturing, power generators usually operate by heating water to generate steam
etc...

Thermodynamics is that branch of physics which deals with energy and the natural laws
governing its conservation and transformation. The First Law tells us that energy can
neither be created nor destroyed, only transformed from one type into another. In
elementary courses, the focus is on the conversion of thermal energy (heat) into
mechanical energy (work). It turns out that the continuous transformation of heat into

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work is tightly restricted by the Second Law, but the reverse process is not constrained
at all. We can easily waste as much work as we wish, transforming it into heat by means
of friction, but the much more useful conversion of heat to work is subject to a maximum
conversion efficiency, much less than 100%. The implications of this unfortunate natural
law -- the Second Law of thermodynamics -- on the use and consumption of various
fuels are enormous

xii) Manufacturing

Manufacturing can be defined as the transformation of raw materials into useful products
through the use of the easiest and least-expensive methods. It is not enough, therefore,
to process some raw materials and obtain the desired product. It is, in fact, of major
importance to achieve that goal through employing the easiest, fastest, and most
efficient methods. If less efficient techniques are used, the production cost of the
manufactured part will be high, and the part will not be as competitive as similar parts
produced by other manufacturers. Also, the production time should be as short as
possible to enable capturing a larger market share.

The function of a manufacturing engineer is, therefore, to determine and define the
equipment, tools, and processes required to convert the design of the desired product
into reality in an efficient manner. In other words, it is the engineer's task to find out the
most appropriate, optimal combination of machinery, materials, and methods needed to
achieve an economical and trouble-free production. Thus, a manufacturing engineer
must have a strong background in materials and up-to-date machinery as well as the
ability to develop analytical solutions and alternatives for the open-ended problems
experienced in manufacturing. This is in addition to having a sound knowledge of the
theoretical and practical aspects of the various manufacturing methods

xiii) Material Science

Materials science is the study of materials. All products must be made of some kind of
material. In order to choose the correct material for the product one is designing or
manufacturing one must know what materials are available and what their different
properties are.

In addition to learning about existing materials, materials science engineers seek to

develop new materials. It is often the case that innovative new products are really
products that had been conceived long ago, but were impractical because the materials
available were inadequate.

New dielectric materials make computers run faster. New stronger lighter materials
make wind surfers possible and tennis racquets better. Car doors are now dent resistant,
fiber optics make communications faster and the space shuttle does not burn up when it
re-enters the atmosphere. All of these things are direct results of improvements in
materials science

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xiv) Solid Mechanics

In many cases a mechanical engineer has to design products with an optimum balance
of weight, cost, and reliability, while ensuring the product will not deflect too much or
break apart. One tool mechanical engineers have at their disposal is the important area
of solid mechanics, which is concerned with the study of motion, deflection, stress,
strain, and failure of machines and structures. Further complicating this study is the
variety of environmental conditions including variations of temperature and humidity and
corrosive environments which machines or structures must withstand.

For example, composite materials are used in the design of space craft because of
these materials' high strength to weight ratio. These composite structures must be
engineered to ensure they will not fail. Complicating the problem is the great variation in
the temperature the vehicle will endure. To design this structure, a mechanical engineer
would have to use experimental and analytical (pen and paper) methods.

There are several tools that mechanical engineers use in solid mechanics. These
methods fall into two groups, experimental and analytic. Typical experimental methods
include: interferometry; strain gage analysis; photo elasticity; and cyclic loading over a
long period of time. Typical analytic methods include: finite element analysis, boundary
element analysis; elasticity methods; and strength of materials methods.

2.6.3 Electrical Engineering

i) Telecommunications
This rapidly growing area deals with the processing and transmission of both analog and
digital information. It encompasses such popular and diverse applications as telephone
systems, computer networks and the Internet, wireless and satellite communications,
radar and sonar, television and video. In broad terms, the challenge is the optimal
design and utilization of communication links and networks: how to accommodate as
many users as possible, transmitting as much information as possible, with the least
possible delay in signal processing.

ii) Computer Engineering

Computer chips are enhancing systems that previously were completely mechanical or
electromechanical. Today, embedded computer chips are found in such diverse places
as antilock brake systems, missile guidance systems, and surgical equipment. They are
found in everyday household items such as washing machines, toasters, cordless
telephones, and even rechargeable batteries. With the continuing cost reductions of
digital hardware this trend can only accelerate; we have already reached the point where
computer chips as used in everyday devices far outnumber the computer chips found on
every desktop computer in the world. The inclusion of low-power, lightweight
microprocessors in devices makes possible applications that were impossible when a
computer took up tens of cubic feet of space and consumed kilowatts of electrical power-
-for example, it is hard to imagine the usefulness of a global positioning system that
weighs several hundred pounds.

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iii) Electrophysics
The electrophysics area covers a broad range of subjects and overlaps considerably
with a number of the other areas described in this section. Topics generally include all
devices with significant (quasi-) static electric or magnetic fields, systems which
transport electromagnetic waves over long distances, and any electrical source or other
devices where the sizes of the components are the same order of magnitude as the
wavelength of the electromagnetic signals handled by the device. High frequency (fast)
systems and devices that are fairly large typically fall into the latter category.

Specific devices, which are designed and analyzed by electrophysicists, include lasers,
fiber optic devices, antennas and microwave sources. Examples of these devices
include microwave ovens, motion detectors, cellular telephones, and CD players

iv) Microelectronics
The invention of the transistor and the subsequent incorporation of millions, soon
billions, of transistors into integrated circuits spawned our information age. Integrated
circuits of ever increasing capability and variety have revolutionized almost every area of
technology: from computers and communications to automobiles and appliances. Thus,
microelectronics, which encompasses the physics of semiconductor devices, and the
design, layout, and fabrication of integrated circuits,

v) Power Systems
This area encompasses the generation, distribution and control of electric power. Power
systems include electromechanical transducers, motors, generators and transformers.
Key technical challenges are the stability of power systems, possible new sources of
power (e.g., fusion energy) and emerging technologies such as magnetically levitated
trains and the use of high-temperature superconductors in electrical machinery. This is
fundamental to electrical engineering.

vi) Controls
The area of control systems is concerned with the principles and technical means for
controlling the behavior of other systems. From the simple thermostat in a home furnace,
the computer controls in a steel mill, to the autopilot in modern jet aircraft and space
vehicles, a central tenet of control is measuring the behavior of the system to determine
the departure from some desired behavior, and then altering/adjusting the system
inputs/controls to bring the actual behavior close to the desired behavior. his
fundamental process of FEEDBACK is key to the successful operation of an immense
variety of both engineered and natural systems.

2.6.4 Chemical Engineering

Chemical Engineering is concerned with the design and operation of processes for
making a wide range of products on which everyone‟s standard of living depends. These
include food, fuels, medicines, plastics and the basic materials for high technology

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industries. Once a chemical, biological or physical process has been successfully

accomplished on the laboratory scale, professional engineering skills are required to
translate it into industrial practice which is safe, economically viable and environmentally
acceptable.

Chemical engineers build a bridge between science and manufacturing, applying the
principles of chemistry and engineering to solve problems involving the production or
use of chemicals. They design equipment and develop processes for large-scale
chemical manufacturing, plan and test methods of manufacturing products and treating
by-products, and supervise production. Chemical engineers also work in a variety of
manufacturing industries other than chemical manufacturing, such as those producing
electronics, photographic equipment, clothing, and pulp and paper. They also work in the
healthcare, biotechnology, and business services industries.

The chemical engineer applies the basic principles of chemistry, physics, and
mathematics to the safe and efficient development of such useful industrial processes
and products as petroleum refinement, paints, electronic components, and
biotechnology. Chemical engineers are prepared for positions in the operation,
development, design, construction, and management of chemical, environmental, life-
science, materials and other industries which subject raw materials to chemical and
physical changes to produce desirable products, as well as positions in research
institutions and government.
Chemical and Process Engineering deals with processes in which materials experience
a physical, chemical or biochemical change on industrial scale, transforming raw
material into desirable, valuable and profitable products. Chemical and Process
Engineers are involved in the development and operation of industrial sectors such as
Sugar, Glass, Cement, Pharmaceutical products, Fertilizer, Plant extracts, Pulp & Paper,
Petroleum refining, Paint & Dyestuffs, Ceramics, plastics, Rubber, Textiles, Soap, Food
products, Beverages, Mineral processing, Pollution control, etc.

Physical Reaction Separation

Raw Material process Final Product

Recycle

Fig.2.4: A typical model for a chemical process plant

i) Chemical Process Engineering

The course aims to develop problem solving skills and provide strategies in dealing with
practical engineering design problems. The student is acquainted with principles that
provide grounding in mainstream core Chemical Engineering subjects such as material
and energy balances, thermodynamics, heat transfer, mass transfer and fluid flow.
Material and Energy Balance includes stoichiometry, flow sheeting, recycle loops,
methods for solving material balances and degrees of freedom analysis for systematic
solving of balances

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ii) Chemical Reaction Engineering

Many chemical processes involve complex reactions among the various chemicals used.
This course enables students acquire the knowledge and expertise in improving on
chemical production processes through design of reactors and better catalysts.

iii) Process Plant Materials and Equipment

This area involves understanding of the chemical composition of materials used in the
manufacture of products so that as a future chemical engineer, he/she is able to help
designers and manufacturers to efficiently and safely produce products best suited for
their intended purposes.
The student will also discover that the design of a process plant usually consists of a
number of different planning stages. After the feasibility of a process has been
established in the laboratory and preferably also on a pilot plant, the chemical/process
engineer has to elaborate the flow sheets for the full scale plant. Furthermore, he/she
has to design or evaluate the different elements of the plant equipment such as reaction
vessels, heat exchangers, columns, pumps, piping, instrumentation etc.

Therefore, this subject, together with Plant Design, also provides the student with the
basic knowledge of the different categories/types of process equipment, standards, and
design and selection steps. The student learns how to perform a rough selection of the
equipment needed when designing a process plant and how to do some basic design
calculations on it. An overview of some of the machinery and apparatus available in
process technology is also given.

iv) Biochemical Engineering

Biochemical engineering is a branch of biotechnology which focuses mainly on

application of engineering principles as a means of commercialising/mass producing
biochemical products.
Biotechnology is an applied science aimed at harnessing the biological capabilities of
microbial, plant and animal cells for the benefit of human kind. It is a part of our daily life
and applied in many different fields of our daily life like the food industry, chemical
industry, agricultural industry, medicine and the environment.

v) Fluidization and particle systems

Many chemical processes involve the flow of particles in a gas or liquid, and chemical
engineers help designers and manufacturers to efficiently and safely produce products
best suited for their intended purposes.

vi) Phase equilibria and separation processes

Chemical engineers often work to improve industrial processes in which materials

undergo phase changes (liquid to gas, for example)

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Reaction engineering catalysis

Many chemical processes involve complex reactions among the various chemicals used,
and chemical engineers contribute their expertise to improving these processes through
design of reactors and better catalysts.

Mining Engineering
The study of chemical compositions of materials equips chemical engineers with
valuable expertise in the extraction and processing of naturally occurring minerals
including metals, chemicals and petroleum.

Environmental Engineering
Chemical engineers are involved with design and operation of treatment processes for
wastewater, solid waste and potentially harmful waste gases. This is done in an attempt
to protect the environment we live in from harmful substances that may otherwise be
released from industries and social communities. Chemical engineers are also major
contributors in the Environmental Impact Assessments of a wide range of projects.

Management

Engineers can, by virtue of their training, be managers in even non-engineering firms.

Chemical engineers may be involved with industrial, finance and personnel
management.

The various activities of the chemical and process engineers are:

 Design of new plants (pilot plant and full/commercial units);

 Conduct research and development of new processes and products in response to

dynamic and varying customer demands;

 Modification of existing production lines e.g. in order to improve safety, efficiency,

protect environment, etc.;

 Maintenance of existing plants to ensure plant life, product quality and consistence,
etc.;

 Optimization of industrial processes to maintain or improve plant profitability;

 Marketing of products, services, etc.;

 Consultancy;

 etc

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Chemical engineers are therefore generally involved in process and plant design,
equipment design, plant operation, maintenance, process and quality control,
management and administration, technical sales services and marketing, development
and planning, and research and development.

References

1. Rogers, G.F.C., The Nature of Engineering, Macmillan,1983, London, UK

2. The Universe of Engineering, The Royal Academy of Engineering 2000, London,

UK.

3. Landis, R.B., Studying Engineering, A Roadmap to a Rewarding Career, 2nd

Edition, Discovery Press, 2000, Los Angeles CA, USA.

4. Bernal,J.D., The Extension of Man, Paladin 1970, London, UK

5. Varoius Internet Sources

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3 CREATIVE WORK METHODS

3.1 Creativity
Creativity is playing with imagination and possibilities, then making new and meaningful
connections, while interacting with ideas, people and the environment. This results in a
product that will encourage more creativity.

Engineering is a creative process. Galileo, da Vinci, and Newton were geniuses. We

need to develop our creative abilities. Socrates wrote:

"That which is used strengthens and grows while that which is not withers and dies".

Psychologists define creativity in many ways. In general it is mental processes that lead
to ideas, solutions, conceptualization, theories, artistic forms or products that are unique.

There are many types of creativity. It exists in all realms of human existence. There is
creativity associated with abstract scientific concepts like Albert Einstein, Sir Isaac
Newton or Niels Bohr. They ask themselves simple questions and develop profound
theories. There is creativity associated with engineering inventions sucg as Robert
Stevenson and the steam locomotive and Rudolf Diesal and the diesel engine. There is
creativity in design, like Sir Norman Foster and the Millau Bridge or Le Corbusier, Oscar
Niemeyer and the United Nations Headquarters, New York. There is creativity among
great writers like Wole Soyinka, Enid Blyton and Frederick Forsyth. There is also
creativity among musicians like Beethoven, Mozart and modern day Micheal Jackson,
Franco, Tabu Ley, Alisha Keys or Miriam Makeba and artists like Picasso. Artists,
musicians and writers are said to be inspired. Their genius comes from the
subconscious. Applied creativity is related to engineers and scientists, which involves
taking sensory experiences of existing things and transforming them into theoretical
knowledge.

The examples above are the famous persons and whose creativity stands out
significantly. Every one of us has the ability to be creative in different ways. Through our
speech, for instance, making new expressions, or through new ideas related to a
particular situation. Quite often circumstances do not favour the use of our creative skills
and thus they remain subdued. It is therefore necessary for us to understand the specific
traits of the more creative persons, the creative process itself and how to become more
creative as well as practicing creativity. These ideas are expressed in the next sections.

3.2 Characteristics of creative people

Psychologists have made the following observations:

Children raised in a diversified and stimulating home environment, who experience

unusual situations and are exposed to a wide range of ideas, are likely to be creative
adults. Creative adults, while children liked schools, did well, developed excellent work
habits and were happier with books than people.

Researchers identified four traits. These are; originality, verbal fluency, relatively high
intelligence and good imagination. They possess logical thinking yet cope well with
novelty and can avoid fixed ways of thinking. They show flexibility and skill in decision-

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making. Creative individuals question accepted norms and assumptions and are alert to
gaps in knowledge in their domain. They have the ability to recognize 'good problems in
their field and to apply themselves to solving these while ignoring others. They are open
to new experiences and growth, are perseverant, curious, inquisitive.

They are highly motivated and well focused, willing to confront hostility and take
intellectual risks. They prefer their own rules than those set by others; unconventional in
behavior, withdrawn, reflective and internally preoccupied.

3.3 The Creative Process

Creativity has value only when it is turned into action. This is a process of turning
creative ideas into realistic plans- implementation is the practical expression of ideas. As
Engineers, ideas left unimplemented have no value. It is important that once an idea you
created is accepted you should produce an action plan. A formal plan provides a
structured and thorough approach that enables you to communicate your ideas to
others.
It is important to list down the ideas for implementation, prioritize the actions and
estimate the time each activity will take. Putting these ideas into action requires a
structured approach as is shown by the model.
The Prime Model

PREPARATION
Collect the necessary materials

READINESS
Organise your resources

IMPLEMENTATION
Carry out and delegate work

MONITORING
Keep checking progress

EVALUATION
Ensure you achieve the goal

Fig 3.1 Steps in the Prime Model of Creativity

Implementation is usually the unglamorous part, and failure at this stage is usually the
reason why many a beautiful idea dies unborn. Remember what Einstein said- “It is 95%
perspiration and 5% inspiration.” It is necessary at this stage to have a positive mindset
concerning one‟s ability to create (often it is so spontaneous that you are not aware of it)
and to have an inquisitive mind, while remaining free of the constraints of existing
paradigms.

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Creativity is stimulated when ideas are shared with others. Collective thinking reaps
many successful ideas. It is important to identify people with acknowledged creative
talent and make them a part of your team. Collective thinking can reap many successful
ideas. All of us have the innate ability to have ideas, although not all have the ability to
express or implement it at the time of conception. It is important for us to differentiate
this to kindle our innate creativity; for instance, the idea for frequency hopping came
from a housewife but was implemented by her engineering husband. Together they
created frequency hopping.

Teamwork avails a large number of ideas in a short period.

3.4 How to Become More Creative

Developing creativity is a process that can even be achieved through coaching to be

what you want to be. This coaching process will involve observation and feedback and
one may require organized sessions with a personal coach in order to develop one‟s
strengths and improve one‟s skills. A wide range of tools can be used to stimulate
creative thinking processes:

i) Pinpoint what you want, so that you can set out to achieve it
ii) Think in terms of the result you want to achieve
iii) Focus on the questions rather than predicting answers
iv) Learn to cross the natural barriers in your mind
v) In case of a problem, ask yourself why you perceive an issue as a problem
vi) Remember that problems are opportunities for change

It enhances one‟s creativity to define an expected outcome before one embarks on

solving a problem. In this way one focuses on how to achieve their goal hence becoming
more creative. This also offers a reference point against which to evaluate the ideas that
come to mind.

It also helps to tackle the problem in bits rather than try to handle an issue as one whole.
Breaking up an issue to be dealt with into separate issues encourages the mind to solve
a big problem hence enhancing creativity.

To encourage and nurture creativity, one must be able to “unlearn” the past, be ready to
look beyond the obvious, to persevere and not give up easily and allow oneself to be
sensitive to ideas emergence from the subconscious to the conscious. Everyone can be
trained to be creative and adopt the seven habits of creative people, which are:

i) having a positive mindset concerning ones ability to create

ii) having an inquisitive mind
iii) not intimidated or constrained by existing paradigm/ norm
iv) ability to “unlearn” the past
v) ability to look beyond the obvious
vi) not giving up easily
vii) sensitivity to ideas emergence

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3.4.1 Positive Creative Mindset

 Provides the impetus to take advantage of ideas that emerged

 Provides the confidence to explore the unknown and alternative
 Provides the audacity to question the existing paradigm
 Provides the courage to unshackle from the past
 Provides the imagination to think out of the box

3.4.2 An Inquisitive Mind

 Provides the input to the creative process

 Provides the creation of infrastructure-extension of the neural net
 Viewed from a combinatric model, an idea can be considered to be a
subconscious effort in generating a solution based on combination of existing
knowledge/ idea.
 Provides the database for cross fertilization of ideas

3.4.3 Not Intimidated or Constrained by existing paradigm

 Existing statue often limits our imagination e.g. 4-minute miles, V.34 modem
versus V.90; must amplitude modulated waves have only symmetrical
envelopes?

3.4.4 Unlearn the Past

 Our past limits our ability to think out of the box e.g. i) an English-educated
beginner of Russian language has difficulty in reading words containing “P” and
“C” in Russian because these alphabets are pronounced as equivalent to “r” and
“s” in English; ii) The Caesar story:- a man returned home and found a pool of
water on the floor of his living room. He also found Caesar had disappeared and
that Antonio was sitting on the sofa licking his lips. What happened?

3.4.5 Look Beyond the Obvious

 Question the obvious:

i) The envelopes of a full AM wave have always been symmetrical.
Question: can an AM wave be asymmetrical instead?

ii) In many hotel rooms, keys are placed in key holders to enable lights,
air conditioning etc to be available. The concept was simple- the key
tag triggers off a master switch to enable the facilities, the key tag acts
as a switch to disable the facility when “vacant” and to enable the
facility when “occupied”. This is the obvious application. The not so
obvious application: a) Consider the key tag not as a switch but as a
bit of information to indicate the room status, b) viewed from this
perspective, imagine how many more things can be achieved than
enabling and disabling of facilities.

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iii) The Chinese Remainder Theorem:

a) Take a number between 1 to 100, say 71
b) Divide it by 3, 5, 7 respectively
c) The respective remainders are 2,1,1
d) If the original number was unknown and only the sequence
(2,1,1) is given, the original number can be recovered using the
following formula: X = (r1*70) + (r2*r3*15) – (r1*105) such that
X = 140 + 21 + 15 – 105 = 71
e) As it stands, it is a little more than a curiosity.
f) Just out of curiosity, the question was posed:- can the theorem
be extended beyond its original parameters? (this is a good case
of an inquisitive mind exploring without the immediate benefits in
mind and breaking the myth that all creative ideas must be of
current benefits, and a useful solution to a problem). The answer
to the question was yes.
g) Take the same number 71
h) Divide it by 3, 5, 11 respectively
i) The respective remainders are 2,1,5
j) Now assuming the original is unknown and only the sequence
(2,1,5) is given as the remainders of the above sequence, then
the unknown can b calculated using by the following formula:
X = (r1*55) + (r2*66) + (r3*45) – (r1*165)
X = 110 + 66 + 225 – 330 = 71
k) Now if we look at this from the point of view that a number can
be represented by an infinite number of sets of remainders and
a sequence can represent a very large set of different numbers,
it becomes an invaluable form of cryptography.

3.4.6 Stubborn Faith- does not give up easily

 Many brilliant ideas never become innovation because the creator:

i) did not believe in it enough to implement it
ii) was wrongly led to believe that it did not work
iii) failed to find the cause of failure and fine tune/ re-formulate the idea
iv) failed to realize that it was bad implementation

3.4.7 Sensitive to the Emergence of Ideas

 Harness ideas when they come; it may never come again. As routine activities
are controllable and ideas emergence are not, learn to drop the routine to
embrace emerging ideas.
 Recognise the period of creativity
 Be aware that creativity does not happen in a vacuum- it is usually triggered
(“inspired”) by events, sights, words, ideas etc.
However It is important to note that sometimes issues can be handled and managed
easily and do not warrant the time and effort involved in creative thinking.

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3.5 Practicing Creativity

3.5.1 Example of Creative Thinking

To create an inexpensive amplitude modulator

 Background:
i) I was looking for an economic way of producing AM without the use of
expensive multiplier
ii) Then I saw this: low cost amplitude modulator

 It triggered the following thought:

i) The top half of the envelope resembles that of an AM wave although the
bottom half does not.
ii) Question: Could I create the bottom half of the envelope to resemble that
of the AM wave and add the two waveforms?

 Asymmetrical Amplitude Modulator:

i) From the question, is it feasible to have an amplitude modulator having
asymmetrical envelopes, the low cost amplitude modulator was brought
to mind.
ii) Using the low cost amplitude modulator as a starting point, it is almost an
obvious extension.

 AM always has symmetrical envelopes (hindrance by past knowledge).

 AM has been around for such a long time, if it is possible it would have been
done already (intimidated by status quo).

 Other possible hindrances:

i) Even if it is true, I do not see how it could be implemented (failure to
differentiate between idea and implementation).
ii) Idea could have been abandoned due to wrong approach taken in
implementation unless one is stubborn enough to persevere till an
implementation is successful.

3.6 What this means

 Although not everyone is born with aptitude to acquire creative habits naturally,
everyone can acquire them through the proper mindset and training.

 Discard the legacy mindset that the education system has moulded you into an
uncreative person.

 Do not procrastinate. Start to adopt the habits of the creative!

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3.7 The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a process by which scientists, collectively and over time
endeavor to construct an accurate representation of the world.

Through the use of standard procedures criteria, we aim to minimize personal and
cultural beliefs in the perception and interpretation of natural phenomena.

It attempts to minimize the influence or bias or prejudice in the experimenter when

testing an hypothesis or theory.

It has four steps:

1. Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena.

2. Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomena. In physics it takes form of
a causal mechanism or a mathematical relation.
3. Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena or to predict
qualitatively the results of new observations.
4. Performance of experimenters and properly designed experiments.

If experiments bear out the hypothesis, it may come to be regarded as a theory or law of
nature. If the experiments do not bear out the hypothesis it must be rejected or modified.
The key in the description of the scientific method is the predictive power of the
hypothesis, tested by experiments. In science, theories can never be proven absolutely,
only disproved. There is always the possibility that a new observation will conflict with a
long-standing theory.

3.7.1 Testing Hypothesis

Experimental tests may lead either to confirmation of the hypothesis or ruling out of the
hypothesis. The scientific method requires that an hypothesis be ruled out or modified if
its predictions are clearly and repeatedly incompatible with experimental tests. No matter
how elegant a theory is, it must agree with experimental results. In physics as in every
experimental science, experiment is supreme.

If the predictions of a long standing theory are found to be in disagreement with new
results, the theory may be discarded as a description of reality e.g. Newton‟s laws are
valid when the velocities of interest are much smaller than the speed of light i.e.
(v/c<<1). Einsteins Theory of Relativity gives us much more general, more accurate
description of motion for values v/c approaching 1. Relativity equations reduce to
classical equations under conditions where the velocities are very small compared to the
velocity of light.

Errors in experiments have several sources. There is error due to instruments of

measurements. This is called a random error. It has equal probability of producing a
measurement higher or lower. There is systematic error due to factors which bias the
results in one direction. We have standard ways of estimating or reducing errors.

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3.7.2 Common mistakes in applying the scientific method

The most fundamental error is to mistake the hypothesis for an explanation of

phenomena without performing experimental results. Another mistake is to ignore or rule
out data, which do not support the hypothesis. Another one is failure to estimate
quantitative systematic errors.

3.7.3 Hypothesis Models, Theories and Laws

A hypothesis is a limited statement regarding cause and effect in specific situations. It

refers to our state of knowledge, before experimental work has been performed. e.g. A
car broke down.

A model is derived for situations when it is known that the hypothesis has at least limited
validity e.g. Hooke‟s Laws.

A scientific theory or law represents a group of related hypothesis, which have been
confirmed through repeated experimental tests. Theories are formulated in a few
concepts and equation identified as laws of nature suggesting their universal
applicability. After repeated experimental tests the new phenomena can be
accommodated so that scientists can seriously question the theory and modify it.

The scientific method is also useful in everyday problem solving. e.g. a telephone not
working, there could be a problem with the hand set, cabling inside your house or the
hook up outside the phone company.

We determine that the method works best in situations where the phenomena can be
isolated. The question basically answered is; “How do we come to know things?” The
scientific method distinguishes itself from other forms of explanation because of its
requirement of systematic experimentation.

3.7.4 Science Builds on Previous Knowledge

i) Logic

Logic is when you think with reason and arguments. Scientists use logic because it
shows relationships between the parts of an idea and the whole idea. With logic you can
see a relationship between a few trees and an entire forest.

ii) Logical reasoning

The scientific method is a rational, logical thought process that is used to figure out facts
and truths. All answers must be able to be proven. If someone figures out an answer and
other scientists come up with the same answer by repeating the experiment they are all
happy. If someone did something wrong they start all over again. There are no opinions
considered as scientific laws.

The truth is something quantitative. Quantitative statements can be proven through

experiments. When someone has an opinion that cannot be proven directly it is a
qualitative argument.

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iii) Deductive Reasoning

With deductive reasoning you start with information which is called a premise. Then you
come up with conclusions based on the premise.

1. If this happens
2. And this happens
3. Then you come to this conclusion

If the premises are true then the conclusion will also be true.

iv) Inductive reasoning

Inductive reasoning works in the opposite direction. You start by having a number of
observations. I see that. That happens here. I believe this will happen like others
because the circumstance is similar.

It is in two parts. First you start with specific and come up with a new theory (that is
deductive). When you apply that theory in new areas (that is inductive). You organize
data into categories (Saying „what do these have in common?)

There is a problem with inductive reasoning. Your conclusions have more information
that the facts you use. You start with dozens of observed examples. Take an inductive
leap and assume millions of possible examples. It is like prediction.

If the conclusion is true then the new premise and assumptions are true.

3.8 Research Methodology

Research is the formal, systematic application of the scientific method to the study of
problems. The research process involves identifying a problem or opportunity;
translating that problem/opportunity into a research problem; and collecting, analyzing
and reporting the information specified in the research problem. The steps involved in
conducting research are as follows:

i) Selection and definition of a problem

A problem is a hypothesis or question of interest to people that can be tested and

answered through collection and analysis of data. Problem definition is the most
critical part of the research process. It involves specifying the types of information
that are needed by the researcher. The steps involved are:
 Problem clarification: the basic goal here is to ensure the decision-maker‟s
description of the problem is accurate and reflects the appropriate area of
concern for research. If the wrong problem is translated into a research problem,
the chance of providing useful information is low.
 Situation analysis: this focuses on the variables or factors that have produced
the problem or opportunity. Those factors should be isolated

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 Model development: this involves a description of the outcomes that are

desired, the relevant variables, and the relationships of the variables to the
outcomes. The researcher is therefore interested in answers to the following
questions:
 What objectives are desired in solving the problem?
 What variables determine whether the objectives will be met?
 How do the variables relate to the objectives?
 Specification of information requirements: this is a clear statement of the
information required to assist in decision making

ii) Execution of Research Procedures

The procedures include:

 Selection of subjects: namely sample or sub group selection. The stratification or
blocking is done according to the variables that are considered to affect the results.
 Selection of data collection methods: namely
 Secondary research method
 Survey research method
 Experimental research method

 Selection or development of measurement methodologies, namely

 Questionnaires
 Observation interviews
 Scales (such as attitude scales, numerical scales, etc.)

iii) Analysis of Data

This involves converting a series of recorded observations into descriptive statements

and/ or inferences about relationships. The types of analyses depend on the nature of
the sampling process, the measurement instrument, and the data collection method.

iv). Drawing and Stating Conclusions

Here a summary or logical inference is made in consonance with the analyses. There
are, however, certain research fallacies to guard against in making conclusions.

3.8.1 Classification of Research

Research studies can be classified in a number of ways, two major approaches being by
purpose and by method.

a) Classification by Purpose

This is based primarily on the degree to which findings have direct application and the
degree to which they are generalisable to other situations.
i) Basic Research: this involves development of theory. In its purest form, basic
research is conducted solely for the purpose of theory development and
refinement. It is not concerned with practical applicability, and it most closely
resembles the laboratory conditions and controls usually associated with
scientific research.

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ii) Applied Research: this is concerned with the application of theory to the solution
of problems. It is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and
evaluating its usefulness in solving business problems. There are several types
of applied research, namely
iii) Evaluation Research. Evaluation is a systematic process of collecting and
analyzing data in order to make decisions. It involves questions such as:
a. Is a new state-of –the-art order processing system better than the
old/current one?
b. Is a new ATM machine worth its costs?

Answers to such questions require the collection and analysis of data and
interpretation of that data with respect to one or more set criteria.

iv) Research and Development (R&D). the major purpose of R&D is to develop
new products or processes
v) Action Research. The purpose here is to solve problems through the application
of the scientific method. It is concerned with a local problem and is conducted in
a local setting. The primary goal is the solution of a given problem, not a
contribution to science.

b) Classification by Method

Research classification by method includes:

i) Historical Research
This involves studying, understanding and explaining past events. The purpose
of this research is to arrive at conclusions concerning causes, effects, or trends
of past occurrences that may help to explain present events and anticipate future
events.

Historical researchers do not typically gather data by administering instruments

to individuals. They must seek out data that are already available. Sources of
data are referred to as either primary or secondary.
i. Primary sources constitute firsthand knowledge such as
eyewitness reports and original documents. If you interview
someone who witnessed an accident, that person is a primary
source
- Secondary sources constitute second hand information such
as a description of an event by someone other than the eye witness.

ii) Descriptive Research

- This involves collecting data in order to test a hypothesis or answer

questions concerning the current status of the subject of study. A
descriptive study determines and reports the way things are. Market
research surveys are a good example.

- Descriptive data are usually collected through questionnaire survey,

interviews or observations.
iii) Correlational Research

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This attempts to determine whether, and to what degree, a relationship exists

between two or more quantifiable variables. The purpose may be to establish a
relationship or the lack of it, or to use relationships in making predictions.

iv) Causal-comparative Research

This attempts to establish cause-effect relationships. It involves group

comparisons. The alleged „cause‟ or independent variable is not manipulated: it
has already occurred. The independent variable cannot be manipulated (such as
sex), should not be manipulated (such as physical impairment), or simply are not
manipulated but could be (such as method of training).

v) Experimental Research

This is similar to causal-comparative research except that here the independent

variable is manipulated. In an experimental study, the researcher manipulates at
least one independent (the cause) and observes the effect on one or more
dependent variables (the effect).

3.9 Ernest Nagel on the Nature and Aim of Science

It is true that men usually give little thought to the techniques they use in solving
problems, until habitual ways for resolving difficulties prove to be unsatisfactory in
providing answers to new questions. In the history of science, people get concerned
about the traditional methods of doing things only when they seem to be inadequate or
defective. We therefore need to understand the broad significance of scientific
achievements.

There are in fact three aspects of contemporary science that invite serious reflection,
and help to define its nature and aim:

The most obvious and publicised feature of science is the practical control over nature
which it yields. Many great contributions have been made to human welfare in all major
branches of technology, such as medicine, telecommunications, and civil works. Applied
science has truly transformed the face of the earth.
Whereas the importance of science in the practical mastery over nature cannot be
underestimated, it has been overemphasised to the neglect of its other aspects. Such an
emphasis tends to generate a socially dangerous image of the scientist as an infallible
miracle-worker, who is bound to have a sure answer for every human ill. We should not
overlook the widespread tendency to make science responsible for the life-threatening
uses to which its findings are sometimes put, especially in the military.

In point of fact, science assumes a second aspect: attainment of systematic but reliable
knowledge. The aim of science is to exhibit events and processes as instances of
general laws and theories, which formulate invariable patterns of relations between
things. The knowledge science imparts makes the world intelligible, and it satisfies the
craving to know and understand. Science, which started in Greek antiquity, has served
to undermine superstitious beliefs and practices, to dissolve fears that thrive on

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ignorance, and to supply the intellectual basis for evaluating inherited custom and
traditional rules of conduct.
However, despite the general reliability of scientific findings, neither scientific reports nor
theories and laws are infallibly true and in principle incorrigible. Many have been
disproved or modified over time.

The third aspect that science presents is its method of inquiry. This is perhaps science‟s
most permanent feature and the ultimate warrant for confidence in the conclusions of
scientific inquiry. Many scientists will believe that “there‟s no scientific method as such,”
but only “the free and utmost use of intelligence.” It helps to think of scientific method as
constituted by a set of norms, which serve as standards that must be satisfied if any
inquiry is to count as a responsibly conducted one whose conclusions merit rational
confidence.

3.10 Scientific Method: the Traditional view and Popper’s view

Whereas a law of society can be broken – indeed, if we could not break it there would be
no need to have it -, a law of nature is not prescriptive but descriptive. A law of nature
tells us what happens, e.g., that water boils at 100°C. It is not a command: water is not
being ordered to boil at 100°C. The search for natural laws has long been seen as the
central task of science, at least since Newton.

The method of basing general statements on accumulated observations of specific

instances is known as induction, and is seen as the hallmark of science. Scientific
statements, being based on observational and experimental evidence – based in short,
on the facts – are contrasted with statements of all other kinds, whether based on
authority, or emotion, or tradition, or speculation, or prejudice, or habit, or any other
foundation, as alone providing sure and certain knowledge.

Some awkward questions about this were raised by Hume. He pointed out that no
number of singular observation statements, however large, could logically entail an
unrestrictedly general statement. The sun may have risen again after every past day of
which we have knowledge, but this does not entail that it will rise tomorrow. The whole of
our science assumes that the future will be like the past in all those respects in which
natural laws are taken to operate – there‟s no way in which this assumption can be
secured. That the whole of science, of all things, should rest on foundations whose
validity it is impossible to demonstrate has been found uniquely embarrassing. However,
to many scientists the overwhelmingly important thing is that science delivers the goods
– it works, it produces a never-ending stream of useful results.

Popper‟s seminal achievement has been to offer an acceptable solution to the problem
of induction. Although no number of observation statements reporting observations of
white swans allow us logically to derive the universal statement – „All swans are white‟,
one single observation statement, reporting one single observation of a black swan,
allows us logically to derive the statement „Not all swans are white.‟ This means that
scientific laws are testable in spite of being unprovable: they can be tested by systematic
attempts to refute them (though not verifiable, are falsifiable). Popper therefore proposes
that we do not systematically evade refutation, and that we formulate our theories as
unambiguously as we can, so as to expose them as clearly as possible to refutation. He
also says we should not abandon our theories lightly, for this would involve too uncritical

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an attitude towards tests, and would mean that the theories themselves were not tested
as rigorously as they should be.

Practical example:
We start by believing, as most of us are taught at school, that it is a scientific law that
water boils at 100°C. No number of confirming instances will prove this, but we can
nevertheless test it by searching for circumstances in which it does not hold. If we are at
all imaginative we shall soon discover that water does not boil at 100°C in closed
vessels. So the scientific law turns out not to be one. The statement then changes to
„Water boils at 100°C in open vessels‟. In trying to refute this second statement we
should find it at high altitudes. The statement then becomes „Water boils at 100°C in
open vessels at sea-level atmospheric pressure‟. And we would try to refute this third
statement. And so on. In this way we develop greater knowledge of our boiling water.

THEORY

consistent

observations hypothesis predictions

Not consistent.
Modify hypothesis

tests

3.2 Flow diagram describing the scientific method

A comparison between the Socratic and Scientific Methods of Thought

Socratic Scientific
1. Wonder, pose a question 1. Wonder, pose a question
What is X?

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2. Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis
Suggest a plausible answer, a Suggest a plausible answer from
definition from which some which some empirically testable
conceptually testable propositions hypothetical proportions can be
can be deducted deducted.
3. Testing, refutation or cross 3. Testing – construct, perform an
examination. Perform a thought experiment which makes it possible to
experiment by arguing a case to observe the consequences specified. If
conform, if not return to Step 2. the experiment fails return to Step 2.
4. Accept the hypothesis as true. 4. Accept hypothesis as provisionally true.
Return to Step 3 if you can conceive.
5. Act accordingly to any case to show 5. Act accordingly. Return to Step 3 if there
the answer to be detective. are other predictable consequences of
the theory which have not been
experimented.

3.11 The Experimental Method and Procedure

Experiments normally differ in aspect, but they all follow the same basic form; they are
subject to a sequential pattern of planning, implementation and evaluation. It is as
important as analytical work, which allows for the formulation and solution of problems.
Each step in the sequence requires that the experimenter always asks his motive before
proceeding to the next, if successful and economic conclusions are to be reached. In
analytical work, it is possible to proceed to a unique answer through a single path.
However, in experimental work it is seldom possible. As with design, an experimental
programme consists of a series of experiments, each as part of an iterative process,
which combines theoretical and analytical tools.

The diagram assembles essential characteristics and arranges them in articulated form.
This allows for sensible interaction and repetition once various steps have been taken.
Often there is no existing information and the box with that heading will be filled when
the experimenter has taken some visible steps to establish the effect of a range of
variables or the probable timescale of a fully fledged programme in which existing or
new apparatus will be tried. As a result of these preliminary tests, the experimenter has
some information about his problem, together with the initial experience of equipment
will help generate and possibly reformulate his objectives.
This discipline, the appropriate programming of events and self-appraisal by the
experimenter, are vital if objectives are fulfilled economically. The skills required will be
discussed later.

It should be noted that the field of experimentation is one of the more common links
between scientists and engineers being one of the ways of acquiring information
unavailable.

Laboratory work for engineering students has at least four objectives.

1. Experiments designed to illustrate points covered in lectures
2. For experimental investigation
3. For the design and synthesis
4. As training in measurement techniques.

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3.11.1 Illustrative Experiments

Most undergraduate experiments fall in this category. The only creative part of such an
experiment which would also encourage inquiry at every step and understanding of
experimental method is when the experiment is first devised.

The student can always inquire of this sort of experiment. For instance why do it that
way? What if the loading changed? Skepticism is vital and is the essence of good
experimentation. Why perform an experiment that has a predictable outcome? This type
of experiment however, is instructive in gaining experience with different types of
equipment and providing practice in the art of communicating results.

Formulation of
Objectives

Utilisation Use of existing

of ideas information

Test Sequence

Outcome

Fig 3.3 Essential details of the Experimental Method

3.11.2 Experimental Investigation

This allows of greater appreciation of all aspects of a problem in the absence of specific
knowledge appropriate to it. There may be very scanty or no existing information. The
first experiment may be performed crudely. Sometimes existing information may be
useless in which case it should be discarded. e.g. the Wright Brothers in their quest to
fly. They eventually had to perform their own experiments after discarding the available
information about the behavior of the atmosphere.

Experimental investigation is often the real way to gain information needed about a
problem. When applied, it is usually the last resort because it can be extremely

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expensive and time consuming requiring all the skills of an experienced industrialist. The
main objective must never be lost right of.

3.11.3 Design

As far as design is concerned, experiment is invaluable in helping assess the effects of

simplifications made in synthesizing complex parts and behavior to a conceptual level
which is capable of mathematical representation. For instance, the behavior of the
aeroplane wing can be taken as a cantilever.

Analysis on its own is usually only capable of describing overall behavior and not
important details. It is the details that produce the success in most designs. Experiment
plays its part in verifying that not only the details may be practical possibilities but their
presence does not impede the main function of the part in question. Experimentation
plays its part in choice of materials for a part. It is often possible to correlate the behavior
of a complex part with a much simpler laboratory test piece after suitable analysis has
verified. From this analysis, the final choice, in terms of strength, toughness, corrosion
resistance, weight and cost can be determined.

The feasibility and success of a design will depend upon how the various components
operate together. Their efficiency can be determined by experimentation.

3.11.4 Measurement Techniques

Soundness in experimental practice is important to an engineer as his grounding in

analysis. An important skill is the use and choice of instruments. Training in
experimentation is vital in order that a critical awareness of the value and means of
assessing experimentation can be developed.

If a standard instrument is not available can another be utilized, or devised? At every

stage instruments should be viewed with skepticism. Regardless of the type of
experiment, a methodical approach is required and highly desirable. At no time must we
generate new concepts based on questionable data.

The detailed steps in the experimental method are summarized below. We however,
need to apply logic and reasoning to each step. There must always be a motive for the
experiment, which results in action. The action will be to perform analysis in light of new
data. An engineer must be able to create, innovate with imagination and subject himself
to self-criticism. The self-questioning and enquiry needed in the process is vital for all
activities not only in experimentation. Table 1 provides possible questions and actions as
aids to methodical experimentation.

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Table 1. Possible Questions and Actions as Aids to Methodical Experimentation.

Possible Questions Actions

1. Objectives

What are the objectives of the State the objectives clearly

experiment?

2. Variables

i) What are the variable? Carry out preliminary tests

ii) Which one is most
important?
iii) Their ranges
iv) Are they independent?
v) Can they be reduced by
grouping?

3. Equipment and Environment

i) Is a special environment Literature Survey

necessary?
ii) What previous work has Consult codes of practice
been done? Design Experiment
iii) What equipment is Use existing Equipment
necessary? Design test piece perform sorting
iv) What is available? tests.
v) Can tests on simplified
models be done?
vi) Which type of test piece
could be considered?
vii) What are the important
features of the test piece?

4. Measuring Instruments

i) What ranges should be Decide on basis of expected variable

considered? range.
ii) What accuracy is required? Decide on relative importance of
iii) Which instruments are variable.
available? Use existing equipment if possible.
iv) Are those instruments Calibrate and do preliminary.
satisfactory tests?

5. Procedure

i) What sequence should be Plan test procedure.

used in varying parameters?
ii) Which tests give Make note or tape recordings of

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simultaneous information on observations during test. Devise

several variables at once? model tests.
iii) Are qualitative observations
important?

6. Evaluation of test results

i) Are the results reliable? Perform cross checks.

ii) What relationships exist Plot results in different ways.
between variables? Do they Consider statistical methods of
have significance? correlation.
iii) Do the dimensions check?

7. Presentation of results
i) Which are results of main Identify and emphasize in report.
significance?
ii) How can the results be best Consider graphical presentation, non
presented? dimensional plots, empirical
formulae, curve fitting.
8. Conclusion
i) Do the tests satisfy the
original objective?
ii) If not where is the Identify discrepancy.
discrepancy and is it Evaluate importance.
important? Propose new tests.

3.11.5 Procedure

There are no specific rules for proceeding with an experimental programme. Methods
vary and experimenters build their own expertise and feel for the job in hand and
experience develops with time.

The areas of consideration are:

1. Test sequence
2. Test levels and test point spacing
3. procedural actions
4. Tests of qualitative nature

3.11.6 Dimensional Analysis

Dimensional analysis is based on the observation that any functional relation that is an
analytical model of a real event is independent of the system of units used in measuring
that event. This analysis has the following consequences on experimental work.

1. It can greatly reduce the amount of investigation by reducing the number of

independent variables.
2. The effect of one variable can be determined by an experimental variation of
another.

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3. The applicable range of a variable can be extended beyond the experimental

range.
4. It can show that sometimes a quantity has no effect upon the phenomena and so
can be excluded as an experimental variable.
5. The oversight of an independent variable can be revealed.
6. The cost of an experiment can be reduced or sometimes experimentation can be
made feasible by enabling tests to be made on reduced scale models or it can
ease experimental difficulties by enabling experiments to be performed on larger
scale models of small systems.

3.11.7 Instrumentation

The importance of developing the correct attitude to instrumentation cannot be

overemphasized. To the engineer, instrumentation is a means to an end. It is not
necessary or advantageous to have full understanding of the „black boxes‟ employed,
although clear appreciation of basic principles is desirable. Equipment should be treated
with respect. Manuals are normally available and they should be consulted when
necessary.

As a general rule, an initial untrusting attitude towards equipment should be developed

until calibration tests show that this is unwarranted.

There is need for strict honesty in making instrument observations. It is a natural

tendency to want to ignore faulty equipment or apparently inconsistent results when time
is limited. Should an instrument be suspected of malfunctioning it should be
acknowledged. Admission of limitation of equipment adds credence to reported
experimental results.

3.11.8 Errors in Experimentation

Every measurement involves an error. The nature of errors may vary and so may their
magnitudes but total elimination of errors from experimentation is beyond human power.
An error can be defined as the deviation of a measured value from the corresponding
true value. Errors comprise a number of constituent components.

Some can be eliminated completely while others cannot. (Counting which is often
classified as the simplest form of measurement, can be executed without any error at
all). Since errors cannot be avoided, we must learn to live with them. We must also be
able to assess their magnitude according to justified needs. Errors are frequently
random or include a random component. Statistical methods and probability theory play
an important part in the analysis of errors. To be able to predict the effects of errors upon
measurements is absolutely vital. Engineers are less conscious about errors than
physicists, therefore there is cause for concern.

3.11.9 Concepts and Definitions

Absolute Error

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The absolute error E is equal to actual difference between the true value XT and the
corresponding measurement (observation) XM or calculation if such a calculation
involves measurement of quantities/approximation.

Absolute error E = XT - XM

Relative Error

This is a non-dimensional form obtained by dividing the absolute error by its measured
value.

Relative Error E = E = XT-XM = XT - 1

─ ─ ─
XM XM XM

Tolerance

The error of tolerance is the region within which the true value can be found. If δmax and
δmin denote the maximum and minimum error limits them.

+δmax
XT = XM
- δmin

or XM - δmin ≤ XT ≤ XM + δmax

In the case of symmetrical tolerance δmax = δmin = δ we write XT = XM + δ

Decimal Accuracy

The measured quantity should never be given more accuracy than the measurement
itself. For instance 51.3cm is not 51.300cm and should not be written as such.

Rounding off

An observer may wish to round off his experimental results or approximate his
calculations on account of the uncertainty of the last figures of the result. e.g. a reading
of 12.5mm was obtained using a vernier scale. It had an accuracy of 1/10mm. It could be
rounded off to 13mm applying the common rounding off rules.

Increase the last retained digit by one if the adjacent digit to be dropped is:

1. > 5
2. = 5 and is followed by digits > 0
3. = 5 and is not followed by significant digits or followed by zeros only.

Accuracy and Precision

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Both words mean the same thing in ordinary language however in error analysis they
mean different things. Accuracy is reserved for systematic errors whereas Precision is
related to random errors.

3.11.10 Classification of errors and their nature

Errors are generally divided into two classes (a) Systematic (accountable fixed) errors
and (b) Random (unaccountable chance) errors.

Systematic Errors

i) Method errors: These arise when wrong or insufficient experimental method

was applied for instance the measuring of one quantity in the place of another
or an unknown factor may influence the measurements. Extrapolation of
experimental data may also lead to method errors.
ii) Equipment error: These can be caused by faulty equipment, misoperation of
equipment or using the equipment in an inappropriate environment.
Equipment errors are usually based in one direction.
iii) Calibration errors: Most equipment has to be calibrated before it can be used
against an unknown quantity. This could involve zero setting or a whole
calibration curve.
iv) Human errors: They depend on the personal characteristics of the observer.
He may overestimate or underestimate readings but these actions are fairly
consistent either way.
v) Arithmetic errors: These include arithmetical calculations. Other faults are in
incorrect programs or incorrect rounding off.
vi) Dynamic response errors: These include hysterisis in fast changing signals in
equipment.

Random Errors

These include:
i) Mistakes or errors of judgment. People tend to judge differently.
Uncontrollable Human factors such as sudden distractions, tiredness,
misunderstandings cause these.
ii) Variations of conditions. Sudden unexpected flow disturbance may alter a
reading in a pipe-flow. They are of limited duration or occur in specific
environments
iii) Specification errors: Low Specifications in equipment can lead to such errors.

Random errors are dealt with by statistical methods. Another category of errors is
illegitimate errors. These simply blunder. One has to decide how to handle them.

3.12 The Engineering Method

Engineering problems are "ill defined", thus without deterministic solutions. Thus, the
Engineering Method is not completely systematic. The method is not a recipe to produce
hot selling products. Nevertheless, the Engineering Method does produce buildings,
bridges, vehicles, software, tools, and devices that function reliably, and we use

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confidently. Then, what exactly are the characteristics of the Engineering Method? The
three main characteristics of the Engineering Method are: heuristic, iterative, and use of
Science.

The Engineering Method is heuristic because there exists no one method, and none of
the methods can be proved theoretically, mathematically, statistically or otherwise to be
universally applicable and absolute. Nevertheless, different variants of the Engineering
Method are used successfully to create the technology, and the world.

The Engineering Method is iterative. Iterative nature is built into the method. Steps are
retraced when failure occurs, in search of alternatives, or for optimization reasons.

The main distinction between craftsmanship and engineering is the systematic

application of science. Crafts are developed over time usually by local knowledge.
Engineering evolves more selectively, more rapidly, and by using and expanding
science.

3.12.1 Project Approach

The concept of a project is familiar to most of us. A project is writing an essay, building a
shed, looking after poultry, setting up a shop and so forth. Engineering a product or
solving a problem is a project. In particular, a project refers to the activities (steps in the
Engineering Method) and the particular outcomes (products) associated with the
activities. A project is defined by others, you, or defined jointly by you and others.

Developing a product involves good project management. Many approaches and issues
in Engineering Method overlap the project management approaches and issues. The
Engineering Method can be discussed well in the context of a project.

Unlike problems usually assigned to engineering students, real-world problems are often
unstructured and open-ended. At times, not all of the required data is known or
available. In other instances, it is necessary to sort through a lot of information and
identify which parts of it are needed to solve the problem under consideration.

It should not come as a surprise, especially to students, that a problem might not have a
single categorical solution. Often, the objective is to select a preferred solution from
among several alternatives. It may be necessary to weigh several conflicting
consequences of an engineering action and then select the best solution that best meets
the needs and desires of an employer, a client, or the public.

However, engineers tend to deal with problems in a special way. Certainly, the
engineering method of approaching and solving problems differs greatly from that of
most other professionals. Engineers are trained to think in analytical and objective terms
and to approach problems methodically and systematically.

The steps mentioned in Section 2.4 where the Engineering Process is defined are
related to those in the project cycle and are compared below:

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Engineering Method Project Cycle

1. Requirement – Project Identification and Appraisal

2. Analysis – Feasibility Study
3. Synthesis and Evaluation - Designs
4. Execution – Implementation

It must be kept in mind that in some instances one or more of the steps may not appear.
Sometimes it may be necessary to repeat the entire protocol several times in an attempt
to converge on a desired solution.

3.12.2 Requirement – Project Identification and Appraisal

On identifying the problem and defining the needs properly, the engineer begins to
gather information and data needed to solve it. The type of information needed will
depend on the nature of the problem to be solved. It could be physical measurements,
maps, results of laboratory experiments, patents, results of opinion surveys, or any of a
number of other types of information.

This phase of the problem-solving process involves gathering and evaluating information
that is already available. For the above problem, the engineer may require information
on the previously done construction or major maintenance work, including both structural
and drainage designs, the current state of the road, the extent of flooding, the current
traffic volume and density supported, among others. Information may be obtained from
the local government offices, research, textbooks, companies that may have undertaken
work on the same road, interview with the local people, and a visit to the site. The
formulation of a project is in response to solving the problem identified, which should be
well defined. The problem has to be well defined. Hence from a problem we formulate a
project.

The process starts an initial project proposal to meet demand for the goods or services
the project might produce. It is important that the stated needs be real needs. A good
proposal should have a well defined problem that is to be solved. The design should not
duplicate other known designs or solve a problem that does not impact many people.
The needs to be satisfied should be broadly defined and distinguished from possible
solutions. The problem may be say, an impassable road, with many and large potholes,
massive flooding when it rains, or inadequate power supply.

3.12.3 Analysis – Feasibility Study

If the first ideas indicate that the project may be economically attractive, the cycle
proceeds to what are commonly known as feasibility studies to investigate a possible
design and estimate its costs. Several alternative schemes likely to meet the expected
demand usually have to be considered. In emergencies, this stage is omitted. If the
project is urgent, little time is spent in trying to optimize the proposal. More commonly,
alternatives have to be evaluated in order to decide whether to proceed and how best to
do so in order to achieve the Client’s objectives within his budget.

i) Evaluation of Alternatives

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The results of the first evaluation may be disappointing. If so, the proposal has to be
changed to try to meet the expected demand. The estimates of the demand may have to
be reconsidered or made more precise, and the first evaluation may also have to be
reviewed because information used has changed during this time. This stage may thus
have to be repeated several times.
The investigation of schemes and their evaluation often proceed unsteadily because of
the uncertainties in the information available for making decisions. The results are bound
to remain uncertain. Estimates of the possible costs of the project depend upon the risks
of construction and future prices of materials, etc. estimates of the potential value of the
project depend upon the probabilities of the result meeting a demand when the time
comes for it to do so.

ii) Potential
Estimates of a project‟s potential value are particularly uncertain when a capital project
which will not earn money is being considered, for instance, a project to improve safety
at a road junction or a rural water supply project. It is recommended that specification,
budget and programme must normally be decided, together with contingent margins of
time and money, as the decisions made at this stage define the scope and standards of
the project and should follow.
One of the most popular techniques used for groups is brainstorming. Brainstorming
consists of a spontaneous introduction of ideas by the group members.This means that
judgment and evaluation of the ideas are not permitted in this process. All ideas are
recorded and evaluated at a later time. An individual may also follow the same rules in
brainstorming.
Ideas may include: poor structural design, poor hydrologic and hydraulic design,
increased traffic, poor road alignment especially through a wetland, poor materials or
workmanship used during construction, or lack of road maintenance. These possible
causes are also accompanied by the possible solutions.
iii) Economic Analysis
Economic analyses attempt to compare the public benefits from such projects with the
costs of providing them. Economic studies may be used:
 To determine the feasibility of a project.
 To compare alternate designs.
 To determine the priority of construction of a group of projects.
 To evaluate specific features of design.
iv) Environmental Impact
There is increasing awareness of the impact that engineering works may have on people
and the environment. Projects may cause families and businesses to be relocated and
subject citizens to noise, water and air pollution. Many of these impacts cannot be simply
reduced to a monetary amount. Techniques are available, however, to help the
engineer, to some extent at least, quantify such impacts. These techniques generally
involve ranking alternate projects on a scale based upon some predetermined criteria.
The rankings may be made by a panel of experts or citizens or based on attitude
surveys. The criteria selected to provide a measure of the impact will normally depend
on the nature of the project under consideration.

The investigations and feasibility studies of a proposed project may take time. The
conclusions have to be quite specific: selection or rejection of the proposed project. This
determines the project‟s future. Enough time and other resources should therefore be
used to provide a valid basis for the decision. If the proposed project is rejected, it could

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be revived if new information is obtained on the demand, or a new design and other
ideas are economic.

Fig 3.4 The Engineering Method and the Project Cycle

3.12.4 Synthesis and Evaluation - Designs

i) Preliminary Designs

After completing the preparatory steps in the design process, the engineer is ready to
begin identifying creative solutions. Both creativity and innovation contribute to the
development of new ideas, products or devices. Whereas creativity is a subconscious
effort, innovation is a conscious effort.

This step is the heart of the design process and it relies most on experience and
engineering judgment. At this stage, unworkable ideas are discarded, and promising
ideas are moulded and modified to form workable plans and designs. Many decisions
may be made about alternative layouts, configurations, materials, dimensions and other
specifications. Conceptual sketches may need to be drawn; preliminary plans may need
to be prepared; and thought may need to be given to material specifications.
i) Analysis and Synthesis
Preliminary designs may evolve through analysis or synthesis. Analysis involves the
separation of a whole into constituents for individual study. Synthesis involves combining
facts, principles or laws into a whole idea that will accomplish some desired result or
solve a problem. In this phase it is necessary to subject possible solution ideas to careful
scrutiny. Possible solutions are carefully and critically examined and studied. For
example, preliminary sketching of a device or casual analysis of a process or scheme
will show that an idea is not worthy of further consideration. Sometimes a component
may need to be examined by laboratory tests, or a formal comprehensive research

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program may need to be undertaken to examine the validity of a hypothesis or the

efficacy of a proposed solution.
ii) Models
Engineers often use models to facilitate the design process. A model may be defined as
any simplified description of an engineering system or process that can be used to aid in
analysis or design. In the broadest definition, however, sketches and graphs can be
thought of as types of models. In addition, three types of models are commonly used to
facilitate the solution of engineering problems , a) Analytical or Mathematical models b)
Simulation models and c) Physical models.

a) Mathematical models
A mathematical model consists of one equation or a group of equations that represents
a physical system. Some models may be based on scientific theories or laws that have
stood the test of time, whereas others are empirically based, that is, relying upon or
derived from observations and experiments. Generally, mathematical models can
describe only relatively simple physical phenomena.

b) Simulation models
When studying complex systems, engineers often employ computer simulation models.
Such a model may incorporate empirically based mathematical models of the total
model. A wide range of computer software exists to facilitate simulation in many different
fields of engineering.

c) Physical models
Engineers have for long used physical models to get a better understanding of complex
phenomena. These models can be used structural design, hydraulics, hydrodynamics,
and aerodynamics. Some examples of studies made with physical models include:
behaviour of waves within a harbour, effect of wind on a skyscraper, behaviour of a
bridge when exposed to very high winds, behaviour of a building on the occurrence of an
earthquake. Full-scale models are sometimes built, but they are often built to a smaller
scale. Perhaps the greatest value of physical models is that they allow the engineer to
study a device, structure, or system with little or no prior knowledge of its behaviour or
need to make simplifying assumptions.

iii) Revaluation and selection of preferred solution

As the engineering design process evolves, the engineer may evaluate again and again
alternate ways of solving the problem at hand. Typically the engineer discards the
unpromising design choices, yielding a progressively smaller set of options. Feedback,
modification, and evaluation may occur repetitively as the device or system evolves from
concept to final design. Depending on the nature of the problem to be solved, evaluation
may be based on any number of factors. If it involves a product, safety, cost, reliability,
and consumer acceptability are often of paramount importance.

Sometimes the best way to evaluate a product is to develop a prototype and simply test
it in operation. In some cases the prototype might not work due to one or more
components of the design so the engineer should try to identify all of the weak links of
the prototype before accepting or discarding the design idea. No idea should be
evaluated solely on the basis of a single prototype or one test. The optimisation scheme
can become very difficult when the design requires a human operator and a man-
machine interface. This difficulty exists because no two human beings are the same.

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One human user may find a design very acceptable and efficient, while another may
consider it to be intolerable; therefore, the optimisation of human factors becomes a
matter of statistical comparisons.

In addition to the routine judgments that engineers make about a device or system, more
formal and structured evaluations are often needed, especially for public works projects,
which must be judged from the viewpoints of competing and often conflicting groups.
Such evaluations have traditionally relied on economic analysis, but recent concerns
with social and environmental impacts of public projects have produced much broader
evaluation techniques.

ii) Final Design

The decisions made early in its design determine almost entirely the quality, safety and
cost, and therefore the success of a project. Design ideas are usually the start of
possible projects. The main design stage of deciding how to use materials to realize the
project usually follows its selection, as indicated in. The products of design are usually
drawings and a specification, but only a sketch may be needed for a small project,
repairs or maintenance work.

Intermediate stages of design may be needed, for instance to provide a scheme for
approval by promoters and statutory authorities. For a novel project, further research
and development work may be needed to investigate new or risky problems before the
project is continued.

After the preferred design has been selected, it must be communicated to those who
must approve it, support it, and translate it into reality. This communication may take the
form of an engineering report or a set of plans and specifications and cost estimates.
Engineering reports are usually directed to a client or to a supervisor. Plans and
specifications are the engineer‟s means of describing to a manufacturing division or to a
contractor sufficient detail about a design so that it can be produced or constructed.

3.12.5 Execution – Implementation

The completion of the plans, specifications, and engineering reports does not mark the
end of the design process. The final phase of the design process is implementation, the
process of producing or constructing a physical device, product, or system. Engineers
must plan and oversee the production of the devices or products and supervise the
construction of the engineered projects. Different engineers may be involved in this final
phase. This is the culmination of the design process; to the design engineer, it is the
most satisfying phase of all.
It is not uncommon for the work of an engineer to be of such value that it should be
protected from exploitation by others. This may be accomplished by patenting. A patent
for an invention grants a property right by the government to the inventor or his or her
heirs. It excludes others from making, using, or selling the invention. Specific details of
the patent law, however, may differ from country to country.

Despite the best efforts of engineering designers, their designs occasionally fail. Bridges
collapse, roofs of buildings cave in, roads fail, and buildings collapse, threatening human
lives and causing lots of money worth of damage. Engineering failures may be attributed
to a wide variety of causes, including:

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 Mistakes made by inept or careless designers.

 Imperfections in building or manufacturing materials and uncertainties as to their
variability.
 Careless workmanship by technicians or craftsmen who implement the design.
 Poor communications between the managers, engineers, technicians, and craftsmen
who produce or construct the engineered design.
Although the object of engineering design is to preclude failure, truly fail-proof designs
cannot be achieved. An engineering structure or machine can fail in many ways, the
results ranging from blemishes to catastrophes. It is a curious fact that we often learn
more from our failures than from our successes.
When an engineering failure occurs, it is usually important that an investigation be
conducted to determine the cause of the failure and to identify remedial actions that can
be taken to prevent or lessen the likelihood of a reoccurrence. Such investigations may
be carried out by:
 Government agencies or boards.
 Private or professional associations.
 Ad hoc committees or commissions.
i) Tendering and Evaluation
For the construction or installation to take place, there is need for a skilled contractor in
the particular discipline. In only few cases, will the designer also build the structure or
manufacture and install the equipment. In most cases however, it will be necessary to
procure a contractor through a competitive process based on the qualifications of staff,
the financial standing, the equipment they have and the price they offer to do that work
through a bidding process. The bids of the different contractors will be evaluated
according to specified criteria and the best evaluated bid will be awarded the contract by
the Client. The Contractor will then sign a contract with the Client.

Construction usually requires larger numbers of people and a great variety of activities
than do the preceding stages. The cost per day rises sharply, as indicated in Fig. 3. So
does the potential for waste and inefficiency. Construction therefore requires more
detailed attention to its planning, organization, health, safety and costs. Demolition and
substantial changes to existing structures requires special care. Most companies and
public bodies who promote projects employ contractors from this stage on to carry out
the physical work on site. Alternatively, contractors who take on the role of project
promoters are normally fully responsible for design, for instance when investing in the
construction of building for sale or financing an infrastructure project such as the Bujagali
Dam For virtually all construction the contractors in turn employ specialist and local sub-
contractors to work on site and provide services, plant, materials and sub-systems.
ii) Completion and Handover
Sections of a project can proceed at different speeds in design and subsequent stages,
but all must come together for commissioning and handing over the completed facility for
use. This applies especially for electrical or mechanical equipment or other operating
systems.The investment should then be achieving all the objectives of the project.
A subsequent proposal to alter the facility, replace its equipment and services, or
decommission and demolish is a separate project, and should proceed through an
appropriate sequence of investigations and decisions.
iii) Operations and Maintenance
After commissioning, the project will go through an operations and maintenance phase.
A new road or bridge would require incorporation into the traffic system as well as

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periodic inspections and refurbishment. This incorporates the use of the road toll system
to collect user fees from motorists.

3.13 Examples of the Engineering Method in relation to the Project Cycle

A. Road Project
1. Requirement
There is poor road link between Katakwi and Moroto. There is need to upgrade this road
link so as to promote economic development in the region. This will be achieved
through:
i. The integration of international trade through improved cross country transit
ii. The improvement of access to markets and producer services for the
development of rural households
iii. The reduction of poverty through economic growth based on broad- based
agricultural development and the spatial distribution of that growth
iv. The promotion of exports
v. The provision of access to social services
2. Analysis
The analysis will include data collection with respect to the proposed road link as follows
Traffic Survey – the number and types vehicles along the proposed route will be
physically counted by a team. This can be a day and night count for a period of one
week or more, depending on the circumstances. A moving observation count can be
used to determine traffic volumes at different locations along the route. This data will be
used to predict the lifetime axle loading on the planned road, based on an equivalency
factors for different types of vehicles. The design horizon may be 10 or 15 years. Non-
Motorised Transport (NMT) like bicycles will also be included in the traffic count.
Materials Survey – this will seek to sample and test in-situ materials on the existing or
proposed alignment and potential sources of construction materials in the vicinity,
including rock, gravels, sand and water. The tests that will be carried out include the
Liquid Limit, Plastic Limit and Plasticity Index Sieve Analysis, Compaction and California
Bearing Ratio including wetted and dry samples
Topographic Survey – this will seek to identify the existing and proposed routes that will
be used in the pavement and drainage design. A more detailed survey will be done on
cross sections of the proposed route.
Hydrological Survey – this survey will obtain records of the climate which include;
rainfall, river flows and temperatures. This information is required for the design of
drainage structures such side drains, culverts and bridges.
This data will be analysed and an Economic Assessment will be made based on the
traffic forecasts which will include an estimation of the savings in vehicle operating costs
and the quantification of benefits in terms of economic indicators like the Cost Benefit
Ratio, the Net Present Value or the Internal Rate of Return in line Highway Design and
Management (HDM) 4 Software over a 10 or 20 year period.
An Environmental and Social Impact Assessment will be also carried out and a
Preliminary Resettlement Action Plan.
At the end of this a Feasibility Study Report is produced.
3. Synthesis and Evaluation
This will include the Preliminary Design which can include the: i) Pavement Design,ii)
Design of Hydraulic Structures and iii) Cost Estimates
The Pavement Design will follow the Ugandan Road Design Manual or other design
standards, which may be the Kenyan Design Manual, the UK Transport Research

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Laboratory (TRRL) standards or the American standards depending on the either the
capital costs or the life cycle costs.
In some cases this will include strengthening of a subgrade, making an adequate sub-
base, road-base and including a wearing course.
In the Design of Hydraulic Structures, the design flood flows for the drainage structures
will first be estimated using either the rational formulae or TRRL formulae and the
hydraulic design will be done using the Manning equation.
Cost estimates of different alignment options and different pavement options will be
carried out.
The Preliminary Design includes the design report, the book of drawings, the bills of
quantities, the cost estimate and specifications
After the Preliminary Design is completed, it is submitted to the Client who evaluates it
and provides comments. Once these comments are incorporated it becomes the Final
Design.
The Final Design which are the tender documents consist of i) the book of drawings, ii)
the bills of quantities, iii) the specifications both general and special and iv) the forms of
security, which include the bid security, the performance security and the advance
payment guarantee. The Final Design is now ready for execution.
4. Execution
The execution of a project of this kind is usually by the selection of a contractor, through
a competitive bidding process or by direct contracting.
In the competitive bidding method, tender documents are usually given to prequalified
contractors because this approach usually saves on time as opposed to post
qualification, which takes place after the bidding process.
Under prequalification, prospective contractors are prequalified based on specific
criteria. These criteria may include: i) the legal and financial status ii) the experience of
the firm iii) the qualifications of key personnel and iv) equipment available.
i. Legal and Financial Status: these include certificate of incorporation /
registration, memoranda of association, audited accounts, recommendation from
bankers.
ii. Experience of the Firm: this includes the value and nature of contracts during the
last two years as a minimum.
iii. Qualifications of Key Personnel: this would include the education and experience
of the individual staff members categorized as management, technical and
possibly support staff.
iv. Equipment: the contractor should have adequate equipment for executing the
works on hand.
Post qualification is the same process but is done after contractors have submitted their
bids.
Contractors are required to submit bids within a specified time. Once they are
submitted, they are evaluated by a committee and the lowest evaluated bidder is usually
selected to execute the works.
The direct contracting method applies in situations where there is an emergency and
there is need to construct the facility quickly. This method of contracting usually requires
the approval of the National Procurement authority. If this method is to be used, there
will be need to select from the list of prequalified companies based on the past
performance in terms of timely execution and quality of the works.
Once a Contractor is selected, he will be supervised by the Client and the Consultant
until the works are completed and handed over back to the Client for operations and
maintenance.
B. Water Supply and Sanitation Project for an Urban Area

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1. Requirement
It is necessary to provide an improved water and sanitation system in Gulu Municipality
in order to improve the overall health of the affected community. The impact is felt
particularly among children and mothers who do most of the water collection in homes.
For the children, it would mean less time is spent on collecting water and more time can
be spent at school and other productive activities. Furthermore, repeated attacks of
malaria leads to stunted growth and poor intellectual development, which makes them
less competitive in national examinations and thus limits their progression through the
educational system and this continues to fuel, the cycle of poverty. For the mothers, it
would mean less time is spent collecting water and more time can be spent on more
productive activities such as adding value to crops. Furthermore, repeated attacks of
malaria lead to miscarriage in pregnancy and childbirth.

2. Analysis
A number of studies will be required which need to be incorporated in the feasibility
study. These include urban planning, population, socio-economic assessment, hydrology
and water resources, survey and mapping, materials and environmental impact
assessment.
Urban Planning
There is need to discuss the present land use activities and the plans for the future land
use based on structure plans for the urban centre.
Population
There is need to collect historical population data and make projections using the
population growth rate in order to determine the population to be served by the project.
There is need to determine the institutional population as well for markets, schools,
offices, hospitals and health centres, prisons, police and the army. Water demand
projections will be made based on domestic and non domestic demand consumption
rates.
Socio- economic Assessment
There is need to establish the following:
i. Stakeholder‟s attitudes to available water resources and sanitation requirements
ii. The status of household sanitation
iii. Establish income and expenditure levels of the population and therefore service
levels for water supply.
iv. Ability and willingness to pay for improved water and sanitation facilities (a
guideline for affordability is 5% of the income or expenditure)
v. The perception by stakeholders of the best arrangements for the scheme
implementation and future management
Hydrology and Water Resources
There is need to establish the available surface or groundwater resources regarding
their yield to meet the required demand. This will include the type of catchment, average
annual rainfall and seasonal variations, evaporation rates, recharge rates, water yield
and flood risk.
Survey and Mapping
Existing control points can be used to locate new GPS points for the sites, which are
then listed. Levelling results are obtained indicating the levels for the sewerage surveys.
Profiles are required for the i) raw water transmission main, ii) water distribution main iii)
sewerage lines. Topographic surveys are required for both the water and sewage
treatment works layout. Cross sectional surveys will be done at the proposed dam site.
The water supply and sanitation area will be mapped, clearly demarcating block maps,
the reticulation network, location of consumers and a complete data base of consumers.

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Soils and Materials

The existing soils and their capacity to support the proposed structures are investigated.
These would include for a dam embankment, spillway and dam foundation. Borrow pits
and quarries will be identified within the proximity of the proposed dam site. Core drilling
will be done at cross sections for the proposed dam. The objectives are to: i) determine
the soil profile and classify the subsoil ii) determine the permeability characteristics of
the soil and the strength parameters.
Financial Analysis
This is required to determine; i) the cost of water supply per m 3 ii) the cost of collection,
treatment and disposal of sewage per m3 iii) revenue collections from billing to calculate
Net Present Value iv) a sensitivity analysis . The factors that will, be considered will
include the i) design horizon, ii) base year and inflation, iii) discount rates, iv) economic
lifetime v) value of existing assets vi) volumes of water and sewage, vii) number of
connections, viii) operations and maintenance costs and ix) economic benefits.
Institutional Analysis
This will discuss the policy, regulatory and legal framework and if it is appropriate for
additional investments and what modifications need to be made.
Risk Assessment
These are factors that may cause failure or jeopardize the successful completion of a
project. Risk Management involves mainly two stages, risk identification and risk
mitigation.
Environmental Impact Assessment
The assessment would use checklists for water supply projects as well as NEMA
Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines (1997) and Environmental Impact
Assessment Regulations (1998). The different types of impacts may include: i) erosion of
access roads, ii) permanent severance in land or change in land rights arising from
scheme activities, iii) impacts from operation and maintenance iv) socio- economic
impacts , v) water supply impacts v) effects on areas around stand posts by the people
who collect water and vii) the do nothing scenario.
An environmental mitigation plan will be developed for execution in the construction
phase.

3. Synthesis and Evaluation

Water Supply System
The state of the existing water supply system is to be clearly documented and possible
improvements are proposed. The components include: i) the intake, ii) the pumping
mains, iii) the water treatment works, iv) alum dosing plant, v) rapid gravity filters, vi)
chlorination unit, vii) clear water tank viii) clear water transmission main ix) storage
reservoirs, x)distribution network, xi) booster station and xii) service connections.
Sewerage System
The possible sites and method of treatment are determined based on technical and
economic criteria.
The sewer diameters, length, material of the pipes and the size of the sewage ponds are
determined by the sewage inflows, which are based on the population to be served.
Where necessary a sewage pump will be included in the system
A method of reusing the waste content of the sewage effluent along with the fertility
value of the organics, for agricultural and aqua cultural purposes will also be developed.
An Operations and Maintenance Strategy would be designed, which would include
routine maintenance of the ponds.
On- Site Sanitation

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Proposed technologies will include pit latrines, ventilated improved pit latrines, pour flush
latrine, ecological sanitation toilet and septic tanks.
Households should provide their own sanitation, but this is not the case because of
competing demands for their income. Coverage can be improved through; i)encouraging
demand ii) improving demand and good practice through education, iii) improving supply
through household services, iv) improving institutional effectiveness and v) through
microfinance institutions.
Public facilities will be provided for public places such as markets and taxi parks.
The preliminary design will include a design report, specifications, a book of drawings
and bills of quantities. These will be submitted to the Client before the Final Design and
Tender Documents can be prepared.
4. Execution
This will be done by a Contractor and the processes are similar to those discussed in the
Soroti – Moroto Road Project.

C. Building Project
1. Requirement
It is necessary to put in place building infrastructure that will support tourism
development in the National Parks. In particular it will provide accommodation for
tourists
2. Analysis
Settlement Planning
In laying out the settlements, the buildings have to meet the social and cultural norms of
the residents and address the levels of privacy.
Survey and Mapping
It is necessary to carry out a location (cadastral) and topographical survey of the area
Building Design Concept
The building design concept needs to take into consideration the specifications of the
client and space requirements by the users in addition to the specific nature of the
conservation area.
Materials Design
The development of a workable, cost effective sustainable concept has to take into
consideration the following: i) geological conditions ii) availability of basic construction
materials and iii) availability of skilled and casual labour.
Environmental Impact Assessment
The NEMA Guidelines (1997) and Regulations (1998) will be used and an Environmental
and Mitigation Plan developed.
3. Synthesis and Evaluation
The preliminary design will include: i) foundation, ii) walls, iii) roof structure, iv) doors,
windows and ventilators v) structural design and vi) electrical and mechanical design.
The foundation, walls, roof structure, doors, windows and ventilators will be designed
according to the space requirements and appropriate standards.
Structural Design can be carried out in accordance with BS 8110 Parts 1,2 and 3, where
both first principles and computer aided design (CAD) techniques should be employed.
Electrical and Mechanical Design will be done for the electrical installations and water
supply, sanitation and air conditioning systems respectively using the respective British
Standards. Alternative sources of power and water supply will also be considered.
Specifications and Bills of Quantities will also be included.
The Client will comment and a Final design and Tender Documents will be produced.
4. Execution
This will be done using the same procedure as for the Soroti- Moroto Road Project.

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D. A Micro Hydro Power Project

Requirement
There is need to provide power from clean renewable energy through the design and
construction of a decentralized power network in order to promote agro- processing,
small scale industries, social services like education, healthcare and the provision of
potable water. The impact would be felt more among women and children who are
responsible for the collection of firewood.
For the children, it would mean less time is spent on collecting firewood and more time
can be spent at school and other productive activities. Furthermore, repeated exposure
to kitchen smoke may lead to respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and pneumonia
which can lead to frequent absence from school resulting in poor performance in
national examinations and thus fueling the cycle of poverty. This can also mean more
deaths meaning an increase in child mortality. For the mothers, it would mean less time
is spent collecting firewood and more time can be spent on more productive activities
such as adding value to crops and fewer smoke related respiratory diseases. The
availability of power would mean more opportunities for learning in the evening and may
lead to less procreation.
Analysis
A number of studies will be required which need to be incorporated in the feasibility
study. These include urban planning, population, socio-economic assessment, hydrology
and water resources, survey and mapping, materials and geology and environmental
impact assessment.
Urban Planning
There is need to discuss the present land use activities and the plans for the future land
use based on structure plans for the urban centre.
Population
There is need to collect historical population data and make projections using the
population growth rate in order to determine the population to be served by the project.
There is need to determine the institutional population as well for markets, schools,
offices, hospitals and health centres, prisons, police and the army. Electrical power
demand projections will be made based on domestic and non domestic demand
consumption rates.
Socio- economic Assessment
There is need to establish the following:
i. Stakeholder‟s attitudes to available energy requirements
ii. The status of household energy supply
iii. Establish income and expenditure levels of the population and therefore service
levels for energy supply.
iv. Ability and willingness to pay for improved energy facilities (a guideline for
affordability is 5% of the income or expenditure)
v. The perception by stakeholders of the best arrangements for the scheme
implementation and future management
Hydrology and Water Resources
There is need to establish the available river flow to meet the power demand. A flow
duration curve will provide the 90%, 95% and 99% reliable flow. Other important
parameters are the average annual rainfall, seasonal variations, evaporation rates, water
yield and flood risk.
Survey and Mapping
A topographical survey will be done for the catchment in order to determine the level of
impoundment. Profiles are required for the i) spillway and flood control gates, ii) the silt
basin and forebay tanks, iii) penstock, iv) turbines and generators, v)the sub-station, vi)

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the power transmission mains, vii) transformers and viii) the distribution network. Cross
sectional surveys will be done at the proposed dam site.
The power supply area will be mapped, clearly demarcating block maps, the reticulation
network, location of consumers and a complete data base of consumers.
Materials and Geology
The existing soils and rocks and their capacity to support the proposed structures are to
be investigated. These would include for a dam embankment, spillway and dam
foundation. Borrow pits and quarries will be identified within the proximity of the
proposed dam site. Core drilling will be done at cross sections for the proposed dam.
The objectives are to: i) determine the soil profile and classify the subsoil ii) determine
the permeability characteristics of the soil and the strength parameters.
Financial Analysis
This is required to determine; i) the cost of power per kWh ii)) revenue collections from
billing to calculate Net Present Value iii) a sensitivity analysis. The factors that will, be
considered will include the i) design horizon, ii) base year and inflation, iii) discount
rates, iv) economic lifetime v) value of existing assets vi) power generated, vii) number
of connections, viii) operations and maintenance costs and ix) economic benefits.
Institutional Analysis
This will discuss the framework for managing the power supply scheme taking into
account the required technical and management capacity.
Risk Assessment
These are factors that may cause failure or jeopardize the successful completion of a
project. Risk Management involves mainly two stages, risk identification and risk
mitigation.
Environmental Impact Assessment
The assessment would use checklists for hydropower projects as well as NEMA
Environmental Impact Assessment Guidelines (1997) and Environmental Impact
Assessment Regulations (1998). The different types of impacts may include: i) erosion of
access roads, ii) permanent severance in land or change in land rights arising from
scheme activities, iii) impacts from operation and maintenance iv) socio- economic
impacts , v) loss of water to downstream users v)habitat loss and vii) the do nothing
scenario.
An environmental mitigation plan will be developed for execution in the construction
phase.
Synthesis and Evaluation
The preliminary design will include the design for: i) the dam, ii) spillway and flood
control gates, iii) penstock and surge tanks iv ) the silt basin and forebay tanks, v)
turbines and generators, vi) the sub-station, vii) the power transmission mains,
viii)transformers and xi) the distribution network.
There will separate specifications for electrical and mechanical components.
Execution
This will be executed as in the road project except you may have separate contractors
for the electrical and mechanical works.

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References
1 .Institution of Civil Engineers, The Civil Engineering Procedure, Institution of Civil
Engineers, 1992, London UK.
2. Harris, F., McCaffer,R., Modern Construction Management 4th Edition, Blackwell
Science, 1995, London UK.
3. Ballantyne,J.K., The Resident Engineer, Thomas Telford, 1983, London UK.
4. Penny, R.K., Ed, The Experimental Method, The Longman Group, 1974, London ,
UK.
5. Ravetz,J.R., Scientific Knowledge and its Social Problems, Penguin University
Books, London, UK.
6. Wright, P.H., Introduction to Engineering, John Wiley & Sons 2000 New York,
USA.
7. Garratt,J.,Design and Technology, Cambridge University Press 1995, Cambridge,
UK.
8. A. Yarwood, A.H. Orme, Design and Technology, Hodder and Stoughton 1987,
London, UK.
9. Mwakali, J.A., Introduction to Research Methodology, Unpublished Lecture Notes,
Faculty of Technology, Makerere University, 1999, Kampala, Uganda.
10. Koen,B.V., Definition of the Engineering Method, Monograph, American Society
of Engineering Education, 1985, Washington, D.C. USA.
11.www.natkeeran.ca/EMethod/EngMethod2-Characteristics.html.Accessed.July
2010.
12. http:// www.jpb.com/creative/creative.php
13. http:// www.creativityatwork.com/articlesContent/whatis.htm
14.http:// teacher.pas.rochester.edu/phy_labs/.../appendixe.html
15.http://www.molwick.com/en/scientific-methods/043-research-methods.html#texto
16. http://www.experiment-resources.com/
17. Popper, K.R.,The Logic of Scientific Discovery, Routledge Publishers 1959,
London UK
18. Nagel,E., The Structure of Science Problems in the Logic of Scientific
Explanation, HBJ College and School Division, 1968,

4 HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

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4.1 Introduction

The two words that join together to form the word “history” define it and define us. “His-
story” is the story of man- it is our very own story, passed down through time. Beginning
with legends, folk tales and music, to written and recorded facts it tells our beginnings
and our development. It gives us the security that we can predict the future in many
ways- as the saying goes „history repeats itself‟. It is this repetition and predictability of
certain events that form the basis of science and technology- the fact that given a set of
conditions, a certain outcome can be re-produced time and again- so that the three are
intertwined and inseparable. By tracing the history of man, we are able to trace his
influence on the world around him through science and technology.
Within each segment of history, man learned new things and, as his inventive skills
progressed, he acquired a new body of knowledge (which would form the basis of his
scientific knowledge) with each invention. A link is shown between the rise and fall of
different empires and societies, and how this affected the spread and development of
science and technology- from the small bands of hunter-gatherers, to small groups of
early societies that developed into cities, to great empires of each historic age. The
focus however is continually directed towards the scientific and technological output of
these empires/ societies.

4.2 The Beginnings of Man

From the beginning of time, the core driving force that propelled science forward was the
needs of man. From archaeological remains, the little pre-history from about 50,000
years back suggests that early man was mainly concerned with staying alive, though
surprisingly, he took the trouble to bury his dead. In the beginning, man was at the
mercy of the elements. The Chinese had six elements fire, air, water, earth and metal
and wood as practical elements: the Greeks had only four, that is, fire, air, water and
earth. At first, these elements represented man‟s environment which could only be
observed but not manipulated, except by hoping for something through prayers and
magic. As a hunter-gatherer, man struggled against the elements to meet the most basic
of his needs- food, water, shelter and clothing. Later, with the development of science
and technology, these same elements represent man‟s natural environment which could
be manipulated at the bidding of man.

4.2.1Tools and Fire

Prior to such scientific developments, man‟s most immediate needs were what occupied
his mind. Hunting was his preoccupation and a number of rituals developed around this
in order to make him more successful in this vocation. It is believed that most of the
inventions at the time were connected to hunting and his need to survive. Stones were
therefore shaped to meet the particular task, simple shelters were therefore constructed
where caves could not be found, and wheels and axles were invented to help transport
heavy carcasses.
Rocks and trees were fashioned into weapons that allowed early man to hunt for food.
Spears were developed in this way. The spear could travel faster in flight than man could
ever run and this ability to invent tools and pass on knowledge gave man growing control
over his surroundings. These tools/ implements can be regarded as social fossils
because while archaeologists can tell the date of an implement, the making of it was a
social affair. Every child had to learn how to make flint implements which, varied with

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communities. These inventions were simple and, we must note, were purely by rule of
thumb

Man did not invent fire but rather captured it. The skill of taming fire was very deeply
ingrained and the fire-keeper was the most important person of the group. Making fire
was based on the knowledge of transformation of mechanical energy into heat either by
rubbing and sawing, or by drilling or by striking. Unknowingly, these were the beginnings
of chemistry and mineralogy because they first knew two stones very well: first the one
from which they made the flint and second, firestone (pyrites/ iron sulphide), which
yielded fire when struck by flint. With the knowledge of making fire, man started to make
less temporary settlements.

4.2.2 Farming and the Calendar

Stone Age man soon discovered a new vocation- farming. The yield of his crop became
terribly dependant on the natural forces of rains, wind, the sun and soil. Man had no
control over any of these forces and so the notion that the gods must be in charge of
these grew. Rituals developed around these, during which the favors of the gods were
entreated. The idea of fetishes then set in. These were natural objects that were
supposed to have some supernatural powers. These included mountains, special trees,
et cetera. With farming, communities were established especially along river deltas and
other fertile grounds and each community had its own gods. While primitive hunters
never bothered to look beyond the next meal or next full moon, after agriculture began
the calendar became important.
The initial picture of the world was naïve- a homely kind of world with four walls, a roof,
two big lights and many small lights. But he needed to know when these lights got turned
on and off, when the rains were to come, when the river flooded and so on; so man
started to observe the heavens from which he deduced a lot. For this reason, the
calendar was vital and the magician or priest was in charge of it. It is therefore
interesting to note, that even as today science divorces itself from religion, science
began in the realm of religion. Our ancestors directly linked time with the position of the
sun in the sky and the seasons of the year. This was the basis of the calendar that would
then give man the answer as to when and how the elements (especially water in the
form of rain) would act. In this way man began to slowly gain some control over the
elements that affected his ability to meet his basic needs.
No documentation was made of many of the inventions during this historical period;
nonetheless, the foundations had been laid waiting to be built upon by future
generations. Most significantly, the calendar involved the very important knowledge and
understanding of heavenly motions. The observation of heavenly bodies was the
beginning of derivation of ideas and the evolution of sciences like astronomy,
mathematics, physics and navigation. The search for ways and means to improve his life
continued through the ages and the story of this search is the story of man‟s world of
science and invention

4.3 Classical Times

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With the growth of agriculture and a less sedentary lifestyle, cities began to develop and
civilization developed rapidly- the term „civilisation‟ means city, from the word civis for
city. A more urban society emerged with a social order in which people started to
develop specialist skills, co-operate through trade, or organize as irrigation systems etc.
Once farming was established, there was a need to store the grain and the craft of
making fire clay pots started. A craft was invented to meet a precise and perceived
need. Once invented, other needs always sprang into existence.
With a roof over his head and steady supply of food, man began to explore the world
around him further and out of the agricultural surplus, trade with neighbouring societies
began. The wheel and axle were developed due to the need to transport heavy loads
over long distances. Tree trunks were initially used as rollers upon which loads were
placed. These later evolved into wheels when a band was placed at the end on the trunk
(roller) to prevent the loads from slipping off. The diameters of the bands were made
wider than the diameter of the trunk so that they could freely turn. Smooth rotation of the
wheel about a fixed axel had been developed earlier during the Bronze Age. Carts and
chariots used in transport and agriculture, pulleys to hoist large stone blocks, screws
used in cloth and wine presses naturally developed from the wheel whilst simple lever
systems- the earliest machines used by man- were used to raise water from wells and
shift large stone blocks. The bow and arrow itself was one of the first machines. The
quick release of stored energy in the stretched string propelled the arrow further than
man could throw it.
Indeed, invention has been shown to go hand in hand with civilization. In about 2000 or
3000 BC, there were three mutually isolated centers of civilization. These were, in the
first place, the Mediterranean area and further East (the so-called Near East) going
down into the Persian Gulf, including Egypt, Syria, Mesopotamia with certain outlying
territories‟ secondly, India, including the Indus Valley which is largely Pakistan; and
thirdly, China.

4.3.1 Egyptian and Mesopotamian Society

By 3200 BC, the Upper and Lower kingdoms of Egypt had been united under kings- the
pharaohs. The Egyptians, being farmers, also had gods related to the natural forces.
They were particularly concerned with the calendar because the Nile flood was a regular
annual event; people who made the calculations had to give warning when the floods
would be coming and the whole agricultural life had to be organized round this event.
The positions of bright stars proved very helpful in providing much needed information
on when to sow and when to reap the harvest and temple priests were in charge of
mapping these. Recurrence was observed in seasons and the concept of time was
gradually developed in this way.
Basic mathematics assisted greatly in determining the regular and repeated flooding
seasons- much could be deduced from observing the heavens because men counted
long enough, which means that counting is a very old thing. Initially man counted using
his ten fingers, then he used ten beads on a string, and later improved to the abacus;
today we have the computer. In astronomy, the Babylonians of Mesopotamia counted
and studied recurrences, on the basis of which they were able to make predictions
concerning seasons for agriculture and the fate of men such as death, victory in battle
etc. The concept of measurement was thus incorporated into science by developing the
theory of astronomy first for the calendar and secondly for navigation. Measurement
came into being to regulate customary exchanges, which later became trade and
taxation; and to regulate the movements of the heavens, which were deemed to

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influence things on earth. Astronomy and mathematics were therefore the top sciences
ever since; astronomy being made simple by mathematical tricks.
Babylonian mathematics was a very solid foundation for calculus and an equally sound
foundation for geometry which existed in the work of the Egyptians. All numerical
methods of calculations were carried out to an extremely high degree of accuracy,
simply by counting the occurrences of the planets, moon and so fourth, using a notation
which was essentially a decimal notation, a place notation, using the number of sixty
instead of ten. The observed period of time taken for seasons to recur was called the
year. The Egyptians first used the sidereal year- that which depended on the assumption
that the sun moves back to a certain position in the sky with respect to the stars
surrounding it once a year. This year was taken to have exactly 365 whole days. The
Egyptian and Babylonian astronomical records can be taken as the first experimental
write-ups, developed unknowingly to fulfill a social need(s). Very long tables of
observations dating up to 200 years earlier from the Babylonians were used by the pre-
philosopher Thales of Miletus to make the first prediction of eclipses.

How to maintain the equilibrium of matter and stop it from moving has been a big
challenge posed to man since his early days. It is the Egyptians who discovered some of
the first principles of structural engineering and used this knowledge to construct many
of the ancient wonders of the earth such as the pyramids. The Egyptians gave their
pharaohs deity status and when alive, he was called Horus. They believed that if the
king died, he continued to live in the next life as Osiris. It is this notion that led them to
construct the pyramids where the bodies of the pharaohs were preserved and they
continued to „live‟. Indeed, the pyramids were and are still a marvel. They were
constructed using slave labour and sophisticated technology. This is a classic example
of how beliefs can cause people to perform unprecedented feats.
The Babylonians also built great temples for their gods such as Marduk. It is in the
building of such temples that the foundations of building technology were laid. In building
these temples, rollers were invented, pulleys were invented, masonry techniques were
discovered, et cetera. Musical instruments were discovered for use in temple worship.
The need to store water by the Egyptians led to the molding of pots out of clay, thus the
advent of chemical engineering. This naturally led to the invention of the potter‟s wheel.
The combination of invention inspired by man‟s needs and the principles governing the
workings of these inventions is the story of science.

4.3.2 Chinese Society

The Chinese reinforce how science has its origin in the social needs and activities of
man. The Chinese had, and do still have, numerous gods that they honoured in various
festivals throughout the year intended to ensure good health, plentiful harvests and
blessings in all areas of their lives. Based on these beliefs, there were philosophers in
China who played a special part in society. They were scientific advisers, so to speak,
who made a living by staying at the court or the city, advising the ruler or government
what they should do in various circumstances according to omens (derived from
consulting the stars and the gods).
There were also a number of cultural rituals concerning the burial of their dead. The
Chinese used to spin the spoon on the geomancer‟s table and the direction it finally
pointed was the direction to bury somebody _ a form of astrology. In this way, the
Chinese were the first to discover the relation of a magnet with direction, accidentally,
when they realized that the spoon made of lodestone always pointed south on the

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geomancers table while spoons made from other materials showed variable results.
From this, the compass was gradually born to improve on navigation.
The origin of chemistry was also connected with death rituals where the Chinese learnt
that the substance (mercury sulphide) which they rubbed on their dead to imitate blood
formed two other substances when heated: a yellow material which burnt (sulphur), and
a shinny metallic material which ran (mercury). It was from this that chemistry grew and
spread.
The other major invention to come out of China at the time was the new horse harness.
The harness was first developed in China in form of a stirrup, which enabled the horse
rider to shoot his arrow both backwards and forwards as he sat in the saddle. This
greatly improved military warfare, and later agriculture, when it was realized that two
horses could plough a slope which was initially done by eight oxen. This led to an
improved production of corn.

4.3.3 Greek Society

From about 2000 BC, Indo-European invaders moved down to the land that is known as
Greece. The Greeks were part of civilization and therefore knew a lot about it. They
started with the ancient times, then the Bronze Age when the existing way of life started
to break, and later the Iron Age, which brought with it iron weapons and iron agricultural
implements. They also had a number of all-powerful gods. Only later on did the Greek
thinkers begin questioning the wisdom of the gods being in total control. The poets of the
time also followed suit. Philosophy was then born.

Philosophy

Ancient Greece provided the world with some of the greatest philosophers; most famous
of these were Plato (427-347 BC), Aristotle (469-399 BC) and Plato‟s teacher Socrates
(469-399 BC). The early philosophers lived along the borders of Greece in small towns
and ports which were ruled by aristocrats, although these aristocrats were later
overthrown by wealthy merchants _‟tyrants‟ is what the Greeks called them. In time
discontentment with heavy taxes levied lead to tyrants being driven out or killed, and the
people set up a government of the people _ a democracy. Later on, with the advent of
democracy, philosophy in Greek mainland shifted from physical science to moral and
political issues. Socrates, for example, thought that people wasted time studying natural
sciences because these did not help the soul in any way. A new kind of institution _ the
Museum, for Muses, was set up in Alexandria by Aristotle‟s pupils led by Theophrastus,
his favorite. In it were dramatic critics, poets, painters and other such people in one
wing; scientists in the other; all joined by a magnificent library containing everything that
had ever been written in Greece.
The word philosophy comes from the Geek word that means love for wisdom. In this
sense philosophy is the study of the principles that underlie all knowledge. The oldest
philosophic question is “What is there?” or “What exists?” The philosophers who answer
this question group what exists into two; material objects, and thoughts and sensations.
Those who subscribe only to the former answer are called the materialists. Those who
adhere only to the latter answer are the idealists. Those who accept that both groups
exist are called the dualists. One big branch of philosophy which is very important and
can be dealt with separately is logic. Logic is the science of reasoning which is very

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important if philosophical arguments can be understood and criticized. Logic seeks to

probe the accuracy of a statement by starting with a set of statements, called premises,
which are known to be true and saying that the conclusion is true if the set of premises
are true. It is logic which has proved to be very instrumental in the information since it is
applied in computer programming. The arithmetic logic unit of the computer is an
important part of the brain of the computer.

The Birth of Modern Science

Philosophy was a major step in the jump from man‟s accumulated knowledge to science
proper. The Greeks were the first to develop a scientific imagination; the ancient
scientists like the Babylonians simply stated laws but the Greeks asked why things were
as they were. Greek science grew very quickly with all the main ideas formed in a matter
of 150 years. This is not surprising since all Greek cities kept in touch with one another;
their wise men quoted each other. The culture was what the Greeks called Panhellenic_
they spoke the same language, they traded with each other, they compared notes to
argue and disagree with each other. Early Greek philosophers were unable to observe
matter close up and could only guess why and how it acted. Democritus (5th Century BC)
believed that matter was made up of indivisible atoms (from Greek word, atomos- which
means something that can not be divided). This was blasphemy to the Greeks of the
time because it suggested that the Ancient gods were after all not in complete control of
the movement of these atoms.

It is after man begun to search for natural laws and principles and so produced theories
that he ascended from being an inventor to being a scientist. The scientific method
therefore entails: observation, deduction, hypothesis and experimentation. Greek
philosophers such as Plato (427- 347 BC) and Aristotle (384-322 BC), created mental
pictures of matter while, Archimedes (287-212 BC) used mathematical pictures to
explain physical principles. It is this ability to use one‟s imagination to make new and
original scientific pictures and models coupled with the ability to combine knowledge and
patient investigation that is expedient to scientific invention. Scientific models are built to
explain how and why things behave the way they do.
In conclusion, we have seen that philosophy, by and large, seeks to explain things and
come to conclusions basing on premises whereas science seeks to come to conclusions
based on experimentation and observation. This does not mean that they do not
complement each other; on the contrary, a lot of scientific facts have now become
premises from which conclusions are drawn in philosophy, and deductions, which are
philosophical in origin, have been used in science to predict certain phenomena which
were later, with better technology, proven right such as some aspects of Einstein‟s
theory that matter and energy are inter-convertible. Science and philosophy, therefore,
go hand in hand.

Founders of Modern Science

Pythagoras

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Pythagoras (570-500 BC) was a Greek philosopher who developed the idea that
mathematics was concerned with nature; previously, little thought was given to the
connection between the two. He thought it unimportant to disover basic components out
of which the world was made; instead, he claimed that measurement or number was the
real key to understanding and he made several striking discoveries about numerical
properties of things. He set up a school with very strict rules, some mathematical, others
peculiar; for example, it was forbidden to eat beans. Why beans? Notwithstanding the
accuracy of what he felt was most important, we all agree that he laid down
mathematical theorems which have proven to be very useful in areas such as
trigonometry. These have found use in navigation, engineering, et cetera.
He, however, did not produce the Pythagorean Theorem; it was known many thousands
of years before by the Babylonians who had tables giving the lengths of the sides of the
so-called Pythagorean right-angled triangles. Nor did he produce the proof of it, for this
was done hundreds of years later; what he did was announce the theorem and
considered it a great mystery _ that the square on the hypotenuse of a right angled
triangle was equal to the sum of the squares on the other two lengths, irrespective of
man or anything else. The Greeks developed the idea of proof which was an element
lacking in the Egyptian and Babylonian theories, laws and rules.
Pythagoras introduced physics the way we know it today. He studied harmony and is
alleged to be the first person to show a relation between sound and the length of a
string. Initially, people tuned stringed instruments according to scales in order to
produce harmonious sound; and this was done intuitively. Pythagoras, however, reduced
the scales to numbers and therefore, for the first time, mathematics became mixed with
physics_ Pythagoreanism is a mathematical physics. Another thing he was concerned
with was geometry.

Democritus

About the 5th century BC, some scientists who were called the atomists, led by
Democritus made this assertion, „We see change and movement therefore there must
be change and movement‟. They concluded that the world was made not of unmoving
spherical masses- as Permenides had suggested- but millions of tiny atoms that could
change position among themselves and thus make up new things. This became the
basis of atomic theory that was later propounded upon by Dalton, and has given us an
appreciation of the atomic world. Science has since proven Democritus right.

Democritus, as learnt from Leucippus, held the view that numbers applied to actual
things. Democritus took a very rigid view saying that there were hard, unbreakable,
uncuttable things _a-tomos_ and that by arranging them in various geometrical figures,
you could produce all the various appearances that were seen. The atoms, he said, of
course could not stand still, they moved around forming new combinations. Lucretius
went on to say that atoms move and that it is by the atoms moving that you get the
variety of things. The argument then was that, things do not change, that the properties
of things are always the same, and therefore, that atoms cannot change. But this atomic
theory was not in the main lines of thought at the time; for social and religious reasons, it
was considered a very dangerous hypothesis. It was pushed to the side and the
development of science proceeded much on older lines assuming the essence of things

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not atomic but continuous; this was the same view that was taken by Aristotle, the
greatest Greek scientist.

Aristotle

The Greek philosopher, Aristotle was one of Plato‟s most famous students, and he was
teacher to Alexander, the son to King Phillip; by that time, Greece had been conquered
by Macedonians. This put Aristotle in a position of opportunity to learn more about
science and mathematics. He made a deep impression on all sciences of his time. He
was a biologist who treated the whole universe as a living thing. He did not introduce
anything new, but rather went to the cruder ideas of the earlier scientists; he had no
much use for mathematics and held a crude picture of the solar system.

Aristotle contemplated the issues of motion (dynamics) and equilibrium. He considered

rest to be the natural state of things on earth and that every thing was made of a mixture
of what he called the „elements‟- earth, water, fire and air. Each of these elements had a
natural resting place and when disturbed would always return to this natural resting
place. He went on to conclude that heavier objects would fall faster than lighter ones. In
Aristotle‟s time, asking why things happened, without observing how they happened was
the method most used.

Archimedes

Earlier scientists had dealt mainly with geometry and mathematics, but great
developments in pneumatics and hydrostatics came from Syracuse, particularly from
Archimedes. The Greek philosopher Archimedes was the first to propound on the
principle of flotation. This principle implies that for a body to float, the forces acting on it
must be in equilibrium. That is to say, its weight acting downwards and upthrust, which is
equal to the weight of the fluid displaced, must balance out. If the latter is greater than
the former, it sinks. If the reverse is true, it rises.

This was his biggest achievement i.e. the theory that the force of a floating body is equal
to the weight of the volume of water displaced. Ships, submarines and balloons are
governed by this principle. The hull of a ship contains a great amount of air and it is so
shaped that it displaces a volume of water whose weight is equal to the weight of the
ship. In this way, a ship whose body is made of steel is able to float on water. A balloon
„floats‟ if its weight is balanced by an equal upthrust due to the weight of a large volume
of air it displaced. Once filled with a lighter –than-air gas such as hydrogen and helium,
the volume of the balloon keeps on changing as it rises because of the changing
atmospheric pressure and temperature with height. If left unrestrained it may burst at a
certain height. This height is a function of its weight, volume of gas it contains,
atmospheric pressure and temperature. To descend, some of the gas is let out so that
the volume of displaced gas and consequently the upthrust reduces. In this process, the
weight of the balloon, which has not reduced proportionately, will create a downward
resultant force and consequently a downward acceleration will ensue due to the
disequilibrium created.
Archimedes realized that experiments were a useful way of attaining knowledge and is
also honoured for laying the foundations of the theory of machines. His works dealt
largely with mechanics, being rational justifications for actual technical developments

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that occurred later on. Most of it was based on the lever, the way in which forces passing
through different points could balance each other. He studied the balance of actual
bodies of different shapes and developed the idea of centre of gravity. He also made
actual models to see whether his theories corresponded with facts.
As far as the Greeks were concerned, optics was limited to the study of shadows and
mirrors. They had the idea of the concave mirror, which formed an image. The Greeks
were also aware that mirrors could focus rays and could be used as a burning glass.
They used this principle to defend themselves in battle- Archimedes was the source of
the minimal body of knowledge acquired by Greeks in the field of optics.
There is no doubt that Archimedes monopolized the Greek science of the Hellenistic
period.

Hippocrates

It can be accurately said that as long as there have been men, there have been wounds
to heal and illnesses to cure. The history of medicine ought to begin, therefore, with the
history of man. It can, however, be said that since so little is known about medicine
amongst primitive men, the proper place to start the history of medicine is in Greece. A
poet Homer, writing either in the 8th or the 9th century BC tells of two doctors; Machaon
who seems to have been a surgeon, and Podalirius – a physician. Surgeons treat
disease or injury by manual operation whilst the physician uses medicine and treatment
in order to heal.
The first truly scientific doctor, some of whose writings have come down to us is
Hippocrates of Cos who was born about 460 BC. It is the theory and practice of
Hippocrates that underlies modern medicine. His theory stated that every disease is
subject to natural law just like everything else and should therefore be carefully
observed; and that since all bodies have a natural tendency to recovery the proper duty
of medicine is to seek the best ways in which to help it. Doctors today still sometimes
take the „Hippocratic Oath‟ when they qualify. Then there arose the „theory of Humors‟
propounded by Empedocles in the 5th century BC. The first great medical schools were
set up in Alexandria, Egypt after the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century
BC. The first man to dissect a human being in front of his students was Herophilus who
died in 290 BC. Another renowned physician of the time was Erasistratus. He believed
that most diseases arose from an excess of blood and so his treatment was bleeding the
patient.

The Legacy of the Classical World

From about 100AD until almost about 1200, the sciences did not even reach the Greek
standards. Remarkable developments were made in astronomy such as actual
computational astronomy, especially in Egypt. Hipparchus made star catalogues,
eclipses were studied, and the first models of the solar system made. These
improvements became the basic guidelines of the motions of the stars and the planets
for future centuries and lead great discoveries of the Renaissance. In 1540, Archimedes
„works were translated to Latin for the first time, and read by competent mathematicians.
As a result, this led to the great revolution, among others. Much of the other sciences of

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the Ancients were preserved in books; but because astronomy was needed to chart the
planets, it was handed and passed on.

However, these scientific developments came to a stand still due to war; Greece was
under siege by Carthegians. As a result, Archimedes was called as a scientific advisor,
using mirrors and other devices to burn up enemy ships, although they lost in the battle.

4.4 Medieval Times

The medieval times were an intermediate period, vital for the development of sciences
preparing for the Scientific Revolution. During this time, science was no longer taught,
and in the west, this period was referred to as the Dark Ages. Apparently what was
happening in Europe was people wondering; the Franks were getting into France, the
Angles were getting into England, the Burgundians, the Lombard and other tribes were
wandering about all over Europe, the Vandals getting into Africa, the Huns into Eastern
Europe. As a result of these migrations, much of the civilizations disappeared although
there was some degree of continuity of urban life.

4.4.1 Roman Society

By the 6th century BC, the Roman Empire had already been established and they too
had gods they worshiped. Temples were also constructed to these. The religions that
developed after these were mainly monotheistic, that is, they believed in one supreme
being who was the creator- mainly Christianity. The Roman Empire had a mixture of
sciences from Greece, Egypt, India and Babylonia, which was spread over the whole
empire. Although the Romans contributed little to natural philosophy, one of the great
contributions they gave the world was a sophisticated administration system.

Engineering

The Romans laid the foundations for the modern cities of our time. The Greeks had
adopted Egyptian principles (of equilibrium) that were used to construct many of the
ancient wonders of the world; and this knowledge was passed down to the Romans. The
Romans invented the professions of civil and military engineer who designed and
planned projects, which could be carried out by lower cadres (white-collar work was
socially acceptable and actively encouraged). These highly accomplished civil engineers
were able to build roads, aqueducts/ canals, bridges and fortress towns in the whole of
Western Europe. The Roman empire had 80,000 Km of major roads. Although the
engineers had to know what the craftsmen were producing, they did not have to acquire
the skills themselves.

One of the famous Roman engineers was Vitruvius (a military engineer), who served
under Julius Caesar, and wrote the acclaimed book De Architecture. The contents of his
book give advice on the construction of buildings, finding water and testing rainwater,
methods of leveling, and waxing and waning of the moon. He stated that a man, who
without culture aims at manual skill, cannot gain a prestige corresponding to his labours;

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while those who trust only literature and theory follow a shadow not reality. Only those
who have mastered both attain their purposes.

The Water Wheel

The Romans were also instrumental in spreading the use of the water wheel throughout
Europe. For example a slave working for 10 hours could grind about 40 kilogrammes of
corn, whereas two water wheels in series could grind 28,000 kilogrammes in a 10 hour
day and supply sufficient flour for 80,000 people. The potential for water power was
appreciated in Northern Europe where there was a plentiful supply of water throughout
the year.

Roman Medicine

The earliest medical work in Latin we still possess is De Medicina written about AD 30
by Aulus Cornelius. The greatest of the Roman physicians is perhaps Claudius Galenus
who became physician to Emperor Marcus Auralius (AD 130-200) and his writings were
to influence medicine for some fifteen centuries. His theory was basically that every
created part in the body had a purpose for being created by God and that by careful
study it was possible to fully understand the body.

Fall of the Roman Empire

The geographical extension of science was then continued later by the Arabs. There
was a great jehad against the Roman Empire which was started by the Arabs, who were
successful in both conquest and governance. A characteristic of the fall of the Roman
Empire was the decline in engineering works. Western Europe had however remained
backward, in the sense that because it was at the edge of the Roman Empire, it
benefited least from Roman civilization, and consequently was the least developed.

4.4.2 Arab Society

After the fall of the Roman Empire, the Byzantine Arabs became the custodians of
learning until the Renaissance period- they translated into Arabic the works of Aristotle,
Euclid, Archimedes, Hero of Alexandria, Galen and Ptolemy. People adhered to the
Mohammedan rule easily because they found it fairer and easy as compared to the
previous unpopular Roman and Greek rules. All the Syriac translations of the Greek
works were translated into Arabic, and, by that time, there were many Arab scholars who
were learned in the Greek language; Arabic knowledge was thus added to the Greek
knowledge. The main contribution made was the Arabic Numerals. The Arab scholars
used to travel from Morocco to Peking and back; this resulted into a geographical
extension of science, greater than that during the time of Alexander.

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The University and the Spread of Science

During the Arab period, science was spread in an organized manner - through
universities. Initially, in Greece, there had not been any universities, only schools where
philosophers taught a few men who attended and it was strictly a private affair. The
Museum on the other hand, was a research institution, not a teaching institution. The
idea of teaching institutions arose from the schools attached to the mosque – the
Madrasah, where teachers came and taught all subjects to any students that attended.
The traditions in the Mohammedan universities were the foundation of university tradition
we have today, for instance, they wore a cap and gown, which were referred to as the
robe of honour and was given to students after matriculating. Four hundred years later,
the cap and gown are still worn at graduation.

Arabic Astronomy

The Arabic attitude was to examine the works of the Ancients and make any corrections
and improvements where necessary, which they did superbly. They dealt chiefly with
astronomy, making very accurate astronomical observations with much bigger
apparatus. The Arabs did not change the picture of the universe, but accepted the earth-
centered picture and the eccentrics as improved by Ptolemy. They did not revolutionize
astronomy; they kept it and polished it up.

The Arabs made astronomical tables, which were later taken over by the Christian
crusaders who drove the Arabs out of Spain. The first astronomical tables, the so-called
Alfonsine Tables, were made in Toledo on the basis of the Arab tables which were
based on Syrian tables which, in turn were based on Greek tables; but the observations
went on, getting more accurate with time

Arabic Medicine

The Arabs did a great deal in chemistry unlike in the other sciences; the Greeks did not
have anything in chemistry. By the 9th century advances in medicine (using the available
knowledge of chemistry) were again being made, but they came not from the west, but
from the Moslem nations in the east. Moslems, by this time had conquered much of the
near east and had absorbed the surviving system of Greek medicine. The Persian
Avicenna wrote a medical encyclopedia at the beginning of the 11th century that was still
a chief medical text book by the beginning of the 17th century both in the east and in the
west. Much of the medical work written in Arabic was the work of Jewish doctors such as
Isaac Israili, Rabbi Moses ben Maimon and Constantin. In the 13th century a number of
new medical schools and universities were started and the habit of making and keeping
„case-histories‟ of patients was started some of which were of great interest to medical
men of later generations.

Optics

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Mohammedan science made a great advance on that of the Greeks in the field of optics,
which was largely a by-product of medicine. The Greeks had the mirror and they knew
that it would focus but they did not have lenses. On the other hand, Arabs had the lens
which they used to improve the vision of old men by the use of spectacles.

In conclusion, the Arabs saved a great deal of Greek contributions in physics. In

chemistry and medicine, they made great reformations, and in physics, they added
information on optics and magnetism.

4.5 Renaissance, Reformation And Industrial Revolution

Science proper as opposed to natural philosophy began with the Renaissance. The next
scientific leap forward had to await the Renaissance in Italy, Reformation in Germany.
The renaissance simply means the re-birth of knowledge. The Scientific Revolution is
associated with the discovery of the nature of the solar system, the discovery of
universal gravitation, of the properties of light, of the vacuum, of gases. The
Renaissance and the Scientific Revolution together represent a change in the economy,
in technique, in attitudes towards the world which were reflected in changes in religion
as well as physical appreciation of the world. The Scientific revolution moved in three
stages. The first was the preparatory stage, starting in 1453 _ the date of the fall of
Constantinople, up to 1543 _ the year Copernicus‟s revolution which destroyed the old
conception of the world, the central place of the earth in the universe. The next stage
was the crest of the wave, the Renaissance, which was followed by the Reformation
carrying on up to about 1620. In this period, there was the picture of the solar system by
Tycho Brahe and Kepler, the development of the telescope and optical and dynamical
discoveries by Galileo and Newton‟s Principia. Discoveries were made in the working of
the human anatomy, in the working of the solar system through experiment and
observation. Galileo and Newton discovered corresponding mathematics of the
differential equations, the basis of theoretical physics ever since. In this period comes
Industrial Revolution, the steam engine, the study of the vacuum, etc.
When Constantinople fell to the forces of Islam in 1453 and some Greek scholars fled
west, carrying as many books and manuscripts as they could, they brought them first to
Italy where scholars eagerly sought the knowledge they contained. This enthusiasm for
„new learning‟ was further encouraged by the invention of the moveable metal type, oil
based ink and the printing press halfway through the 15th century. The result of this
invention was that books became much cheaper and scholars had better opportunities to
study. The first Bible was printed in 1456 and a book on military engineering by Valturio
in 1472. Many of the Greek medical texts were published and this led to the
advancement of the medical profession. This, again, is an example of how technological
invention has aided advancement in other areas of science. Thomas Linacre (1460-
1524) was very instrumental in the diffusion of medical knowledge through his
publication work.
At the turn of the 16th century, the Swiss philosopher and alchemist Parcelsus (1493-
1541) began a series of controversial lectures in Basel and it is he who began making
drugs from mineral and chemical sources. Some of his theories were expanded and
adapted and are still held today.

4.5.1 First Stage of the Scientific Revolution

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The Copernican Revolution

Copernicus was born in Poland and educated in Italy by his bishop uncle. He studied
law, medicine, philosophy, belles letters; but incidentally picked an interest in astronomy.
His findings in astronomy served as another door opened to the working of the solar
system. He stated that the earth had three motions. First, it revolves annually in a great
circle about the sun. Second, it revolves on its axis. The third motion is due to the
variation in the inclination of the earth‟s axis to the line joining the sun and earth. By the
time of Copernicus‟s discovery of the solar system in 1543, it was generally believed that
the sun rotated around the earth, which was the central place of the universe.
Copernicus destroyed this concept with his findings that the earth had three motions. His
findings paved way in astronomy. However astronomers went on using the old methods,
but they had to work much more accurately if their work was to be of practical use in
navigation.

Tycho Brahe

Tycho (1546-1601) was a wealthy noble man from Denmark who built the first scientific
institution of modern times, called Uraniborg or Heaven‟s Castle. Tycho knew about
Copernicus‟s work but did not choose to follow it all the way. He made a translation of it
which preserved the central position of the earth but left everything else where
Copernicus had put it, that is, he said the moon and the sun went round the earth but the
planets went round the sun. This was geometrically possible, but it did not make physical
sense; it still required the whole system to circle round the earth once a day. He was
concerned with getting very accurate measurements, which he obtained by using bigger
instruments. The observations were repeated and carried out over a long period of time,
which made the results extremely detailed. Tycho Brahe made very many detailed
observations of the solar system, from which his young German assistant, Johann
Kepler (1571-1630), made deductions which further explained the solar system.

However, apart from being a good scientist, he was a very hard and quarrelsome man;
this caused him, at one time, to lose favor at the king‟s court. When this happened, he
then left Uraniborg to become chief mathematicus of the Emperor of Austria, Rudolph II,
in 1599. His works were taken over by Johann Kepler.

Johann Kepler

Kepler was the mathematician of the Emperor Rudolph II of Germany and his main
function was to produce good horoscopes. He did not believe in horoscopes himself, but
pointed out that it was easy to raise money and earn a living from such a harmless thing
like horoscope; which was the reason the work on tables always continued.

Although Tycho Brahe made very detailed observations, it was his assistant, Kepler,
who made the needed practical deductions; and thus, became the father of modern
theoretical and experimental physics because he recognized that, while you had perfect
freedom in working out your theories, they had to fit the observations. This was unlike
the earlier scientists, like Plato and the rest, who formed theories and when these did not
fit observations, they thought it was much worse for observations!

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He concentrated on Mars mainly because it was the nearest external planet which could
be observed at all times. Kepler came up with three laws from his observations: first, that
the moon traveled in an elliptical path round the earth. The idea of the elliptical orbit
enabled him to explain that planets moved faster when nearer to the sun and slower
when furthest from it; this in turn explained inequalities in time taken in different seasons
for example, days are longer in summer, when the earth is furthest from the sun, than in
winter. His second law stated that the momentum of the earth in its obit is constant. His
third law was the inverse square law.

Galileo Galilei

Galileo was a professor of mathematics and Military Engineering at Pisa which was the
University town of Florence, in Italy. He was a powerfully connected man, dealing with
princes and popes, and he was a good and popular lecturer. He covered a wide field of
science, and his biggest contribution was essentially his observations of the moons of
the planets Jupiter and Saturn, which led to a revolution in dynamics; it should be noted
however, that Galileo was not an astronomer. He easily made publications of his
observations, owing to his connections to people of high places. In them, he reported
actual observational proof, which does not require any mathematics, but which does
require observation. There was the model of Copernican solar system, and the
calculations of the astronomers, as well as Kepler‟s Laws, but Galileo Galilei made
straight forward observations of the solar system which convinced people of the
Copernicus solar system more than Kepler‟s Laws.
In 1666, Borelli, an Italian physiologist, introduced the idea that in the movement of the
planets, there required another force to balance the centrifugal force, which he
characterized as the gravitational force; however, this conclusion had already been
arrived at by Newton in 1665. In 1679, a number of scientists came to conclusion that
the gravitational pull (centripetal force) required to balance the centrifugal force
depended on the radius divided by its cube; this reasoning came from Kepler‟s
reasoning.

Navigation

Astronomical knowledge of the solar system was not only used for astrology, but for
navigation as well. Navigation started first by coasting, that is, sailing along a coastline
but went on improving with astronomical tables.

The need for navigators to know their actual positions at sea necessitated knowledge of
time. After the dark ages in the 15th century when knowledge was „liberated‟, life became
more civilized, trade flourished and as man explored the world, aids to navigation
became extremely necessary. They discovered that time, the position on the earth and
the elevation of a star are mathematically linked. Knowing any two of these three, the
third could be computed. To measure time, two systems of years were in use, namely:
the sidereal year and the solar year. As mentioned previously, the Egyptians first used
the sidereal year which was taken to have exactly 365 whole days. The solar year was
that which depended on the motion of the sun relative to the earth bringing forth variation
in seasons. The two time systems were reconciled by adding a day to the fourth („leap‟)
year. In those days time was a concern of religion rather than science. It is worth noting,

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however, that there is no such thing as absolute time, night or day occur at different
times in different places on the surface of the earth.

Longitudes and Time

Christopher Columbus was a theoretical scientist, who understood navigation; this

enabled him to sail into the unknown and discover the Americas. As he voyaged,
Columbus noticed that declination of the compass varied from place, which although
proved that he could not find longitude using his compass, his observations opened the
idea that the world was round.
The position of a ship at sea is described in terms of its latitude and longitude. The
Equator is the natural zero for the latitude. There is, however, no natural zero for
longitudes. By convention in 1884, the line passing through the poles and Greenwich
observatory in England was adopted as the zero longitude. Since to locate the position
of a ship at sea requires the knowledge of time, the Greenwich naturally became the
standard reference of time. The Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) is set such that the sun is
at its highest point (zenith) at noon. Having established a standard reference of time,
clocks and watches were invented to keep time especially in observatories, churches
and public buildings. Christian Huygen (1629-93) constructed the first clock based on
pendulum motion and because it depended on weights it was not very reliable.

4.5.2 The Second Stage of the Scientific Revolution

Motion

Motion on earth is affected by very many forces such as: gravitational pull, air
resistance, upthrust, to mention but a few. The branch of science that is concerned with
motion is called Dynamics. This study has been greatly aided by modern electronic
instruments and high-speed photography. One of these instruments- the stroboscope,
produces very sharp flashes of light at steady rate so that moving objects are illuminated
many times in a second and so enabling the photograph of the object in motion to be
taken with a camera shutter open for as long as a second. The stroboscope greatly
aided the study and development of concepts such as: constant speed, acceleration,
deceleration et cetera. For rotations and wave motion, concepts such as frequency were
developed.
Aristotle‟s thoughts on the natural state of rest of things on the earth and their
component „elements‟ laid the foundation for dynamics and equilibrium. It is Galileo who
dared to question Aristotle‟s belief in this matter which was then widely accepted. Galileo
is therefore reputed to be the first modern scientist because he managed to disprove the
stated notion by carrying out experiments and making corresponding observations. He
would later confidently assert that, „within a finger or two, bodies of different weights
released at the same time will fall equal distances in equal times.‟ Galileo‟s observations
of bodies in motion convinced people of Kepler‟s Laws of the Earth‟s rotation, led to the
method of determining acceleration due to gravity, g, of a falling body and the principle
that the energy of a body in a swing is entirely dependent of its height of fall not path
taken.
Simon Stevinus (1548-1620), the Dutch scientist conducted an experiment which
reinforced Galileo‟s pronouncement.

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The Foundation of Dynamics

The foundation of modern dynamics was found in the canon ball. Aristotle had some
good ideas, like, everything fell in its natural place, that is to say, solids fell to the ground
or sunk to the bottom of water, fire went upwards. What about violent motion? What
happened when a stone or an arrow was shot? Many scientists held different views
about the question. People noticed that the canon ball did not fall straight down but,
according to the inclination, it first had a straight piece of trajectory - that was where it
had its impetus - then it curved round and came plumb down. They also noticed that if
the gun was firing level or point blank, it did not have much range. If you raised it a little,
the range increased; if it was at an angle say 45º, it acquired a bigger range. If the angle
was greater than 45º, the range decreased. This was what started modern ballistics.
Tartaglia, a good mathematician at the time, pointed out in his book of ballistics that the
maximum angle for maximum range should be 45º.

The Laws of Falling Bodies

Galileo carried out a set of experiments in order to find out the laws of falling bodies. His
most used experiment, even to this day, was the experiment to determine the value of
acceleration due to gravity, g, of a falling body; this method is still used in the National
Physical Laboratory, in Britain, as the most accurate method to determine g of a body.
Galileo differed from other scientists of that time in that he conducted his arguments by
experiments. Another of his experiments was he counted the swings of the pendulum by
his pulse and found, within the accuracy of the method, that the time of the swing was
independent of the amplitude of the pendulum (period was independent of maximum
displacement). Then he went ahead and did it with pendulums of different lengths and
he found the relation between the length of the pendulum and its period: the square root
law. Next, he worked out that the fall of a body at the end of a string in a swing of the
pendulum was an example of free fall because the string did not affect it and he worked
out a number of things in connection to height. He arrived at the principle that the energy
of the body at the bottom of the swing was determined entirely by the height from which
it had fallen and not by the path along which it had fallen. Such were the dynamic
concepts he discovered and published.

Terminal velocity is the term given to the maximum velocity attained by a freely falling
body in a fluid. The sport- sky diving- makes use of this phenomenon in which fellow
divers appear to be stationary in air yet in fact they are descending at a terrific but
constant speed. To come up with the laws of motion known today, scientists had to
study the motion of bodies under the influence of various forces and also set up
experiments in which the motion of these bodies was being influenced only by individual
forces.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Isaac Newton was born in (1642-1727), the same year Galileo died. Galileo‟s book on
his findings of the solar system was not a success; it put him in many quarrels with the

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church, particularly the pope. As a result, he was condemned and recanted; however,
this did not destroy his works, especially the theory of the rotation of the earth, but
rather, led to a gradual spread and acceptance of the idea. Whereas Copernicus,
Kepler, and particularly Galileo had to live in a world where science was fighting for its
existence, in his time Newton grew up in surroundings in which science was already an
accepted thing,

He was born to a small farmer in Lincolnshire, and was sent to grammar school at
Woolsthorpe by his uncle, from where he went to Cambridge University. He did not do
anything particularly distinguished at Cambridge, but made friends with Dr. Barrows, a
Mathematics professor there, who was not very interested in physics but laid a
foundation for algebraic analysis for young Newton. Newton concentrated mainly on
Galileo‟s work, from which he arrived to answers rather quickly; infact it is said, that by
twenty-three he had most answers, but only got to publish them when he was forty-two.
Men like Newton, of extremely remarkable intelligence, are said to appear one in every
two or three centuries.

Not only did Newton believe in an experimental method of approach but he also had the
ability to express his ideas mathematically. He expressed Galileo‟s ideas in more precise
laws in his scientific masterpiece- Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687).
The Principia, the greatest of his booksis considred to be the bible of science,
particularly physics. The Principia, in its full title is „the mathematical principles of natural
philosophy‟. His laws expressed in modern language are as follows:

1. A body will remain in its state of rest, or of uniform motion (constant speed) in a
straight line unless acted upon by an external force.
2. The force applied to a body causes it to accelerate in the direction of application
of the force and is directly proportional to the force applied.
3. To every action there is always an opposing reaction, and action and reaction are
always equal and opposite.
In his honor, the unit of force – the newton- was named. It is the force required to cause
a one-kilogram mass to move with an acceleration of one meter per second.
Newton‟s philosophy had two sides to it; the first was the scientific side: he formed a new
picture of the universe as a universe of law, but a universe completely without the
concept of change or evolution. Secondly, that everything must have been set in the first
place. Perhaps Newton‟s greatest contribution to science was his law of universal
gravitation. Basing on observation and measurement, he concluded that every particle of
matter exerts a pull and that this pulling effect decreases as the distance from the source
increases. Using this law, Newton was able to show that astronomical observations
made by Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) and predictions by Brahe‟s assistant, Johann Kepler
(1571-1630) about the motion of planets was correct. The laws of gravitation and the
laws of motion became the foundation stones of the science of Dynamics. Not
withstanding their tremendous value in science and engineering, these laws were found
to be only accurate in the macro world. In the micro world, especially when considering
speeds close to that of light they are not definitive, they are flawed.

The Dynamics of the Solar System

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In astronomy, the Babylonians studied recurrences, on the basis of which they were able
to make predictions. The Greeks went a step further by making a kinematical model to
predict more in detail. Kepler went on still another step ahead when he described the
kinematics. However, the question as to why it moves still had no answer. This is what
Newton addressed, to find out the laws of motion, from which he could make good
tables.

In 1666, Borelli, an Italian physiologist, introduced the important idea of the movement of
planets which implied the need to balance the centrifugal force by some other force,
which he characterized as the force of gravity. This conclusion had already been arrived
at by Newton in 1665. Scientists argued that since a planet in an elliptical path moves
faster as it nears the sun, then the gravitational force must increase to balance the
centrifugal pull _ that the gravitational force should be a function of the distance between
the planet and the sun. By 1679, a number of scientists, including Borelli, Halley, Hooke
and Wren, had figured out that the gravitational pull (or the centripetal force) to balance
the centrifugal force must depend on the radius divided by its cube, that is, on the
inverse square of the radius. This reasoning came from Kepler‟s Third Law.

4.5.3 The Microscopic World

Democritus was the first to suggest that matter was made up of indivisible atoms.
Giordano Bruno (1548-1600) attempted to revive the Atomic theory and in the process
met his death at the stakes. French philosopher Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655) suggested
the atomic theory but was careful to be „religiously correct‟ at the time in order to make
his theory acceptable thus rendering his theory almost impossible to prove. Today, with
electron microscopes, we can examine the structure of matter with more clarity and
obtain more direct evidence of the existence of atoms though we cannot actually „see‟
individual atoms. Their existence has however been confirmed in many ways.

Solids, liquids and gases

The study of the three states of matter; solids, liquids and gases seems to point to the
fact that particles of matter attract each other. These forces are however very small in
magnitude that they are only conspicuous if the particles are very close to one another.
These forces have been discovered to be inversely proportional to the distances
between particles. Particles are therefore known to posses gravitational, magnetic and
electric fields. In solids, these particles are closest to each other and may arrange
themselves in orderly patterns forming units called crystals. These particles can be
separated using a saw, hammer or by applying adequate work- energy in the form of
heat and we call this process melting. Melting solids increases the distances between
particles and enables them to flow freely, consequently weakening the forces of
attraction between these particles. The substance is known as the liquid form. Some
particle can escape from the surface of the liquid formed and when sufficient heat has
been supplied bubbles can be seen forming in the liquid and rising to the surface and
escaping to form vapour. Very energetic particles can even escape from solid surfaces.

Chemical substances

It was from China that chemistry grew and spread. Robert Boyle (1627- 91) and Antoine
Lavoisier (1743-94) laid the foundation for the naming and classification of elements as

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we know them today. Lavoisier had by 1789 listed thirty-three „elements‟ although only
twenty-eight of them were later shown to be acceptable. In 1808, John Dalton (1766-
1844), an English chemist brought together the idea of chemical combination of
elements with the atomic theory of matter. Dalton‟s theory slowly took shape. The theory
suggested that matter was formed of elements and every element had its own set of
special physical and chemical properties. That the smallest indivisible particle of such
elements was the atom and that all the atoms of an element were similar regardless of
where they came from and that no two different elements had similar atoms. Dalton‟s
theory explained much but was incomplete. Amedeo Avogadro (1776-1856), an Italian
chemist then introduced the idea of the molecule. Elements were then represented with
letters of the alphabet and chemical reactions could then be expressed in terms of
chemical equations using these symbols. Further scientific work precipitated in the
development of Atomic weights that speak of the relative weights of atoms with respect
to the weight of a hydrogen atom. The elements, with time were arranged in a table as a
result of the work of John Newlands(1837-98) and later on by a German chemist, Lothar
von Meyer(1830-93) and a Russian, Dmitri Mendeleyev (1834-1907) working
independently, the latter having produced a better collection of the elements in a table
now known as the Periodic table.

Organic Compounds

Modern applied chemistry owes a lot to Louis Pasteur (1822-95) whose experiments
with certain crystals led to the discovery of a huge family of chemical compounds which
are known to be present in most living matter. These compounds are called organic
compounds. The main elements constituting these compounds are: carbon, hydrogen
and oxygen. Organic chemistry has found application in various areas of human
endeavour, namely; pharmacy, textiles, engineering et cetera. Many medicines are
organic complexes, fibres such as terylene, polyester, nylon are widely used in the
textile industry, carbon fibre is now being used to manufacture automobile bodies.
Pioneers of organic chemistry include: Friedrich Kekule (1829-96) and Jacob van‟t Hoff
(1852-1911) in the Netherlands.

Radioactivity

Dalton‟s theory was definitely not going to have the last say. Prof. Henri Becquerel(1852-
1908) working with his assistant, Marie Sklodowska 9(later Marie Curie) discovered that
Uranium lumps left on photographic plates produced a curious pattern of lines on the
plates when they were developed. Becquerel noticed the similarity between his uranium
rays and X-rays discovered a year earlier by Wilhelm Rontgen (1845-1923). Marie Curie
devoted her whole life to the study of natural radioactivity and together with her husband,
Pierre, discovered two new elements; Polonium and Radium. These new and strange
elements were emitting three types of rays, namely: alpha- rays, beta- rays and gamma-
rays and more amazingly, these elements were turning themselves into new elements.
This single piece of evidence forever destroyed the belief in an indestructible atom. The
atom therefore had to be re-modelled.

Electrons and Ions

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Electrons and ions were discovered and paved the way for the development of
electricity, electronics and magnetism. At the forefront of this revolution were scientists
such as Michael Faraday (1791-1867), George Stoney (1826-1911), Heinrich Geissler
(1814-79)- of the geissler tube fame, William Crookes (1832-1919) and Professor J.J
Thomson(1856-1940) at Cambridge University.

Protons and neutrons

New Zealander, Earnest Rutherford (1871-1937) suggested that the mass of the atom
was concentrated in a central nucleus and electrons rotated about this nucleus in
miniature orbits. He called the nucleus of the hydrogen atom a proton and this became a
new building block of the Periodic table. Niels Bohr (1885-1962) seconded him using
Max Planck‟s Quantum theory to explain the new atom model suggested by Rutherford.
In 1933, the physicist, James Chadwick discovered that the nucleus contains another
particle and he called it the neutron because it had no net charge. The Bohr model of the
atom is still slightly inaccurate but is an aid to understanding many chemical and
physical changes.

Controlling the electron

Man experienced the effect of the sudden release of stored electrical energy long before
he had an inkling of its nature or potential use. This was in the form of lightning. It was
considered an act of the gods. It was the Greeks who first scientifically discovered the
existence of electricity when they observed that pieces of amber when rubbed together
picked up small objects. William Gilbert (1540-1603), an English doctor discovered that
the same effect was observed with sealing wax and sulphur. It was Gilbert who called
these substances „electrics‟ from the Greek word for amber electron. Stephen Gray
(1696-1736) discovered that some materials could hold these electric effects for long
(insulators) while others would easily allow these effects to escape (conductors). Charles
Francois Dufay (1698-1739) first suggested that there might be two kinds of electricity;
vitreous electricity (on glass), now known as positive, and resinous electricity (on resins
such as wax), now known as negative. Later on in America, Benjamin Franklin (1706-
90), a newspaper reporter and politician became the founder of electrostatics when after
much experimentation concluded that all matter contained „electric fluid‟ and that the
rubbing of matter did not create but just redistributed these electric fluids. He said that if
the glass after rubbing contained positive charge, then the wool, having lost positive
charge to the glass, now had negative charge. Other scientists who have over time
contributed to our knowledge of electricity and electrostatics are: Michael Faraday, Luigi
Galvani and Alessandro Volta who was the first to demonstrate the existence of electric
currents (moving electrons). It is after him that the unit for potential difference is named.
Elements like silver and copper are good conductors because they contain „lone‟
electrons that can be displaced. In an electrical circuit containing a battery, millions of
electrons are injected at one end of the wire and at the same time an equal number are
displaced at the other end. Averagely, the number of electrons passing any part of the
wire in a second is the same. This is the measure of electric current. The unit of electric
current in use today is the ampere after the French physicist Andre Marie Ampere.
Another scientist who contributed to our knowledge of electricity and charge is Charles
Augustin Coulomb (1736-1806). It was also observed that an electric charge does not
flow unless given „reason‟ to do so. This reason is what is known as potential difference.
It was also observed that some materials such as carbon needed some energy before

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they could release electrons. It was then said that such substances have high electrical
resistance. The unit of electrical resistance was then named the ohm, after George
Simon Ohm (1787-1854) after he had defined the relationship between potential
difference, resistance of the circuit and the flow of electrical current through it. In 1820, a
lecturer at the University of Copenhagen, Hans Christian Oersted showed that a
compass was disturbed by being placed near a wire carrying electric current. It was
Ampere who unraveled the mystery and laid down the rules relating electricity and
magnetism. It was not until the 19th century that pure scientific research into electricity
and electromagnetism found its use in every day life courtesy of a new breed of applied
scientists- the electrical engineers, paving way for the electronic and atomic engineers of
the 20th century.

Light

The field of optics gradually grew from the basic discoveries made by the Greeks and
Arabs. The Middle Age scientists knew that the colours of the rainbow were as a result
of the suns rays going through rain drops, and they also had Snell‟s laws relating the
sines of the angles of incidence and refraction.

The Phenomena of the Prism

Isaac Newton made a great contribution to the science of optics as we know it today. He
studied the effect of refracting light using a prism and other media, diffraction of light, he
thought that light was transferred by the movement of particles called photons, and from
his works he discovered the so-called Newton‟s rings.

Initially, in about the seventeenth century, when people got good glass - for it was not
easy to get clear good glass - they made chandeliers and other things which showed
colours from it. However, they did not know why this glass showed these pretty colours.
Newton began his experiments in Cambridge where he let sun light through a single tiny
hole in the shutter, and directed it to a prism. He found that the light from the prism was
in form of a spectrum. However, due to his poor eyesight, he did not notice the black
lines across the spectrum, until 200 years later, when Frauenhofer discovered them.
From this, Newton concluded that light contained different rays of different refrangibility.
Then there was argument on whether light was waves of particles. One of Newton‟s
failures however, was to think of light as particles and, therefore, he thought that light
going from a thinner medium to a denser medium was being speeded up by attraction as
it got into the denser medium.

Newton made a very famous observation of the so-called Newton‟s rings. If you put a
nearly flat lens on top of a glass plate and look at it from the top and from the bottom,
you find a set of rings. He noted very accurately what the colours are _ white in the
centre, if you look through; but when you looked at, it was black in the center, then goes
blue, then white, which was the first order; then yellow, red, violet and blue again; these
are the various orders. From this he asked if a particle can give rise to different colours
according to the different thicknesses it goes through between two refracting

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substances.As an objective scientist, Newton studied what light could do and not what it
was observed to do.

Diffraction

If light is put through a wedge-shaped slit, it shows greater and greater scattering as the
slit gets narrower and narrower. This was first observed by Grimaldi, who did not pay
much attention to it, as many others later on until Newton. Newton established that
diffraction depends on the narrowness of the aperture and on the quality of light; that is
blue light is diffracted more than red light. There are many other issues of light he
tackled and thus formed theories, but he included queries too in his book, the Optika, in
which he wrote about his findings in optics. Some of his queries included; „do not bodies
act upon light at a distance, and by their action bend its rays; and is not this action
strongest at least distance ‟. This question was on diffraction. ‟Do not bodies and light
act mutually upon one another, that is in terms of emitting, reflecting, refracting,
inflecting, heating , and vibrating as a result of heat absorbed? ‟. „Do not black bodies
conceive heat more easily from light than those of other colour?‟ and many other such
queries.

The Velocity of Light

Another great contributor to optics was Christian Huygens who was a Dutch Physicist,
astronomer and a great contemporary of Newton. His view of light was that it was like
sound, that is to say, a vibration, with a definite velocity, hence different velocities in
different media. He found out that Newton‟s assumption that light traveled faster in the
denser medium was wrong. Huygens studied the effect of different media on the wave
fronts of light waves and explained the normal laws of refraction, which were later used
by Braggs and many others in the study of X-rays. Römer, an assistant to French
astronomer, Picard, made observations and deduced that the velocity of light was
greater than the velocity of sound. Great transformations in technology occurred after
1896 when X-rays and modern atomic physics were discovered.

Today we know that any disturbance in a medium such that the disturbance is
transmitted through the medium but the particles of the medium are not displaced but
vibrate about a mean position is called a wave. The wave is said to be transverse if the
vibration of the particles of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of wave motion.
On the contrary, if this vibration is along or parallel to the direction of wave motion, then
the wave is called a longitudinal wave. It is known that sound and light travel in waves
and the study of waves has yielded its application in various fields such as: law
enforcement in police radar checks, medicine in ultra sound photography and in tooth
drilling et cetera.

4.6 Industrial Revolution

4.6.1 Levers and Machines

The need to move massive boulders and large dead animals out of his way prompted
man, unbeknownst to himself, to develop the first lever using a long tree trunk pivoted on

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a large stone. Man was constantly faced with opposition in the form of gravitational
forces and frictional forces and he had to find a way of overcoming these forces as he
carried on with his daily work. It is this need that led to the invention of pulleys, levers
and other simple machines. These machines helped him by increasing his mechanical
advantage and changing the point of application of effort. Levers are also used in
devices which produce large movements of pointers of scales in order to increase the
accuracies with which such scales can be read. These were the earliest machines
developed by man to assist him in his work and/ or make it easier.

The first and second stages of the Scientific Revolution were a rather exacting period of
science in which all the essential mathematical foundations of both optics and
mechanics were laid. Most of the earlier inventions and discoveries had practical utility
for seamen and navigators, but there came a break-through which joined the Scientific
Revolution to the Industrial Revolution. It arose from a technique in mining - water lifting
- which was the real challenge in mining. Ingenious pumps, simple pumps, force pumps
were developed for mining, but they required an enormous amount of water which,
fortunately, was available. However, an alternative source of power was required for the
pumps to function properly and more effectively. The time for machines to greatly ease
the burden of man in his daily work had arrived.

4.6.2 Work and Energy

Scientific work is said to be done when a force is applied and its point of application is
moved by a distance. Work is therefore the product of the force and displacement in the
same direction. Work is as closely related to energy in physics as money is related to
wealth in economics. When a man lifts a heavy load into the air, he spends an amount of
work in the form of energy. But this work is really invested, for the load in its new position
has more energy than it had before. It is in the bank waiting to be released again. In
scientific lingua the load is said to have increased in its „potential energy‟. When allowed
to drop to the ground the energy is withdrawn from the bank and converted to another
form. The load gains what is called „kinetic energy‟- that is, the energy of motion. Just
before hitting the ground, the load possesses the same amount of energy in its new form
as was used to lift it. Then the weight hits the ground and, one could say, dissipates its
wealth in a number of new kinds of energy- heat and sound energy. All these
transactions are based on the principle of conservation of energy. Energy can never be
created or destroyed; it can simply be transformed from one kind to another. Until the
20th century, it was thought that the only available source of energy available to man was
the sun; that this energy was transmitted through light and heat to the earth and stored
in the form of: peat, coal, oil and natural gas; that this energy could be banked in
accumulators and batteries.

4.6.3 Perpetual motion

It is now widely accepted that it is impossible to convert energy from one form to another
without dissipating some in other unwanted forms and because of this, perpetual motion
machines are bound to remain a myth. A lot has been put into research, however, to
increase on the efficiency of the existent machines and it has already been observed
that raising its working temperature can increase heat engine efficiency. Consequently,
better materials are being developed which can withstand very high temperatures and
thus Metallurgy- the study of metals, is still the branch of science responsible for the

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development of new alloys that can be used at very high temperatures such as in space
crafts and jet engines.

4.6.4 Power

Power is the measure of work a machine can produce within unit time. Modern machines
are more powerful because they can give out more energy per second than humans can
within same time. These machines would take a small fraction of time taken by the
humans constructing, for example, the pyramids of Giza and other ancient Wonders.

4.6.5 Kinetic energy

Scientists and mathematicians such as Gottfried Leibnitz, Lavoisier and Pierre Laplace
asserted or at least suggested that there was a connection between heat and kinetic
energy. The German scientist Julius Mayer (1814-78) extended this idea to the other
forms of energy and gave the world its first understanding of the law of conservation of
energy. James Joule (1818-89), an English physicist began a series of measurements
which confirmed that different forms were equivalent to each other and in his honor, the
modern unit for measuring energy- the joule, was named. The works of the above
scientists boiled down to the assertion that, particles present in a solid are continuously
vibrating at room temperature and that when more energy is supplied, the molecular
vibrations increase as the temperature rises. It goes on to say that if it were possible to
watch the movement of gas particles in a transparent box, they would present a brilliant
display of activity that can be summarized as continuous, random, jerky motion with
particles constantly colliding with one another and with the walls of the box. It is this
impact with the walls of the box that contributes to the total pressure of the gas. Heating
the gas gives the particles more kinetic energy and intensifies the above-described
activity. Harnessing the pressures generated became the ambition of the engineers who
made the first steam engines.

4.6.6 Steam Power

The harnessing of steam power is arguably one of the biggest contributions these
engineers made to the industrial revolution. These engines were used to power ships,
machines in factories and locomotives giving rise to a cheap and useful means of
transport- railway transport. The invention of the steam engine cannot be attributed to
only one man; a number of scientists and engineers such as Robert Boyle, Dennis
Papin, James Watt (the unit of power- the watt was named after him) and George
Stephenson, who invented the first locomotive engine from the steam engine and
opened the first railway from Stockton to Darlington in 1825. In 1828, French engineer,
Sadi Carnot, worked the mechanical equivalent heat and derived the first and second
laws of thermodynamics. He introduced the idea of the efficiency of an engine and thus
laid the foundation to the theory of heat and the whole thermodynamics as we know it
today.

4.6.7 The Steam turbine

In 1884, Charles Parsons (1854-1931) built his first turbine engine which used the
pressure of steam to blow continuously against a system of blades built around a central
shaft. The turbine therefore converts pressure into rotary motion. Turbines are now used

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in ship engines and also in atomic power stations to convert heat produced in the plants
to useful electrical energy.

4.6.8 The Internal combustion engine

Dr. Nikolaus Otto (1832-91) adapted many ideas into a machine which could be used
with new fuels such as inflammable gas, hot air and petrol fuel which led to the modern
car. His car was based on the Otto four- stroke engine model. Several other inventors
and engineers took the cue from him and pioneered the way for the modern automobile.
These included: Siegfried Markus, Edward Butler- an Englishman, Gottlieb Daimler and
Karl Benz- Germans, Rene‟ Panhard in France, Frederick Lanchester in Britain and
Henry Ford in the United States. Henry Royce and Charles Rolls formed the Rolls-Royce
firm in 1906 which set standards of near perfection in the automobile industry. The petrol
engine was a marked improvement on the steam engine considering its efficiency of
about twenty-eight percent. The diesel engine was even better in these terms because it
had an efficiency of thirty-five percent because it could work at higher temperatures than
the petrol engine. The German engineer who perfected the design of this engine was
Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913). It did not require a carburetor. Because of its high efficiency,
it is used to power heavy trucks, ships and trains.

4.6.9 The Jet engine

When a toy balloon is blown up and then released, the air rushing out in one direction
causes the balloon to fly in the opposite direction. It is this principle of action and
reaction that is used in jet engines. Britain‟s first jet engine was designed in 1930 by
Frank Whittle and used in Britain‟s first jet aircraft- the Gloster E 28/39. Another aircraft
that used the jet engine was the Gloster Meteor. After the Second World War,
commercial aircrafts using the jet engine were soon in production. These engines
included: the turbo jet, the turbo-prop, the ram-jet and the pulse-jet engines.

4.6.10 Rocket motors

These are used for interplanetary travel in spacecrafts and they must be capable of
working in a vacuum. These spacecrafts carry their own oxygen and fuel which, brought
together in the combustion chamber and ignited produce very fast moving gas particles
which are expelled through the exhaust tubes.

4.6.11 Circular Motion

Bodies only rotate (move in circles) when a continuous force is applied toward the center
of the circle. It is in this respect again that sensation is deceptive since the passengers in
a car going round a curve experience a pulling sensation that appears to be acting
outwards. In circular motion, speed remains constant but velocity (because of the
direction component) keeps on changing. The acceleration of a body in circular motion is
in the direction of the center of the circle. The force that maintains this circular motion
also acts in this direction in accordance with Newton‟s Second law of motion. It is these
facts that govern planetary motion around the sun or the motion of an artificial satellite
about the earth.

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4.7 Science and Technology Today

The technical rationality of the previous scientific eras was embedded in mathematics,
material science, mechanics and engineering science sought to give the rational
explanations of the physical behaviour at a range using spatial and temporal scales, and
getting behind empiricism. It appeared that everything seemed possible in the realm of
the Civil Engineer. Thomas Tredgold was indeed able to say that “Civil Engineering is
the art of directing the great sources of Power in Nature for the use and convenience of
man.”
It has now become clear that the earth is no longer a hemostat, no longer able to
withstand and rebound from human activity. It has limits. To use an engineering analogy,
parts of the world have gone beyond the elastic limit and entered the plastic range. This
realization marks the end of the era of technical rationality and the beginning of a more
systems/ holistic view of the world.
Historically, technical responses to social development might have involved elements of
great complication internally and great engineering innovation and achievement in the
short or immediate term, but they often took little account of their wider and long-term
effects. They were not aware of both the internal and external complexities. From the
rational phase of technology sprang canal, highways, railways and ports; the power
systems; the water supply, sewerage and irrigation systems; the development of large-
scale constructions and the changing form of cities and towns. But from it also has
sprung the problems of congestion, damage to the environment, global warming, water
pollution, air pollution, urban plight and social injustice.
But many emerging problems do not have narrow technical solutions and instead need
solutions/ concepts that take a systems view of the world, accounting for the complexity
and coupling interdisciplinary understanding with a much broader concept of system
performance. This defines the phase of technology into which the world is entering (and
ought to) as defined by Elms, that is, the systems/ holistic phase. What really defines the
systems approach is the demand for sustainable development and with it the balancing
of economic, environmental and social issues at all scales- political and spatial.
The role of the Civil Engineer was absolutely central to the rational phase, but will be
even more central to the systems/ holistic approach. But there will be need to adapt
Tredgold‟s definition and modify it to read “Civil Engineering is the art of working with the
great Sources of Power in Nature for the use and benefit of society.”

4.7.1 Characteristics of Science and Technology

By 1850, a distinct body of knowledge had been developed which was the domain of the
technologist. This body of knowledge was a blend of a) the work of applied
mathematicians b) the experiments of practical engineers and some scientists who took
interest in technical processes c) rules of thumb developed over the centuries.
Technology became of age from 1800 – 1850. From then on, science and technology
developed side-by-side supporting each other.
Science grew out of natural philosophy which was based on speculation about the
structure and behaviour of the natural world based on direct observations of the
phenomena. As natural philosophy progressed it involved classification of phenomena.
Astronomy progressed rapidly because it could only be observed and not subjected to
experiment under controlled conditions.
For terrestrial phenomena, in mechanics or optics, it was realized that only repeatable
experiments could lead to agreement between natural philosophers and a body of
certain knowledge could be added step by step. This was the birth of science. The

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knowledge was of a strictly limited kind because it was mainly concerned with how
things behaved than why. Few scientific discoveries were in direct conflict with the
church‟s teaching. The church also feared their impact on ordinary people‟s minds.

Science came of age with Newton‟s Principia, which showed the connection between
astronomical and terrestrial phenomena. They could be described in principles or laws of
mechanics. In this sense, only science can explain phenomena. The laws of science
give us a feeling that we are understanding nature, because they are capable of
predicting what will happen. We no longer feel at the mercy of diverse gods. The real
advantage being that we are encouraged to take avoiding action, especially as in the
medical sciences.
The main basis of technology is that our environment can be manipulated to our
advantage. Technology grew out of craft, while craft predated natural philosophy by
many millennia. Natural philosophy required an advanced written language with a full
vocabulary whereas craft merely required an inventive streak completed with manual
dexterity. Rules of thumb were accumulated for everything from engines to water
wheels, canals and cathedrals.

4.7.2 The Scientist and the Engineer

Firstly there is a difference in purpose between the scientist and the engineers. From the
historical account it is clear that the scientists purpose is to try to understand the world
around him. Originally, it was this natural world unchanged by man‟s efforts. Nowadays
the world is modified considerably by man‟s technological achievements. For example a
solid state physicist may find himself studying the new nature of materials created by the
technologist in his search for answers to fundamental questions about the nature of
atomic forces. The technologist‟s main purpose is to meet some human need. He may
also be studying the same properties as the solid state physicist, but he is interested in
macroscopic properties of the material. His objective would be to enable the material to
be used more effectively in the construction of some artifact. The major difference in
attitude between the scientist and technologist is the teleological distinction because it
relates to aims or objectives.
Secondly, there is a basic difference in the presuppositions behind these two
endeavours. Science, we have noted presupposes a certain regularity in nature and
became possible only when the notion of natural cause and effect was replaced by the
idea that the flux of things was due to the whims of the gods. This too is an important
presupposition of technology; in the historical sense that nature is capable of
manipulation and modification to serve human needs. That is why technological
progress can be regarded as the endless search for diversified objects and better means
of producing them, better in terms of economy, using less energy materials, labour and
time and whereby a product is more effective for its purpose. Scientific progress is
different. It is an endless quest for better theories and concepts to explain phenomena.
Better meaning simpler, universal or having greater explanatory or predictive power.
Thirdly, economic and social considerations play a much bigger role in technology than
science. In principle, the products of technology are available to all and we are all
affected by technology in one way or another. Technology involves the use of a variety
of codes of standards based on society‟s evaluation on what is reasonable in matters of
safety reliability and aesthetics. Science is a more private activity. Its knowledge does
not have to be understood by all. It does have social implications and codes of practice
are associated with animal and genetic experiments.

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The similarity between science and technology is that both science and technology study
events which are not substantially affected by the process of study itself. The arts
express an individual person or emotional experience with the world through art, music
or literature and graphic arts. The scientist/ technologist has no influence on what they
study as compared to the artist.

4.7.3 Future Vision for the Scientist and Engineer

From this we see then, that the most important question an Engineer (and Scientist) can
ask himself is Why? and Why not? After man met the most basic of his needs, it was on
these two pillars that philosophy and science grew- out of curiosity about the world
around him, man asked himself why things were the way the were. Why did pieces of
amber and glass pick up small objects when rubbed together? Why not use this source
of energy to supply current to bright arc bulbs? Why did a spoon made of lodestone
always point south? Why not use this to guide one in the right direction in form of a
compass? Why did some bodies float in water and others sink? Why not build sturdier
ships from steel, make sure that they could float and use them instead to travel across
water? It is the why that leads to a deeper understanding of the world around us and the
why not that leads to the courage to imagine and then try new inventions, and believe
that they will work. These questions are the lifeblood that sustain the continued growth of
science and technology. So that while the scientist/ technologist has no influence on
what they study as compared to the artist, they have the ability, responsibility and
influence to bring our world back into the elastic range; even as they continue to ask
themselves Why not? and push the limits and boundaries of what science and
technology can achieve.

5.8 References

1. J.D. Bernal, The Extension of Man, Paladin 1970, London, UK.

2. G.F.C. Rogers, The Nature of Engineering, The Macmillan Press, 1983, London, UK

3. The Hamlyn‟s Children Enclyopeadia,Read International Books 1994, London, UK

4. The Oxford Childrens‟ Illustrated Encyclopeadia, Oxford University Press,1998,

Oxford UK.

5. Wayne E. King, Marcel Lewinski, Experiencing World History, American Guidance

Service, 1991, Minnesota, USA.

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5 THE HISTORY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN UGANDA BEFORE 1900

5.3 Prologue

Science involves looking at the natural world and trying to explain why things are the
way they are whereas Technology involves looking at nature and trying to manipulate
and modify it to suit man‟s needs.
Science and Technology are rather very old words but technology is believed to be
older.
This is because science involves a lot of theory but early man involved himself in many
technologies without knowing why things were happening the way they did.
Originally, people believed that their lives were dependent solely on fate determined by
the various “gods”. However, after observing the behaviour of nature, they realised that
they could predict occurrences and manipulate the environment to their own advantage,
hence the development of Science and Technology.
The history of Uganda reflects the rich innovative technologies of Africa, that developed
in line with the most significant needs of the people as various local communities
progressed. Lying astride the equator, most of Uganda consists of a fertile plateau (with
an average elevation of 4000 ft/ 1,220m), in the centre of which is Lake Kyoga. The
plateau is bounded by the western branch of the Great Rift valley, including Lakes Albert
and Edward and the Albert Nile river; by the Rwenzori mountain ranges in the south
west; by Lake Victoria in the south and by several mountain ranges in the east and north
including Mt. Elgon and Mt. Moroto. These features played an important role in meeting
the needs of the population, while at the same time encouraging the (early) inhabitants
to explore the limits and boundaries of their skill in order to overcome the obstacles they
presented.
Politically during this period kingdoms were subdivided into counties for easy
administration and officials were appointed to help the kings in their task of administering
their subjects, collection of taxes among other duties.
Socially the different king dorms were united by their respective kings since they were
regarded as supreme beings with super natural powers .work and duties were done to
please the king and through there was contact with other king dorms and their people
,intermarriage was not allowed it was strictly trading relations treaties that prevailed in
such circumstances.
With the different kingdoms, each had its economic worth but some greatly surpassed
others in terms of trade .for instance Buganda and Bunyoro kingdorms were the power
houses in terms of trade.
Business flourished in these two kingdoms but later on Buganda got an edge over
Bunyoro since the merchants and Arabs took a particular interest in it because of its
friendly kings who welcomed them to trade.

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5.4 The Period Before 1500 AD

5.4.1 Introduction
Uganda has been inhabited since the Stone Age. Evidence of early man has been found
in Nsongezi and Sango Bay and the earliest human inhabitants in contemporary Uganda
were hunter-gatherers. Residuals of these people are today to be found among the
pygmies in western Uganda. Between approximately 2000 to 1500 years ago, Bantu
speaking populations from central and western Africa migrated and occupied most of the
southern parts of the country including the above mentioned sites. The migrants brought
with them agriculture, ironworking skills and new ideas of social and political
organization, that by the 15th or 16th century resulted in the development of centralized
kingdoms, including the kingdoms of Buganda, Bunyoro-Kitara and Ankole.

Nilotic people, including Luo and Ateker entered the area from the north probably
beginning about 100 A.D. They were cattle herders and subsistence farmers who settled
mainly the northern and eastern parts of the country. Some Luo invaded the area of
Bunyoro and assimilated with the Bantu there, establishing the Babiito dynasty of the
current Omukama (ruler) of Bunyoro-Kitara. Luo migration proceeded until the 16th
century, with some Luo settling amid Bantu people in Eastern Uganda, and proceeding
to the western shores of Lake Victoria in Kenya and Tanzania. The Ateker (Karimojong
and Teso peoples) settled in the north-eastern and eastern parts of the country, and
some fused with the Luo in the area north of Lake Kyoga.

It is difficult to isolate the trends in science and technology for this period in Uganda
since there were no geographical boundaries. However, it can be noted that the trends
in science and technology in this region were as a result of numerous immigrations and
interaction with people of the neighbouring areas. Immigration also led to increase in
population in some areas, which is a major factor of development. This in turn resulted in
the need for people to live in settlements of small villages that later grew into kingdoms
and chieftaincies each running its own affairs. Under such organized society, people had
to specialize in areas of agriculture and industry as a contribution to the well-being and
development of their respective societies.

5.4.2 Industry

Stone-Age Tools

During the early stone-age, the Hominids used pebble tools and later all purpose stone
axes and natural traps, gradually becoming skilled hunters. After hundreds of thousands
of years of relatively undifferentiated tools came the regional development and
diversification of the middle stone age.

Larger populations with more varied settlement and subsistence patterns were able to
exploit their environment more effectively than before. The larger acheulian hand axes of
the early stone age were replaced by more diverse tools made by striking flakes off a

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core into flake blades and flake spear points, crescents and scrapers. Adzes, gouges
and matches were developed in the forest zones.

The small blade technology developed from ancestral middle age industries between
40,000 to 15,000 BC. Bored stones for weighted digging sticks and grinding stones
suggested greater emphasis on food gathering. Fauna remains everywhere show a
move from hunting of smaller woodland animals to hunting of large gregarious creatures
of the middle stone age times.

Initially, industries were based on macrolithic scrapers and the hunting of large herds of
antelopes which separated them from the microlithic cultures of the wide spread
microlithic stone age industry (also called the “Later stone age industry”)

From the 7th century, the wilton industry complex emerged over a large part of the area
characterised by the predominance of small convex scrapers and backed microlithics.
This seems to represent a single culture reflecting changing fashions and local
adaptations rather than any culture or ethnic distinction among the toolmakers.

The wilton industry was followed by another phase of larger scraper based industry.
During the later stone age, hunter-gatherers appeared to have been organized in loose
bands of which the family was the basic unit. By using bows and arrows often tipped with
poison, snares, and traps, they achieved grater dominance over the environment. With
hooks, barbed spears and wicker baskets, they were able to catch fish from rivers and
lake shores. Remnants of hunting and gathering communities or at least the memory of
them is found in such places as the pygmies of western Uganda.

The basis of mechanized civilization lies in the tools and craft that gradually developed in
the prehistoric times. Improvement grew from experience in exploiting materials and
development processes to cope with domestic needs. As craft skills increased and tools
and devices were improved, there followed local specialisation and a small scale
industry.

The earliest tools i.e. the spear shaped fist axes of the Palaeolithic period were not
suitable for fashioning other tools. This need was met in the later Paleolithics by the
earlier described use of stone flakes for cutting and scraping with cutting edges prepared
by pressing off flake chips. By Neolithic time, granular stone was rubbed (ground) to
shape. Stone was bored using stick or hollow reed, armed with sharp sand and twirled
between the palms.

Note that hand tools were mainly used for war, hunting, cutting food and fibre. The
typical tool kit contained hammers, clearers, scrapers, cutters and pointers for piercing.

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Iron Work

It is not clear when iron smelting reached Uganda. Certainly, there was no sudden shift
or complete transfer from stones to iron. From early times, early age people made use of
metals and settled near deposits of iron and other minerals. Iron was in common use by
about 700 BC. It was smelted with charcoal in open fire, making use of the updraft on
windy hillsides. The iron thus produced was soft and brittle. Reheating with charcoal and
hammering removed impurities and transformed it to steel.

Other Minerals

A great step towards mechanization followed from the utilization of other metals for tools
and construction. Copper, the earliest used, had substantial advantages over stone, but
could be cast and easily shaped. Bronze came into use in about 2000 BC after the
proportions in the alloy were controlled.

Mining Process

All mining work was done using stone tools such as the anvil and a hammer made of
steel. Miners would physically dig up the minerals and out of four baskets of mud dug,
there was about one basket ore obtained. Women were refused access to mines
because they were looked at superstitiously as bad omen. The miners were given some
quantities of ore as salary which they used for making cutting knives.

Later, more sophisticated techniques of metal working like gold and copper working
were developed. The build up of herds of animals in the early iron age may have
provided a catalyst for this and perhaps it was in response to the production of other
items like salt from regions in the late stone age period. Some communities became
known for their specialist craftsmanship and settled near exponentially good iron or clay
deposits.
Simple based pottery and other related pottery often associated with the spread of iron
working commenced. Significantly, styles of pottery that do not seem to be related to
those that became wide spread in the 1st century AD can be assumed to originate from
Cushitic speakers where changes in location and nature of settlement and for greater
emphasis on cattle keeping and milk.
Other technologies included the bow drill that reduced the labour and in the following;
Bronze Age, hooked metal tools and weighted cranks permitted the harrowing of narrow-
mouthed stone vessels.

Woodworking

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Woodworking was often laborious. Wood was split with wedges and fire as an active
agent, trimmed or hollowed by scrapping away the charcoal. Pieces were reduced to
length by scrapping after drilling a line of holes or cutting a kert. Joining was by lashing
or sewing through pairs of holes. The art of dowelling, mortising and dovetailing were
developed a few centuries later.
Spears, hoes, arrows and other ornaments were also made from wood and bones. .

Clothing and Wares

Originally, people wore skins and hides but in later centuries, the Baganda discovered a
tree called „mutuba’ and its bark was used to make bark cloth for clothing and sleeping
in.

Crafts and Pottery

Some crafts were invented to meet a precise and perceived need. These were made by
spinning of threads and weaving reeds. These included drums, mats and baskets.
Between 900 AD and 1000 AD, a new type of pottery was discovered at sanzi, Ssi and
Bukunja. A vessel believed to be less than 1000years old was reconstructed and it had
curved wooden roulette decoration around the rim.

Transport and Communication

Transport

Before the evolution of mechanized means of transport, man used to walk and carry his
luggage on his head. Later, man constructed litters and rollers to ease transportation of
his goods. Old artifacts describe transport vehicles as logs or crude boats for water
transport. People progressed to dugout canoes around 20,000 years ago. Ancient
people developed ways of building rafts using reeds, bundles, logs, grasses and other
materials and at times with added floatation from skin bags or scalp bladders. From
rafts, man started making boats with built up hulls using frame works covered by animal
skins.

Communication

Initially, communication was by means of fire and/or smoke. Later, man changed to
drums. Drums were made of cow or goatskin and tree trunks to enhance
communication. The rulers/kings had special drums to summon their subjects.
Transportation was by foot and as the population increased frequent movements of
people led to the growth of several footpaths, which were later developed into roads and
modern day highways.

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In conclusion, need for the development of transport routes was as a result of a need for
easy means of transporting goods for trade which will be explored in detail in the next
Chapter.

Agriculture

Originally, man lived in caves and forests and was basically a hunter gatherer. He
hunted animals and collected wild fruits for food. Animals were basically skinned and
meat cut to pieces using sharp stones. Then man began making several new inventions
of the highest importance. Of these, the most useful was how to grow food and tame
animals.

After man discovered fire, he used it to clear bushes thus the land became easy to
cultivate. Burning bushes scared away dangerous wild animals making it more secure
for man. Man also started cooking food using the now widely used fire.

Historians believe that revolution in science and all other fields were based on food
production. Initially, the tools used for digging were sticks and some sort of stone pick
like the kind used to dig up yams. Stone picks are associated with a type of early man
called Sangoan.

With time, methods of agriculture steadily improved though it was still practiced on a
small scale for domestic consumption. Bananas became the staple food for the
indigenous people particularly the Bantu. Cattle keeping and milking became a common
practice following the influence of the Nomadic Cushitic people.

The invention of agriculture led to a favourable environment for man to settle. Man
stopped roaming about thus started living in larger communities. Food was obtained
from fishing, wild plants like yams, oil palm trees were cultivated near homesteads and
wild animals were also tamed.

Energy

Before 1500 AD, the main forms of energy were solar energy. This was and has always
been an important form of energy. It was used in drying certain foodstuffs e.g. potatoes
and cassava before storage for the dry season.

The discovery of fire was about 2000 years ago and its use continued over the years
with the discovery of other forms of energy. Initially, fire was produced by rubbing two
rough sides of stones to produce a spark.

Fire was used for the following purposes:

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 Communication. When smoke was sighted at a distance, this meant that that
particular place was inhabited.
 Cooking and roasting foodstuffs and meat.
 To scare away wild animals
 Since iron was discovered in 70 BC, fire became important during smelting
process. The smelting of iron was done with charcoal in open fires.
 This was utilized in drawing food crops and as a form of preservation.

Trade

This was basically barter trade were goods were exchanged for goods. Foodstuffs, hides
and skins were the basic items of trade. Other goods exchanged included metallic
products and clay pots.

Building and Construction

Initially, man who was still a hunter-gatherer lived in large trees and stone caves. These
acted as protection from the harsh weather and dangerous wild animals. However, due
to migrations of various peoples, inter- mixing of societies led to the discovery of ways of
building better form of shelter. Man started building small grass huts (the huts‟ walls and
roof were made entirely of grass and thin tree branches). With improvement in farming
and taming of animals, man became innovative and started building better structures of
mud and wattle walls and grass thatched roof for proper storage of all his belongings.

Construction of significant features required considerable mobilization of labour. The

great earthwork sites of Bigo bya Mugyenyi, Mubende, Munsa, Kibengo and Bugoma in
western Uganda are linked to the Chwezi people. The site at Mubende seems to have
been a religious centre. At Bigo, there exist a ditch system over six and half miles long
some of it cut out of a rock enclosing a large grazing arson a riverbank. It was designed
to comprise a royal capital and a well defended cattle enclosure.

With the discovery of controlled fire, the hunting bands were able to make their camps
out of make shift mud and wattle prepared to be weather (mainly rain) resistant. They
were thatched with grass in a style suitable for protection. These huts varied in design
from one community to another. They were located not only near water sources in dry
savannah but also in the more heavily woody areas.

Water

Given that 18% of Uganda is made up of water surface, the early inhabitants of the
country did not suffer greatly in regard to its shortage. Lakes and ponds were the major

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source of water in this period. Water was used for consumption (drinking and cooking
food), fishing, transport and watering animals. There were also isolated instances of
digging of wells especially for kings.

Medicine

Since there was no specific description of disease and medicine, Man used to eat leaves
and roots of wild plants which acted as both food and medicine.
Later with the migration and mixing of cultures, medicine men, traditional healers and
magicians emerged. Traditional healers specialized in research on better leaves and
herbs with healing for specific diseases while magicians specialized in healing using
magic and spiritual powers. However, the idea of cause and effect of changes in the
environment as opposed to the will of the gods took hold much later.

Herbal medicine was used to treat ailments. Neem tree for malaria fever, Sidney blue
gum for treating coughs etc. Traditional healers and herbalists did not have explanations
for using the medicines they used but rather dosages depended on past experience with
the symptoms.

By the end of 1500 AD, the introduction of informal education (transfer of knowledge)
from the old to their young ones helped improve on the healing skills.

Education

Informal education evolved towards the end of 1500 AD which was basically a learning
system where knowledge was transferred from the old to their young ones in homes. An
individual would be taught his role in society depending on age and sex education
involved things like cultural morals and norms of the society. Learning was by hearing
and observation.

Fathers taught their sons how to hunt, cultivate the land, make weapons and war/
defense skills against their enemies. Girls were taught by their mothers and aunties how
to perform household chores like cooking, collecting firewood, fetching water and
agriculture. Another form of transfer of knowledge was through traditional stories and
proverbs. Proverbs and taboos were a form of education by warning to the
inexperienced

5.5 The Period 1500-1850 AD

5.5.1 Introduction

Uganda's population is made up of a complex and diverse range of tribes. Lake Kyoga
forms the northern boundary for the Bantu-speaking peoples, who dominate much of

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east, central and southern Africa. In Uganda they include the Baganda and several other
tribes. In the north live the Lango and the Acholi, who speak Nilotic languages. To the
east are the Teso and Karamojong, who are related to the Masaai and who also speak
Nilotic languages. Pygmies live in the forests of the west. Indigenous kingdoms arising
out of these tribal groupings popped up in Uganda in the 14th century, including the
Buganda, Bunyoro, Toro, Ankole and Busoga kingdoms among others.

Over the following centuries, the Baganda people created the dominant kingdom. The
tribes had plenty of time to work out their hierarchies as there was very little penetration
of Uganda from the outside until the 19th century. Despite the fertility of the land and its
capacity to grow surplus crops, there were virtually no trading links with the East African
coast. Contacts were finally made with Arab traders and European explorers in the mid-
19th century - the latter came in search of ivory and slaves.

This period (1500 – 1850 AD) of Uganda‟s history was characterized by continued
population growth, development of traditional civilization and expansion of food supplies
and other forms of wealth. Notable in this period were the growth of trade and the
continuous wars of expansion between kingdoms. However, there had evolved a wide
variety of self rule, most of which were kingdoms and chieftaincies. Their everyday lives
were enriched and protected by flexible legal systems of powerful spiritual beliefs and
customs.

5.5.2 Industry

Industrial production was carried out on very small scale by groups of people and
individuals. The main areas of industrial production are discussed below.

Cloth industry

Clothes were made from animal skins and tree barks. The animal skins were dried and
modeled to cover the body. Game hunted in order to provide skins for this purpose
included buffalo, eland, antelope, zebra, bushbuck (these animals were also hunted for
their horns and flesh). Especially in Buganda, leopard skin was associated with royalty
or at least considerable authority. The skins were used for clothing before barkcloth was
discovered, and also for mats. Additionally, sandals were made from cowhide and
buffalo hide.

With the discovery of the barkcloth, the use of skins for clothing became minimal at best.
The barkcloth of Buganda was the most renowned in the region. Generally, it was the
role of women to strip the bark from the trees, but actual manufacture was a male
preserve. There were over 19 varieties of trees for barkcloth including the mutuba tree
and maturation took 2 years, these trees usually being located within plantations. After
fermentation, the first stripping of the bark was beaten with the mallet nsaasi which had
particulary large grooves. The choice of mallet was critical in the process which actually
produced the cloth. Nsera referred to a mallet with slightly smaller grooves and towards

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the end of the process, a mallet known as nzituzo was used patterning and had very fine
grooves. It is unclear how common dyeing was as barkcloths were often naturally
coloured, such as ndogo which was comparatively dark. The red dye was produced from
a crimson coloured deposit found in streams, the deposit was mixed with ashes and
water. Black dye was produced by boiling a herb called mzugizi.
Kitentegere was a rough bark used for burials and other occasions where finery was not
necessary. Barkcloths intended for use in beds were much thicker than those intended
for wear. Sango, in southern Buddu just north of the Kagera river, was renowned for
barkcloth. Barkcloth was also used in royal burial and for the King a kind of species was
grown which gave a white barkcloth; this was used at coronation, but seldom at other
times.
Barkcloth was dominant for a century or more; in the early 1860‟s, bundles of barkcloth
were still being presented regularly to the Kabaka as tribute, and by the early 1890‟s the
fabric was still prevalent.

Salt

Salt was an important mineral. Humans and animals used it for consumption purposes.
South-western Uganda in particular was well endowed with three locations of salt
extraction including Lake Katwe, Bunyampaka (Kasenyi) in Kasese and Kibiro in Hoima.
Extraction from Lake Katwe, river Kabiga was done using the crystallization method.
Sand along the banks of the water bodies was washed and the filtered water (salt
solution) heated to evaporate the water to extract the salt. The salt formed was then
scrapped and used for trade, preservation of food like fish and meat, human and animal
consumption.
In some communities like the Luo, wood ash was filtrated and used as salt.
However, few places had a method of extracting salt as technically superior as in Kibiro
found in the kingdom of Bunyoro. The Kibiro salt springs had a low sodium chloride
content (0.41%) and to produce salt by boiling this solution would have required an
unsustainable amount of firewood, so instead water was channeled into salt gardens
where the sun‟s heat drew the salty liquid up into the surface soil. Over a period of days,
the salt content of this soil increased so that when mixed with water and boiled, it had a
sodium chloride content of 97.9%. Bunyoro‟s dominance of the regional salt trade was
reinforced by the reconquest of Busongora and Lake Katwe‟s salt mines in the late 19th
Century. Though these yielded salt in greater quantities it was of a lower quality that the
Kibiro salt.

Pottery and Craft

Pottery was one of the oldest industries in the interlacustrine region. Royal chiefs
provided the demand for luxury items of aesthetic value often unrivalled in other
interlacustrine societies. The best pottery and basketry and wooden vessels were
produced by Banyoro and the Baganda are said to have adopted a number of pottery
styles from Bunyoro. The Banyoro craftsmen manufactured thin, black earthenware
which although brittle was much superior to the usual manufactures in red clay. The
pottery industry produced clay pots and decorations. Basins were also among the

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pottery products. Pots were used for collecting water, cooking food, brewing beer
storage of water and milk.
In Buganda pottery products were found in most parts of the kingdom where enough
bbumba or clay could be found (red/ black clay was normally used). Two kinds of
pottery, a coarse and fine variety, were manufactured with water vessels and cooking
utensils forming the coarse pottery products and tobacco pipes and drinking cups
forming the fine pottery products. The pottery was burnt after moulding into shape using
huge fires with quantities of dried grass mixed in, after which the pots were placed in the
hot ash for an hour or two. Pottery was thus a significant industry both economically and
culturally.
Basketwork and weaving was largely a female industry and homestead activity- baskets
were generally made with the young leaves of the wild palm or with banana and plantain
fibres. These baskets and mats were mainly for home use and later with the
development of trade, were sold/ exchanged as commodities.
Each tribe had its musical history; songs were passed down from generation to
generation. Ndingidi (lyre), entongoli (harp), amadinda (xylophone) and lukeme (thumb
piano), drums and whiskers were commonly played instruments. The musical
instruments were used for communication and during traditional ceremonies and
dances.

Iron

Iron was as important among the lakes of the Great Rift as it was elsewhere as human
society flourished. Iron mining, smelting and forging into axes, spears, pangas, hoes and
knives was done on a small scale. Metal technology was critical to the military and
economic growth, of kingdoms. The first iron ore smelting in the interlacustrine region
occurred in Bunyoro. The production of iron ore and agricultural implements was an
important step, not to say anything about the forging of iron weapons which must have
helped Bunyoro build its vast empire. Originally, spears were made of wood. The shift
from wood to iron is symbolic of a gradual transformation which deeply affected the
kingdom‟s military structures and strategies as well as the metal-working economy itself.
With the replacement of wooden spearheads by iron ores, the smelting industry took on
a new and vital dimension. These iron spears and arrowheads were important for
successful warfare. With the quest for kingdoms to expand, wars developed thus need to
increase production of weapons. This resulted in the development of the iron industry.
Banyoro iron smelters selected the best wood for charcoal for their simple furnaces and
their methods of mixing the different kinds of ore to make good metal shows evidence of
careful testing and investigation. Iron workers bought pig iron from the smelters, shaped
and cut it, and sold it to smiths who used metal rather than the more common stone
hammers resulting in products famed for their durability. Some of the Banyoro‟s skills in
iron working were absorbed by the Baganda as the two societies interacted.
Iron which was mined in Kavirondo, for example, was carried west in an unworked form
to Buganda and Busoga, where it was made into hoes. Later on, unworked iron was also
increasingly imported for making bullets. Iron was also used to make ornaments fitted on
the arms of basekabaka or deceased kings. It was under Kabaka Chwa that spearheads
were first made. While many states in the region did rely on imported iron, Buganda‟s

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resource base was markedly inferior to that of other societies around the Great Lakes.
This is not intended, however, to convey the impression that the Ganda mined no iron of
their own. Much of the kingdom was covered with lateritic ironstone, otherwise known as
murram, from which it is possible to extract iron ore e.g. in southern Kyagwe. Emin
Pasha considered that ore in Buganda was derived from two main sources: bog iron ore
in low-lying ground and, more commonly, “clay ironstone” found lying upon granite on
higher ground. Granite was certainly found in the western parts of Buddu and Singo,
which goes some way towards verifying Emin Pasha‟s remarks. Mining and smelting
was done on a small scale by bakopi using charcoal made from particular kinds of wood.
Foreign influence assisted the development of iron working. Knowledge of iron extraction
was not as widespread as that of iron working.

In kingdoms like Toro, iron working was the only source of income. People developed
craft skills to make hoes and spears out of ore. Hoes were used as bride price and also
exchanged for cows and goats. The discovery of iron ores was said to be by
„Omojumbuzi’, the ruler and he made regular sacrifices and other rituals at the mine to
ensure that the mines were available for the subjects.

5.5.3 Transport and Communication

There was a transformation in communication from the use of fire and signs to drums,
flutes, and horns as a communication media. There was a growing demand for better
communication skills because of the increase in population. Due to mixture of culture
through immigration, there was a need for a common language to enhance trade,
technology and science.
Increase in population resulted into a need to adopt permanent paths rather than
seasonal footpaths that later developed into real trade routes. The major means of
transport was by foot. Roads used were merely tracks through kingdoms and an attempt
to improve them was only done when a king or chief was touring the area. However with
the development of domestic trade between kingdoms, the quality and width of roads
improved.

Road Transport

Buganda in particular had the widest and most spectacular roads at this time; the roads
leading to the Kabaka and chiefs enclosures were especially broad as an expression of
grandeur. Within the kingdom, the roads were generally broad (20 – 150 ft), with some of
the best being found in the capital. However some of the outlying, less important roads
were, naturally, considerably narrower (about 10 inches on average). The roads of
Buganda were both the lifelines reaching outward towards the positive centres of the
kingdom and the widening political and economic horizons. Roads were regularly
maintained and cleared of intrusive foliage. Water was overcome via bridges, which
were either built on upright tree trunks (allowing unhindered flow beneath) or trunks of
wild date palms laid side by side across floating vegetation forming a causeway of
interlaced pal logs covered with brushwood, grass and a thick layer of earth. Repairs on

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these systems were especially needed after the rainy season for obvious reasons.
Responsibility for roads beyond the capital was clearly decentralized though royal
inspectors periodically investigated the conditions of the highways and imposed fines on
local chiefs/ headmen considered remiss in the execution of their duties. Such fines may
have been considerably heavier in areas where the road network was especially valued
and utilized.
In all of the kingdoms, labour distinctions between the sexes were identified thus; men
were engaged in house-building, women in house keeping and food provision but in the
realm of state labour women were not exempted and were expected to assist in the
cleaning of public highways. Another source of labour for the maintenance of roads was
prisoners.

Water Transport

By the second half of the 19th Century, canoes were being built along lakeshores and on
the islands in the various kingdoms. Canoes were mainly solid dug-outs from pieces of
tree trucks. The dugouts were used for short trips across the inland arms of the lake and
shallow fishing both along the lakeshore and on rivers further inland. Canoes particularly
larger vessels, needed ports for landing, collection and indeed, construction. This
therefore lead to a corresponding growth of ports and landing sites within the kingdoms.

Before the second half of the 19th Century there were few ports between the Nile and the
Kagera river, but there existed numerous small landing stages, used according to
season. These landing stages were use for construction of smaller vessels and landing
areas for fishing canoes. Generally ports developed in areas with a natural incline/ steep
slope to the lake/ river- the steeper shores prevented flooding and made possible the
establishment of landing areas. A suitable port/ landing site usually had an adequate
supply of timber nearby (for canoe construction) e.g. ports were located at Usavura
(probably near modern Entebbe), Katongo and Munyonyo.

The main types of wood used in Buganda were mpewere and muvule (which hardened
in water and was resistant to termite attack). For the navy, the wood types emiyoru and
nkoba were preferred for the sides of the vessel since they were hard and thus resistant
to violent weather or leakage. Canoe construction may have led to serious depletion of
forest areas, though the Ganda probably made use of the leftover wood for canoe
manufacture.

There were obvious variations in construction styles- the mmanvu (dugout canoe) was
distinct from the larger vessels constructed from planks: an entire tree might be dug up,
roots and all, to minimize the risk of splitting the wood. The required length and diameter
were measured and the tree was fashioned accordingly (the average canoe length
ranged from 10 to 15 ft, though some were up to 20 ft long). The trunk was hollowed, the
ends tapered and the bottom flattened- flattened floors facilitated the transport of cattle
across rivers or shallow bays off the lake.

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In addition the Ganda made use of kadyeri (a small raft) made by lashing together palm-
leaf stems, for fishing short distances off shore or for laying traps in shallow water.

The “sewn canoe” was larger and built from planks. A high degree of skill and
competence in carpentry were necessary (for exact measurement and weighing of
various boards and planks). Planks were held together by pegs or skin thread, pulled
through holes made by hot spikes, and a kind of creeper was also sometimes used for
stitching which was in turn covered with a finer creeper for protection. The stitching was
caulked with tree fibre. The canoe itself was often covered with a dye derived from real
clay mixed together with a dye derived from red clay mixed together with oil or beer, and
allowed to harden so that the joins and seams were protected. Among the final touches,
particularly for larger vessels, was the fixing of animal horns to the brow to symbolize
strength. These canoes were between 50 – 70 ft in length, though one noted by Mackay
was 80 ft long by 5 ft wide.

5.5.4 Trade

Domestic trade had long been taking place within the interior. Trading activities were
mainly between producers of commodities since it was still barter trade. There existed
barter trade amongst the individual kingdoms of Bunyoro, Buganda, Toro etc. They
traded in items like spears, bark cloth, hoes, axes, hides, skins, salt, pots, mats and
baskets. Opportunities for trade resulted in numerous small markets along the frontier
areas between Bunyoro and Buganda, for example, Buganda traded bark cloth for iron
products like hoes and spears from their neighbours, Bunyoro. Barkcloth was also
exported to Ankole where it was a prized commodity. Fees were levied on articles
brought for sale in the markets. Eventually as barter trade died, the currency used for
trade was beads and later on, with the arrival of the coastal merchants, cowries.

In 1844, the first coastal merchants arrived in Buganda and the people of the interior
started to trade with the people of the East African coastline. They traded in commodities
like clothes, guns, beads and glass. Guns were an important item since there were inter-
kingdom wars. Guns were superior to traditional spears although they were old
fashioned and required loading by first dropping a shot down the muzzle. They were
very unreliable and made a lot of noise, which frightened people who knew little or
nothing about them. These guns were used especially by the Baganda who first got
access to them leading to their acquiring vast chunks of their neighbours‟ land.

The Arabs and Persians introduced palm, coconut, imported daggers, hatchets and
lances. In return, they were given ivory, rhino horns, tortoise shells, wood and
slaves.The Arabs also introduced onions, wheat, rice, guavas, pomegranates, pawpaws,
mangoes and other fruits as well as cotton cloth. They also brought with them fezes,
calico and red slippers. They in turn took from Buganda ivory and slaves. Slave trade led
to depopulation and Buganda on the eve of colonial rule had become to a very real
extent commercially weakened (wars also contributed to this situation). Long distance
trade also boomed in Bunyoro, where the most important commodity was ivory sourced

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by professional hunters. Banyoro men were also known to sell their wives who had
displeased them as slaves.

5.5.5 Agriculture

The tributary mode of production (where agricultural produce was offered as tribute to
patrons i.e. chiefs and kings) was common during this period. Agriculture was based
mainly on food production and animal rearing which was a crucial factor in the survival
and expansion of society resulting in a steady increase in the population. It seems that
although men and women participated in grain cultivation the greater burden fell on
women. In the Great Lakes region men were often required to serve their patrons, to
herd cattle and to join military expeditions. Patron-client relations was a personal free
contract whereby a man of wealth and high standing was offered personal services by
men of humble origin in exchange for political protection and material support in times of
need.

Livestock Rearing

Cattle keeping and pastoral cultivation were in general highly esteemed in pre-colonial
kingdoms. Cattle were important economically for their diary products (rather than meat
as this meant loss of the animal), trade feasts, sacrifices and the social reproduction of
lineage groups- cattle were given in exchange for women in societies in which clan
exogamy was the norm. The Kabaka and more prominent Baganda chiefs regularly
moved their herds (from the capital) between their estate and the better pastures; the
purpose of circulation being the major herds getting better pastures in which to graze for
a certain period and allowing superior ones to rejuvenate through a system of pastoral
rotation. Wells were dug for the cattle in times of water shortage. Banyoro herders
looked after their cattle in numerous ways. Cattle healers had an impressive knowledge
of disease prevention and healing. Careful attention was given to breeding, grazing and
protection from the sun and insects. Bunyoro grasslands were burnt at the height of the
long dry season to control disease-bearing insects and to stimulate growth of good
grass. For the poor, rather than cattle, mostly small stock (goats, sheep and chickens)
were reared. In nomadic societies, the youth grazed the cattle and got involved in cattle
raiding. The nomads mainly depended on animal products.

Cultivation

Not much was done to diversify agriculture. People around lake Victoria concentrated on
plantains while those to the north of lake Kyoga grew millet and sorghum. In societies
like Buganda, women and children concentrated on food production while men went
hunting and fought wars. In other agricultural societies, men worked alongside women
and children in cultivating the land. Farming practiced was basically subsistence and
after a few seasons when the soils were exhausted, the farmers would move elsewhere
to allow the soil to recover its fertility.

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Initially tools used for agriculture were sharp sticks, bones and stones. Later due to
growth of the population and migration, production of tools from iron like pangas, hoes
and axes were used though agricultural technology remained very undeveloped (the hoe
and the adze being the main tools of production) and in the plaintain zone alluvial soils of
up to 14 feet deep made shifting cultivation unnecessary. Compost and cow dung were
used to improve the soil fertility. Hardly any rotational farming had been introduced; the
plough which had come from as far south as Ethiopia and the Sudan had not been
adapted and despite large numbers of oxen, no animal traction was practiced. Likewise
despite the fact that cotton grew wild in many parts of the region, no spinning and
weaving had been reported except for simple girdles for women since hides and
barkcloth were used for clothing. In spite of this, iron tools eased and increased
production thus necessitating the construction of granaries for food storage.

All these must have coincided with perceived needs. Technologies remained within the
confines of these needs, despite the advent of the iron age in Bunyoro and later in
Buganda. But the point to grasp is that, as long as their needs were met, they had no
reason to struggle. The land was plentiful, the herds numerous and supplies from
agriculture ample.

In contrast to the plough and the wheel, adoption of certain crops from Asia, from the
New World and Europe was as fast as could be expected. The agricultural surplus drove
the exchange economy and domestic trade between kingdoms. Moreover, food
production was undoubtedly further diversified with the development of long-distance
trade with the East African coast. Stanley mentions tomatoes and kidney beans, for
example, which may have been introduced by coastal traders. Arab merchants probably
began their own cultivation after 1860.

Fishing

Fishing was one of the key economic activities of pre-colonial Ugandan kingdoms. Each
river had its own deity to be appeased, thanked, entreated for the produce and
prosperity so vital to the survival and the growth of communities. Fishing was critical to
the regional diet (especially for the poor) and the local economy and undoubtedly played
an important role in the early growth of the states. Dried fish generally supplemented
lake/ river fishing.

In Buganda, this industry remained unaffected by long-distance lake travel and labour
demands. Enormous canoes were used in this activity. Ngege or tilapia was the most
important species of fish; while others included kingfish, barbells, catfish and Nile perch.
Basket traps, mostly used on inland rivers, were made of cane, or else stiff reeds
commonly found along the lakeshore, while ropes were made from buyanja a type of
grass which grew near the water.

The historical growth of river fishing was impeded in many parts of Buganda by kifuuyi or
sudd, a mass of floating vegetation obstructing the course of a stream or river e.g. in

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Katonga and Kagera rivers and fishing often involved wading into the water equipped
with spears or nets, or standing on the bank. Fishing, however, flourished on the Nile
between modern day Jinja and Bulondoganyi. Spears used in fishing were made of long
heavy poles with two-iron spikes, tied prong fashion to one end. Using the spear
required a lot of skill. Inland fishermen also used herbs, muluku, which they sprinkled in
the water in order to poison fish, which were then picked off the surface of the water. In
northern Buganda, basket traps were used- trenches were dug into swamps in order to
create a network of artificial streams and at various intersections „the baskets were laid
on their sides and the fish driven into them‟.

River fishermen may also have fastened basket traps in running streams or in places
where the streams had overflowed the banks and spread over large tracts of country,
baskets were placed strategically during the breeding season to allow fish to swim in.
However this type of inland fishing was affected by periods of low rainfall.

Ssese (though not other Ganda) also hunted crocodiles and hippos for their flesh, and
hippo teeth were almost as valuable as ivory. On the other hand, Banyoro hippo hunters
used a specially adapted spear that was attached by a long line to an enormous float.

Fish was little eaten in Bunyoro except by the fishing communities who were „of
conspicuously better physique than upland Banyoro‟ e.g. in upland Kihoko. Banyoro in
Kibiro, for example, had developed unusual labour saving methods of catching fish, such
as complex fish traps and fixed lines.

5.5.6 Construction

During this period, kingdoms expanded with increased population and acquiring land.
Since most tribes were polygamous and the concept of extended families was in place,
people lived in large homesteads made of mud and wattle houses with grass thatched
roofs. King‟s palaces, though elaborate and filled with aristocratic airs, consisted of
simple structures made also of wattle and daub crowned with thatched roofs- all too
basic to lay foundations for advanced civilization.

Huts were designed to protect people from the harsh weather conditions and wild
animals. Nomads built very temporary shelters since they stayed in one place for a short
time. A framework of sticks tied with plantain fibres was used. These sticks were fixed
into the ground to a depth of about two feet and thatched with grass to make it warm
enough for the nomad.

The agricultural tribes used mud, which was later rendered with cow dung for the walls.
The roof was made of a network of sticks tied with plantain fibre that meet at a point in
the center of the hut and supported by a main pole. Elephant grass was used for roofing.

The Bakene people who lived in the swampy area of lake Kyoga had a unique style of
architecture. They built floating houses with freely growing papyrus grass as the

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foundation. Papyrus root formed the foundation, other stems laid across the first layer in
the opposite direction. A layer was added upon the other to form a strong floor raised
above the water. Stout branches of the trees inserted into the foundation in form of a
circle according to the size of the required hut were then bent inwards and their tops
bound together. Horizontal rows of papyrus were tied round the frame at intervals from
the top thus making a form of inverted basket. It was further thatched with grass for
protection from the cold.

Granaries were mainly wicker baskets raised from the ground upon stone or wooden
frame resting posts, which were let into the ground. The lid was heavily thatched to ward
off the rain. The basket lid was smeared inside with clay or cow dung to make it
waterproof and prevent grain from running out through the crevices.

5.5.7 Water

There was not much scarcity of water in the region where present day Uganda is
located. Women and children collected water from lakes, rivers, streams and swamps.
Kabaka Kintu during his reign as king of Buganda is known to have dug a pond on the
slopes of Bugondo hill in Busiro-county to provide water for domestic use, animal
consumption and fishing. In areas that were inhabited by nomads, people moved from
one area to another in such for water for their cattle.

5.5.8 Energy

The major forms of energy were basically natural. This was solar energy thus activities
that required this energy like drying of foodstuffs as a means of preservation were done
during the day.

Firewood was mainly used for cooking food and medicinal herbs to cure disease.
Special kinds of trees were also used to make charcoal which was used to smelt iron ore
in open fires. Tree branches and pieces of the stem were buried with a small inlet for air.
Fire was set on the wood, as it was being covered with grass plantain leaves and soil.
Three days later, the charcoal formed was split into small pieces for use.

5.5.9 Medicine

During this period, medicine was in form of herbs initially administered by trial and error.
But later, specific herbs were known to cure specific illnesses, for example, „mululuza’
was a known remedy for malaria fever. For ordinary illnesses like fever, stomach pains
and wounds, family members administered treatment at home. Most Banyoro had a
positive image of traditional medicine and used herbs like phylotacca dodecandra (an
effective uterine stimulant for constipation problems) and the alstonia boonei bark
(commonly used for stomach complaints).

In case of persistent or strange diseases and symptoms, patients would often be taken
to a herbalist or a witchdoctor who would treat the patient at his home or in a shrine.

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Goats, sheep, cattle or chicken would be taken to the healers as sacrifices or as

payment for the services offered.

As the patient heals from the strange disease, he would be required to dispose the
diseases causing evil spirit off in a distant area to avoid infecting others in the
community. Witchdoctors would claim to drive the spirits into other animals or mediums.

In case of an epidemic, the problem was assumed to be caused by an evil spirit that one
of the members of the community had brought them. Using divine power, this member
was identified and ordered to leave the community as a condition for the epidemic to
stop. In case of animal deaths, some healthy animals would be sacrificed to save the
rest from the wrath of the gods.

The Baganda believed in the supreme gods who had intermediary spirits called
„Lubaale’, „Mayembe’ and „Misambwa’. People believed mainly in divinities like dead
kings were believed to become Lubaales and their subjects made sacrifices to them.
They offered blood of sheep, goats and hens for appeasement, to have their lives
prolonged and cause more wealth.

Some gods were known to be responsible for certain illnesses for example „ndaula’ was
the god of small pox, „kauka’ was the cattle-god of foot and mouth disease and „nyalwa’
was the cattle-god to preserve the health of the herd. No disrespect was given to any of
the gods or their mediums. Though people had preference of the witchdoctors they went
to in case of an illness, this did not apply to gods.

5.6 The Period 1850-1900

5.6.1 Introduction

During this period, most of the developments in science and technology were the
outcome of combined efforts of the early foreigners such as the Arabs, the Colonialists,
Indians and the Christian missionaries. In particular, new technological advancements of
this age were introduced by the Europeans and built upon the previously absorbed Arab
technologies. Following trade routes, European explorers arrived in Buganda in 1862 in
search of the source of the Nile. In their wake came the first Christian missionaries in the
1870‟s- French Catholics and British Protestants, both keen to spread the gospel in the
densely settled lands of Buganda. And out of this religious conflict was to come the
colonial conquest of the 1890‟s.

However, before the arrival of foreigners, the indigenous people had developed their
own technology to some extent though they hardly knew the theoretic explanations
behind these processes. Their work was mainly composed of manipulative skills. It is
hoped that the previous section concerning the period 1500 – 1850 AD has given the
reader an appreciation of indigenous technologies, and the fact that these technologies
were no less inferior to the Arab/ European advancements introduced. Rather, the

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indigenous technology was based, as all are, on meeting needs using the available
resources and materials within the region.

5.6.2 Indigenous Technology

By the second half of the 19th Century, a wide variety of traps and implements were in
use among fishing communities, depending on environment and quarry. Drag-nets,
floating lines hung with iron holes and as mentioned previously, variously sized basket
traps were among the most common tools. Line fishing was common in Teso, and with
time fish scoops were introduced in this region.

A trace of science is marked from this period whereby salt was being extracted in the
raw form and used for preservation of fish and meat. The salt was also used as a
currency in trade. The salt after processing was packed in banana fibres and could be
bartered for food. As a major trade commodity, salt was also exchanged for items like
cloth and guns. Salt continued to be mined from places such as L. Katwe, Toro and
Kibiro springs.

Pottery was one of the most important industrial sectors. This had been enabled by the
transformation from the stone age to the fire age- clay would be used to make pottery
and later placed in a furnace. The furnace was made from red anthill mud packed with
banana fibre and reeds at the bottom.As a result, pots and other ceramics were
produced. The wood industry produced bowls as carvings of wood. It was mainly
dominated by the Karamajong. Important assets produced from wood included; stools,
handles for knives and pangas, doors, windows etc. Other indigenous handcrafts
included weaving, bowls, mats etc.

In agriculture, crops were cultivated on a subsistence level where the fertility of the soils
was enhanced by mulching using grass or leaves. Granaries were built for storage of
farm products like grain.

Besides growing crops, people also reared animals; these included cattle, goats, sheep,
and birds. Cattle were of great value because they provided food (in the form of milk and
meat), skins for clothing, as a trade commodity etc. The dung from cattle and goats was
used as fertilizer and the horns as music instruments.

There was smelting of iron and different items like pangas, spears for hunting and
fighting were made from the smelted iron. Hoes for digging and hooks for fishing were
also made from iron by the blacksmiths. Copper mining was also taking place although
in the crude form. By the second half of the 19th Century, copper wire was an
increasingly common commodity, being carried by traders from the coast to the lake
region, but it is possible that copper had arrived much earlier from the Katanga region to
the southwest, where it had been mined since the 5th Century AD.

Huts were constructed using mud, reeds and grass for thatching the roofs of the huts.
The bark cloth manufactured from the “mutuba” tree had also become a common feature

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of life, though it was later ousted by the introduction of cloth imports from trade. Imported
cloth became increasingly widespread in the 1880‟s.

The main transport routes in the interlacustrine region developed from the interior to the
coast. The roads above all facilitated the rapid movement of persons, armies, news and
commerce especially long-distance trade with the coastal merchants. Public works
regarding road maintenance and construction were done in the kingdoms, and everyone
was called upon to participate. These roads eventually fell into disrepair during religious
wars of the late 1880‟s and early 1890‟s mostly due to depopulation which rendered the
upkeep of the network difficult.

The kingdoms, most especially Buganda and Bunyoro, made dramatic attempts to
control trade and deal with the coastal merchants on their own terms resulting in the
construction of canoes and boats for transportation across lakes. Buganda developed a
navy capable of travelling the full length of Lake Victoria and in the 1870‟s and 1880‟s,
the enormous canoes of Buganda featured prominently in the organisation of the long-
distance commerce and rendered marginal the older land routes to the west of the lake.
Some of the boats used on the lake were large and ornate e.g. the Kabaka‟s boat was
60 feet in length and required eighteen people to paddle. In the 1880‟s, Kabalega
determined to expand Bunyoro‟s political and economic influence westward, leading to
the construction of huge royal canoes in the Budongo forest and these could be found
on Lake Albert and the Nile.

Influenced by the long-distance trade with the coastal merchants, by the 19th Century the
main aim of hunting was the provision of ivory, which had a more tangible economic
value by the 1850‟s and 1860‟s (till hit by redundance in 1880‟s).

The kingdoms were constantly warring with each other in a bid to expand their territories
and human depopulation was caused by the civil war and political upheaval from 1888
onward. Slaves (for sale to the coastal merchants) were also an important commodity
acquired during such wars. These wars however, adversely affected the development of
the kingdoms and led to a decline in the quality of existing technologies- as can be seen
in the case of Buganda where the superior road network fell into disrepair. Religious
wars, drought and famine also added to the problems faced by the kingdoms. Livestock
suffered heavily during the drought and food shortages of the early 1880‟s, and also
from the spread of diseases makebe (east coast fever). However, even here the
indigenous people exhibited once again their creative innovation in trying to curb this
disease- in Buganda, in 1903, a colonial official noted the prevalence of makebe
reporting that “the best known among the Wahima appears to slightly incise the growth
and to blister with the juice of the Euphorbia tree” which would save around a third of the
cattlehead.

In spite of their efforts, the livestock diseases were a cause of the collapse of the
agricultural economy. Food shortages, resulting from widespread abandonment of
plantations, became both chronic and frequent in the last years before colonial rule with
heightened social and political insecurity. Moreover, the gravity of the economic situation

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was almost certainly a factor in the ease with which Imperial British East African
Company (IBEAC) established itself in Buganda, and from there other kingdoms.

5.6.3 Development of Science and Technology

Arrival of Foreigners

With the coming of foreigners, there was a change and advancement in science and
technology which generally changed the way of life in Uganda. Isa bin Hussein, a soldier
was the first non-Negro to penetrate into Uganda. He arrived in the court of the king of
Buganda- Suuna around 1849-1850. From 1860, there was a permanent Arab
settlement at or near the Ganda capital, at which time the Arab merchants probably
began their own cultivation. It is clear that within a few years their produce had begun to
permeate the indigenous husbandry.

In 1820, Egypt invaded Sudan in search of slaves and in the 1860‟s and 1870‟s Egypt‟s
ambitions extended as far as Bunyoro. Bunyoro was at the terminus of two different
trading systems, one based in Zanzibar and the other in Khartoum. Kabalega therefore
had to fight off threats posed by Sudanese slavers, the Egyptian empire and Buganda.
Emin Pasha visited the royal capital of Bunyoro and commercial centres such as Kibiro
in the 1860‟s during which time Sudanese and coastal merchants also acquired Banyoro
for slaves, though in limited numbers.

In 1862, John Hannington Speke and James Grant, British explorers interested in
establishing the source of the Nile, became the first Europeans to visit Buganda. They
met with Mutesa I, as did Henry M. Stanley, who reached Buganda in 1875. Mutesa,
fearful of attacks from Egypt, agreed to Stanley‟s proposal to allow Christian
missionaries (who Mutesa mistakenly thought would provide military assistance) to
enter his realm. Members of the British Protestant Church Missionary society arrived in
1877, and they were followed in 1879 by representatives of the French Roman Catholic
White Fathers; each of the missions gathered a group of converts, which in the 1880‟s
became fiercely antagonistic toward one another leading to the religious wars previously
mentioned. Samuel Baker visited Bunyoro in 1864, also in search of the headwaters of
the Nile and later on in 1872, using the help of Khedive Ismail, with a view to ending
slave trade in the kingdom.

Agriculture and Trade

Technological advancements were fostered mainly by the need for more food
production, increase in trade and better communication. The Buganda capital visited by
Stanley in 1875 was a thriving regional centre: it attracted foreign diplomatic missions
from as far away as Unyamwezi. The attraction of the royal capital to foreign visitors
itself led to further urbanization. Traders, missionaries and travelers visiting Buganda
rarely had sufficient land to grow enough crops to feed themselves or their large
entourages of porters and guards. They relied in part on the exchange of gifts with the

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Kabaka, but increasingly they were able to buy food with the trade foods- for example,
cowries and cloth- which they brought with them. The growing moneterisation of
commerce and its escalating demand for imported goods (e.g. iron axes, knives, hoes of
coastal or European manufacture were brought in the 1870‟s and 1880‟s by coastal
merchants) favoured the expansion of the capital as a market for local foodstuffs. Not
surprisingly therefore, missionary sources report that several markets opened in the
capital during this period.

The introduction of the Imperial British East African Company (IBEAC) in the 1890‟s led
to the eastern trade route being fully developed. British law and order had to be enforced
to promote commerce and bring an end to the religious wars in Buganda. This was done
by a mixture of force and negotiation leading to the establishment of the IBEAC in 1888
as the representative of British presence in the region, its mandate being a royal charter
granted to the Company. A treaty was signed by the IBEAC head in Buganda, F.Lugard,
and Mwanga in December 1890. With the introduction of the IBEAC, the international
market opened up to Uganda and economic activities gradually became driven towards
making profit.

In 1896, agriculture changed from subsistence to commercial. Indigenous labour worked

the plantations but in spite of commercialisation, the patron-client relations still remained
a feature of the production system. Two prime ministers and the Kabaka introduced
plantations producing coffee, rice and wheat as cash crops. On the downside, the British
did not only conceive of Buganda as a “feudal” society but they were also interested in
establishing a “landed aristocracy” as a counter weight to the Kabaka who was most
likely to focus on resistance to their imposition.

The produce from the indigenous plantations were mainly supposed to act as raw
materials for British industries. Uganda at that time was obliged to export to Britain yet
the British were under no such obligation and so operated in rational economic choices
thereby buying from the cheapest producer/seller. There was a great imbalance in trade
and Uganda was disadvantaged. Additionally, land containing minerals belonged to the
British and so most Ugandans relied on peasant agriculture for economic gain. From
their agricultural proceeds, the Ugandan producers bought imported consumer goods
e.g. cloth, lamps and pipes.

New advanced methods of agriculture were brought about by colonialists which

included; intercropping, mulching and crop rotation to maintain fertility of the soil.
Application of artificial fertilizers was also done to increase fertility.

Private firms who were major stakeholders in trade bought and collected agricultural
products from Ugandan farmers. An outstanding person in the agricultural sector is Mr. K
Borup who introduced cotton plantations. This trade thrived in the late 1880‟s when raw
cotton prices were steadily rising in the U.S, England and on the continent. The “cotton
scare” in the U.K boosted this trade and led to the formation of the British cotton growing
association in 1902.

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It wasn‟t all smooth for the agricultural sector. It underwent hard times during the peak
period of slave trade in around 1881. Strong human labour was carried away leaving a
weak less productive labour force. Famines were, however, overcome by improved
farming methods for a variety of foods. Communal family granaries were built to guard
against shortage of food during the dry season.

Both domestically and internationally slave trade was a dominant feature of the
economic life from 1850 onwards. From 1889-1890, slavery and slave trade thrived
alongside ivory trade. This led to the development of small towns (bomas) to aid coastal
trade. Guns were traded for ivory and slaves. The guns were used to shoot elephants
and protect traders‟ lives and merchandise. Attitudes towards this trade became
negative with time and significant efforts were made by the British to abolish the slave
trade in a number of kingdoms. In 1893, the Kabaka signed a treaty with the British
abolishing slave trade and importation of guns. The Union-Jack, trading company
replaced the Imperial British East African Company in the same year. With the abolition
of the slave trade, the agricultural sector flourished once again owing to healthy base of
manpower.

Iron was mined in the Elgon region in Ketosh. It was preferred to ordinary wire due to its
properties e.g. malleability and ease to work with.
Smelting furnaces produced; brass wire, red beads, hoes, axes etc.
Other trade goods included; pottery, baskets, bowls from wood etc.

Taxes were introduced and the currency of trade was changed from salt to cowry shells
and later to Indian rupees.

A sawmill bought by Mwanga Christian Missionary Society was blocked for fear of
hidden agenda.

Education

Before western education, skills and information were passed on to people orally rather
than written. This was the duty of parents and elders to the young ones, for example,
herbalists, craftsmen, blacksmiths etc. passed on their skills. This was the informal kind
of education.
People were taught basic skills which promoted growth of personal talent and serving
the community. Girls were generally prepared to do domestic work while boys were
hunters, blacksmiths etc.

However, when missionaries came, by 1880 they advocated for formal education and
the traditional teachers were replaced by missionaries or African converts indoctrinated
in church. Alexander Mackay of the Church Missionary Society started a small technical
workshop in Mengo in 1879. The first schools were opened up in 1895. These were later
modified into primary and secondary schools e.g. Namilyango in 1902, Buddo and
Gayaza in 1905.

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Pupils were taught basic skills of carpentry, iron working, brick working, agriculture,
smithing, sewing, cotton spinning etc. In addition, they learnt how to read and write.

Teacher training schools known as normal schools were set up. In 1898, Namirembe
Theoretical Hall was founded by Walker of the Church Missionary Society to train
protestant teachers. The White Fathers established a normal school at Bitaka while the
Mill Hill Mission built one at Nazigo in Bugerere.

It was in this period that the foundation for existing education was laid. Other schools
opened up e.g. Mbarara High School, Kisubi, and Makerere College etc. Most of these
schools were single sex and religious based.

Some Luganda books were published to initiate education. “Eddini Ya Kabaka”

published in 1898 and “Katekisimu Kitabu Kyabasoka” published in 1896 by Neuville-
sous-Montreal.
These books helped missionaries and foreigners to do their work properly.

In 1885 Alexander Mackay assembled a printing press. In 1887, he produced the first
reading sheets.

In 1890, the first Ugandan students went overseas. 14 young Baganda were chosen by
Bishop Livinhac, Vicar Apostolic. They were received by the Pope Leo XIII in Rome.

The missionaries also started catechist schools, village schools and vernacular schools.

Industry

There was the cottage industry where many products were made e.g. baby garments,
men and women pullovers and hand bags, mats, brushes etc. Women dominated this
industry because it mainly dealt with knitting.

The arms industry also evolved since fire had been discovered. The industry dealt with
smelting, producing spears and arrows, hoes, pangas etc. During this period, Europeans
introduced their own iron goods and African smiths could use cheap imported metal
scrap.

Masks were produced as a tool for entertainment.

In the lake regions of Uganda, beer was made from bananas while in the drier areas to
the north, it was made from sorghum. The breweries only produced ram and gin for local
consumption.

Bark cloth was made domestically and was mainly used for clothing, beddings, wall
hangings, sacks etc. Barkcloth later fell into disuse as imported cloth became more

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widely available. It main function remained cultural- it was used in traditional ceremonies
and such.

Leather was introduced by Europeans and other outsiders. The indigenous people had
their own knowledge about leather making. The main products from leather were; shoes,
baby carriers, sandals etc. these were made from hides and skins.

In 1890, Alexander Mackay, a Scottish engineer, builder, printer, physician, and surgeon
instructed Africans in the rudiments of woodcraft and engineering. As a result, there was
improvement in handcrafting skills such as carpentry, iron working and copper smelting.
Lugard reported in 1892 that there was a Muganda fundi, called Kisuule, who learnt
superior skills as a blacksmith and gunsmith from Mackay. Kisuule was able to make a
new spring or repair a damaged rifle with admirable workmanship.

All in all, for this period, Uganda had not undergone industrialisation, as all the industries
were quite elementary.

Construction

This was the major development in the period 1850 – 1900 carried out by mainly the
colonialists and missionaries.

In 1872, Fort Patiko in Gulu was built under the supervision of Sir Samuel Baker. The
perimeter trench of the port can still be seen. In December 1890 Fort Lugard was built at
Kampala.

The construction was of the Railway, which commenced in 1891 was a great
technological advancement in the Uganda. As Europeans realised that slave trade
contradicted what they preached, the railway line was built as a means of stopping slave
trade. It also enhanced trade because transportation of goods was made easier hence
the growth of local and regional trade. Commodities transported included salt, iron, hoes,
cattle, grain, dried fish, copper, tobacco, bananas, domestic slaves, coffee, pottery etc.

Between 1886 and 1889, the Kabakas‟ lake, a man-made lake was constructed on
orders by Kabaka Mwanga. It was to aid the Kabakas transportation from Buddo to his
palace. Boats and Canoes were built.

Most of the houses used by locals were grass thatched with walls made of mud and
wattle and the floors were furnished with cow dung. In 1894, the Kasubi tombs were
constructed when Muteesa I died. These tombs display a unique kind of architecture
which still stands up to today. In the same year Colonel Colville, established Katasiha
Fort and put a ditch around it.

Later on, under the supervision of M. K. Borup, the first brick building was raised and
consecrated by Bishop Tucker on 21st June 1904.

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As mentioned previously, in Kingdoms self-help roads (known as „O’bulungi bwansi’ in

Buganda meaning for the good of the kingdom) were constructed.

Transport

In this period, slaves grouped into caravans were the main method used to transport
goods. The slaves were acquired from kingdoms especially from Buganda and walked
long distances carrying heavy goods to as far the East African coast. Following the
abolition of the slave trade and the construction of the Uganda railway, ox-drawn carts
replaced the caravan porters in the late 1890s.

Dhows were developed of planked boat. They were built with planks edge to edge.
These were introduced by Arabs in about 1880 and moved between Lango and
Buganda. On small rivers and swamps, people still continued using rafts made out of
woven papyrus reeds specifically for crossing and fishing. Bridges across rivers and
streams were constructed using logs.

The first steamer ship to move on Lake Victoria was assembled in 1886 and it was
named William Mackinnon. The first mechanically propelled boat on Lake Victoria was
the little steam launch called Daisy. It was brought from England by Shergold Smith in
1877.

Cars were later imported to support oxen and ox-drawn carts in transporting cotton to
ginneries.

Medicine

The indigenous people had their own sources of medicine before the coming of Arabs
and Missionaries. Some of these sources included;
 Local herbs from leaves, stems and roots of trees
 The flesh of some animals like the crocodile was believed to provide long lasting
immunity.
 They depended on spirits to heal and show them the right medicines in case of
epidemics etc.

Preparation of the medicine involved the following general steps;

 The leaves, stems or barks of trees were crushed and sun dried. The powder
would be mixed with water and sometimes boiled before administering to the
patient.
 The hot steam from the boiling medicine could be used to cure certain diseases
like malaria and flue.
 Sometimes the powder was mixed with clay, rolled and sun dried. This was
referred to as “mumbwa” in Buganda.
 For animals, marijuana was used to treat coccidiosis in hens.

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 Isolation was used in case of contagious diseases like measles, mumps and
cough.

However, due to lack of professionalism, diseases were not diagnosed and treatment
was based on assumptions and past experience.

During this period, Arabs began bringing in ointments. The first doctor in Uganda was
Emin Pasha who arrived in August 1876. He mainly practiced medicine among members
of his entourage and occasionally among Africans. He noted the abundance of fleas in
Uganda and that hunch backs were common in Bunyoro. However, after his
appointment as Governor of the Equatorial Province, he had little time to practice
medicine.

The establishment of Mengo Hospital in 1877 marked the beginning of the study of
diseases and their possible treatment. The second European doctor to visit Uganda was
a young English missionary, Robert. W Felkin, who on his arrival was summoned to treat
Kabaka Mutesa. Mutesa took the medicine only after some of his chiefs, Mackay and
Felkin consumed a dose.

Felkin’s findings in Uganda

Venereal diseases were common in all varieties, the Africans suffering from gonorrhoea
complained of snakes in their insides. He saw many marked cases of syphillis. Among
the epidemics, he identified small pox which was responsible for a high mortality rate.
He noted that cholera had visited Uganda on several occasions although dysentery was
uncommon. Pulmonary tuberculosis was not common but Felkin had seen some cases.
Africans treated this disease by curbing using a cow‟s horns but nonetheless they
recognised that it was incurable.
Epilepsy was a common disease especially among girls. Malaria was also very common
and was associated with movement of population, e.g. during wars. Another common
disease was respiratory infections.
Skin diseases and Ophthalmic were rare. He was particularly interested in the
management of child birth by the various tribes he met.
Among the Banyoro, Felkin noted that their huts and clothes were infested with a variety
of vermin for which they found it necessary to fumigate their clothes in the smoke of
burning papyrus every few days. The population was also threatened by diarrhoea.
He tackled the effects of climate on the health of the Europeans in the tropics. He noted
that diseases were basically due to poor sanitation as opposed to climate.
Later on, Dr. Wright came to Uganda and treated coughs, colds, bronchitis, pneumonia,
whooping cough, haemoptysis, syphilis and kidney diseases.
In 1892, there was an outbreak of sleeping sickness. This marked the beginning of the
study of local diseases in Uganda as it attracted distinguished investigators.

Energy

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Energy is very critical for the technological development in any society. Between 1850
and 1900, people in Uganda, largely depended on firewood and biogas got from
decomposing agricultural products such as coffee husks, cotton stems etc. to meet their
energy demands.
The Arabs are credited for the introduction of paraffin, candles and candle wax but this
was in short supply. Firewood was a common form of energy used for cooking purposes
and to warm families especially during the night when tradition and information was
being passed on from elders to the young ones. Women and children were the primary
collectors of firewood and biogas. The indigenous people had also discovered that reeds
when lit provided good torches in the night and were used to get honey from beehives in
the harvesting seasons and hunt for animals etc.

Fire aided development in crafts such as making fired clay pots and bowls which were
used to store agricultural products. Blacksmiths also used fire fanned by bellows to
make iron hoes, spears, pangas, arrowheads etc. used to till the ground and other
activities.

Extraction of oil from shear nut butter seeds was also done using energy from firewood,
fuel or biogas was an important development that enhanced trade since it could stand
for long until market was accessed. Other agricultural processes that needed an energy/
fuel input included the curing of tobacco on large scale which was also aided.

Other petroleum products like petrol and diesel were in short supply. They were used in
the transport sector to provide energy for locomotives introduced in 1886 by William
Mackinnon.

Firewood fuel remained in use as a form of communication among the local communities
e.g. a fire lit in ones compound usually meant the loss of a family member.

However, in an attempt to produce more energy, trees were cut down which affected the
environment hence affecting climate. Bush burning to clear the land for agricultural
purposes greatly polluted the air and led to loss of vegetation.

5.7 Epilogue

Generally, Science and Technology are ever developing. Men make progress because
they work together. Individuals invent things, but it is the community that uses them
otherwise the inventions die. An exploration of the past reveals that the local Uganda
communities had a vibrant history of innovation. It can also be seen from the history of
Uganda above that as different communities interacted through trade, and most
importantly in order to meet their various needs, technology transfer occurred from one
society to another. As the people absorbed and assimilated these technologies, they
became part of their daily lives and eased their work burdens. In other cases, the
technological transfer resulted in better quality production.

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There were of course some negative effects in certain instances, such as deforestation,
but as a whole, the communities developed towards better standards of living, health
and sanitation. That said, it is important that techonological transfers be mitigated in
order to ensure that it is sustainable so that adverse effects are prevented. While the
people of these time periods lacked the knowledge on how to manage their environment
in a sustainable manner, the same cannot be said today and a greater awareness is
required of every human individual.

Taking all this into account, one can rightly conclude that it is the sharing of ideas that
has greatly supported the growth of Science and Technology not only in Uganda but the
world over.

References

1. Richard Reid, Political Colonial Power in Pre-Colonial Buganda. James Curry,

Fountain Publishers, Kampala, Ohio University Press, Athens, 2002.
2. Shane Doyle- Crisis and Decline in Bunyoro, James Curry, Oxford; Fountain
Publishers, Kampala; Ohio University, Press, Athens; British Institute of East
Africa, 2002.
3. David M. Anderson, Richard Rathbone Ed, Africa‟s Urban Past James Currey,
Oxford, UK and Heinemann, New Hampshire USA, 2000.
4. Gardner Thompson, Governing Uganda, British Colonial Rule and its Legacy,
Fountain Publishers, 2003, Kampala, Uganda.
5. Carol Sicherman; Becoming in African University. Makerere, 1992-2000,
Fountain Publishers, 2006, Kampala, Uganda.
6. Archie Mafeye, Kingdom of the Great Lakes Region – Ethnography of Social
Formation, Fountain Publishers, 1998, Kampala, Uganda.
7. A History of Exploitation for the earliest times to present by Brig. Gen. Sir Percy
Sykes.
8. Sir Samuel Baker- T.D Murray A. Silva White 1895
9. Uganda Alexander Creed
10. The Tarnished Pearl Of Africa – Thomas Cansky
11. A Political History of Uganda – (1890-1979). Willy Kaberuka.
12. Uganda – A Modern History – J.J Jorgensen.
13. The British Protectorate – Sir Harry Johnston.
14. D.Wadada Nabudere, Imperialism and Revolution in Uganda, 1980, Onyx Press,
London, UK,Tanzania Publishing House, Dar es salaam, Tanzania.

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15. Mano Cisternino, Passion for Africa: Missionary and Imperial papers on
Evangelism in Uganda and Sudan, 1848 – 1923, Fountain Publishers 2004,
Kampala, Uganda.
16. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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6 THE GROWTH OF SCIENCE, TECHNOLOGY AND SOCIETY IN UGANDA 1900-

2000

6.3 Introduction

Science and technology has had a tremendous growth and development since 1900;
Uganda has grown from strength to strength as many Ugandans have improved on their
level of applicable education and knowledge. The arrival of British colonial rule in
Uganda accelerated the pace of development of formal education in the country.

British colonial presence in Uganda was first represented in 1888 by the Imperial British
East African Company (IBEAC) for purposes of trade. In 1893, Rosebury the British
foreign secretary favoured the retention of Uganda within the British Empire because of
the country‟s strategic significance astride the headwaters of the Nile, at the mouth of
which lay Egypt, remained key to its remaining within the British Empire. In line with the
British government‟s position, Gerald Portal raised the Union Flag in 1893 at Old Fort,
Kampala to claim Uganda as a British Protectorate. It should be stressed that in its early
years, any specific economic arguments for retaining the Uganda Protectorate were
primarily related to “India via Egypt considerations”, rather than economic value in the
territory itself. This remained the main reason for British interests in Uganda but with
time, the need for suitably skilled staff in the civil service prompted the colonial
government to encourage the education of the local Ugandan population.

The introduction of education fostered development in the long term, and it could have
been better had it not been for the wars that have taken place in the country, as well as
some unlearned leaders like Amin who were more of dictators than leaders. The
economy of Uganda was devastated during the Idi Amin regime of the 1970s and the
subsequent civil war. As has been the case with most African countries, economic
development and modernization have been enormous tasks that have been impeded by
the country's political instability. In the case of Uganda, there has, however, been great
development in certain areas as shown below, some were dramatic while others were
remarkable.

7.2 The Political and Socio – Economic Changes

7.2.1 Colonial Era

In a political sense, the British declared Uganda a Protectorate and so it became a state
under them and they would appoint governors to administer it on behalf of the Queen of
England. In this aspect, the different people of Uganda were brought under one umbrella
that is Uganda and became one person.
The British signed various agreements with the different kingdoms notable among them;
the Buganda Agreement of 1900, where they usurped all the powers of the Kabaka
(king) of Buganda and he became answerable to them and started administering his
people on behalf of the British.
Socially the various kingdoms lost their authoritative powers and so people started
mingling with other tribes and kingdoms, which resulted into inter-marriages and more
friendly ties among the various tribes.

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The British also used the system of divide and rule where it favoured different kingdoms
against each other thus causing conflict among the different ethnic groups.
There was segregation among the people since areas of residence, work and education
centres were divided according to colour. There were European schools, hospitals,
clubs, churches and even prison wings, specifically to cater for the European race which
felt that it was far superior to the African race.
The indigenous persons who got a taste of education were sons of chiefs and kings, plus
prominent personalities in the various kingdoms and their subjects never acquired any
education, which made them lag behind and thus were all hoodwinked into believing that
whatever the Europeans said was gospel truth.
Christianity was introduced by the Europeans and the tradition practices of worship were
condemned for being evil, since the British felt that it was easier to administer people
under one religious.
The British created social classes among the natives, those who attained some
education were drafted into civil service and worked for pay, whereas others performed
labour work and thus felt inferior and less important than those who could speak and
write English.Later on the indigenious started advocating for education which greatly
changed their ways of thinking and brought about unity and advocacy for independence
from the yoke of colonial rule.
Different people of Uganda started seeing each other as one person though with
diverse cultures and practices through this unity was fostered .They started fighting with
a common goal which was independence
Economically, the British set up the IBEACo Imperial British East African Company in
1890 with a sole goal of conducting trade on their behalf and fully exploited the mineral
wealth of Uganda, while returning only minimal benefits .Land was divided into mailo
land and crown land it rarely became an asset since the various kingdoms would lease
out their land thus obtaining rent but the crown land was for the Queen of England and
with various cash crops grown for export.

Agriculturally, there was a shift from subsistence agriculture to commercialised

agriculture where both food crops and cash crops like cotton, coffee and tobacco were
grown for the aim of selling and obtaining revenue.

The transport sector was greatly improved upon with the construction of murram roads
to ease their transportation of goods from place to place and also the building of railway
lines followed suite and goods could easily reach the East African coast, hence opening
up Uganda for the outside world.

The service sector was greatly enhanced by the building of various schools, for example
Makerere University was built to produce graduates in different disciplines.They also
built hospitals which included Mulago. People started receiving treatment for various
diseases and hence improved their health .

Buganda Kingdom became the focal point of administration of Uganda and with it
various privileges and services were boosted upon its people. It became the industrial
and commercial hub of Uganda. People from various regions flocked in the city to
acquire some of the best services offered. Uganda‟s status improved. Different
structures were put up such as banks {Bank of Uganda}, schools, hospitals and this
improved the image of Uganda in the outside world, and thus fostered greater trade ties
and activity in the region with their neighbours like Kenya, Tanzania and India.

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The British introduced hut and gun tax which were levied on the indigenous persons only
so as to raise the money to assist in the administration of its protectorate. It was a heavy
burden to the natives and it made them lose their property for failure to pay the taxes.

The colonial government realised that it could not depend on agriculture alone to
generate income so it began developing the mining and secondary industries that
accompany it.

The Owen Falls Dam was constructed in the 1950 and the Uganda Development
Corporation {UDC} was created with the intention of using government funds to start
industrial enterprises that would later revert to the private sector.

The industrial capital shifted to Jinja where all kinds of industries and factories
mushromed thus creating employment for the indiegenous persons and products of
finished goods which were later sold to the indigenous persons and semi finished
articles.

The economy of Uganda performed well in the colonial era since its Gross Domestic
Product {GDP} was approximately $57 per person and there was general macro-
economic stability cushioned by the British economy at the time and increasing demand
for agricultural and raw materials world market.

7.2.2 Post – Colonial Era

i) Obote I Regime 1962-1971

Politically, the Obote I regime respected the separation of powers among the executive
legislative and judicial arms of the Government .it was also a strong proponent of a well
balanced and effective administration civil service and left it together with other various
autonomous and semi-autonomous public institutions plus the parastatal bodies to
operate with a minimum of political interference.

UPC which Dr Milton Obote headed failed to work with the opposition mainly composed
of DP Democratic Party hence making Uganda a One Party State .In addition to that
there were internal wrangles in his ruling party and he abolished the 1962 independence
Constitution of Uganda and replaced it with his pigeon hole Constitution of 1967,
abolished kingdoms making his party very unpopular especially in the southern parts of
the country .He nationalised the majority shareholders in virtually all the major private
owned industrial, commercial and banking establishments in the country belonging to
foreign investors as well as Ugandans of Asian origin and this cost his credibility
overnight to rock bottom in the local and international circles.

Socially, the Government implemented the policy of taking services to the people this
good will was from the international community, which obtained foreign aid to build a
sizeable number of secondary schools, hospitals and infrastructure throughout the
country.

The new Government observed the rule of law ,maintained law and order and as a
signatory of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights tried its level best to live up to its
obligation in that important era.

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On the economic front, the country continued performing very well due to the reigning
high prices of coffee, cotton and copper on the international market. The Government in
addition implemented a series of specific development programmes, which effectively
guided the entire country‟s economy and infrastructure including manpower planning
and utilisation.
The East African Community of Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda was created in 1964 and
acted as the dominant outlet of Uganda‟s exports .During the post independence of
1960‟s Uganda‟s economy grew at an annual average rate of 4.5%, inflation never
exceeded 10% and the fiscal deficit rarely exceeded 2.5%of GDP.
Certain problems emerged during the decade since the manufacturing sector was not
well linked to domestic agriculture except by the fact agriculture earned the foreign
exchange needed by manufacturers.
The Government wanted to reduce dependence on the agricultural sector particularly
exports of primary commodities by boosting manufacturing .Subsequently, in 1970, the
Government initiated a partial nationalisation strategy (the Nakivubo Pronouncements}
by buying 49% shares in most major industrial enterprises companies and banks.
The government supported the manufacturing sector by providing subsidised foreign
exchange for the purchase of capital and intermediate inputs thereby maintaining an
overvalued exchange rate, which policy distorted and artificially made, manufactured
goods more profitable.
This biased Ugandans consumption towards imports and hurt agricultural exports, which
resulted in a misallocation of resources in the economy.

ii) Idi Amin -1971-1979

Politically, Amin‟s regime was antagonistic towards its neighbours who led to the
collapse of the East African Community in 1977 in, which Uganda lost almost all rolling
stock and aircraft, as well as part ownership rights to the port railway and communication
facilities.
The law and order situation began to deteriorate and the rule of law broke down
completely, as a result of human rights being violated with impurity. For instance there
were increasing numbers of civilians and others being incarcerated without trial.
Socially, the public sector especially the civil service suffered greatly as the normal
principles, rules and regulations, including the code of conduct governing public service
matters and procedures for proper financial management and accountability were thrown
overboard.
With the above developments, coupled with the unpredicted levels of brain drain through
many Ugandans fleeing from the country and going into political and economic exile
abroad, the social services and infrastructure of the economy reached the lowest levels
of services delivery of all time .The moral fabric of society was destroyed, thus some civil
servants found themselves along some individuals among the general population out
there fighting for survival in rather openly compromising ways, including corrupt ones.
Economically, the break in the economy led up to the parallel market euphemistically
known as “magendo” a form of smuggling, in effectively struggling to beat the very acute
shortages in essential commodities, caused by the ever rising levels of inflation.

The Government handed over the management of the economy to the indigenous
Ugandans and formed a parastatal the Custodian Board to take over the confiscated
properties, since Amin declared the Economic war in 1972, where he expelled foreigners
mainly the British of Asian origin, who had dominated the manufacturing and commercial
sectors.

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This abrupt loss of skilled personnel in both private and public sectors led to a vacuum in
management of the economy, since the natives lacked managerial and entrepreneurial
skills, hence leading to the total mismanagement of the productive sectors of the entire
economy, which was further aggravated the steep rise in oil prices in 1973 .
Misguided economic policies were pursued such as expansionist, fiscaland monetary
policies, low producer prices for agricultural exports and rigidly administered domestic
price controls. Furthermore, cotton and coffee, which were the major sources of foreign
exchange had parastatal marketing boards (ie government monopolies) that mandatory
purchase) all of these crops for exports.
The formal sector of the economy was practically paralysed, distorted and under
employed. The Government could not raise foreign nor domestic capital to finance its
budget .the largest expenditures were to non productive consumption like the military,
which fuelled inflation in the economy. The deficit rose from 2.5% of GDP in 1960s to a
peak of 10% in 1974 and the domestic inflation rate rose from an average of 3.5% during
1962-1970 to 50% during 1971-1980. By the time he was over thrown in 1979, the
foreign exchange reserves had declined to around US$ 3 million and external debt had
quadrupuled to US$ 600 million.
This period of instability resulted in the destruction of national assets including people,
livestock, buildings, roads factories and farms. The country experienced a downward
economic trend with GDP per capita falling by an average of 4% per annum and overall
living standards fell by 37%.

iii) Obote II 1981-1986

Economically, the Obote II Regime instituted changes in the economic policy, which
included a major devaluation of the shilling by about 90%, to stimulate exports and
improve government revenues, a significant increase in producer prices paid by the
marketing boards to the farmers, in order to stimulate production, the reduction in price
controls and progressive increase in interest rates, with a view to raise savings and
reduce speculative activity.
GDP grew annually by an average rate of 5% between 1981/82 and 1983/84 and
inflation dropped from 80% in 1981 to 20% in 1983. By the end of 1983, foreign
exchange reserves had reached almost 3 months of imports .Foreign donors came to
the assistance of Uganda with US $350 million of grants and credits and the government
debt was rescheduled by the Paris Club meetings in 1981.
The recovery of the economy was halted by the increasing political and military instability
in 1984 and the ultimate overthrow of Obote in July 1985 and with it the fiscal deficit
increased mismanagement of public resources weakened fiscal monetary controls and
inflation accelerated to 127% in 1985.

iv) The NRM Government

The NRM Regime came into power with generally overwhelming goodwill with the
exception of certain pockets of resistance, which turned out to be the forerunners of the
ongoing 20year Northern Uganda rebellion.
It restored kingdoms such as Buganda, Bunyoro, Toro and Busoga and even allowing
new ones to be established such as for the Acholi, Ateso, Japadhola and provided this
was the wish of the majority people within the tribal groupings concerned.

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i) Liberalising and Expanding the Private Sector

The price controls and other artificial barriers to commerce and investment have been
removed and businesses operate in a fairly free market environment. The Government‟s
main economic roles are to enforce market rules, collect taxes and only involved in the
provision of public goods.
In March 1992, the Government launched the Public Enterprise Reform Divestiture
(PERD) programme, which has promoted the partial and full privatisation of numerous
public enterprises and the reform and commercialisation of those remaining under full
Government ownership,
As part of other efforts to rekindle private investment, the Uganda Government has
undertaken a programme of returning expropriated properties to their former Asian
owners thereby, lending credibility to its commitment to foreign investors.
In 1991, the Uganda Investment Authority (UIA) was created as a one-stop centre to
encourage foreign and domestic investors and by 1995, it had issued 1200 investment
licences indicating a potential investment of $1.7 billion and more is still in the offing.

ii) Liberalising Foreign Trade and Stimulating Exports

The removal of foreign trade restrictions and freeing of the exchange rate have been
part of a major policy effort to create a balance in the external sector of the economy.
In July 1990, a foreign exchange bureau system was established, which provided foreign
exchange to anyone at a market determined rate, with only minimum restrictions. Later
in January 1992, an auction system was introduced for allocating foreign exchange.
The NRM Government has restored the rule of law, law and order, observance of civil
liberties, including freedom of expression. The Government was able to organise a
successful constitutional review exercise, which was completed with commissioning of
the new Uganda Republican Constitution in 1995. It also salvaged this country‟s good
image at the regional, continental and international levels.
The government has brought about political liberties, culminating with the introduction of
multiparty politics once again in 2005, a prerequisite for true democratic practices which
seem to be working.

Economically, the NRM government implemented different monetary credit policies,

which are the main tools used by the authorities to control inflation. It constituted
different reforms such as:
i) Reforms in budgeting management, especially the use of a monthly cash
management system, which has succeeded in reducing the size of the deficit and
transforming the government, from a net domestic borrower, to a net domestic
saver in financial year 1993/94.
ii) To improve revenue collection, the government set up the independant Uganda
Revenue Authority {URA} in September 1991 and its inspection, monthly revenue
collections have more than tripled although tax collection still remains low as a
percentage of GDP compared with other developing countries.
iii) On the expenditure side, the government has begun reducing the share of
defence expenditure through the retrenchment of officers and men in the army.
Furthermore, the government has identified a number of priority social sectors
that would be protected in the budget. These are primary health care, primary
education, rural water, feeder road rehabilitation agricultural research and
extension, police and judiciary.
iv) The Government adopted the average bureau exchange rate on travellers‟
cheques for all official transactions reflecting these by almost 70% between mid
1987 to early 1992 where it remained stable, until the foreign until late 1993.

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v) In November 1993, the auction for donor import support was abolished and
replaced with an interbank/ inter bureau system that unified the foreign exchange
market.
vi) An export policy analysis and development unit was created to study and
promote exports of non traditional crops and the Bank of Uganda BOU opened a
refinance window to assist the exporters of non- traditional goods.
vii) The National Agriculture Research Organisation (NARO) was created to increase
research in the agricultural sector.

iii) Reforming the Financial Sector.

Prior to the financial sector reform that began in 1992, interest rates were set at the
discretion of the Bank of Uganda and were frequently well below the rate of inflation,
creating an excess demand for loans. In order to reduce financial repression, a Treasury
Bill Auction was introduced in April 1992 that allowed the interest rate for 91 days
government bills to be market determined.
Beginning in financial year 1994/95, commercial bank interest rates were fully liberalised
and they became positive (largely owning to the reduction of inflation).
In 1993, new legislation that strengthened the prudential regulation of financial
institutions and the role of Bank of Uganda was passed by Parliament, which was
supported by a US $100 million Financial Sector Adjustment Credit from World Bank for
restructuring the financial sector.

iv) External Debt and Assistance.

In order to assist the Uganda‟s economic recovery through the expansion of imports,
donors substantially increased foreign loans and grants to the country, which increased
Uganda‟s external debt from $1.1 billion in 1986 to US $2.5 billion in 1991 and US $ 3
billion in June 1994.

Due to weak balance of payments and the existing high debts burden, further borrowing
was undesirable so the country undertook a debt buy-back facility with the assistance of
the World Bank, which allowed it to repurchase eligible commercial debt at a steep
discount, thereby providing substantial savings to the country.

During the last Paris Club in February 1995, Uganda became the first debtor country to
receive the highly preferential “Naples terms” which provided the equivalent of a 66%
reduction in eligible debt stock.
Donor assistance rose from US $230 million financial year 1986/87 to about US$ 690
million in financial year 1994. Of this amount, outright grants increased from under 10%
of government income in fiscal year 1988 to 52% in fiscal year 1993.

7.3 Education

Uganda, which Winston Churchill described as the “Pearl of Africa”, has since
independence depended increasingly on Kenya and Tanzania, which have much less
arable land and resources. This goes to show that in spite of many natural advantages,
the most important resource any country has is its people. By emphasizing learning
skills, values and attitudes of the people, education contributes to the national

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development and integration. Education can also be used to foster national unity, a spirit
of love for country, ethics and morals.

Formal education was first introduced when the Christian missionaries arrived in
Uganda. The missionaries who arrived in Buganda were keen on spreading the gospel,
although this came with religious conflict that escalated into the deposing of Kabaka
Mwanga in Buganda in 1888, to the advantage of the colonialists. On the other hand, the
advantage gained through the spread of religion was the education of most natives
through the missions like the Church Missionary Society (CMS), the White Fathers
society, and Mill Hill missions who set up most of the schools. The native teachers were
trained in the missionaries‟ quarters. Instructions were issued and inspections done by
the Europeans.
The Church Missionary Society together with the White Fathers maintained a printing
press, which published magazines and other works. Although progress in many cases
appeared to be slow, the training of large number of locals could not fail to forward the
development and civilization of the country in the most practical way.
In 1905 the initial baled cotton export was valued at £200; in 1906, £1,000; in 1907;
£11,000; and in 1908, £52,000. By 1915 the value of cotton exports had climbed to
£369,000, and Britain was able to end its subsidy of colonial administration in Uganda,
while in Kenya the white settlers required continuing subsidies by the home government.
The income generated by cotton sales made the Buganda kingdom relatively
prosperous, compared with the rest of colonial Uganda, although before World War I
cotton was also being grown in the eastern regions of Busoga, Lango, and Teso. Many
Baganda spent their new earnings on imported clothing, bicycles, metal roofing, and
even automobiles. They also invested in their children's educations.
The Christian missions emphasized literacy skills, and African converts quickly learned
to read and write. By 1911 two popular journals, Ebifa (News) and Munno (Your Friend),
were published monthly in Luganda. Heavily supported by African funds, new schools
were soon turning out graduating classes at Mengo High School, St. Mary's Kisubi,
Namilyango, Gayaza, and King's College Budo--all in Buganda. The chief minister of the
Buganda kingdom, Sir Apolo Kaggwa, personally awarded a bicycle to the top graduate
at King's College Budo, together with the promise of a government job. The schools, in
fact, had inherited the educational function formerly performed in the kabaka's palace,
where generations of young pages had been trained to become chiefs. Now the
qualifications sought were literacy and skills, including typing and English translation. As
mentioned previously, education advanced on the basis of religious grounds and
therefore Muslims who emphasised the study of the Koran, rather than secular
education, found that very few of their children received a modern education.
Another effect of increasing agricultural production (between 1914–1915) was that
instructions in carpentry were given to the local Ugandan population by the colonialists.
Other skills taught then were brick making, masonry, building, weaving and other
handicrafts. Boys were taught carpentry, masonry, brick making, boot making, printing,
agriculture and smithing while the principle subjects for girls were sewing, embroidery,
lace making, and cotton spinning, from 1916 - 1917, the knowledge of handicrafts had a
promising result, for instance, the Nilotic tribes benefited from the artisans‟ schools
established for the Gulu and Chua district by the Verona Fathers Mission.
By 1920 many private primary schools had mushroomed in order to satisfy the needs of
those who could not meet the requirements of the Government education system;
educational development was unevenly spread- there were 328 elementary schools in
Buganda alone while there were practically none in the north. Most Africans at this time
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encouraged education. Within the same year (1920), UPC set up some schools as part
of its nationalist‟s campaigns. Since by the end of the primary level the girls and boys
could be able to make articles like mats, carpets, brooms, cloth etc, they could earn a
living if they dropped out of school.
The colonial government did not participate in the establishment of formal education until
1925, when they started giving grants and facilitating the already established schools.
They did not enter the education sector formally as such, although in a bid to boost the
development of science and technology a Government technical school was opened up
in 1922. The courses offered in that school were carpentry, mechanics, survey and
medical training. By 1945, the major education level was primary although in the 1950s
the priority changed to secondary education. In 1943, the boys who had completed full
secondary education were invited to become survey probationers. The period of training
was 4-5 years and the course involved both theory and practical training. Those who
successfully completed the course would qualify for admission to the first division of local
services as African Surveyors.
Makerere College which started in the 1920s as a school for artisans but in 1949, it
became a university college in a special relationship with London University and so the
university saw its beginnings in the 1950s. At the beginning of 1939, educational
advances were however still limited and (Phillip) Mitchell‟s successor, Dundas, lamented
the shortage of trained African staff which in turn reduced the effectiveness of colonial
rule. Thus, students who had successfully completed the secondary level but did not
make it to the university college were given special training by the government in their
respective departments like survey department, the veterinary department, the lands and
mines department, the post, telegram and public works departments. Many young men
benefited from this training. There was also a public works department scheme for
training engineering assistants to help the European Engineers. The engineering
assistant was expected to be conscious, reliable and proficient in English and
mathematics. By then no African was given a chance to be a full engineer but could be
an assistant. Selection was based on field experience and the ability to recognize good
and bad materials.
There were changes in education after independence. Major changes in technical
education also took place and enrollment at the 12 technical schools was increased to
1158 as compared to 1056 in 1961. The government‟s expenditure on education
increased. A Staff Development Programme was initiated in 1962 in order to promote
orderly East Africanisation of University staff. Many graduates were subsequently sent
abroad to pursue postgraduate studies in various fields, although a number also decided
to stay abroad upon completion of their studies. In 1963, the Uganda government
appointed the Castle Education Commission, whose duty was to review the education
system in order to facilitate a more economical use of staff and equipment. By then
enrollment at the technical schools was 1275, which was a step ahead in the
development of science and technology in Uganda.
The Israelis first came to Uganda in the 1960‟s and their relations with the civilian
government were close and friendly. At first they were mainly involved in army and
police training, but they also made available a number of scholarships to the Ugandan
population to study in Israel.
The main weight of government expenditure was concentrated on developing secondary
and technical education so as to produce Ugandans with higher academic professional
and technical knowledge. Agriculture, woodwork, metal work and technical drawing
were also introduced in secondary school and were examinable both at O and A level.
In general, teaching of science subjects was stepped up.

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Science was being taught from European and American background e.g math was
taught using pints, pounds and pence which were not being used in Uganda, while frogs
and cockroaches which were dissected in biology were brought all the way from Britain
yet they were available in Uganda. This caused lack of confidence in Uganda and
hence underestimating the value of African things. The students were therefore unable
to apply what they were studying to develop their environment and this hindered the
development of science and technology. The education system produced people who
were job seekers and not job creators.
In the 1970s, education started getting less value because it was no longer an easy way
to get a job so some parents and children started despising it and so resorted to trade to
get quick and more money. This retarded the development of science and technology in
Uganda. In 1972, the government spent 23.5% of its budget on education but with time,
owing to increased attention paid to security and defence by the military regime of Idi
Amin, expenditures dropped to 18.7% of the recurrent budget and to even lower figures
in 1982.
The decline in the industrial sector caused by the departure of Asians in 1972 led to
shortage of foreign exchange and difficulty in importation of scholastic science materials
and equipment. This shortage had a positive side and led to many Ugandans taking on
the challenge of textbook writing.
Due to insecurity within the same period, there was a loss of valuable scholastic
materials from schools and libraries because of looting. After 1971, Many Ugandans
opted for greener pastures in other countries and this caused a serious brain drain in
Uganda.
The nation suffered a crippling outflow of its high level manpower to other countries. At
the end of the Mutukula War between Tanzania and Amin in April 1979, there were 100
Ugandan teachers at the University of Nairobi and Kenyatta College, 50 at the University
of Lusaka in Zambia and a similar number at the University of Dar-es-Salaam and other
universities in South Africa, to say nothing of doctors and high level personnel in those
countries, the United States of America and the United Kingdom. Of a total of 728
established posts at Makerere Universtiy, at the end of 1979, only 332 were filled. The
situation was more critical in certain faculties- the Faculty of Medicine had filled only 45
of 172 established positions, leaving 24 professorial, 34 senior lecturer and 6 lecturer
positions vacant. In the Faculty of Sciences, only 46 of 104 established positions were
filled.
Within the same period, the following took place; i) scientists were underpaid and
overworked, ii) the scientific community was isolated, iii) there was lack of appreciation
of technology and foreign dependence and iv) Government paid little attention to science
and technology and civil strife was the order of the day.

In 1970s, Uganda had established its own Faculty of Technology at Makerere University
due to the bad political relationship between Uganda and her East African counterparts.

The Uganda National Academy of Science and Technology was formed on 25th January
1984 at Makerere University whose mission was to coordinate scientist and technologies
to solve problems in primary health care and industrial development. During the period
1984-1986, the schooling system in some areas was interrupted by the political
instability that was marked in the country.

Uganda has witnessed a remarkable change in the education system since 1986. Most
of the policy changes have arisen from recommendations of the Education White Paper
(possibly about 1990). The National Research Council (NRC), formed in the 1970‟s to

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guide and co-ordinate all research, was reconceived during the period of rehabilitation
as the National Council for Science and Technology. More people are studying now than
ever before. Privatization and liberalization of government policy has not left the
education sector untouched. The number of primary schools has increased
exponentially and private individuals have set up many schools. The government has
also played its part by constructing more classroom blocks especially in primary schools.
There is an increased population in secondary schools and this can be attributed to the
introduction of universal primary Education (UPE) in 1996. This gave free reign to
parents countrywide to send all children of school going age to government aided
primary schools. The move was initially resisted because it seemed adhoc and
unplanned for but has become acceptable as a worthy venture. This good venture will
be able to absorb the UPE products and their quality. It goes without saying that the
capacities of secondary schools, colleges, vocational institutions and other tertiary
institutes have to be greatly increased to match the projected demand. With
liberalization, we hope market forces will help solve this enigma.

As investors pooled their money in primary and secondary schools, quite a number of
them have also ventured into Universities and other Tertiary Institutions. We can now
name a number of private Universities such as; Nkozi, Mukono, Nkumba and Busoga
Universities and a host of others yet to be licenced by the Ministry of Education and
Sports. A number of government universities are also in place and these are; Makerere,
Gulu and Mbarara Universities.

Another development in public universities and the tertiary institution sector was the
Universities and Tertiary Institutions Act that now permits these institutions to have
chancellors other than the incumbent head of state. In accordance with this law,
President Museveni ceased to be a chancellor of Makerere and in 2003, Prof. Apollo
Nsibambi became the first non-head of state to be a chancellor of Makerere University.

Beyond this, several other changes are taking place in the education sector, the syllabi
in all levels are continuously being amended to match the goals and aspirations of
Uganda and to meet the growing challenges in the world increasingly becoming a global
village. Ways and means are being devised to make education more holistic and
appropriate to Ugandan needs with the global village in view. It would however be unfair
to say these strides have been taken in all parts of the country because there still exists
some regions especially northern Uganda where the civil war has destroyed existing
education facilities and impeded much desired progress. In spite of this, hope is still
high that one day the imbalances that have resulted will be mitigated as peace is
restored in these areas.

7.4 Agriculture

The Ugandan economy is basically agricultural, and it occupies some four-fifths of the
working population. Uganda's moderate climate is especially congenial to the production
of both livestock and crops. The civil wars, drought and livestock diseases of the late
1880‟s greatly affected the country‟s agricultural base, but by the early 1900‟s, the sector
had bounced back. In the early 1900s shifting cultivation was the most common form of
cultivation but it later became difficult and the Bakiga resorted to cultivating hilly areas.
They grew crops in strips on uncleared land. Technology remained rudimentary with

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very basic tools being used such as hoes, pangas and baskets. The most common
crops cultivated then were bananas, tea, sugar, tobacco and cotton.

In 1904, the colonial administrators introduced coffee and cotton as cash crops. Cotton
soon became the major export crop; coffee and sugar production accelerated in the
1920s. Cotton was the crop of choice, largely because of pressure by the British Cotton
Growing Association, textile manufacturers who urged the colonies to provide raw
materials for British mills. Even the CMS joined the effort by launching the Uganda
Company (managed by a former missionary) to promote cotton planting and to buy and
transport the produce. The country attracted few permanent European settlers (by 1902
there were only 450 white settlers) who established coffee, cotton and rubber farms from
1906 onwards, but the indigenous producers of coffee and cotton outmatched them.
Because the government relied on these cash crops for revenue, by the early 1920‟s,
African cultivators had done so well that the colonial government decided to support
them instead.

The cash crops were mostly produced by African smallholders and not on plantations as
in other colonies. Traditional patron-client relations continued- the landlords (through
their tenants) contributed to cash crop production in Buganda and grew richer from
collection of rent and tributes but brought about no capitalist revolution in agriculture.
Technologically they remained as backward as the small producers. Instead of
reinvesting in agriculture, they were inclined to finance higher consumption and
accumulation of mailo interest for their descendants. To ensure steady and plentiful
production of cotton, the British introduced the Busulu and Nvujjo Act of 1927 which not
only guaranteed peasants the permanent use of their land, but also greatly reduced the
powers of the tribute paid to land owning chiefs. The enforcement Act, which restricted
the amount of labour dues (busulu) and tithes/ tributes on cash crops (nvujjo), allowed
the growth of “progressive farmers” who were then able to purchase land, which had not
been possible before.

It was the “progressive farmers” who brought about some type of advancement in
agricultural technologies commonly used. Most of their production was aimed at making
profit. These farmers owned modest amounts of land (15 – 45 acres) that they had been
able to acquire from the landlords. Because of the size of territory owned, they preferred
cultivation of the land available to rent-paying tenants. Their ambitiousness drove them
to greater personal efforts and use of more intensive methods of production e.g. crop
diversification, insecticides, manuring and nursery seedlings or seeds. Mechanical
devices or animal traction and fertilizers were still a rarity even amongst them, perhaps
for good reasons- good, fertile alluvial soils (up to 14 feet deep) were found in Southern
Buganda on suitable terrain. In spite of this, attempts by the colonial government to
introduce the plough and permanent rotations, into peasant agriculture in the 1920‟s
failed (owing to lack of willingness on the part of the peasant farmers to accept these
systems).

After the population losses during the era of conquest and the losses to disease at the
turn of the century (particularly the devastating sleeping sickness epidemic of 1900-
1906), Uganda's population was growing again and agricultural production increased as
a result. Agriculture led to the growth of industry especially Nytil (textile) industry at Jinja
and Lira spinning industry. In about 1901, there were some British farms introduced that
were very large, which used improved farming methods. Many Asians (Indians,
Pakistanis, and Goans) settled in Uganda, where they played a leading role in the

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country's commerce and owned large estates (growing mainly tea, cotton and coffee).
The British established a “three-tier” system- the hierarchy of European, Indian and
African- which for sometime served the colonial government well. The colonial
government strictly regulated the buying and processing of cash crops, setting prices
and reserving the role of intermediary for Asians, who were thought to be more efficient.
The British and Asians firmly repelled African attempts to break into cotton ginning and
coffee curing. In addition, on the Asian- owned sugar plantations established in the
1920s, labor for sugarcane and other cash crops was increasingly provided by migrants
from peripheral areas of Uganda and even from outside Uganda.
The 1930s depression seemed to have affected smallholder cashcrop farmers in
Uganda less severely than it did the white settler producers in Kenya. Ugandans simply
grew their own food until rising prices made export crops attractive again. In spite of this,
the above Asian-related issues continued to create grievance through the 1930s and
1940s. There were resistance groups, some mainly ethnically based, and they included
the Young Basoga Association, the Young Acholi Association, the Young Lango
Association, the Young Bagwere Association and the Bugisu Welfare Association.
Most of these groups/ movements were led by farmers whose major motivation was to
find markets for their products; the African traders who were against the domination of
trade by the Indians; the professionals and wage earners who wanted improved welfare
and terms of service. The Uganda African Farmers' Association was formed in the early
1940s under the leadership of Ignatius Musaazi who was a veteran of the Bataka
movement, which had been formed in the 1920s. These two latter organisations agitated
against Asian control of processing and marketing of their cash crops leading to riots
and strikes in 1945 and 1949. Faced with growing opposition from the local community,
by 1949 African co-operatives were eventually allowed to engage in cotton ginning and
coffee curing.

The co-operatives came to play a big part in the Ugandan agricultural sector; they had a
massive stock of productive assets and the ability to reach down to grass roots level and
mobilize a mass membership of farmers. Because agriculture in the country was (and in
most cases still is) low input and low technology, the cop-operatives played an important
role in providing farmers with agricultural inputs at subsidized prices. The co-operatives
helped to provide the farmers with inputs such as fertilizer, implements and agricultural
chemicals. The national consumption of fertilizer in the 1960s averaged 1.4 kg/ha.
Farmers were also provided with free commercial seed, the commonest being cotton
which was given to the cop-operatives for distribution by the Lint Marketing Board. The
resultant agricultural produce was then purchased for processing and exportation.
Marketing boards had monopolies for the marketing of cash crops (especially coffee and
cotton) at this time. The illustration given below of the growth of, and the role played by,
the Coffee Marketing Board allows one to clearly understand the agriculture structure in
Uganda at the time.

Aside from the Lint Marketing Board, the Coffee Marketing Board (a monopoly since the
1950s until its abolition in the 90s) was also important in helping out local co-operatives.
It resulted from the “Coffee Industry Board” formed in 1943 to help private companies
obtain shipping facilities during the difficult period of the Second World War. In 1946, a
Department of Crops was then formed to encourage Ugandan peasants to produce and
market coffee. In 1952, co-operatives were allowed to own processing factories and in
1953, the functions of the Coffee Industry Board extended to setting prices to producers
and processors. By 1959, the Board was buying coffee from unions and private factories

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and was renamed Coffee Marketing Board (CMB). In 1960, the CMB became a full
member of the International Coffee Agreement (ICA).
Despite the agricultural inputs provided by the co-operatives, most of the agricultural
activities during the 1960s and 1970s still took place within the small holders (2 - 4
hectares). The large plantations were no longer successful because of economic
difficulties and unfavourable colonial policies. The colonial legacy left a degree of overall
under development which left an agricultural sector vulnerable to world crop price
fluctuations, as well as an industrial sector far from capable of absorbing Uganda‟s
growing population. Cotton and coffee remained the main economic crops grown then.

Between 1961-1962, 131 ginneries operated in Uganda due to the fast growing rate of
cotton as an economic crop. Cotton growing areas were divided into 14 zones, each
having a statutory ginning pool, which received regulated share of raw cotton.

In the 1960s, the fishing industry declined with the introduction of Nile Perch in Lake
Victoria, which used to feed on the smaller fish. The appearance of water hyacinth in
the 1990s also hindered the fishing industry a lot.

Developments in agriculture were encouraged in 1963, by the introduction of group-

farming schemes. These cooperative societies enabled farmers to acquire machines for
ploughing, planting and spraying. In Bugisu, Arabica coffee was grown on large scale.
A central pulpery operated in this area as part of the scheme to improve quality. In the
1960‟s, Makerere through the Faculty of Agriculture had postgraduates who were
participating in research that was “highly relevant to the needs of agricultural
development in East Africa” (Annual Report, 1968/9). New courses were developed in
such subjects as Statistics, Field Experimentation and Crop Physiology. Donors
supported the expansion: seven staff positions were funded by USAID, three by the
Rockerfeller Foundation (RF), two by NORAD, and one by th Danish government; in
addition the (British) Ministry of Overseas Development providing topping-off funds for a
large number of British staff. These agencies, and their Canadian counterpart, CIDA,
also supported capital construction.

Sugarcane was also grown in Busoga and Lugazi, which led to the setting up of Lugazi
and Kakira sugar factories. By 1970, Uganda ranked as 3rd among African cotton
producers. By 1971, Ugandans were still living in a situation where the majority of the
people relied on rain fed agriculture. In the same year, pastoral tribes like the
Karamajongs adopted the use of ox-plough graduating from the less effective methods
of ploughing which Mr. J. M. Watson introduced, the first agricultural offices in Karamoja.
The expulsion of Ugandan Asians in 1972 (during Amin‟s dictatorial regime) led to a
great decline in the tea production, in fact many tea farmers stopped or reduced on the
tea cultivation. The rural African producers, particularly of coffee, turned to smuggling,
especially to Kenya. The smuggling problem became an obsession with Amin; toward
the end of his rule, he appointed his mercenary adviser, the former British citizen Bob
Astles, to take all necessary steps to eliminate the problem. These steps included orders
to shoot smugglers on sight. But later when he left power, the tea production increased
steadily. Other crops that had experienced decline during Amin‟s regime were tobacco
and sugarcane.

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The promulgation of the Land Reform decree of 1975 resulted in only two systems of
land tenure (leasehold and customary tenure), but in practice a complex mixture of
systems (including customary, leasehold, and freehold) continued to exist. The
government attempted to simplify and unify the land tenure system (a major
development in that process has been the inclusion of land tenure in the constitution of
1995).

By 1980, agriculture contributed about 54% of the country‟s income, which showed a
major upset caused by the political situation then. In the 1980s, the government had to
provide aid to farmers, and by the middle of the decade nearly a hundred ranches had
been restocked with cattle. Many farmers resorted to growing food crops due to poor
payment as regards to the traditional cash crops i.e coffee, and cotton. The main food
crops in Uganda are maize, matooke, millet, sweet potatoes, sorghum, groundnuts etc

In 1981, the Madhvani and Mehta families who had been expelled along with other
Asians returned and started to rebuild the two largest sugar estates in Kakira and
Lugazi. Coffee on the other hand experienced an increase in production between 1962-
63 due to the heavy crop damages experienced in Brazil, which caused the prices for
Uganda coffee to increase. It however later fell due to the poor world coffee prices in the
1980s.

As in the case of Brazil, Uganda also experienced a depression in the agricultural sector
between 1979 and 1981, when drought degraded production of food crops, but by late
1980s food production had recovered except for parts of Northern Uganda and
Karamoja. Also, in 1983, the glandless cotton seed was found to contain poisonous
chemicals but was previously described as nutritious to mankind. During this same year,
the farms of “Luweero Triangle”, which is a highly productive agricultural area, were
looted- roofs, doors, and even door frames were stolen by UNLA troops. Civilian loss of
life was extensive, as evidenced some years later by piles of human skulls in bush
clearings and alongside rural roads.

The instability characteristic of the period, along with lack of political leadership,
prevented major gains. In the meantime, Makerere contributed to national agriculture
policy discussions and the Dean (Mukiibi) during his three years from 1982 – 85, used
funds from the sale of produce to rehabilitate Kabanyoro Farm. In 1983, Mukiibi
negotiated a $13 million grant to rehabilitate Kabanyoro Farm, Serere and Kawanda
Research stations. Kabanyoro was later turned into Makerere University Research
Institute Kabanyoro (MUARIK), and these three research stations have contributed
greatly towards the available agricultural knowledge and methods in the country.

Despite improvement in input availability, virtually no new agricultural methods or

technologies have been introduced since the late 1960s and for small holders, many
labour-reducing or productivity enhancing technologies had fallen into disuse by 1995.
The national fertiliser consumption fell to only 0.2 kg/ha in the 1990s and total annual
expenditure on agricultural inputs averaged $10 - $15 per small holder household. In
1995, local products (hoes, seed, stock, food, vaccines, day-old chicks, barbed wire)
formed 17% of the value of agricultural inputs while subsidised imported products,
especially from China, flooded the market. Small holders investment remains low as they
do not realise the same returns on the value inputs as large scale farmers such as BAT
and sugar estates.

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With growing economic liberalisation, the agricultural structure of the country has also
experienced change. In 1995, Uganda had 5,300 co-operatives, 7 national apex
organisations, 37 district unions and 5,256 primary societies. While some of these
features remained in place, co-operatives were generally phased out in 1990s owing to
management difficulties, corruption and embezzlement, and poor financial performance.
By then, some had even resorted to buying cotton and coffee from producers on credit.
The 1991 Co-operatives Law tried to deal with these problems (though quite
unsuccessfully). Competition from the private sector and the threat of debt also hastened
the closure of various co-operatives.

Cattle production has increased steadily from 5.4 million in 1996 to 6.4 million in 2001.
This has generally been attributed to the good animal health arising from national-wide
disease control. Additionally in 1997, a trilateral project was set up to fatten cattle in
Uganda but was later rejected by the government as the health of the animals was being
put at stake. Following this, the Diary Corporation had 3 processing plants operating in
Mbale, Kampala and Entebbe (as compared to one in 1986).

Irrigation has generally developed in Uganda since the mid 1980s till present time. By
1986, the main form of irrigation used was surface irrigation but later on in 1997,
technology had come up with drip irrigation, which was mainly tried out in Kawanda
research station. Generally, the farm planning methods have changed over a number of
years. However, certain characteristics still remain a common feature- farmers working
an average of less than 3 acres (1 hectare) provide more than half of the agricultural
production. They are largely based in the south, where there is more rainfall and fertile
soil. Significantly, a considerable number of women own the land on which they work.
Small-scale mixed farming predominates, while production methods depend largely on
rudimentary technology; farmers rely heavily on the hand hoe and associated tools and
have minimal access to the use of fertilizers and pesticides. The two most important
cash crops for export are coffee (which provides the bulk of export revenue) and cotton,
but striking inequalities in the trade system make it harder for developing countries to
compete. These inequalities are mainly caused by government subsidies received by
farmers (of cotton and other products) in the more developed countries of Europe and
America which allow them to dispose of their produce at much lower prices.

7.5 Health

While traditional medicine has always been a feature of Ugandan life, Sir Albert Cook- a
pioneer Western-trained doctor- was the first to attempt to train Ugandans in western
medicine in 1900. In 1It was primarily during the period of the Protectorate, from 1893 to
1962, that sanitary conditions, as estimated by access to sanitary disposal facilities,
improved. Before 1893, and persisting through the early part of the protectorate the
interest of the European administrators was in preventing the spread of infectious
diseases within the enclaves European community. These measures were mainly aimed
at the removal of standing water. Slight national developments occurred from 1934 – 35
when rules were made governing waste disposal in facilities in non-European
households.

In spite of this, in 1939 colonial rule had thus far had little impact on housing, the quality
of water supplies or the methods of cultivation. Limited educational advances (and the
resultant shortage of trained African staff) reduced the effectiveness of colonial rule. The

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most limiting factor of all was perhaps the British insistence that the financing of
“development” projects should be done fully by Uganda itself, out of local taxation.
British funds were, however, made available in 1939 for a new hospital and medical
school at Mulago, Kampala. But such a health project could no more disguise the
general low level of health provision in the territory than the existence of Makerere
College could disguise widespread and continuing deficiencies in education (in 1922 a
technical school was opened at Makerere and it offered courses in mechanics,
carpentry, survey plus medical training).

Mulago Medical School opened in 1917 with 17 students and offered a 3-year course
qualifying African dressers and dispensers. The much larger School of Medical Training
was intiated at Mulago in 1924- at this time, two years would be spent at Makerere
University in general studies, then four years in medical studies at the School of Medical
Training (School for Senior Native Medical Assistants) leading to a qualification standard
of Asian sub-assistant level. Dr. H.B. Owen, a recently retired medical officer and sole
full-time teacher, rejected the colonial view “that no African was capable of absorbing
medical education on the university level” (Galloway, 1961) and “spent most of his time
adapting his knowledge of the preliminary sciences to local plant and animal life and
writing a simple science text book for his students,” who spent their first years doing
basic science (A. Williams, 1952). Aside from Owen, the Medical School was utterly
dependent on the Uganda Medical Department for clinical teaching and the use of
Mulago- medical professionalism was centred to unusual degree on government service
meaning that training efforts at the school suffered unduly when the director of the
(Uganda Medical) Department was not open-minded. The first graduates were hired as
“Senior Native Medical Assistants”. In 1931, the word “African” replaced the resented
Native” in the title and they were licenced to practice medicine, though only in
government employment. By 1939, its graduates were denominated medical officers,
and medical assistants were trained by the government medical department (Lutwama
and Hutt, 1970, Henessey 1954). However, it was not until the 1940‟s that the standard
achieved was equivalent to full British qualification and one was awarded a local
Diploma of Medicine, East Africa. With this training, corresponding improvements in the
health sector continued through the 1940‟s and 1950‟s, and by the end of the 1960‟s,
roughly 100 students were being admitted into the Makerere University Medical School
for training as doctors and now received degrees. Thirty years after its founding, the
Medical School had produced seventy-five doctors (Henessey, 1954).

Uganda maintained a fairly large development commitment to health services for some
time- from the mid 1930s to 1970, the central government consistently allocated a
minimum of 6.5% of the total recurrent and capital budget to health services during years
of minor capital improvements. The role of health in Uganda‟s development was given
high priority in the 1960s and this was well reflected in the country‟s planning strategies,
including the „Work for Progress‟ (1966 – 71). The government‟s concern for the
improvement of education and health services was manifested during the 1966 – 71 plan
by a combined expenditure of UGX 380.6 million which comprised approximately 18% of
all development expenditures during the period with health receiving slightly more than
half of the total (UGX 191.3 million). In the early 1960s to the 1970s several disease
eradication schemes were set up and they addressed malaria and tuberclosis
eradication, leper settlement, health education, family planning, basic sanitary
measures, maternal and child health care plus malnutrition. There was expansion of the
health sector workforce through training. In 1960 a school for dental assistants was set
up at Mulago to ease the low dentist to population ratio that was at 1:420000.

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As of 1962, Uganda‟s health services were among the best in the region and the level of
sanitation was such that 80 – 90% of houses had latrine facilities. The health sector was
boosted by the establishment of sound infrastructure like hospitals, dispensaries and
healthcare units countrywide. They had qualified health workers while a good road
network covering most parts of the country made the facilities accessible. Developments
in this sector were advanced by construction of rural hospitals in the period 1966-
1970/71. 23 standard hospitals were planned for various corners of the country and
some were established at Yumbe, Kitaga, Bundibugyo, Kiryandongo, Anaka, Nakaseke,
Pallisa and other locations. Each of these was to have 100 beds initially to cater for
general maternity and pediatric cases. Expansions and extensions were also made on
existing hospitals like Mulago, Butabika, Masaka, Bombo, Entebbe, Mbale and Mbarara.
The Mwanamugimu Nutrition Unit project, which began in Mulago in 1965, was modeled
and adopted in Kasangati, Luteete and 12 other rural health centres and helped improve
on child nutrition while reducing instances of kwashiorkor. The preliminary analysis of
the 1969 Census revealed that the infant mortality rate could have fallen by as much as
25 – 30% between 1959 and 1969. In the year the Census was done, there were
approximately 17,700 persons in Uganda providing health and medical services in all
delivery systems (Dunlop, 1975). The Census also revealed that overall life expectancy
at birth was appreciably higher than forty years, and as high as forty-six years in some
regions of the country.

The curative health service system that had developed in Uganda by 1971 was
characterized by a number of different types of health facilities, as well as several
administrative structures through which services were delivered. The government
provided curative services without charge in hospitals, health centres, dispensaries, sub-
dispensaries, maternity centres and aid posts (this structure of delivery of health
services stands today). The Catholic and Protestant Chruch Medical Bureaus also
provided curative health services, for a small fee, through hospitals, sub-dispensaries
and maternity centres. Curative health facilties were also operated by large commercial
firms for employees and their families as part of legal requirements (firms employing
more than 1000 persons had to have a hospital). The army and prisons also offered
curative health services to their specialized populations through dispensaries and, in the
case of the army, a hospital. Finally there were a number of private practictioners. Over
and above all these, Mulago hospital was the country‟s national referral, teaching and
research hospital.

At this time (1971), preventive health services were usually provided by local
governments- district administrations, municipalities and townships. Environmental
health services such as sanitation, waste disposal, vector control and clean water
supplies were administered by special manpower headed by the health inspector. The
central government also supported an immunization team which traveled throughout the
country and conducted daily immunization clinics. The combined expenditure of local
governments on health services increased from UGX 22 million in 1965 to UGX 35
million in 1970, in spite of a large decline in expenditures recorded in Buganda district.

Until the collapse of the 1970‟s, Makerere/ Mulago produced some of the most
significant research conducted in Africa. From the 1930‟s the historical strength was
geographical pathology, pioneered with the help of J.N.P Davies. Davies was also
responsible for establishing the first Cancer Registry in tropical Africa in 1954. The WHO
Cardiovascular Research Unit, inspired by a WHO-sponsored conference on

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hypertension in 1961, built on Makerere‟s “international reputation for the study of heart
diseases,” which went back in to 1940‟s (Illife, 1998). The Research Unit did not provide
patient care unlike the more typical Cardiac Clinic, which was founded in 1958 with a
single South African doctor, Krishna Somers, who had come to Makerere in 1957 after
completing postgraduate training in London.

However, an inflow of Europeans and Asians into, and an outflow of Ugandans out of
Uganda brought about a health sector with more foreigners than indigenous persons.
So when Asians and other foreigners were expelled by (pure son of Africa, His
Excellency President for Life, Field Marshal, Al Hadji Doctor Idi Amin, VC, DSO, MC,
Lord of All the Beasts of the Earth and Fishes of the Sea, and Conqueror of the British
Empire in Africa in General and Uganda in particular) the president, there was a general
down turn in the development of the country and the health sector was hurt as well.
Health services deteriorated in the 1970s and 1980s, as a result of government neglect,
violence, and civil war. By 1974 the country‟s institutions had given way and epidemics
of malaria, cholera, leprosy, tuberclosis, sleeping sickness and measles that had been
checked re-emerged. By mid 1974, only 1183 hospital beds had been added in
government hospitals in the four years since 1970. Amin‟s political and economic
policies had led to shortages of foreign exchange that caused the reduction in availablitiy
of supplies and equipment, and a steady deterioration of physical facilities (as lack of
spare parts inhibited proper maintenance). By 1975, the importation of drugs had slowed
to a trickle and the ban placed by Amin on private practice of medicine in the late 1974
made the situation still worse.

As if budget cutbacks and staff shortages were not enough, Uganda‟s hospitals were
beset by water shortages (a chronic problem in urban areas by 1974), and periodic lack
of food and critical supplies. In particular, Mulago hospital was plagued by sewage
disposal, water and power supply, maintenance, low staff morale, drug supply problems
and lacked refrigeration in the morgue in the late 1970s to the 1980s. By the beginning
of the war in 1978, there was a near total breakdown of the health services
administration and public health problems which had all but been eliminated from the
country began to reappear as a result. By 1979, Mulago hospital had no functional X-ray
machine (Illife, 1998) and broken beds were empty of patients. The war accelerated the
emergence of certain epidemic diseases in certain parts of the country, particularly
cholera, malaria, measles and trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). While in 1969 there
were 673 medical officers a ratio of 1 doctor per 16000 inhabitants, by 1980 the number
was so low that the infant mortality rate was so high while life expectancy was low.
Infant mortality was often caused by low birth weight, premature birth, or neonatal
tetanus. Uganda was ranked among the least developed countries with poor
infrastructure, sanitation facilities and hospital equipment due to looting and political
turmoil that were as a result of poor governance and poor central government policies.

In 1980, a study on „Population Access to Hospitals‟ (by D.J. Alnwick, M.R. Stirling and
G. Kyeyune) revealed that 12.6 million Ugandans were served by 76 hospitals, and 170
health centres and dispensary-maternity units. The ratio of health units capable of
offering comprehensive care to the population stood at 1:56,000. At this time 27% of
Ugandans lived within 5 Km of a hospital, health centre or dispensary-maternity unit, and
57% within 10Km of the same. The Eastern region was better served with 66% of the
population with 10Km of a comprehensive health care facility, followed by the Southern
with 60%, Western with 57% and the Northern region with 43%.

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After the 1980 elections, gradual progress was experienced in most of the sectors of the
country. Four of the twelve x-ray rooms and six operating theatres in Mulago hospital
were repaired. UNEPI was launched in 1983 raised immunization of children below 2
years of age from 5% to 60% by 1988. Mortality rate for diseases subsumed under the
Uganda Ministry of Health list (UNICEF, 1983) dropped to 10% of their former levels
once the population was provided with safe and abundant water, and good excreta
disposal facilities (Sedgwick and MacNutt, 1910). Various organizations mobilized
resources to provide social and health services and medical supplies. By January 1984,
the Ministry of Health had 924 health facilities on count.

The modern medical and health sector of Uganda was developed by a joint effort of the
central government, local authorities and Non-Government Organisations like CARE or
World Bank. In 1986, the NRM took power and the new government had to rejuvenate a
devastated health system- the doctor-patient ratio had dropped from 1:15,000 in 1969 to
1:21,000 in 1991, and the imbalance between rural and urban areas was extreme. The
health sector had been hit by epidemics and most noteworthy is AIDS which was first
discovered in Rakai in 1982 and has claimed many lives ever since. The AIDS Control
Programme was established to curb its spread. Under this programme the Uganda
Virus Research Institute at Entebbe was rehabilitated, blood testing equipment were
availed to 28 centres countrywide by 1990 and the Uganda AIDS Commission was set
up in 1991. The Commission worked in association with herbalists to improve the
traditional medicines.

Makerere Medical School recovered and in 1989, with assistance from MacMaster
University in Canada, a new undergraduate medical curriculum increased the focus on
community health and added sociology, psychology, and psychiatry to all undergraduate
programs (Ovuga et al, 2002). Postgraduate programs were revived and new ones
initiated. At the end of the century, the Medical School offered an Mmed in most fields; a
two-year MSc in Human Anatomy, Pharmacology, and Medical Illustration; an MSc in
Public Health; and postgraduate diplomas in Anaesthesia and Public Health.

In the 1990s, measles, respiratory tract infections, and gastro enteritis caused one-half
of all deaths attributed to illness, and malaria, AIDS, anaemia, tetanus, whooping cough,
and respiratory tract infections also claimed many lives. The entire health care system
was served by less than a thousand doctors in the 1990s. Care facilities included
community health centers, maternity clinics, dispensaries, leprosy centers, and aid
posts.

Growth of the health sector improved and by 1991 central government had rehabilitated
48 hospitals, 33 private hospitals had been established and 105 health centres were
constructed in the period 1986-1991 of which 97 were government operated. Over 600
lower health units were constructed at sub-county level under a move to
decentralization. In 1990 the first blood bank was established at Nakasero. Rural areas
that had no electricity were offered “rapid screening techniques” for HIV testing. A
National immunization and Primary Health Care (PHC) program was launched by UNEPI
to address prevention of whooping cough, polio, diphtheria, tuberclosis, measles,
tetanus and meningitis through immunization. The PHC was to provide:

1. Safe water
2. Immunization
3. Drug supply

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4. Mental health care

5. Safe motherhood through introduction of scanning techniques in health
facilities
6. Nutrition under the nutrition and early childhood development programme
funded by Vision

Funding was obtained from donor NGOs like EDF rural development programme,
UNICEF and AFRICARE that funded water and sanitation projects while EDF proceeded
to fund workforce training and essential drug supply.

AFRICARE also funded; nutrition, safe water and HIV/AIDS awareness projects while
CONCERN funded construction of healthcare units.
According to the 1991 census the doctor to patient ratio was 1:22,440 but it should have
increased due to increased training institutions since then like Mbarara University and
hospital, and Nsambya hospital.

Today there is at least one hospital in each district except the southern district of Rakai.
In the sparsely populated northern districts, people sometimes travel long distances to
receive medical care, and facilities are inferior to those in the south. Those who live far
from or cannot afford modern health care depend on traditional care. Women are
prominent among traditional healers.

7.6 Water Development

Uganda‟s well endowed with water resources in the form of direct precipitation, ground
water, run off and surface water. Due to the development of Uganda‟s agricultural,
industrial and betterment of standard of living, there was much need for the water
department to collect and analyze hydrological data, provide water storages and to study
water problems in the country.
For provision of rural water supplies for cattle and domestic purposes, four construction
units were operated each equipped with moving machinery;
 One was in Karamoja district where Lageri Dam in Jie County was constructed
 Nakwakipi Dam in Bukedi district.
 Tororo county and West Budama county.

Other units were in Singo ranching scheme in Buganda. All these were through
construction of Gallon tank (storage) and reclamation and utilization of swampland,
which was,continued in Kigezi district.
Investigation of irrigation possibility that was carried out in Busoga, Teso, Lango, Acholi,
West Nile, Ankole, Masaka and Mobuku was completed in period of 1962-1972.

Urban sewage schemes were constructed during the same period. For institutional
schemes, plans were drawn up and work was in hand for the introduction of water borne
sanitation and final disposal of wastes using oxidation ponds at a number of central
government institutions. The largest of these schemes were at Moroto army barracks,
Tororo Girls School, Kyambogo Teachers Training College and Elgon Technical College.

Water supply was the responsibility of the local authorities. In 1964, 205 boreholes were
constructed upon the supervision of the geological survey department. The kingdom
and local administration were responsible for their maintenance.

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In 1972, National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) was set up. The role of
NWSC was to tap the water source and to provide water to mainly seven urban centres;
Kampala, Jinja, Entebbe, Tororo, Mbale, Masaka and Mbarara.
The work of NWSC was well received and was subject to considerable support
especially from foreign donors.

The NWSC was both centralized and decentralized in operation. In Jinja, offices were
responsible for the local collection of revenue and operating maintenance while the
headquarters in Kampala were responsible for rehabilitation, capital investment and
collection of revenue from large institutional debtors like parastatals and ministries.

However, with the on set of political turmoil in the mid 1970s, the operations of NWSC
were slowed down due to reduction in funding and manpower. It is also recorded that in
the same period, to the early 1980s, Uganda encountered a moderate drought.

By 1984, when some peace stability was realized in Uganda, external donors like the
World Bank resumed their support to Uganda. NWSC was strengthened and clean
water supply was resumed in most parts of the country, especially the urban sector.

Rural areas had limited access to safe water. They mainly depended on springs and a
few boreholes, which were drilled by UNICEF and UNCDF and capacity building carried
out by the water development department. Modern rotary drilling techniques were
applied in preference to percussion. Drilling in Lira and Gulu was done by ROKO.

In 1986, when the NRM government came into power, “clean water supply for all” was
one of their biggest issues. In the early 1990s, a program to supply safe water to all
people by the year 2002 was drawn. However, due to some constraints, the vision to
achieve the strategy is by 2015. Some of the projects that have been successful as far
as the strategy is concerned are short-listed.

Water sector strategy

This was to improve livestock production, minimize stock movement and encourage
settlement and development of nomads. This had to be achieved by the following;
a) Excavation of valley dam and tanks of up to 2 million capacity each.
b) Supplying pumps to be used in the dry season when water levels go down.
c) Provision of troughs for animals to avoid them from getting access to water
sources.

Rural towns’ water and sanitation program

Aimed at improving the quality of life in urban areas through prevention of water borne
and sanitation related diseases. This led to construction of large storage tanks like in
Mutungo-Luzira by SOGEA, replacement of water pipelines by WAMIKO construction,
which involved replacement of metallic pipes with polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and high
density polythene (HDPE) pipes that are durable.

Bore hole-drilling project

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This increased access to potable water and promoted sanitation through the
rehabilitation and construction of bore holes, dams, protected springs and valley tanks.
This was enhanced by RUWASA rural water and sanitation program and was funded by
DANIDA a Danish company.

Support to water resources, monitoring and assessment

This aimed at rehabilitating and updating the national water resources. The monitoring
and assessment services were done with the Directorate of Water Development (DWD),
with respect to the quantity as well as quality. The upgrading of the hydrometric network
and the water resources quality lab facilities were also done.

Operational water resource management and information in the Nile Basin states
This is strengthening regional cooperation among the Nile Basin countries, enhancing
capacity to negotiate joint management, equitable sharing and utilization of water
resources and to protect the environment in the Nile Basin.

Water sector human resource management

It aimed at strengthening the DWD so as to ensure good leadership in all aspects of the
sector. This is to improve the planning and implementation capacity of local government
and communities for the demand driven community managed water and sanitation
services. It provided coordination, communication and collaboration among human
resource managers and provision of response to the needs of the sector.

Policy management support

This strengthened overall management through development of comprehensive

management information system, establishment of a functioning water policy committee
and staff development through skills training.
In October 1997, the policy management support was designed on the basis of a
consultative workshop and this approach will continue.

Rural water and sanitation projects

These improved rural water supply and sanitation practice in selected districts. It
brought about health and economic benefits to the people in these areas.
In Kiboga, about 435 boreholes were drilled, pipe water was effected in the Kiboga town
and training of community based mechanics for improved sanitation and management.
In Northern Uganda, there was a project improving the delivery of water and sanitation
services. This was done through strengthening community and private sector
participation in sensitizing people on the importance of sanitation and water services
maintenance in the communities.
In Southwestern Uganda the Southwestern Integrated Program (SWIP), funded by
UNICEF, was to improve public health and social-economic development by contributing
to the reduction of water related diseases and reducing the workload of women (fetching
water) by providing nearer access to safe water resources.
All in all, the output activities included development of tools for forecasting, development
of watershed management tools, the determination of mitigation measures for flood

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areas and the development of regulations for steady settlement and development
activities in the flood prone areas.

7.7 Trade and Industry

Industrialisation requires modernization of various sectors of the economy so that raw

materials (from agriculture, forests, minerals and freshwater resources) can be
harnessed and utilized in a meaningful way. The first industrial revolution took place and
was attributed to the colonialists, although rapid growth was experienced with the
establishment of the boat making industry in Kasubi tombs. By 1950s the traditional
architecture, which was predominant in the central, Uganda changed to modern and
other international forms. The old houses remained only in such places as the royal
places and the tombs of Bunyoro and Buganda like those in Kasubi.

The colonial administration‟s priority at the end of the 19th Century was the Protectorate‟s
financial viability, rather than any direct pursuit of metropolitan economic advantage i.e.
that Uganda be a self-sustaining country. The key to achieving this was mainly cotton
exportation, although also sugar and coffee were exported. Poll tax and customs were
also raised on imports to serve this purpose and acted as a source of government
revenue. The whole political and economic structure depended, of course, on the
willingness of the peasant farmers to produce cash crops.

By 1939, industrialization largely consisted of cotton ginning, in which seasonal workers

would be annually employed without written contracts, and local mining in the Western
Province. Between 1945 and 1949, British plans included a hydro-electric installation on
the river Nile near Jinja; a cement factory at Tororo; extension of the railway westward to
Kasese and a textile factory at Jinja. This vision promised long term development but
neglected immediate African priorities arising from, or reinforced by, the Second World
War (most especially the removal of the barriers to processing and free disposal of
primary produce). In some other respects, however, the Second World War brought little
change, with production patterns being modified rather than transformed and in the
absence of significant wartime industrialization, there was no significant urbanization
either. After Uganda had passed through the hard times of the World War II in 1945, the
first industries, which were built, were the cement and breweries factories in 1951. In
1952, Governor Andrew Cohen also removed all obstacles to African cotton ginning,
rescinded price discrimination against African-grown coffee, encouraged cooperatives,
and established the Uganda Development Corporation to promote and finance new
projects.

At the time of independence in 1962, the infrastructure of Uganda was in place, having
been put there by the British from Mulago Hospital to the Makerere University. There
were roads, schools, power generating plants and more, allowing for a progression of
trade and industrial sector. During the early periods, the technology project discovered a
new type of pottery at Sanzi and Bukunja sub-counties. This unique project was found
in 1964 at the Geological Survey and Mines department in Entebbe. There was an iron
smelting industry at Kinanisi in Mukono district where four furnances were discovered
and salt, which was being extracted from L. Katwe, and Kibiro springs in Bunyoro, which
was made from ash.

On the other hand, basketry and netting were the fundamental domestic industries until
the 18th century. It was due to the coming of the Europeans in this century that the craft

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industries declined. This was because these colonialists came with manufactured
products and they encouraged people to be agriculturalists thus leading to a slow
progress of the industrial development.

In the 1960s, there was an industrial development strategy due to the completion of the
Owen Falls Dam that provided cheap electricity. The copper mining industry at Kilembe
came up and a smelting plant for concentrating the ore was set up in Jinja. Agricultural
based industries like Nyanza Textiles in Jinja, Lira Spinning Mill, Tea industries and
Sugar processing industries like Kakira Sugar Works were established and these were
enhanced by the availability of the raw materials. There was also the production of
cement and asbestos in Tororo in Eastern Uganda. Other industries like beef in Soroti,
skins and hides and leather tanning also grew.

Production in colonial times was not really market oriented such that families produced
what would give maximum returns (locally) when traded e.g. bananas, but was geared
towards colonial industries instead. The internal trade was based on the sale of coffee
and cotton crops to marketing boards and this was seasonal with high levels of activity
realized in the periods of November-March and July-September. The early month of
1962 saw a relatively low level of trade activity due to low world prices and poor cotton
crop though in 1963, the sell of cotton seed and Kiboko coffee led to better trading
conditions improving the payments of the growers.
In 1964, there was a general trend in the improvement of locally produced consumer
goods. The Africans managed to open up small shops in the country, bringing the goods
nearer to the consumers.

During the 60s, a remarkable progress was made in external trade, Uganda‟s non
discriminatory tariff and trading policies were favourable. In October 1964, Uganda
became the 44th member of the general agreement of tariffs and trade and participated
in trade talks with Commonwealth countries and European Economic Community.
In 1963, coffee was Uganda‟s most valuable export accounting for 52% of the total
domestic export. Cotton exports, animal feeding stuffs and vegetable oils also showed a
marked increase.
During 1964, Uganda‟s trade activities greatly improved through the signing of trade
agreements with different countries like Sudan, West Germany, Congo, Iran and Soviet
Union. This boosted the export of coffee, textile products, cement, and asbestos and
also created market for the imported products from these countries. The effects of these
agreements were noticeable as they established new trade contacts.

In the 60s, the manufacturing sector contributed an average of 80% of GDP and was
centered on seven broad sectors, which included food, beverages, tobacco, textiles,
leather, footwear, wood and paper, metallic products and steel. A number of these had
developed beyond import substituting stage and had markets in the East African and
other neighbouring countries. In the 1960s, the existence of the East African Community
(EAC) helped in promoting regional trade through the common market.

Between 1962 and 1964, productivity capacity had increased significantly in cotton
ginning, spinning and coffee processing. The manufacturing sector had several
relatively large undertakings like cement, asbestos, plywood, iron and steel. In same
period, the Dunlop Rubber Company established a rubber factory in Jinja producing
bicycle tyres, Chillington Tool Company for the production of hoes and a fish factory in

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Kampala. These industries were to use the local population in their operations and thus
improving the ordinary man‟s skills.
A committee of industrial experts to advise on the import-output, industrial analysis and
product marketability was set up. A ministerial committee was also appointed and
subsequently surveyed the idea of industrial co-ordination.

In 1964-1967, Uganda‟s industries produced new items for the first time. Estimated
investments in these industries at the time amounted to about £1.5 million. Galvanised
iron, portable liquor, paper bags, clothes, matches, soap and asbestos products were all
produced at that time. Industries were intended to be labour intensive and less import
dependant by using Ugandan materials and cheaper techniques.

Uganda‟s industrial sector heavily relied on imports for its raw materials. These
industries were unevenly distributed with over-whelming proportions of them
concentrated in Kampala-Jinja-Tororo areas.
The upsurge of production in 1964 in major manufacturing firms was maintained up to
1969 with the most encouraging feature of the industrial scene in the 60s being the
considerable volume of investment that was undertaken.

However, this upward trend of industrial growth started suffering set backs in 1970.
Policy changes, which were instituted in that year, had far reaching effects on the
industrial sector in Uganda. In May 1970, President Obote gave government an upper
hand in the control, operating and share in a number of private industrial establishments
and other companies. Most companies became government parastatals and thus
managerial posts were given to people without business background but rather as
political gifts. This eventually caused the fall of many industries due to mismanagement
and corruption.

Amin‟s military government which took over power in 1971 decided to reverse this policy
by reducing the state participation from 60% to 49% although sufficient damage had
already been done.

Between 1966-1976, the industrial sector accounted for 80% of the country‟s GDP and
was centred around food, beverages, textiles, leather and footwear, wood and paper,
chemicals, nonmetallic products, steel and metal products, processing cash crops and
dairy products, edible oil, grain milling and brewing.
By then, most of these industries had developed beyond the import-substituting stage
and found market in the East African countries as well as the neighbouring ones.

The period between 1971 and 1979 had several dramatic events springing up in
Ugandan history many of which had far reaching effects on industry and trade. In 1972,
Idi Amin deported all Asians with British passports, as well as Israeli businessmen,
military and technical advisers. It is recorded that over 73000 Asians were affected by
this decree. Much as Asians were only 1% of the total population of Uganda, their
deportation had a big impact on the level of industry and trade because they owned 80%
of the shops in Kampala. Their industrial enterprises and shops were allotted to newly
constituted parastatal corporations and to a number of individuals many of whom had no
technical or managerial experience.

In December 1972, Amin declared an Economic War which was intended „to make the
ordinary Ugandan master of his destiny and above all see that he enjoys the wealth of

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his country‟ as he announced via radio. This war forced out all foreigners and the
Uganda government also took over British property in Uganda including all tea estates,
BAT, Uganda Transport Company, Brooke Bond, Chillingtion Tool Company,
Consolidated Printers, Securicor, British Metal Corporation, Uganda Television, and
Kampala Club (then exclusively visited by only British members). Kilembe mines at
Kasese, belonging to Falconbridge of Canada, was also taken over by the government.
As a result, Britain retaliated by canceling all aid to Uganda including a 10 million pound
grant that had been promised in July 1971, and this withdrawal affected the economy
further.

This expropriation of property proved disastrous for the already declining economy.
Businesses collapsed due to lack of capital, low inventories and incompetence, for
instance, cement factories at Tororo and Fort Portal collapsed from lack of maintenance,
and sugar production literally ground to a halt, as unmaintained machinery jammed
permanently. Uganda's export crops continued to be sold by government parastatals, but
most of the foreign currency they earned went for purchasing imports for the army. The
most famous example was the so-called “whiskey run” to Stansted Airport in Britain,
where planeloads of Scotch whisky, transistor radios, and luxury items were purchased
for Amin to distribute among his officers and troops.

The economic situation was aggravated by a steep rise in the oil prices and a recession
in the Western world, this consumed much of the hard earned foreign currency and little
was left for investment in the industrial sector.

In the early 1970s the mining sector produced copper, Ti, Bismuth, Wolfram, limestone
and Beryl. It employed about 8000 people and accounted for 9% of the country‟s
exports. By 1979, nearly all mines had closed and there were massive riots at Kilembe
mines, which was a big set back.

Attempts to revive industrial production through a comprehensive action programme

planned to raise the output failed to take off. The anti-Amin war of 1979 aggravated
problems for industries in which most of them were looted and machinery destroyed and
by 1980 most industries had closed.

The 1981 Obote government, unlike Amin's regime, was sensitive to its international
image and realized the importance of securing foreign aid for the nation's economic
recovery. Obote had sought and followed the advice of the International Monetary Fund,
even though the austerity measures ran counter to his own ideology. He devalued the
Uganda shilling by 100 percent, attempted to facilitate the export of cash crops, and
postponed any plans he may once have entertained for reestablishing one-party rule.
Attempts were made to control government expenditure as well, and all these measures
resulted in partial recovery from 1981 –1983, but were followed by a further decline in
1984 –1985 (in 1985 Tito Okello temporarily closed the country‟s borders). Those who
managed the economy did not have the country at heart.

In 1986, there was military take over of the government by Yoweri Kaguta Museveni.
The new government set out to repair the infrastructure and reform the economy that
was in shambles. When the present government seized power in 1986, industrial
production was negligible, consisting mostly of the processing of crops and the
production of textiles, wood and paper products, cement, and chemicals. Industry was a
small part of GDP in the late 1980s, operating at approximately one-third of the level of

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the early 1970s. Manufacturing plants were either closed or operating at very low rates
of capacity leading to a lack of basic consumer goods such as sugar, soap and paraffin.
There was a lot of smuggling/ “black market” and the economy had become informal and
speculative. At the end of 1985, foreign exchange reserves were at $ 24 million only,
while throughout 1986, inflation was very high and output remained constrained by lack
of infrastructure, imported raw materials and spare parts. Therefore, the country could
not take advantage of the high coffee export prices at that time.

Under Museveni, there has been some industrial rejuvenation, although this has
amounted to not much more than the repair of damage done during the civil war to the
industrial infrastructure. In 1987, the government launched a four-year Rehabilitation and
Development Plan to restore the nation's productive capacity, especially in industry and
agriculture, and rehabilitate the social and economic infrastructure. The plan targeted
industrial and agricultural production, transportation, and electricity and water services,
envisioning an annual 5 percent growth rate. In terms of the economy, the Plan was
funded by the World Bank, IMF and International donors mainly from western countries,
which insisted on liberalizing the shilling that had lost value and reduction in state
expenditure.
The plan aimed at:

a) Halting the deteriorating economic conditions.

b) Reducing inflation
c) Increasing in population.
d) Strengthening the balance of payments
e) Laying a foundation for economic advancements and
f) Attracting investment.

The implementation of the above policies and currency change in 1987 led to the
following results:

1) Lending rates fell from 45% in 1992 to 22%.

2) Saving rates are now at 3%-9%
3) 91 days government treasury bills are at 9%
4) Inflation fell from over 30% in 1986 to 6% in 1999 through inflation of 10%-
11% occasionally occurs and from 1986-1992 GDP grew by 37%
cumulatively.

The government opted for a supported exchange rate for the shilling that brought the
values of the US dollars to Sh. 850 and by 1998; it had only changed to sh.1225. The
main export was unprocessed coffee and cotton lint. Most of the necessities were
imported. Today however, international trade has been liberalized and necessities and
steel products, cement and most consumable are locally produced with the main
industries Madvani Group, House of Dawda, Uganda Baati and Roofings.

Since 1987, the government priority has been macro-economic stabilization i.e.
stabilizing the exchange rate and interest rates, increasing the tax portion of the GDP,
liberalizing prices and creating a free market by removing monopolies. Reform
Implementation Committee under the minister of state for privatization on the ministry of
financial planning and economic development was set up to privatize the defunct public
enterprises prominent of which included UPTC, Uganda Airlines, UBC, Nytil and UFEL.
Privatisation of parastatals was intended to lead to better productivity; for instance, Nytil

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had an installed capacity of 37 million linear metres of textiles but was only producing 21
million in 1987. The Government had never realized any dividends on an investment of $
32 million borrowed for Nytil and privatization was the option deemed suitable to correct
this.

The small-scale industries and private investors were encouraged by government

subsidies and concessions. Different small scale industries organizations like UNCC,
UIA, UMA and Uganda private sector fund were set up to encourage the development of
these business and mobilize soft loans from banks like UDB, micro finance banks, UCB,
CERUBED and the now defunct Uganda Co-op bank. Emphasis was put on appropriate
technology with native ideas entwined with new technology.

Asians were also welcomed back and they repossessed their property including Mbale
textile mill, Madhvani and Mehta sugar factories, and Mitchell Cotts tea estates.
Smuggling has been fought under the URA and the Special Revenue Protection Unit
and hence has been reduced. Corruption is being fought to improve transparency and
encourage investment.
The sugar industry was rehabilitated through joint ventures involving the private sector
and the government. By the 1990s there was a refining capacity of at least 140,000 tons
of sugar annually. Other rehabilitated industries include beer brewing, tobacco, cotton,
and cement. About 4 percent of adults worked in industry by the 1990s. During the
1990s, industrial growth was 13.2 percent. A major factor contributing to this growth was
the 1991 Investment Code which offered tax and other incentives to local and foreign
investors and created the Uganda Investment Authority, which made it easier for
potential investors to procure licenses and investment approval. Between 1991 and
199…, the government licensed 1,837 new enterprises, which had the capacity to create
over 100,000 new jobs.
The production of The Monitor newspaper in 1992, Confidential in 1993 and the starting
of Capital FM and Sanyu FM in 1993 provided a wider choice for advertisement and
business communication. Today there are over sixty radio stations and over ten
newspapers. Also the introduction of Celtel and MTN telephone companies in 1996 and
in 1998 respectively to improve mobile phone networks and more recently Telecel in
2001 has also aided business communication. Internet is no longer a mystery with
service providers like Dehezi International, Infocom, Spacenet, and Starcom providing a
24-hour Internet access.

Also computerized money transfers have increased the efficiency of our paying systems.
Connected to the above auto-banks in form of ATMs is also another business
innovation. There are now 21 operational banks, 4 of which run ATMs.
In 1998, the Uganda Securities exchange started with EA Development Bank bonds.
Today it has gained momentum under the capital market authority established in 1996
and has added PTA bonds. Uganda Clays Limited, BAT(U) bonds and more recently
Kinyara Sugar Works. In this same year (1998), the country exported products worth
$575 million. The main export commodities were coffee (54 percent of the total value),
gold, fish and fish products, cotton, tea, and corn. The countries receiving most of these
products were Spain, Germany, the Netherlands, France, and Italy. The main imports
include chemicals, basic manufactured goods, machinery, and transport equipment.

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Exports have been diversified to include groundnuts, peas and tea. Horticulture and
floriculture is also growing with air cargo being a viable means of transport. Also
patterns hip with other countries like PTA, COMESA, SAPC have been strengthened.

Because Uganda is primarily an agricultural country (agriculture contributes over 50% of

the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), the current government‟s efforts are towards
modernization, which involves transforming Uganda from an agricultural to an industrial
country. Uganda is concentrating on shifting from the agricultural to the industrial sector,
whereby rehabilitation of the old industry has been encouraged as opposed to setting up
new ones. Industries have been improved from 5.7% to about 7.1% over the past 17
years. URA was set up to help in tax collection, broaden the export base and cut down
smuggling. Currently the manufacturing sector contributes 7.4% to Uganda‟s GDP.

There have been declines in the textile industry due to technological obsolescence,
integrated capacity and the unreliable supply of cotton link. There was also decline in
leather and footwear. Copper ore, once the leading mineral resource, has been virtually
mined out. Other minerals extracted on a small scale include tin and iron ores, beryl,
tungsten, and gold. Uganda's few manufactures are limited mainly to processed
agricultural goods, but they also include textiles, chemical fertilizers, and cement.
Investors have been encouraged to come back. Privatization has been encouraged.
The improvement of infrastructure and expansion of Owen Falls Dam has been a major
contribution too. Improved security and private sector development have contributed to
economic growth and the rehabilitation of the social infrastructure especially in the
1990s. Economic growth is held back by factors such as unforeseen external shocks
e.g. Uganda‟s foreign exchange earnings from coffee declined dramatically following the
collapse in June 1989 of the International Coffee Agreement (ICA) and its quota system.
Foreign exchange earnings from coffee thus declined from around $ 400 million in 1986
to $ 100 million per annum in the early 1990‟s. The scarce foreign exchange situation
was further worsened in 1991 as the import bill rose following the Gulf Crisis and the rise
in oil prices. Additionally, an overvalued currency, and high government spending still
limit economic progress.

7.8 Transport and Communication

Early forms of transport included road and water transport, where some areas had no
more than tracks through elephant grass to serve as roads. Pre-colonial Buganda
developed the most superior road systems in the region- there were broad, straight
roads that even cut through swamps in some cases. There was no wheeled traffic until
the Europeans introduced bicycles and rickshaws.

Transportation further improved in 1901 with construction of a railroad from Mombasa on

the Indian Ocean reached the port of Kisumu, on Lake Victoria, which in turn was
connected by boat with Uganda; the railroad was later extended to Jinja and Kampala- it
reached Tororo in 1925, Jinja in 1928, Kampala in 1931, Kasese in 1956. The
completion of the Uganda railway moved colonial authorities to encourage the growth of
cash crops to help pay the railroad's operating costs. There was also development of
urban centers along the route and the technology for the bridge construction and houses
was acquired. The cost of construction of the Uganda railway was passed in 1986 at £3
million but the ultimate cost proved to be £7,909,294.

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Another result of the railroad construction was the 1902 decision to transfer the eastern
section of the Uganda Protectorate to the Kenya Colony, then called the East African
Protectorate, to keep the entire railroad line under one local colonial administration.
Because the railroad experienced cost overruns in Kenya, the British decided to justify
its exceptional expense and pay its operating costs by introducing large-scale European
settlement in a vast tract of land that became a center of cash-crop agriculture known as
the "White Highlands."

The first car was brought in 1907 and used by the colonial administration and
missionaries to commute between Kampala, Entebbe and Port Bell, Luzira.
Other means of transport developed to support the railway line were steamers, ferries
and boats that operated on Lake Victoria. There were some canoes that were being
used by all tribes especially a sewn plank canoe (9m-12m) and dug out canoe (3m-9m).

The main means of transport came to road, railway, air transport and water transport. In
1964 roads were upgraded especially the feeder roads (397 miles). Uganda‟s compact
size enabled her to construct and upgrade her roads in the sixties.

Between 1961-62, the railway became less popular due to competition from the bus
service and also the dissolution of the East African Railways.
Buses and trucks were mainly on the main roads. Steam boats on L. Victoria due to
tonnage of cargo and passengers than on L. Albert and L. Kyoga due to flooding.

The number of aircrafts landing on Uganda‟s international airport totaled to 9,298

increasing the revenue from the landing fees. The airport was maintained at high
standards and no aircraft was diverted elsewhere. The building to accommodate the
storm warning radar tower was constructed.

The Uganda railway, roads, water and air boosted communication in the 1960s. During
the late 60s, the Israelis became involved in construction projects including the building
of roads and of housing units in Kampala, Arua and Tororo. They are credited with the
construction of the current Faculty of Technology in Makerere. Postal services were also
fairly in good order. In 1962 twenty-two new post offices were opened. Also 334
additional private boxes were installed in the same year in 5 post offices. New postage
stamps were also put to use.

In the 1960s, the East African Community also contributed towards the development of
transport and communication infrastructure through commonly owned services such as
railways, airlines, harbours, postal and communications services. The East African
Community died in 1976 leading to the break down of the E. A. Railways. Uganda had
to purchase new locomotives and set up its own workshop immediately. Germany won
both contracts. Hemschel Evpor GMBH signed an agreement for 26 diesel locomotives
and was also commissioned to construct the workshop in Nalukolongo.

In 1976, Belgian Ship Builders Corporation was commissioned to improve on water

transport, principally involving the building of floating docks at Port Bell on L. Victoria.
They also assembled 3 wagon ferries and supplied ISO covered wagons.
The entire road network deteriorated due to neglect, mismanagement and lack of
adequate maintenance. A 55% loss in road network investment was registered.

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Well-maintained infrastructure suffered a drastic decline in 1971-79, precipitated by

events that followed the 1971 military coup. However there were a few advancements in
the infrastructure and far as road traffic was concerned, the following advancements
were noted:

 October 1974, Uganda trade delegation visited Japan and signed a contract with
the Japanese auto truck manufacturers. 50 Nissan diesel trucks were supplied
by Nisho-Iwai Corporation, 510 lorried and 90 trucks by Fiat Company of Italy.
 1974 – Tata Company supplied over 1000 vehicles (lorries, trucks, minibuses
etc)
 1977 – Isuzu Motors in Japan supplied 45 heavy duty and 20 small trucks.

Two earth satellite stations were built in Uganda, one by a Japanese firm at Mpoma and
the other by a US Concern in Amin‟s hometown, Arua by Harris Corporation. Harris also
trained Amin‟s men in communication technology at his home in Mel Borne, Rochester,
New York and Florida.

The Transport and Communication sector share in the GDP increased from 1981 to 6.7
during this period as a result of government expenditure on major road rehabilitation.
Road transport accounted for the highest portion of this sector at the expense of the
diminishing percentage of the railway.

The Government of Uganda under donor and co-loaning funding made an effort to
rehabilitate roads. Mukalazi Technical Construction Service carried out construction and
upgrading of roads in the city of Kampala, Kibuli-Nsambya, Kampala-Bombo roads and
major roads linking the city to up-country towns.

 In 1983, there was a massive plan by the government to carry out projects like;
 Upgrading feeder roads and bridges (Aswa) in Northern Uganda and improving
on existing ones.
 Developing waterways, ports and turning the mouth of the Nile and L. Victoria
into a major national port facility.
 In 1979, Uganda bought 10 locomotives to improve and boost up the railway
transport.

In the mid 1980s, many sections of the railway required relaying and realigning due to
destruction by rebel activities. In 1986, the National Resistance Movement (NRM) came
into power and announced a 5 year $150 million project to rehabilitate the railways.

Early 1980s, Uganda Airways Corporation started passenger and cargo services to
Europe, but by 1986 was suffering from numerous financial, technical and personnel
problems as a result of chronic internal instability and warfare.

The birth of the Association of Civil Engineers and Building Contractors (ACEDC) and an
improvement in Uganda‟s roads was realized with several repairs made and new roads
being set up. Also after the rise to power of NRM in 1986, a lot of rehabilitation was
made and many feeder roads constructed.

Uganda‟s telecommunication had been vandalized during the liberation war i.e, late
1970s and early 1980s. The Uganda Posts and Telecommunication (UP&TC), started to

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rebuild the country‟s communications infrastructure. By the end of this period, UP&TC
furnished relatively good service for those who lived in the cities such as Kampala and
Entebbe.

In 1986, Uganda had been liberated from the civil wars that were going on before. Most
of the infrastructure in the country had been destroyed by these wars. Most of the
country was inaccessible, as the roads had been totally destroyed by the end of the war
in 1986. There was also a critical shortage of trucks for transporting goods; large
numbers of trucks had been stolen by armies. The whole communications network-
roads, railways and telephone services- was in a terrible state of disrepair. In the same
year, Uganda launched a $32.6 million dollar highway project that was to recondition
existing surfaces and unsurfaced roads. There was also the Eastern Corridor Project
that was to connect Eastern Zaire, Rwanda and Uganda to the Kenyan part of
Mombasa.

Following the 1987 four-year Rehabilitation and Development Plan, the Transportation
sector was earmarked to receive the major share of funding, followed by agriculture,
industry and tourism, social infrastructure, and mining and energy. In February 1987,
Uganda signed an agreement with the Yugoslavian company to build 155km of road in
Western Uganda from Mityana to Fort Portal as part of the Trans-African highway.

The objectives of the government were very clear and they mainly included;

 Rehabilitation of existing paved roads. This was done through employment of

international private firms like sterling, Mawlem and Sietco.
 Upgrading of rural feeder roads under programs like those funded by ILO.
 Maintenance programs of feeder roads. The Arab Development Bank funded
periodic and routine maintenance over the then 27 districts of Uganda, building of
bridges and four water crossings under external donors.

In 1996, government drew up a budget of $1.5 billion to a 10-year road sector

investment program. This was to build on the road recovery and rehabilitation carried
out after 1986.

The creation of the Road Agency Formulation Unit (RAFU), is one of the biggest
historical achievements on the road sector. RAFU‟s mandate is to look at the general
methods or approach to maintaining and constructing roads and training personnel in
this field.

As mentioned above, the Internet is no longer a mystery with service providers like
Infocom, Spacenet, African Online, MTN and UTL Online, providing a 24-hour Internet
access. Some of these companies are using the sophiscated technology of the fibre-
optical cables that are really fast and efficient.

7.9 Energy and Power Generation

Uganda‟s power was generated at two stations using Bagasse steam out of dry plant
and diesel fuel before the Owen Falls Dam. This dam was started in the early 1950s
and its construction lasted for about 7 years.
The construction idea had two objectives:

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 To create a head for driving the turbines.

 To create a large storage area for Egypt and Sudan in L. Victoria.

The energy sector is divided into electricity, wood, petroleum, new and renewable
sources of energy (biogas) sub-sectors. The first three had been steadily growing
through the 60s but were later affected by the economic mismanagement of the 70s.
Since the population in the urban areas was still low, the electricity produced by Owen
Falls Dam was sufficient with the surplus exported to neighbouring countries. It is
because of this that the other forms of energy were not exploited to a great extent. Only
wood energy probably, which was mainly used in rural areas, that did not have power.

By the early 1970s, Uganda‟s fuel consumption was as follows; Charcoal and firewood –
75%, Hydroelectric power – 3%, Petroleum – 21%, others (e.g diesel) – 1%.
The principal source of fuel was charcoal and firewood. In most rural and urban homes,
wood and charcoal fuels were used for most of the heating purposes like cooking,
building and so on. They were also important in the brick making industries and
bakeries. This was because the country has a favourable physical and ecological region
favouring the growth of forests.

The petroleum sector was steadily growing in the 1960s and early 1970s but was grossly
affected by the economic mismanagement of the 1970s and early 1980s. In this period,
imports of petroleum products drastically dropped. However in 1982, they started
picking up from 165,000 metric tones in 1982 to a peak of 260,000 metric tones in 1988.
The value of oil imports did initially rise from $77.4 million to $104.7 million in 1983 but
later fell to $58.4 million in 1984. In the same period, diesel power fell from 3.7m kWh to
1.2m kWh.

In the 1960s, Uganda‟s population was small and was easily satisfied by the 150 MW
that were being generated at the Owen Falls Dam. Unfortunately, this installed
generation capacity was so inadequate as the population increased in the 1970s and
1980s. Uganda also remained constrained by the 1955 Agreement, made with the
British, to supply Kenya with a fixed percentage of power generated.

The station was further aggravated by intermittent power supply due to poor
maintenance of the dam and general economic mismanagement. The low power supply
affected both the domestic and industrial activities.

In 1986, when the NRM government came into power, in order to reduce on the
pressure on the nations dwindling forests, it considered expanding the country‟s
hydroelectric power capacity. The government‟s goal was to increase the capacity of the
Owen Falls Dam Hydroelectric Station from 150 MW to 282 MW.

In 1986, after the war, a lot of damage had been done to the existing energy generation
and distribution structures. A very small percentage of the Ugandans depended on
electricity and the majority on biomass energy. The generation, transmission,
distribution and utilization of electricity have undergone improvement since that time.
In 1986, the types and sources of electricity were limited to hydroelectricity and diesel
powered generators but of late, power generators that use steam and natural gas,
petroleum and wood fuel have been put in place. There is also solar energy, which was
non-existent by 1986.

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Hydro electricity was mainly generated from Owen Falls Dam. It had a capacity of
150MW in 1986 but now has a capacity of 196MW some of which is exported to
Tanzania and Kenya. Currently, Kenya consumes 30MW of the electricity and
nationwide, there are about 150,000 grid electricity grouped as; Residential – 55%,
Commercial – 25%, and Industrial – 20%.

Uganda has an untapped potential of hydroelectric power of about 3000mw. In 1999,

the hydroelectric power at Owen Falls Dam was at 196MW meaning that we still have
2800MW of untapped potential. The extension of the dam that ended in 1999 enabled
Uganda to produce 196MW from 150MW.

The privatization of the Uganda Electricity Board into Uganda Electricity Distribution
Company Limited (UEDCL) has enabled easy, sufficient, fast and maintained good
distribution of electricity in Uganda. This is done through good management with
improved methods and technology.

The costs of transmission and network are extremely high and therefore serve as a
hinderance to rural electrification. The UEDCL has found it hard to subsidize the costs
due to the high installation costs. It then passes the bill to the consumers that have
difficulties in meeting the costs. It has therefore become imperative that ways and
means are found to minimize the costs without compromising on the safety and security.
However, rural electrification has now become a main target of the government through
the energy for rural transformation (ERT program) to provide affordable and reliable
electricity that is needed to support the income generation, rural industries, commercial
activities and job creation. The World Bank through the African Rural Energy Initiative
(AFRREI) funds this program.

Petroleum in Uganda today is the second largest source of energy after biomass. A few
factories on small scale use petroleum. The bulk over of the petroleum is used in
transport and the bill of the petroleum was about US$ 70 million in 1999 all of which was
imported. The petroleum consumption has greatly increased from 1986 to now with the
upcoming of even more suppliers for example KOBIL, PETROL, FUELEX, etc.
Petroleum in Uganda is now even used to generate electricity through private
diesel/petrol generators giving over 60MW of which 40MW is in Kampala, Jinja and
Entebbe, 10MW in other urban centres like ARUA, Koboko, Moyo, Kitgum, Adjumani,
Kapchorwa and 10MW for agricultural processing in the rural areas.

Solar energy through its use is quite useful in Uganda. The growth of its use has been
evident especially in areas, which are not projected to have the grid-based electricity in
the foreseeable future. This is a very environmentally friendly energy source that avoids
the green house effect.

Biomass technology is another source of energy in Uganda. This is largest accounting

for 94% of the energy produced and used in Uganda. It is used both domestically and
industrially. In the industrial sector, it is used in brick and tile making, lime production,
tea and tobacco circling, sugar refining and fish smoking. All these do place a demand
on the biomass reserve in Uganda.
The biomass energy sources are basically divided into two, i.e wood fuel and charcoal.
Wood fuel is mainly used in the rural areas. Charcoal however is mainly used by the

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urban centers and also the industrial sector. The charcoal production is done using
kilns, which are either made of earth, bricks or metal.

Biogas technology was introduced in Uganda in 1996 and has also been a source of
energy to some Ugandans. It was developed in Colombia and was introduced in
Uganda by Dr. Saswatt of Morogoro University from Tanzania in 1996. Biogas provides
an alternative for biomass as it prevents respiratory diseases that come from using the
biomass alternative.

Biogas is a flammable gas fuel that is cheap, clean and offers an alternative for biomass
in lighting, cooking and others. It is produced through the process of biodigestion that
involves fermentation of organic material, e.g animal wastes and plant wastes in an
airtight container called a digester through a process called digestion. This gas contains
60-65% methane and 35-45% carbondioxide gas.
Low cost plastic bags have been designed to cater for the rural communities and the
low-income earners.

7.9 The Economy

7.9.1 Consequences of the Expulsion of Asians and the Economic War

The expulsion of the Asians in 1972 by Amin brought about extensive disruption of
economic activities. The country‟s stock of professionals, artisans and experienced
importers, exporters, wholesalers and retailers was drastically reduced. This was so
inspite of the fact that in the first two or three years following the expulsion, expenditure
on education, in-service training, scholarships, technical assistance and extensive
services of all types continued at a significant level.

Efforts continued to be made in both the private and public sectors, to develop human
resources but the overall effect was a drastic reduction in the essential stock of trained
and experienced human resources.

The redistribution of wealth introduced by the economic war was not completed with the
explusion of the Asians. Recipients of new wealth were insecure as Ugandans killed one
another for property. Many Ugandans diverted from honest hard work to concentrate on
the search for titles to new assets that could be appropriated. Output kept falling, while
speculation became the order of the day. The economic war had become the continuing
redistribution of a fading stock of wealth.

Uganda was isolated from the mainstream of World politics. Uganda became self-
supporting and it suffered in the process as no country would lend Amin money. Uganda
made all its purchases with cash obtained from the coffee boom of the mid 1970s
because credit was not available.
7.9.2 The Economic Policy between 1981 and 1984

There was heavy devaluation of the Ugandan shilling, a floating exchange rate was
established, producer prices for traditional exports were periodically revised upwards,
there was extensive dismantling of price controls, great efforts were made to control
overall government expenditure, the tax structure was changed from specific to ad

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valorem rates and interest rates were largely decontrolled. The result was a partial
recovery between 1981 and 1983 and a further decline for 1984-5.

7.9.3 The Economy in the NRM Era

The effect of the economic policies pursued by the NRM is still to be felt. By 1991, the
inflation was falling, prices were stabilizing and money was regaining some of the value
it had lost. With an improving road network, transportation hazards are being overcome
while the exchange of goods and services within the country is increasing. In addition,
the country has greatly benefited from its natural ability to produce its own food. With the
return of peace to different regons except for Northern Uganda, people have returned to
their old homes and farms and have even produced food surpluses. The government‟s
liberalization policy has enabled foreign investment to trickle back into the country often
in partnerships with local entrepreneurs, with the result that local manufacturing
industries have sprung up and former ones have been rehabilitated.

Factors constraining rapid economic revival include laziness on the part of Ugandans
and emptiness in government‟s coffers due to lack of a sound taxation system.

Rehabilitation of roads, schools, hospitals, and industries has been carried out in many
parts of the country.

7.10 Conclusion

There has been great development in science and technology in Uganda and it is greatly
seen in the infrastructure, level of education of many Ugandans, lifestyle and standard of
living of an average Ugandan, but this is not so evident in the rural areas as there is still
need for improvement of every single aspect.

Many years on, the country is also still grappling with the effects of variability of the
colonial economic impact, which lead to uneven regional spread of advances
(technological and otherwise). Because Kampala and Entebbe were the commercial and
administrative capitals respectively, a lot of wealth obtained from cash crops was
invested in them- in the 1950‟s these included permanent houses, the best
communications and welfare services, the best sports facilities and the best medical and
educational services. In the years following since independence Uganda suffered
political instability that, in turn, caused economic problems (aggravated by the expulsion
of Asians in 1972) and the build up of a huge debt.

In spite of this, Uganda made a significant comeback beginning in the mid-1980s, when
economic reforms aimed at dampening inflation and boosting production (agriculture
employs over 80% of the workforce) and export earnings were put in place. Corruption
remains one of the major setbacks for the development of our country; the accomplice to
the crime of corruption is frequently our own indifference. A side effect of corruption is a
lag in the development of Science and Technology – funds available for research and
infrastructural development end up being embezzled. Without research into the
problems facing a country, in order to come up with the best possible solutions and
mitigation measures, the possibilities for advancement are limited. As the Pearl of Africa
slowly begins to shine again, there is a need for we as Ugandans to make use of all the
resources our country is blessed to have, work hard, ethically and with special care so

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that there is a corresponding economic advancement to match recent gains, and to

encourage future growth of Science and Technology in Uganda and so attain greater
glory for our country.

7.11 References

1. Atieno Odhiambo., T.I. Ouso, J.F.M. Williams; A History of East Africa, Longman
Group, London, 1997, UK
2. Murindwa Rutanga; Nyabingi Movement; People‟s Anti-colonial Struggles in
Kigezi 1910-1930, CBR Publications, 1991, Kampala, Uganda.
3. D.Wadada Nabudere, Imperialism and Revolution in Uganda, 1980, Onyx Press,
London, UK,Tanzania Publishing House, Dar es salaam, Tanzania.
4. J.C. Sekamwa, ,History and Development of Education in Uganda, Fountain
Publishers 2000, Kampala Uganda
5 Uganda 1962-1963 – Government Printer, Entebbe.
6 Uganda -1964 – 1965 Government Printer, Entebbe.
7. Uganda 30 years – 1962-1992.
8. Third Five Year Development Plan, 1970-1975.
9. Ian Legget, Uganda, 2001,Oxfam, London UK and Fountain Publishers, Kampala,
Uganda
10. H.B.Hansen, M.Twaddle, Developing Uganda, Fountain Publishers,1998,
Kampala, Uganda
11. H.B.Hansen, M.Twaddle, Changing Uganda, Fountain Publishers,2001,
Kampala, Uganda
12. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki

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7 BLACKS IN SCIENCE, ANCIENT AND MODERN

7.3 Introduction

While several books on African-American science and invention have been published,
no work has yet attempted to give serious treatment to the technologies of early Africa.
This is partly due to the fact that it is only within recent years that archeology has
revealed the lineaments of a lost African science, at least in areas outside of Egypt.
Within the last decade alone, evidence has been unearthed in the field of agricultural
and pastoral science, architecture, aeronautics, engineering, mathematics, mining,
metallurgy and medicine, navigation and physics, that has made the whole ground, upon
which conventional studies of Africa have been built, and rock violently with the shock of
astonishing discoveries. Every new revelation has made us realize that the eyes of the
anthropologist and historian have been focusing on the edge or periphery of the African
world, blind to all that has lain within the heartland of its civilizations.

7.4 The Lost Sciences of Africa

One of the marvels of Africa which mystified many early travellers, was the way in which
some of its peoples communicated information almost instantly over vast distances. This
was before the telegraphic morse-code or the radio. We know today of course, of the
finely tuned instruments Africans devised to relay messages over these distances,
sometimes with drum-scripts so ingenious they came close to a rhythmic mimicking of
the human voice.
This ability to communicate information swiftly over considerable distances must have
been a great boom to West Africans who, between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries,
had to administer empires as large as all the states of Western Europe put together. It
did not make them any different, however, from Europeans or Asians or Americans in
terms of the relatively slow spread of technologies from the centers to the peripheries of
their civilizations.
It is important to understand how a science or technology may rise or fall with a
civilization, why the destruction of a center could lead to the almost instant evaporation
or disappearances of centuries of knowledge and technical skills. Centuries afterwards,
the technological brilliance of a century would seem dream-like and unreal. Until
archeology began to pick up the pieces, those of us who follow in the centuries to come
will obviously doubt what had been achieved in the centuries preceding the disaster.
This happened before in the world. Not in the same way of course, but with the same
catastrophic effect. It happened in Africa.
The human disaster that happened in Africa: slave trade brought destruction and trauma
to this continent. Vast populations were uprooted and displaced, whole generations
disappeared, European diseases descended like the plague, cities and towns were
abandoned, and so much more. The African genius, however, was not to remain buried
forever. Five centuries later, archeologists, digging among the ruins, began to pick up
some of the pieces.

7.4.1 Metallurgy, Lake Victoria Tanzania

In 1978 anthropology professor, Peter Schmidt, and professor of engineering, Donald

Avery, both of Brown University, announced to the world that, between 1,500-2,000

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years ago, Africans living on the Western shores of Lake Victoria, in Tanzania, had
produced carbon steel. They found the technological process used in their pre-heated
furnaces exceedingly complex and more sophisticated than any developed in Europe
until the mid-19th century.
The temperature achieved in the blast furnace of the African steel-melting machine was
higher than any achieved in European machines until modern times. The African
superiority was due to the fact that they preheated the air blast by inserting blow pipes
into the base of the furnace. This not only led to the extraordinary high temperatures but
also to a greater fuel economy.
This technology was not confined to Lake Victoria. Further investigations showed that
there was a widespread distribution of Early Iron Age industrial sites in West Lake and
neighboring areas, such as Rwanda in Uganda.

7.4.2 Astronomy-Kenya

Numerating, a megalithic site in northwestern Kenya, has an alignment of 19 basalt

pillars that are nonrandomly oriented toward certain stars and constellations. The same
stars and constellations are used by modern Cushite peoples to calculate an accurate
calendar. The fact that Namoratunga dates to about 300 B.C. suggests that a prehistoric
calendar based on detailed astronomical knowledge was in use in eastern Africa.
In 1978, American scientists- Lynch and Robbins of Michigan state uncovered an
astronomical observatory in Kenya. It was dated 300 years before Christ and was found
on the edge of Lake Turkana. This place had an awesome-sounding name, Na-mo-ra-tu-
nga, which, in the Turkana language, means „the stone people.
At Namoratunga, there were 19 stones arranged in rows and set down at angles
precisely and significantly. Taking observations at various points of this ancient African
observatory, they found that each stone was aligned with a star as it rose in 300 B.C.
This strongly suggests that an accurate and complex calendar system based on
astronomical reckoning was developed by the first millennium B.C in eastern Africa.`

7.4.3 Astronomy-The Dogon of Mali

Far more remarkable than the observatory found in Kenya is the discovery of extremely
complex knowledge of astronomy among a people in West Africa known as the Dogon.
These people live in a mountainous area of the Republic of Mali. The astronomer-priests
of the Dogon had for centuries, it seems, a very modern view of our solar system and of
the universe- the risings of Saturn, the moons of Jupiter, the spiral structure of the Milky
Way Galaxy, in which our planet lies. They knew a billion worlds spiraled in space like
the circulation of blood within the body of God. They knew also of things far in advance
of their time, intricate details about a star which no one can see except with the most
powerful of telescopes.
Hunter Adams III, a scientist at the Argonne National Labatory has thrown the most
recent light on the scientific breakthrough of these Africans. Among the revelations that
emerged at this stage was the Dogons‟ intimate knowledge of, and concern with, a star
within the Sirius star system. They had a ceremony to Sirius every sixty years, when the
orbits of Jupiter and Saturn converge.

7.4.4 Mathematics

The tendency to deny an African astronomical science is due to the fact that such
accurate observations over long periods involve the most precise record-keeping, a

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capacity to measure complex distances and times, to calculate orbits and azimuths and
convergences. That calls for mathematics and not just the simple hand count of one,
two, many.
Mathematics is rarely mentioned in the study of the African because anthropology
concentrates on bushmen of the Kalahari than among African traders who are
accustomed to dealing in large sums of currency. Not all Africans had mathematics, it is
true, but neither did all Europeans.
Among the earliest evidence of the use of numbers is a find in Africa in the Congo
(Zaire). These are markings-a notation count-on bone 8,000 years old. The discoverer,
Dr. de Heinzelin, says it is a numeration system. Mathematics develops according to the
need and a complex mathematics system will only evolve for complex demands.
The Yoruba and related people of the city of Benin in Nigeria, who have been urbanized
farmers and traders for centuries have a complex number system. It is a system based
on twenty, of which we find many in Western Africa. The unusual feature of this system
is that it relies on subtraction to a very high degree.
But a mathematical system is not always recoverable; it is not always blessed with
historical continuity like that found among the Yoruba and a number of large African
communities. It may be hidden in architectural design or in abstract patterns, or in the
complex network games the Shongo children play or in mathematical recreations.

7.4.5 Architecture and Engineering

Mathematics is also needed in great engineering projects, the construction of enormous

palaces or churches or ceremonial centers. Most people think that mud, straw and vines
are the limit of materials used by the traditional African. Indigenous people use what
materials are available to them and where stones were available to Africans, they built in
stone. A British engineer has cited suspension bridges built with vines by the Kikuyu
which equaled in engineering skill and potential durability as any comparable bridges of
wood he has seen in his own country. South of the Sahara lies several architectural
wonders. One of these is the Great Zimbabwe, the most immense construction site
found in Africa outside the pyramids of Egypt.
Great Zimbabwe is a complex stone city found seventeen miles south of Nyanda, a city
in today‟s Zimbabwe. It is more than 800 years old. The engineering skill of these
Africans was not confined to architecture. Even before Great Zimbabwe became a seat
of civilization, Africans in the southern part of the continent had dug the most ancient
mines found in the world. These were discovered by the German treasure-seeker, Karl
Mauch.
However, Europeans not only stole the treasure from the Great Zimbabwe but also the
right of the native Africans to lay claim to their own civilization. Many books have been
written trying to prove that this site, which is right in the heartland of Africa, half a
thousand miles away from any seacoast, was built by Persians, Phoenicians,
Portuguese, Arabs or Chinese. It was the Shona people, say that Asantes, who built this
center, seat of power for the southeastern interior of Africa.

7.4.6 Navigation

African engineering skill may also be seen in the skillful construction of boats. Africans in
West and Central Africa developed a variety of boats. They had a marine highway, two
thousand six hundred miles long, and on that highway- The Niger-one may find reed
boats with sails, log-rafts lashed together, enormous dugouts, double canoes, lateen-

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rigged dhows, rope-sewn plank vessels with cooking facilities in the hold and jointed
boats fitted out with woven straw cabins.
The nautical skills on the Atlantic coasts of Africa originated largely beyond the coast,
particularly on the Niger and in the neighborhood of Jenne and Timbuktu.
, which were major cities and centers of trade in the mali and Songhay empires. The
Chinese record Africans coming with elephants to the court of china in dugouts as early
as the thirteenth century, two hundred years before Columbus stumbled into the
Caribbean.

7.4.7 Agricultural Science

New studies of the Atlantic crossing show that African raft or reed boats could travel
sixty miles per day on the currents, sailboats about a hundred miles per day. The
potential for plant diffusion, therefore, whether by accident or design, lay well within the
range of African navigational science.
The earliest technological leap from hunting and gathering activities to the scientific
cultivation of crops occurred in Africa at least 7,000 years before it did on any other
continent. Science magazine reported in 1979 the discovery by Fred Wendorf of
agricultural sites along the Nile going back more than 10,000 years before the dynasties
of Egypt.
But not only were the Africans the first in crop science but the first also in the
domestication of cattle. African technologies were exported to the middle east through
trade and the cultural diffusion of information and ideas. Apart from findings by Wendorf,
we have hard carbon dates for domesticated grains in the Saharan agricultural complex
as early as 6,000 B.C.
There‟s a link up between the Saharan and the later Sudanese agricultural complex
which may be inferred by the great migration of peoples after the fertile Sahara began to
turn into a desert.

7.4.8 Medicine

Africans indeed had the most intimate knowledge of plants, a fact used to great
advantage not only in crop cultivation but also in the development of medicine. African
plant medicine was more developed than any in the world before the disruption of its
cultures. Dr. Charles Finch of the Morehouse School of Medicine in the Journal of
African Civilizations, sketches in the background to African traditional medicine, not just
its plant science but its psychotherapy, its approach to the diagnosis of diseases, its very
early knowledge of anesthetics, antiseptics, vaccination and the advanced surgical
techniques in use among African doctors.
African herbal medicine is extremely impressive. There are many examples to support
this statement; a breakthrough in cancer treatment may also lie in Nigerian medicine
where the root bark Annona senegalensis has been found to possess strong anti-cancer
properties. The Zulus alone know the medicinal uses of 700 plants.
There were some autopsies among the Banyoro of Uganda and the Likundu of central
Africa. These involved prolonged and exacting searches, the opening up and
examination of a variety of organs, which contributed to an extensive knowledge of
anatomy. African doctors also possessed surgical skills comparable and sometimes
superior to that of western surgeons up unto the twentieth century.

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7.4.9 Writing Systems

There is evidence that probably half a dozen scripts were invented and used by Africans
before the holocaust, although many of their manuscripts perished in the sack of
Alexandria, the razing of Timbuktu, and the burning of Moorish documents in the
squares of Granada on the order of Cardinal Ximenez.
Most of us have heard of the Meroitic script invented by the Nubians and partly
influenced by the Egyptians. But what is far less known and far more important is the
discovery, announced a few years ago, that the origin of the Egyptian hieroglyphic
system itself lies among the black people in the Sudan.
There were also ancient writing systems in the Saharan and Sudanic cultures-the
Manding and the Akan. Scripts like these were used by relatively few Africans-by
scholars and priests, by members of secret societies, sometimes by traders. The
symbols in more than one African script have been found preserved in objects more
durable than paper. The Akan people or Ashanti had gold weights that were also a kind
of encyclopedia that preserve in miniature the objects and ideas of their ancient culture.

7.5 African Observers of the Universe: The Sirius Question

The complex knowledge of the Dogon of Mali about the Sirius star system is sending
shock waves around the scientific world. These West African people have not only
plotted the orbits of stars circling Sirius but have revealed the extraordinary nature of
one of its companions-Sirius B-which they claim to be one of the densest and tiniest
stars in our galaxies. What is more astonishing about their revelations is that Sirius B is
invisible to the unaided eye.
Only rarely do we focus our eyes on what is happening in the sky. But to the ancients,
space was of life and death importance. Information gathered from such observations
provided them with a reliable and perpetual time frame-a calendar- to schedule their
societal festivals and rituals and to know the optimum planting and harvest times.
A wooden mask called the kanaga, used by the Dogon to celebrate their Sirius-related
Sigui ceremonies, is among the archeological finds that indicate their preoccupation with
this star for at least 700 years. The mask dates back to the thirteenth century, about the
times of the first king of the Mali Empire, Sundiata.

7.6 An Ancient Harvest on the Nile

The most profound revolution in human history was the switch from hunting and
gathering to farming. It was only after this transition that hunter-gatherers could settle
down into villages and begin to develop true civilization.
Excavations at Wadi Kubbaniya, a desolate region in Egypt‟s Western desert have
revealed that, between 17,00 and 18,500 years ago-while ice still covered much of
Europe-African peoples were already raising crops of wheat, barley, lentils, chick-peas,
and dates. They were doing it in the flood plains of the Nile.
Each year then, as it did until the Aswan dam was built, the Nile would overflow its
banks, flooding the surrounding areas and depositing a layer of rich silt. In addition,
remains of various crops-mainly seeds-stones were found which were used to grind to
flour, including large milling stones and smaller mortars and pestles. Also found were
other stone tools such as cutting blades, engraving burins, and hide scrapers.
The Wadi Kubaniya data also seriously challenges the idea of food production as a
consequence of environmental stress or population pressure. The Nile sites indicate not
that Wadi Kubaniya was an isolated occurrence but rather that the use of cereals was

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widespread, occurring among diverse cultural groups and persisting as an important

economic activity.
There does not, in fact, seem to be any single cause for the beginning of agriculture. It
may have began as a natural interaction between the early peoples and the plant
species they came to exploit regularly.
The rise of agriculture did not, however, lead rapidly or inevitably to identifiable social or
economic change. It simply provided another resource in a broadly based hunting,
fishing and gathering economy.

7.7 African Cattle Bones stir Scientific Debate

A University of Massachusetts anthropologist has found that the earliest known domestic
cattle lived in East Africa 15,000 years ago. The finding questions the long-held theory
that the „cradle of civilization‟ lies in the Middle East, where domesticated cattle, a
hallmark of civilization, were known to exist some 8,000 years ago.
Dr. Charles Nelson reckons that such findings suggest that many of the elements
necessary for the development of civilization-agriculture and animal husbandry and their
accompanying technologies-may have originated in surrounding areas and were
exported to the Middle east through trade and cultural diffusion of information and ideas.

7.8 The Pyramids: Ancient Showcase of African Science and Technology

The pyramids and other great stone monuments of Egypt and the Sudan are the product
of a long development of African science and technology.
Development took the course from mud bricks to huge stone monoliths, from tally marks
for numbers to hieratic ciperization of numbers and complicated formulae, from earliest
prehistoric agriculture to highly organized, irrigated farming, from early picture writing to
largely phonetic script, and from tribal organization to central government.
The development of pyramids and other great monuments is traced from the mud brick
beginnings to the great pyramids and temples. Planning of the monuments is described;
examples are given of written plans, and the level of mathematics and technology
required for pyramid building are discussed, possible methods of construction of the
pyramids are considered.
Their construction involved a great deal of mathematical nag engineering skill and
discipline. The first pyramid ever built was designed by the great Imhotep for King Zoser
at Saqqara. Imhotep made the important innovation of using stone instead of bricks. His
decision to build in stone took into consideration the extension of the stonecutter‟s
technology and the skill accumulated by the people who had learned how to shape
delicate stone vessels over the centuries.
Some written plans have survived, showing scale drawings; front and side views are
known and even an example of sectional representation of a house has been found.
There is also evidence from a sketch of a saddleback solid, of the use of rectangular
coordinate to draw a curve, a prerunner of coordinate geometry. Vertical lines, equally
spaced, are used in the sketch in a manner reminiscent of our common graph paper.
The height of the vertical lines gives the desired height at the horizontal location
indicated by the spacing between vertical lines.
Almost as impressive as the pyramid itself was the stonewall which enclosed it, 30 ft.
high and 909 ft. by 1785 ft. in its length and width, with 14 imitation gates cut into the
stone. The burial chamber itself, for such was the purpose of the pyramid, was in a
chamber cut out of the rock beneath the pyramid and reached by a passageway outside
of the pyramid.

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7.9 Great Zimbabwe: An Ancient African City-State

Great Zimbabwe is a massive stone complex seventeen miles south of the Zimbabwean
city of Nyanda, formerly Fort Victoria. With the exception of the extensive pyramids of
Egypt and Sudan and the Bigo ruins of Uganda, it is the most immense ancient
construction site found in Africa.
The ancient plan of Great Zimbabwe is in two parts; the hill complex where the king kept
many of his treasures, and the valley complexes which comprise nine separate stone
sites the Imba Huru , Great Enclosure. Several important enclosures exist within the hill
complex. The principal ones are the ritual enclosure, the smelting enclosure and the
iron-keeping enclosure. Numerous objects of value were found in the Zimbabwe (hill
complex) suggesting trade with countries as far away as India and China.

7.10 African Experimental Aeronautics: A 2,000-Year-Old Model Glider

Khalil Messiha‟s discovery indicates that Egyptians were experimenting with flying
machines as early as the 4th or 3rd century B.C. the mode was discovered in Sakkara in
1898 and is made of sycamore wood. It is a model of a monoplane and weighs 39.120
gms. It was invented by „Pa-di-Imen‟ which means the „Gift of Amon‟. The body is made
of the same wood as the wing and has an aerofoil shape beautifully carved and smooth.
This extraordinary scientific model was placed among the models of birds in room No.
22 bearing No. 6347, in the Egyptian museum. It was kept with birds until a young
Egyptian Physician and artist noticed that it was different from birds. The difference was
clear in his eyes because birds‟ tails are horizontal while aero planes have vertical tails.
It also has wings completely different from bird wings but exactly like aircraft wings.

7.11 Africa In the Mainstream of Mathematics History

For thousands of years, Africa was in the mainstream of mathematics history. This
history began with the first written numbers of ancient Egypt, a culture whose African
origin has been reaffirmed by the most recent discoveries of archeology. With a longer
period of scientific work than any other area in the world, progress in mathematics
continued on the African continent through three great periods, ancient Egyptian,
Hellenistic and Muslim. The language changed from Egyptian to Greek to Arabic. The
renaissance in Europe was triggered by the science and mathematics brought to Italy
and Spain by the Moors of North Africa.
The early beginnings of algebra and geometry in ancient Egypt are briefly covered in
many historic books. But the full scope and depth have been largely overlooked because
the first judgment of the European translators of the papyri dismissed this mathematics
as primitive. There was also Alexandrian mathematics (for African people with a few
immigrants from Greece) with books written in Greek.
From the 8th century until the 15th, Arabic was the language of science and mathematics.
One book more than any other, was the vehicle for introducing Europe to Muslim algebra
and the Hindu-Arabic numerals and arithmetic, I-Khowarizmi’s “Al-jabr wa’l
muqabalah”. From the author‟s name we get the common mathematical term,
“algorithm.” From the title, al-jabr, we get the modern term, “algebra.”

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7.12 The Yoruba Number System

The Yoruba number system was an intricate system of numeration based on twenty
developed by these people from Southwest Nigeria. It relies upon subtraction to a very
high degree e.g. 45is five from ten from three twenties I.e. 45= (23* 3) - 10 - 5. The
numeration system of Benin was similar to that of the Yoruba except that in Edo, the
words for numbers having five in the units place are formed by addition, rather than
subtraction.

7.13 Blacks Contribution to Early History of Western Medicine

During several millennia, blacks in ancient Egypt made numerous contributions to

medicine and were acknowledged as the inventors of the art of medicine. They produced
the earliest physicians, medical knowledge, and medical literature. They contributed to
the development of medicine in ancient Greece. Modern presentations of ancient
medicine, however, deprive blacks of the knowledge of early contributions to medicine. It
is proposed that the recognition of the contributions of blacks to the early history of
western medicine would inspire black students to study medicine.
According to Hippocratic teaching, disease resulted from the imbalance of four bodily
humors: black bile, yellow bile, phlegm, and blood. Health was thought to be the balance
or harmony of the bodily humors.

7.14 Traditional African Watercraft: A New Look

Stewart Malloy of the Oceanographic Sciences Division, Brookhaven National

Laboratory, took a new look at the watercraft of Western and Central Africa, this region
once formed part of a great inter-locking trade network running from the Mediterranean
to the Gulf of Guinea and from the West Coast to Lake Chad. The interaction of these
diverse peoples through conquest, reconquest and trade offered countless opportunities
for the diffusion of ideas on boats.
African boat building technology included both extension and expansion techniques
used world-wide to make “dugouts” sea-worthy. One of the earliest records of West
African watercraft comes from the voyages of Cadamosto in 1455. He found the coastal
inhabitants of the Senegal River using three-to-four men dugouts for fishing and ferrying
goods from place to place. The most impressive boats were to be found in the trade
between Jenne and Timbuktu.

7.15 An Outline of Africa’s Role in the History of Physics

The choice of historical topics and figures found in current physics and physical science
texts has the effect of reinforcing the racial stereotypes that denigrate the intellectual and
scientific abilities of nonwhites. Black scientists are not pictured in any books nor is a
single black credited with any contribution.
Dr. John Pappademos, Professor of Physics, University of Illinois at Chicago Circle, who
conducted this survey, begins the task of revising conventional assumptions of physics
by outlining some of their contributions.
Physics texts distort the history of physics and yet the overwhelming majority of students
that take elective or required courses in physics in the U.S. learn of the history of physics
through their contact with textbooks of physics as such, rather than by taking a course in

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the history of the subject. Their views, therefore, concerning the history of physics are
affected strongly by views expressed in textbooks.
Anthropological evidence shows that the origin of man is to be found in Africa. It was in
Africa that man first started up along the tool-making path that distinguishes him from the
lower forms of life. The scientific measurement of time started with the Egyptians. Based
on their stellar observations, the calendar they developed as far back as 4241 B.C. is the
one we use today. To the Egyptians, we owe the dividing of the day into 24 hours. Our
modern practice of starting the day at midnight dates back to the Egyptians, as well as
the origin of the names of the days of the week.

7.16 The Ancient Akan Script: A Review of Sankora, by Niangoran-Bouah

The Ivorian professor, Niangoran Bouah, has shown that the so-called Akan “gold-
weights” are really a kind of encyclopedia that preserves in miniature the objects and
ideas of their ancient culture. The objects preserve all the symbols of the ancient
Numidian or Libyan writing systems, plus some extra symbols. He also argues that
writing need not have a single origin.

7.17 The Ancient Manding Script

It is usually assumed that writing was introduced into west Africa by the Arabs. However,
due to demands of trade, scripts were invented by African trader-groups in ancient
times. This was especially true of the Mande or Manding-speaking peoples who are
recognized as the inventors of several scripts.
They were created by merchants to help them keep records of their business
transactions and were only later used as a means of preserving religious doctrines and
writing obituaries. These scripts came into being in West Africa as a result of the growth
of trade centers.

7.18 Black Americans in the Field of Science And Invention

By 1913 it is estimated that as many as one thousand inventions were patented by black
Americans. These patents represented inventions in almost every field of industry.
Below are some of the outstanding inventors of the nineteenth century;
Elijah McCoy- automatic lubrication for steam engines
Jan Matzeliger- first machine for mass-producing shoes
Granville Woods- 35 patents for electro-mechanical devices, bringing about
improvements in telegraphy, telephones, automatic cut-offs for electrical circuits and
electric motor regulators.
Lewis Latimer- inexpensive cotton-thread filament which made electric light practical for
homes
He was an outstanding member of this group of inventors who helped to make America‟s
20th century industrial revolution possible. He solved the problem of transforming electric
current cheaply into light through the invention of a durable filament for the electric bulb.
The contribution of African people to the making of the Americas, and the Caribbean
Islands, extends far beyond forced labor.
Garret Morgan- first automatic stop-light and a smoke inhalator mask
Norbert Rillieux- vacuum evaporator for turning cane juice into white sugar crystals
Lewis Temple- movable harpoon head which revolutionized the whaling industry
Hayden also introduces 20th century inventors;

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Frederick McKinley Jones- movable refrigeration unit that transformed the food
transport industry
Otis Boykin- the control unit in artificial heart stimulators and electrical device used in all
guided missiles and IBM computers
Meredith Gourdine- a pioneer in energy conversion, inventor of many products and
processes based on the use of electro gas-dynamics technology
Most of the roles played by these inventors evolved on the basis of the needs of society
at a given time. However, before the end of the civil war, noteworthy inventions of blacks
were not numerous. For most slaves, the foremost question was how to gain their
freedom and the free worked to save those blacks in bondage.

7.19 Space Science: The African-American Contribution

The spin-off of benefits from space science may, in fact, revolutionize our daily lives. For
space exploration is not, as so many believe, the costly adventure of a few in pursuit of a
fascinating but barren knowledge. It is now possible, for example, to map new sources of
Earth‟s minerals with the all-seeing eye of our satellites.
African-Americans are as much involved in this new scientific adventure and enterprise
as they were in the science of earlier centuries. Major Frederick D. Gregory is the first
black astronaut pilot in the history of space flight. He has flown 40 different aircrafts and
has been involved with aircraft evaluation and testing for the Air force and NASA. Among
the designs of Gregory is a “single-hand “ controller that combines both throttle power
control as well as control over roll and pitch. Other significant blacks in this field are:
Isaac Gillam IV- an operations officer at NASA
Robert E. Shurney- an aeronautical engineer who specializes in designing utility
devices for space laboratories.
Patricia Cowings- who specializes in space medicine research e.g. the physiological
problems that astronauts have when flying in space.
Christine Darden- an aerospace engineer in the High-speed Aerodynamics Division at
NASA.

7.20 African-American Contributions to Information Technology

If you can imagine a planet with more computers than people, your thoughts are at the
right place at the right time. That global change occurred during 1982 at Bell Labs where
ten African-Americans were asked what they considered their most important technical
contributions:
Brian G. Jackson builds computers and instructs them to do extraordinary tasks.
Courtland Robinson supervises the search for materials to keep dust, moisture and
other contaminants from affecting the performance of miniature electronic memories and
other computer and telecommunications equipment parts.
Jesse E. Russell, Sr. showed how the first commercial computer-on-a-chip could do
more and more cheaply when applied to telecommunications than a series of simple
electronic components. etc.

7.21 Conclusion

It is obvious from the discoveries discussed above that Early Africa had some scientific
and technological inventions. However, this continent suffered a slow spread of

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technology, and advancement of the same has partly been hindered by climate as well
as the holocaust (slave trade).
As is usually the case, climate plays a big role in what happens in an area, e.g. for
European countries, wearing warm clothes, shoes and having warm shelter is a matter
of life and death, whereas in the tropics, shoes are a luxury and simple structures will do
for shelter. This has helped in advancement in industrialization and engineering, which is
at a slow pace in Africa.
The problem in Africa stems from production as a response to Europe‟s demands, and in
the process forgetting to develop our own native land. One ought to realize that Africans
are equally endowed with the potential to attain technological heights as any other
peoples in the world.

References

1. Ivan Van Sertima, Blacks in Science: Ancient and Modern, Journal of African
Civilizations,1986, Transaction Books, London UK.

Other Articles from the same Journal.

2. Hunter Havelin Adams III, African Observers of the Universe: the Sirius Question.
3. Hunter Havelin Adams III, New Light on the Dogon and Sirius.

4. B.M. Lynch, L.H.Robbins, Namoratunga: The First Acheaoastronomical Evidence

from Sub- Saharan Africa.

5. Fred Wendorf, Romuald Schild, Angela Close, An Ancient Harvest on the Nile.

6. Bayard Webster, African Cattle Stir Scientific Debate.

7. Beatrice Lumpkin, The Pyramids: An Ancient showcase of African Science and

Technology.

8. Molefi Asante, Kariamu Asante, Great Zimbabwe: AnAncient African City State

9. Khalil Messiha et al, African Experimntal Aeronautics: A 2,000-year Old Model

Glider.

10. Beatrice Lumpkin, Africa in the Mainstream of Mathematics History.

11. Claudia Zaslavsky, The Yoruba Number System.

12. Fredrick Newsome, Black Contributions to the Early History of Western Medicine

13. Charles s Finch, The African Background of Medical Science.

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14. Debra Shore, Steel Making in Ancient Africa.

15. Stewart C. Malloy, Traditonal African Watercraft: A New Look.

16. John Pappadermos, An Outline of Africa‟s Role in the History of Physics.

17. Willard R Johnson, The Ancient Akan Script: A Review of Sankofa, by

Niangoran- Bouah.

18. Clyde – Ahmad Winters, The Ancient Manding Script.

19. Robert C. Hayden, Black Americans in the Field of Science and Invention.

20. Curtis M. Graves, Ivan Van Sertima, Space Science: The African American
Contribution.

21. Kirstie Gentleman, African American Contibutions to Information Technology.

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8 GREAT SCIENTISTS

8.1 Leonardo Da Vinci

8.1.1 Introduction

Leornado was an anatomist, architect, botanist, city planner, costume and stage
designer, chef, humorist, engineer, equestrian, inventor, geographer, geologist,
mathematician, military scientist, musician, painter, philosopher, physicist and raconteur.
Leonardo da Vinci. In The Book of Genius, an exhaustive research on the world‟s
greatest geniuses revealed Leonardo da Vinci as the greatest genius of all time, ahead
of the likes of William Shakespeare, Goethe, Michelangelo, Sir Isaac Newton and Albert
Einstein.
.
8.1.1The Life of Leonardo da Vinci

Leonardo was born at 10:30 p.m. on Saturday, April 15, 1452. His mother, Caterina, was
a peasant from Achiano, a tiny village near the small town of Vinci, about forty miles
away from Florence, Italy. His father, Ser Piero da Vinci, who was not married to his
mother, was a prosperous accountant and notary for the city of Florence. At age five,
young Leonardo was taken from Caterina and raised in the home of his grandfather, also
a notary.
Leonardo was sent to be an apprentice in the studio of the master sculptor and painter
Andrea de Verrocchio (1435 – 1488). Verrocchio saw the exquisite quality of Leonardo‟s
work and entrusted him with more painting commissions. Leonardo‟s talents were
quickly noticed by Verrocchio‟s prime patron, Lorenzo de‟ Medici, in whose home he
lived and was exposed to many philosophers, mathematicians and artists.
After six years with Verrocchio, Leonardo was admitted to the company of St. Luke, a
guild of apothecaries, physicians and artists, in 1472. While there, Leonardo deepened
his study of anatomy that is exquisitely expressed in his paintings, St. Jerome in the
Vatican Gallery and The Annunciation in the Uffizi. Shortly before his twenty-fourth
birthday, Leonardo was arrested on charges of sodomy, and although the charges were
eventually dismissed, this prompted his departure from Florence. His most significant
work in that period is The Adoration of the Magi for the monks of San Donato a Scopeto.
In 1482 Leonardo moved to Milan. Under the patronage of Ludovico Sforza, Leonardo
created his masterpiece, The Last Supper. Painted on the wall of the refectory of Santa
Maria delle Grazie from 1495 to 1498, this piece remains, in the words of art historian
E.H. Gombrich, “one of the great miracle of human genius.” While in Ludovico‟s court,
Leonardo also studied anatomy, astronomy, botany, geology, flight and geography and
made plans for inventions and military innovations.
In 1499, the French overwhelmed Milan and drove Sforza into exile, so Leonardo was
without a patron or a home. Leonardo returned to Florence in 1500. He worked on The
Virgin and Child with St. Anne and the Infant St. John which he never completed but
formed the basis of a later work, the exquisitely tender Virgin and Child with St. Anne,
now in the Louvre, in Paris.
In 1502 Leonardo took up an appointment as chief engineer to the infamous commander
of the papal armies, Cesare Borgia. He made six remarkably accurate maps of central
Italy for his new patron.

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In 1503 he received an important commission from the Signoria of Florence. During this
period, Leonardo worked on The Battle of Aghiari and a portrait of Madonna Elisabetta
(nicknamed Mona Lisa), the third wife of a Florentine nobleman, Francesco del
Giocondo – the most famous and mysterious painting.
Leonardo returned to Milan, in the service of Louis XII‟s viceroy, Charles d‟Amboise,
where he focused on studies in anatomy, geometry, hydraulics, and flight while
designing and decorating palaces, planning monuments, and building canals for his
patron.
In 1512 Leonardo fled to Rome where he sought the patronage of Leo X, the new
Medicean pope. The pope was however too preoccupied with the commissions he had
already granted Michelangelo and Raphael to pay much attention to the sixty-year-old
Da Vinci. Leonardo concentrated on studies of anatomy, optics and geometry.
In 1516 Leonardo left Rome following the death of his sponsor. He found his way
through Milan to Amboise in the Loire Valley where he spent the last few years of his life
under the patronage of Francois I, king of France. A severe stroke cost him the use of
his right hand and Leonardo saw that he would die without fully realizing his dream of
unifying all knowledge.
Leonardo da Vinci died at the age of sixty-seven on May 2, 1519. It is claimed that, in his
final days, Leonardo was filled with repentance and apologized to “God and man for
leaving so much undone.”

8.1.2 Leonardo da Vinci’s Major Accomplishments

Leonardo da Vinci had so many accomplishments that we can only get a glimpse of
some of the most notable ones through the categories of art, invention, military
engineering and science.

 Leonardo the Artist

Leonardo was the first western artist to make landscape the prime subject of a painting.
He pioneered the use of oil paints and the application of perspective and many other
innovative and influential methods. Leonardo‟s Mona Lisa and The Last Supper are
recognized universally as two of the greatest paintings ever produced. Leonardo was
also renowned as an architect and a sculptor.
 Leonardo the Inventor
He made plans for a flying machine, a helicopter, a parachute, and many other marvels
including the extendable ladder (still in use by fire departments today), the three-speed
gear shift, a machine for cutting threads in screws, the bicycle, hydraulic jacks, folding
furniture, a number of automated musical instruments, a water-powered alarm clock. Da
Vinci was the pioneer of the concept of automation.
 As a Military Engineer
Leonardo made plans for weapons that would be deployed 400 years later, including the
armoured tank, machine gun, mortar, guided missile, and submarine. A man of peace,
he referred to war as “beastly madness” and his instruments of war were designed to
“preserve the chief gift of nature, which is liberty,” he wrote.
 Leonardo the Scientist
In Anatomy, Leonardo pioneered the discipline of modern comparative anatomy, was the
first to make casts of the brain and ventricles of the heart, conducted unprecedented
scientific studies of the child in the womb, and was the first to draw parts of the body in
cross section.

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In Botany, Leonardo pioneered modern botanical science, described geotropism (the

gravitational attraction of the earth on some plants) and heliotropism (the attraction of
plants towards the sun), and noted that the age of a tree corresponds to the number of
rings in its cross section.
In Geology and Physics, Leonardo made significant discoveries about the nature of
fossilization and was the first to document the phenomenon of soil erosion through his
statement: “water gnaws at mountains and fills valleys”. His physics studies anticipated
the modern disciplines of hydrostatics, optics and mechanics. Leonardo‟s investigations
led him to anticipate many great scientific discoveries including breakthroughs by
Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, and Darwin.

8.1.3 The Seven Da Vincian Principles

The Da Vincian Principles (Curiosità, Dimostrazione, Sensazione, Sfumato,

Arte/Scienza, Corporalita, and Connessione) are drawn from an intensive study of the
man and his methods and they are named in Leonardo‟s native Italian. The principles
serve to develop in the reader powerful strategies for creative thinking and new
approaches of self-expression.

Curiosità

Curiosità is an insatiably curious approach to life and an unrelenting quest for continuous
learning. This principle comes first because the desire to know, to learn, and to grow is
the powerhouse of knowledge, wisdom and discovery.
Whereas curiosity is built in everyone as a natural impulse, curiosità as a principle helps
the human being to build onto this impulse for his/her own benefit. Like little scientists,
babies experiment with everything in their environment with their minds engaged in an
unquenchable thirst for knowledge. Leonardo had a childlike sense of wonder and
insatiable curiosity, immense interest and willingness to question accepted knowledge,
which fuelled the wellspring of his genius throughout his adult life.
“I roamed the countryside searching for answers to things I did not understand. Why
shells existed on the top of mountains along with the imprints of coral and plants and
seaweed usually found in the sea. Why the thunder lasts a longer time than that which
causes it, and why immediately on its creation the lightning becomes visible to the eye
while thunder requires time to travel. How the various circles of water form around the
spot that has been struck by a stone, and why a bird sustains itself in the air. These
questions and other strange phenomena engage my thought throughout my life.” –
Leonardo da Vinci wrote, in one of his journals. Kenneth Clark called him “undoubtedly
the most curious man who ever lived.”

The culture of keeping a journal or notebook was key to Da Vinci‟s application and
exercising of the principle of Curiosità. In engineering alone, many questions,
observations, insights, jokes, dreams and musings may be recorded in a notebook, a
practice that will encourage freedom of thought and expansion of perspective. While
focusing on the “right answer” – that is, the answer held by the person in authority, the
teacher, schooling does not develop curiosity, delight in ambiguity, and question-asking
skill. One can increase their creative problem-solving skills, at work and at home, by
honing their question-asking ability.

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“Just as iron rusts from disuse, and stagnant water putrefies, or when cold turns to ice,
so our intellect wastes unless it is kept in use.” The continuous quest for learning is the
powerhouse of the Da Vincian spirit. It is always worthwhile to learn something new: a
new language, a new sport or game, drawing, painting or sculpting, acting, singing in a
choir, writing, studying, dancing, etc. A passionate pursue of these hobbies will lead to
richer and more fulfilling lives.
“His interest in everything was equalled by his spontaneous originality in response to
everything that interested him,” said Prof. Morris Philipson, about Leonardo. Never be
afraid to learn for your brain can learn seven facts per second, every second, for the rest
of your life and still have plenty of room left to learn more.

Dimostrazione

Dimostrazione is a commitment to test knowledge through experience, persistence, and

willingness to learn from mistakes. Leonardo emphasised the importance of learning for
oneself, through practical experience.
The finest teachers will know that experience is the source of wisdom, which is explicitly
shown in the life of Leonardo as an apprentice in the studio of the master painter and
sculptor, Verrocchio. Leonardo grew up with a profoundly practical orientation. This
practical orientation coupled with penetrating intelligence, curiosity and independent
spirit led him to question much of the accepted theory and dogma of his time.
Although Leonardo championed originality and independence of thought, he was in the
habit of studying all classical and medieval authorities obtainable on the subjects in
which he was interested. He viewed the work of others as “experience by proxy” to be
studied carefully and critically and ultimately to be tested through his own experience.
He taught himself Latin in 1494 at the age of 42 to gain a deeper knowledge of the
classics.
Although generally recognised as the greatest genius of all time, Leonardo made many
colossal mistakes and staggering blunders. Despite mistakes, disasters, failures, and
disappointments, Leonardo never stopped learning, exploring and experimenting. He
knew that learning from experience also meant learning from mistakes.
One of the most efficient ways to learn from mistakes is to let someone else make them
for you. Positive role models, like Leonardo, are wonderful to emulate but “anti-role
models” will teach us what not to do. We can therefore analyse and learn from other
people‟s mistakes.
In the practice of dimostrazione, it is important to start with the eye-opening work of
questioning our own opinions, assumptions and beliefs about the wide variety of topics:
human nature, ethics, politics, ethnic groups, scientific truth, sexuality, religion, medicine,
the meaning of art, marriage, parenting, history, other cultures, etc. These can be
checked with our own experiences and from information from other sources and its
authenticity.
The engineer primarily uses proven scientific principles to make use of the forces of
nature to meet man‟s needs. A practical experience of these principles, laws and
methods would, however, better enhance independent thinking and individualism in
engineering decision-making. Studies have shown that the critical determinant of
success in business and life is resilience in the face of adversity. This however requires
awareness, deep contemplation and a sense of humour. Confidence, which is trust in
oneself and one‟s abilities, is the secret of success, and the experience of success is a
key to building confidence.

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Sensazione

Sensazione is the continual refinement of the senses, especially sight, as the means to
enliven experience. This principle focuses on sharpening the senses, consciously, since
refining sensory awareness is the key to enriching experience as noted by Da Vinci. Da
Vinci‟s sovereignty stemmed from the combination of his open, questioning mind, his
reliance on actual experience, and his uncanny visual acuity. For Leonardo vision was
supreme and then followed by hearing. According to him, the eye is “the chief means
whereby the understanding may most fully and abundantly appreciate the infinite works
of nature.” Apart from vision and hearing, Leonardo valued, practiced and encouraged
the refinement of all the other senses; smell, taste and touch.
Great artists are great because they endeavour to refine their sensory intelligence. A
starting point would be a self-assessment of our awareness and appreciation of colours,
art, scenery, music, silence and noise, scents, tastes of various foods and drinks,
textures, and the relationship between senses. Again the Da Vincian notebook would
come in handy to record all the ideas developed and also to broaden one‟s vocabulary
for describing sensory experiences.
It is through a keen awareness of our environment with all our senses that we can fully
creatively solve the problems we are constantly faced with, both at work and at home.
Sight, sound, touch, and smell are the keys to opening the doors of experience.
An aesthetically uplifting working environment should combine, among others visual
images like paintings and drawings, good lighting system, fragrance from say, fresh
flowers, and breaks with say, a musical interlude to help one relax and focus. These help
sharpen our sensory intelligence for greater creativity and innovation.

Sfumato

Sfumato is a willingness to embrace ambiguity, paradox, and uncertainty. While

sharpening the senses, probing the depths of experience and awakening childlike
powers of questioning, one will encounter increasing uncertainty and ambiguity. Highly
creative people have a trait of enduring confusion. The word Sfumato translates as
“turned to mist” or “going up in smoke” or simply “smoked.” Art critics use this term to
describe the hazy, mysterious quality that was one of the most distinctive characteristics
of Leonardo‟s paintings.
In engineering, as in all other disciplines, ambiguities and uncertainties are bound to be
met. Poise in the face of paradox, however, is key to effectiveness and sanity in a rapidly
changing world.
A self-assessment strategy would include a study of one‟s comfort with ambiguity, thrive
with change, interest in riddles and puzzles, reaction to contradiction, delight in paradox
and sensitivity to irony. These areas all revolve around Sfumato.
Just as great musicians point to the spaces between notes and master sculptors to the
space around their work as the secret of their work‟s power, so do the spaces between
your conscious efforts provide a key to creative living and problem solving. Spaces of
time between our work (breaks) allow perceptions, ideas and feelings to incubate so as
to come to terms with ambiguity and uncertainty and to actualise one‟s creative potential.
It should however be made clear that incubation is most effective when you alternate
between periods of intense, focused work and rest, for without periods of intense,
focused work, there is nothing to be incubated.

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Research has shown that most people get their best ideas when resting in bed, walking
in nature, listening to music in their car, and relaxing in the shower or bath, and not at
work. Solitude and relaxation offer many breakthrough ideas.

“Intuition is the art of listening, with an inner ear, to the rhythms and melodies of your
own body” – Michael Gelb. A study by one professor revealed that failure to heed their
own intuition was the prime cause of many senior executive‟s worst decisions.
So, embrace ambiguity, take time off, and trust your intuition.

Arte/Scienza

This is the development of the balance between science and art, logic and imagination.
It is what may be referred to as “whole-brain thinking.” This principle will help the
individual to develop balance and creativity from uncertainty. For effective problem
solving we have to balance the logical, analytical with the imaginative, big-picture
thinking. As George Sarton, a historian of science, said, “The main problems of life
cannot be solved by men of science alone, or by artists and humanists: we need the
cooperation of them all. Science is always indispensable but never sufficient.”
Leonardo‟s life is an embodiment of this balance between science and art. His scientific
studies, for example, are expressed in beautiful, evocative, expressive works of art, not
dry technical drawings. At the same time, the plans for his masterpieces are very well
detailed, analytical, and mathematically precise.
A self-assessment exercise on this principle would focus on whether you are left-
brained; like detail, always on time, skilled at math, write clearly, articulate, good at
analysis and order, or right-brained; highly imaginative, good at brain storming, better at
geometry than algebra in school, often say or do the unexpected, often lose track of
time, and rely on intuition. The Da Vincian notebook is essential in this exercise.

A “mind mapping” exercise can be used to exercise the principle of arte/scienza

intended to help one to a free and good judgement. A good balance between science
and art is essential for creative problem solving.

Corporalita

This is the cultivation of grace, ambidexterity, fitness, and poise. Da Vinci believed that
balance was more than just mental. He cited the importance of balance of body and
mind. The stereotype of a genius is a skinny, bespectacled, boring and unfashionable
person. This is however untrue of many geniuses like Da Vinci who was handsome with
splendid physique, poise, grace and athleticism. Da Vinci performed regular exercise
and believed that a thoughtful diet was a key to health and well-being. He was so keen
on health that he offered advice on keeping healthy: beware of anger, exercise
moderately, eat simple food, chew well, go to the toilet regularly, and keep your mind
cheerful.
A self-assessment exercise for this principle would seek to analyse one‟s aerobic fitness
and strength, body tension and relaxation, knowledge about diet and nutrition, grace,
ambidexterity, attitude, understanding of anatomy and coordination.
Among the many ways of applying and exercising the principle of corporalita is the
development of a fitness program. This is invaluable in physical health, mental acuity,
and emotional well-being. A sound body compliments a sound mind and regular
moderate exercise is profoundly beneficial to the body and mind. A commonly missing

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link in many fitness programs is the combination of body awareness, poise and
ambidexterity. Cultivation of body awareness begins with honing the sixth sense:
kinaesthesia, which is your sense of weight, position, and movement. This sense tells
you whether you are relaxed or tense, awkward or graceful.
Author genius, F. Matthias Alexander, developed a technique for cultivating the Da
Vincian qualities of poise, balance and grace.
Leonardo was a natural left-hander but he cultivated ambidexterity and regularly
switched hands when painting his masterpieces. When you balance the body you
balance the brain, as Prof. Raymond Dart noted.
Corporalita is important at work because the state of the body influences your mind

Connessione

This is a recognition of and appreciation for the interconnectedness of all things and
phenomena. It may also be referred to as “systems thinking.” This principle will help one
appreciate patterns, relationships, connections, and systems. Connessione ties
everything together. Connessione is evident in Leonardo‟s frequent observations of
patterns and connections in the world around him: “Every part is disposed to unite with
the whole, that it may thereby escape from its own incompleteness.” Many of his
inventions and designs arose from the playful, imaginary combinations he made of
different natural forms. Leonardo‟s seriousness drove him to penetrate the essence of
things, and his playfulness allowed him to make unprecedented, original connections.
He studied the human body as a whole system, a coordinated pattern of interdependent
relationships. He noted once that “everything comes from everything, and everything is
made out of everything, and everything returns into everything.” His unrelenting quest for
knowledge only deepened the mysteries about nature until he finally concluded that
“nature is full of infinite causes that experience has never demonstrated.” However,
Leonardo‟s supreme expressions of Connessione are shown in his mysterious paintings
and drawings.
An enhancement of Connessione would best begin with a self-assessment exercise
seeking to understand one‟s ecological awareness, love for similes, analogies and
metaphor, sense of proportion, ability to articulate the systems dynamics in family and
workplace and whether we experience a sense of connectedness with all creation.
A student should seek to draw the connection between the theories learnt and their
practicability in reality, between his intended profession and all other professions, and
how his/her work contributes to the general well-being of all creation. Contemplate the
role of each member of a team, a family, an institution, and of nature as a whole to its
success and harmony or disharmony.
As Peter Senge wrote, “Reality is made up of circles, but we see straight lines.” The
ability to see relationships and patterns, and make unfamiliar combinations and
connections, is the core of creativity. Leonardo intuitively knew that to understand a
system, one must explore it, or imagine it, under extreme conditions. Within family these
may be weddings, serious illnesses, births and funerals, or after a bad financial report,
ethical crisis or sudden change in the market for an organisation.
Also, thinking about the origin of things is a great way to appreciate Connessione. For
students to appreciate their studies, it is important that they get to understand the roots
of all that they study. As Leonardo approached his death he increasingly emphasised
the importance of setting goals and following through to completion. Make all your goals
SMART; Specific, Measurable, Accountability, Realistic and Relevant (“we ought no to
desire the impossible,” said Da Vinci), and Time line (be specific on the period of time).

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You are the captain of your ship, but you cannot control the weather. So, think of the part
as belonging to a whole. This is the basis of systems thinking.

8.2 Cheikh Anta Diop: An assessment of his contribution to Science and African
Cultural Identity and Ideology

8.2.1 Introduction

Cheikh Anta Diop is considered one of the great polymaths that the African continent
has produced. His achievements and breadth of study are immense but he is perhaps
best known for his contribution to redressing established historiographies and
philosophical and scientific motions that placed Africa‟s history as being empty prior to
the arrival of the Europeans, her philosophers being „poor relations‟ to those of Western
antiquity, and her science being little more than a hotchpotch of magical recipes and trial
and error. In the following paper we shall provide a brief outline of Diop‟s life and career
and focus on some of the theories he expounded. Particular attention shall be paid to
his contribution in the field of science and history and more pertinently his reclaiming of
the achievements of the continents forefathers. The relevance of this study is twofold.
First, it allows the reader a brief synopsis of Diop‟s main arguments and outlines the
source materials he used. Second, it provides an opportunity of the reader to engage
with the reality of Africa as a continent that has been proactive in the development of
ideas that have been globally and merely reactive to the economic, social and political
scourges that have been inflicted upon her. This paper does not intend to offer a
rigorous re-examination of some of the suppositions that Diop made, furthermore due to
time constraints Diop‟s source materials were re-examined by the present author.

8.2.2 Biographical Background

Diop was born in December 1923 in Thieyton, Diourbel region of Senegal. Educated at
the Lycee van Volkenhouen in Dakar, he excelled in his studies and in 1946 was
awarded a government scholarship to study Mathematics in France at the Sorbonne in
France. Diop was active in student journalism and politics and became editor of a
student newspaper that was published by the Association of African students entitled
“Presence Africaine”. The magazine was significant as it afforded Diop a chance to
develop his nascent afrocentric theories. In the article entitled “The Origins of the World
Race and Language”, Diop proposed that indigenous languages be used in primary,
secondary and tertiary education. 1It was from this beginning that Diop continued his
research and writing focusing upon Pan African Studies as well as comparative studies
of African political studies and European studies, with the intention of dispelling of the
notion that African political structures were not as advanced as those in Europe.2 His
prominence grew to the extent that the Paris World Congress of Negro Writers and
Artists saw him attend as „significant contributor‟. Furthermore, the Congress afforded
Diop the opportunity for his ideas that at the time were very much at the vanguard of
studies on African cultural identity, a wider audience. The impact of these early efforts
came to fruition when Diop was awarded a prize together with W.E.B. Dubois at the

1
B.D. Buuba, The Life and Work of Cheikh Anta Diop
2
ibid p.2

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World Black Festival of the Arts in Dakar in 1966. The award was for writers that had
played the greatest influence on the conception of Africans in the 20th Century. This
accolade gave some scope to the sphere of influence that Diop‟s work had as well as
the part it played in enlivening the debate amongst the intellectual Africans in the
Diaspora3.
Being a prolific writer, Diop wrote numerous articles and books focusing on his major
passions of African cultural unity, anthropology, philosophy and history. To facilitate his
breadth of interests Diop studied Egyptology, hieroglyphics and nuclear physics and this
allowed for him to offer refutations to popularly held views by Africanists. This area of
work is especially revealed in his two most famous opae: „Civilization or Barbarism: An
authentic anthropology’ and in ‘The Cultural Unity of Black Africa’. His work led him to
further international prominence when he oversaw a UNESCO conference in Cairo that
focused on the peopling of Ancient Egypt and deciphering the Meroitic Script. His
UNESCO work also expanded to include the position of Vice President of the Committee
brought together to produce the UNESCO General History of Africa. His death in
February 1986 from a heart attack robbed Africa of one of its greatest thinkers; but not
after he had revolutionized perceptions of the African amongst themselves and within
the global community via his numerous treaties.

8.2.3 Diop’s Ideas Regarding African Identity and Culture

As mentioned previously, the focus of this paper is on Diop‟s contribution to the

advancement of science as well as his historical studies. However, to study or outline
this without providing an ideological framework to his notion of cultural identity would
prove misleading to the reader. A product of the colonial educational system, Diop‟s
formative years were framed by the educational notion of an Africa that had existed in an
ideological void until the arrival of the European. As the famous English historian Hugh
Trevor-Roper commented we were a continent that was „without writing, therefore
without history‟. However, such a claim relied upon one of two premises. First, the
advancements made by the civilizations of Ancient Egypt being overlooked as a pale
imitation to those of Greek and Roman Antiquity. A second point was the advancements
of Ancient Egypt not being included in the canon of contributions made by Africans to
intellectual debates on a raft of issues.

Diop tackled the claim by illustrating in a number of ways that the hieroglyphics used by
the Egyptians were a sophisticated means of conveying information as the Greek or
Roman alphabet. Perhaps more pertinently he reclaimed Egypt as a wholly African
civilization, thus negating a more subtle means of undermining the contributions made
on the African continent by placing the Egyptian civilization as having closer affinity to
the Arab world and the other great civilizations of the near/middle East. However, Diop
was not merely concerned with looking backwards at Africa‟s past achievements but
also called for a clear technical and industrial development programme as he saw it as
essential for the continent‟s overall development.

Diop‟s scholastic achievements in the area of cultural identity meant that the European
hegemony on African Studies was finally broken4. However, Diop also furthered the Pan
African agenda and ideology regarding an African cultural renaissance. Unlike other
scholars such as Senghor who supported the notion of Negritude that focused on the

3
ibid p. 5

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psychological aspects that affected cultural identity Diop sought a more holistic and thus
complex approach. In his cataloguing of the various cultural and ideological
developments within Africa, Diop sought to expand the parameters of the African notion
of self. Furthermore, he saw the importance of putting forward the philosophical and
scientific disciplines and the advancements made there by Africans as it was only then
that Africa could fully participate with the former colonial powers as well as have an
ideological framework that was free of intellectual servitude.

Diop juxtaposed strong sense of pride for the achievements of Africa‟s past with a
fervent desire to engender change in the present perceptions that Africans had of
themselves. He strongly opposed Afro-Arab expansionist ambitions met out by Islamic
religious evangelism as he sought it as yet another imperialist agenda5 . Yet there was
also a dichotomy in some of his work as whilst he was a proponent of revitalizing ethnic
languages over the European ones left by the former colonial powers, he was also keen
for a continent wide lingua franca to be chosen from one of the existing indigenous
languages6. Furthermore, once the language had been selected it would undergo a
transformation as it would need to be updated to include scientific terms and
philosophical concepts7. He also called for this language to operate as the
administrative language of the whole continent. However, the process of selection of
such a language was not clearly set out by Diop, nor did he explore the potential fissures
to Pan African unity that such a selection of an indigenous language might bring. An
equally radical idea and a departure from established norms was the proposal that Africa
could share its natural and human resources. He proposed that each region specialize
in a particular industry area as this would allow for accountability. He also suggested
knowledge sharing as this would result in a better skilled workforce and reduce the
dependence upon the former colonial power that many African states suffered from.

A strong sense of cultural identity, a grounded sense of cultural intellectual achievement

and innovative means to channel African present personnel was Diop‟s recipe for a
forward looking and more stable continent.

8.2.4 Contribution to Science

As we have hitherto mentioned Diop‟s greatest strength lay in his ability to observe
lessons from the past and put them into the context of the challenges of the future.
Perhaps the area where he achieved this most effectively was in his revisionist analysis
of the contribution made by Africans to science and philosophical thought. The
importance of this particular re-evaluation cannot be underestimated, as reclaiming the
contribution made, strengthens the perception of Africans living on the continent and the
Diaspora of themselves. Furthermore, it eliminates the colonial norm that knowledge
always stems from a Eurocentric reference point. From a political and ideological
standpoint, focusing on science rather than the traversed areas of art and music also
brought relevance to Diop‟s belief that there were many civilized communities that
worked as a cohesive structure outside the Greco-Roman state tradition.
The source material Diop utilized to substantiate his claims were original Egyptian
papyrus scripts as well as the writings of Classical Antiquity. Diop was one of the first

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indigenous African Egyptologists and in this alone diversified the areas that African
academicians participated in.
Fellow Egyptologist Struve stated that the Moscow papyrus pointed definitively to the
fact that Egyptian mathematics was highly theoretical8. Additionally the papyrus
illustrated that much of the mathematics explored by Egyptian scholars was of an equal
level to that explained by Archimedes, the great Greek mathematician. The difference
lay in the fact that the Egyptians reached the same stage of sophistication at least 1,700
years prior to Archimedes. Furthermore, the Egyptians had already devised a formula
that measured curved surfaces9. The Egyptians also pre-empted further work by
Archimedes in Problem 50 in the Rhind papyrus in which they set out a formula for the
measurement of the exact surface area of a circle. The theories set out in the Rhind
papyrus clearly stood the test of time as they are duplicated in Archimedes‟ seminal
work The Measurement of the Circle10. Furthermore, Archimedes‟ opus entitled On the
Equilibrium of Planes or Centres of Gravity of Planes nowhere in his hypotheses is
mention made to earlier Egyptian scholars having already covered much of the material.
This leads us to ask why such duplication of material and also what research
methodology was used by the Greek mathematicians to explore mathematical
hypotheses. Diop offered readers a solution when he pointed out that Archimedes, like
many other Greek scholars had continued his studies in Egypt. Indeed it was during
such a sojourn that Archimedes „invented‟ the screw. However, Paul van Ecke a Dutch
historian doubts the plausibility of this attributed invention and suggests that the idea
was stolen from the Egyptians who already had access to such technology many
centuries before11. Perhaps the reticence of Greek scholars to acknowledge that the
much of the ground covered in their work had already been produced by Egyptians lay in
the fact that the Greeks had a „nationalistic‟ (if one can use such a term for a cluster of
city states) notion of self. They therefore had to maintain the image of being the source
of all scholastic endeavors. Certainly, this theory can also be leveled at the Romans
whose imperialistic ambitions depended on the concept of their civilization being
superior to all others in the Ancient World. A brief synopsis of other theories that were
developed by the Egyptian scholars but attributed to Greek thinkers include:
 Dicrostratas‟s formula to measure the length of a circumference which appears
in Egyptian theories that were written 14 years prior.
 The theory for irrational numbers which appears in the Rhind mathematical
papyrus
 The quadrative of a circle formula – Moscow papyrus
 The formula to measure the volume of pyramid‟s frustrum – Moscow papyrus
It is testimony to the advancement of the Egyptian mathematical elite that Peet a
famous mathematician and sceptic of the levels of contribution that Africans had had to
the subject conceded that no modern mathematician had been able to surpass these
formulae12. It was not only in the area of pure mathematics that the Egyptian
contribution is witnessed; geometry, algebra and mechanics also owe much debt to the
strides made by Egypt‟s scholars. Diop pointed out that the jewels in the Pythagorean
theoretical crown relate to geometric and arithmetic progressions, concepts that already
had precursors in the Rhind mathematical papyrus13. In the area of algebra the

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Egyptians again paved the way. Diop illuminated readers with the similarities between
the Egyptian term Aske used to describe an unknown quantity and the x used in
algebraic equations in Greece. The Berlin papyrus illustrated this further with its
examples of simultaneous equations. Further linkages between terms used are to be
found in the notes taken by Greek scholars which used hieroglyphic signs in their
notations. An example of this is the hieroglyphic sign for water that was appropriated by
the Greeks to symbolize the progression of numbers14. Much too has also been made
of Egyptian mechanics which saw many principles which were not bettered by the
Renaissance thinkers of 16th Century Europe. Ivan van Sertinia published in The
Journal of African Civilizations a model of an Egyptian glider that was not
technologically far behind early aeronautical engineering models, despite dating from
the 3rd of 4th Century BC.
Egyptian society had also reached a high level of proficiency in the biological sciences
particularly in bone surgery. In the Smith papyrus Egyptian thinkers were able to
describe the different functions of the brain, centuries before Brock15. Additionally, the
Ebers papyrus illustrated that the Egyptians had discovered blood circulation and the
role the heart played in regulating blood flow. Despite these advancements Diop
suggests that the decline in medical advancement in Africa stemmed from the
continent‟s increased isolation, particularly after the fall of the Egyptian, Greek and
Roman civilizations. This points to a key factor in the development of knowledge. It is
only through challenges to established discourses that improvements on hypotheses can
be made. The decline of African medicine at this time was a precursor and a microcosm
of the underdevelopment the continent has since experienced due to the scholastic,
social and economic disengagement with the rest of the world. Snapshots of what might
have been can occasionally be witnessed in so called traditional African medicine
practices. A description made by English physician Dr. R. W. Felkin stated how a
caesarean operation was performed by one such traditional practitioner in Uganda in
1884. What was significant about the operation was that both Mother and child survived
at a time when this was rarely the case in Western Europe16.
Assessing the levels of contribution made by the Egyptians is problematised by the fact
that Greek scholars were reluctant to fully attribute their primary source material. Many
of the fathers of Greek philosophy studied in Egypt. A role call of these luminaries
includes Socrates, Aristotle and Plato17. Diop expanded on this point by meticulously
cataloguing the various concepts of these Greek thinkers that converged with those of
scholars in Egypt. „Plunder from the libraries of the Egyptian temples‟ is how Diop
described this Greek practice18. However some Greek philosophers such as Aristotle
were happy to attribute ideas that were not their own. Another challenge that Diop
challenged was the perceived reluctance of European scholars to legitimize the
contributions made by Egyptian philosophical thought to the Western philosophical
discourse. Diop also stated concern for the way that Western scholars rubbished the
methodology used by the Egyptians by claiming that it was not theoretical and was
couched in pseudo-religious recipe making. Diop states that this was disproved in 1967
when a computer was programmed to see if there was a theory behind the Egyptian
mathematical practices. The experiment confirmed that there was nothing random in the
theoretical models used by the Egyptians.

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Diop did not limit himself to historical modes of analysis to propagate Egypt‟s intellectual
contribution. We have already observed his interests in the etymological roots of
mathematical terms. However, he also employed a similar method in reference to
natural science terminology. The Egyptian word Kemit was identified by Diop as the
stem form to the word „chemistry‟19. Diop went further in his research and uncovered a
number of mathematical terms from Egypt that had survived in Wolof. It was typical of
the modes utilized by Diop which sought to straddle Africa‟s past and contextualize it to
the continent‟s present.
There are many more examples and illustrations that Diop brought to light regarding the
scholastic traditions in Africa. These included decimal notation, architectural modeling
and building construction. Perhaps most illuminating of all was the value placed by
Africans in the pursuit of knowledge. Aristotle hints at this when he pointed out that the
Egyptian priests had greater dedicated periods of time dedicated to academic pursuits20.
The priesthood with an established set amount of time for increasing their knowledge
base indicates that Egypt had a nascent community of academics. Whilst it may be
considered an overstatement to compare this community to a university faculty it
nonetheless shows that Africa housed one of the earliest knowledge sharing
communities. It also indicates that the Egyptians had seen the benefits of maintaining
an intellectual elite to further advance the community at large. This pioneering model
was followed by Diop in his founding of a Radio Carbon Laboratory at the University of
Dakar in 1966. The laboratory symbolized that championing of the ideal is the best
means to further social, intellectual, cultural and economic growth of a community.

8.3 Some Prominent African Engineers

1) Dr. Moses Musaazi

He is a Senior Lecturer at Makerere University. He is well known for his very innovative
Technological developments. He has developed a technique that produces an
interlocking block (twice the size of a normal brick) that is stronger and more uniformly
shaped than a conventional brick.

He has also researched on cost effective sanitary pads made from papyrus to help rural
children. He has developed an incinerator to dispose off sanitary waste and then utilize
the heat generated for heating. He has won several Mashariki Innovations in Local
Government Awards Programme Awards (MILGAP) for his innovations.

2) Prof. Mahmoud Abou Zeid

He is one of the world leaders of water. He is Director General of the National Research
Center of Water in Egypt. Since 1997, he has occupied the highest position of Minister
of Water Resources and Irrigation of Egypt.

He contributed to the development of the practical aspects of transborder water and the
prevention of the conflicts. He has researched on irrigation, water resources, drainage,
subsoil water and environment. The remarkable contributions of Dr. ABU-ZEID
concerning the aspects of water do not include only its country Egypt but also the
Middle-East and Africa at large.

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3) Prof Eric Donkor

He is currently an Associate Professor of Electrical and Computer
Engineering at University of Connecticut. He joined the
Electrical and Computer Engineering department as an
Assistant Professor.
His primary research focuses on a) high-speed (40-100Gb/s) all-
optical switching for fiber-based networks b) terahertz sub carrier
frequency generation for wireless and microwave-over-fiber
communication links, c) optical analog-to-digital converters with sampling rates between
4-10 giga samples/second, and d) experimental optical quantum computing. 1n 2000,
he received the School of Engineering “Outstanding Teaching Faculty” award, and
“Excellence in Teaching” award from the Electrical and Computer Engineering
Department
4) Prof Francis John Gichaga

He is a Professor of Civil Engineering at the prestigious

University
of Nairobi.
His areas Of Specialization and Research Interests include;
Pavement Evaluation and Rehabilitation, Soil Mechanics and
Foundation Engineering, Highway and Traffic Engineering ,
Transportation Engineering and Manpower Training and
Development in Engineering.

He has written several books in the field of highway and building engineering.
He has Attained several Awards including December, 1992 - Highest Award of Honour
SOKA University, Tokyo, Japan

5) Professor Anthony Olusegun Adeglugube

Professor Anthony Olusegun Adegbulugube is a Professor of Energy Planning and
Management at the Center for Energy Research and Development, Energy Commission
of Nigeria.
He is also the special adviser on energy to the President of Nigeria.

He has done a lot of research on Increasing energy access and options for rural areas,
climate change and its impacts on energy supply in Africa. He is a Member, African
Energy Policy Research Network (AFREPREN)
Prof. Adegbulugbe has over 50 publications to his credit which include the following:
“Energy, Environment and Development in Nigeria” (Book in press)

6) Eng. Prof Awadhi Sadiki Mawenya

He is a Registered Consulting Engineer. As Dean of the then Faculty of Engineering of
the University of Dar es Salaam he played a key role in the establishment of Chemical
and Process Engineering.
As a consultant since 1984, he has effectively directed 120 engineering projects through
various stages of project life cycles. His outstanding engineering contributions got him
the award of the ERB as „Engineer of the Year” 2004

7. Prof Dr. Mwamila Burton

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He is the Chairman College of Engineering and Technology, Dar es Salaam

University. He has carried out a number of conventional and non-conventional
consultancy services including the assessment of the structural safety of the Ministry of
Home Affairs Buildings, Tanzania. From 1994 to 1998 he served as the Training
Coordinator for the Engineers Registration Board (ERB) and the Institution of Engineers
Tanzania (IET). As the Training Coordinator, he developed an Engineers
Apprenticeship Programme (EAP) and a Continuing Professional Development
Programme (CPDP) to facilitate the professional development of engineers in Tanzania

8. Prof. Eriabu Lugujjo

He is a Professor of Electrical Engineering, Makerere University and has been both the
Head of Department and Dean Faculty of Technology and a specialist in electrical
materials. He has taught for over 30 years at Makerere University. He is considered the
Father of Engineering Education in Uganda because of his dedicated service and
excellent track record. He has contributed extensively to vocational education and is
Chairman of the National Committee. He is also Vice Chairman of the Uganda National
Commission for UNESCO.

References

1. Micheal Gleb, How to Think like Leonardo da Vinci, Seven Steps to Everyday
Genius,Thorsons, Harper Collins,1998, London, UK.

2. Ivan Van Sertima, Larry Williams Ed. Great African Thinkers Vol 1, Cheikh Anta
Diop, Journal of African Civilisation, 1986, Oxford UK.

3. Cheikh Anta Diop, The African Origins of Civilisation, Myth or Reality, Lawrence
Hill and Company,1974,New York, USA.

4. Cheikh Anta Diop, Civilization or Barbarism, An Authentic Anthology, Lawrence

Hill Books 1991, New York, USA.

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9 THE ENGINEERING BODIES

9.1 The Uganda Institution of Professional Engineers

9.1.1 Background

Formal engineering professional organizations in Uganda, Tanzania and Kenya sub-

region started in 1945 as the East African Association of Engineers and subsequently
the East African Institution of Engineers (EAIE) which became unworkable in the
seventies with the then political turmoil in the region. In 1972 the Uganda Institution of
Professional Engineers (UIPE) was born and has had the mantle of steering the
engineering profession in Uganda ever since.

9.1.2 Objectives and Purposes

The objectives and purposes for which the Uganda Institution of Professional Engineers
as constituted are to promote the general advancement of the science and practice of
engineering and its applicants, and to facilitate the exchange of information and ideas on
those subjects amongst the members of the Institution and otherwise and for that
purpose:-

i) To hold meetings of the Institution for reading and discussing communications

bearing to or the application thereof or upon subjects relating thereto.
ii) To co-operate with universities, other educational institutions and Public
Educational Authorities for the furtherance of education and training in
engineering science and practice.
iii) To initiate research programmes and to co-operate with Government, private
research institutions and private individuals in promoting research into
Engineering Science and Technology.
iv) To print publications, sell, lend or distribute the proceedings or reports of the
Institution or any papers, communications, works or treaties on Engineering or its
applications or subjects connected therewith.
v) To do all other things, which the Council of the Institution may think proper,
including advising Government, Public Bodies and other organizations or
individuals on matters concerning Engineering.
vi) To do other things incidental or conductive to the attainment of the above
objectives or any of them.
vii) To ensure that proper health and safety measures are taken into consideration in
the practice of engineering.
viii) To ensure, as a qualifying body for those seeking registration under ERB.

9.1.3 Current Status

i) Administration

Governed by a constitution, By-laws and regulations approved ( and amendable) by the

membership at the Annual General Meeting normally falling in April of each year, UIPE
being the legal successor to the EAIE is recognized by the Engineers Registration Act
1969 and as amended by the 1997 decree. The Institution is guided on policy by a

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Council comprising of a President who is the Chairman, three Vice Presidents, an

Honorary Secretary, an Honorary Treasurer and at least six ordinary members (two of
whom must be Associate Members).

ii) Institution Secretariat

Over the years, UIPE has established a full-time secretariat currently sharing office
accommodation with the Uganda Association of Consulting Engineers at Total House,
Plot 29/30 Jinja Road. The Secretariat is currently manned by three permanent staff
headed by an Administrative Secretary.

For internal administration purposes there are currently four branches of UIPE namely:
Kampala, Mbale, Fort-Portal and Jinja Branches. Additionally the membership is based
on three Divisions representing the three major arms of the profession. i.e.

Civil Engineering Division

Electrical engineering Division
Mechanical engineering Division

The categories of membership are elaborated below:

Honorary Fellow: A person because of his eminence and contribution to

engineering and who has been elected by Council. He
does not have to be an engineer.

Fellow: a Corporate Member with at least 15 years post

Graduate professional experience who holds a position of
eminence in society and who has contributed significantly
to the profession by exceptional academic, or leadership
qualities.

Member Is a Corporate Member of at least 4 years

postgraduate professional experience.

Technologist Member- a member who holds a higher diploma in

engineering with at least 3 years experience.
Technician Member a member who holds an ordinary diploma in
engineering with at least 2 years experience.

Graduate Member A Person who has graduated with an

engineering degree recognized by Council.

Student Member A person who is pursuing an engineering

degree, higher diploma, ordinary diploma.

Graduate Technologist A person who has completed a higher diploma.

Graduate Technician A person who has completed an ordinary

diploma in engineering.

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iii) Detailed Roles of the Main Categories of Membership

a) Technician Member (EngTech)

An "Engineering Technician" is involved in the application of proven techniques and

procedures to the solution of practical problems. They carry a measure of supervisory
and technical responsibility and are competent to exercise creative aptitudes and skills
within defined fields of technology, often under the guidance of Technologist Members.
They contribute to the design, development, manufacture, commissioning, operation and
maintenance of products, equipment, process and services. They apply safe systems of
work.

Technician Members are involved in the application of proven techniques and

procedures to the solution of practical problems. They work under the guidance of
Technologist Members in carrying out many of the skilled tasks on which delivery of a
project or service depends, and which in the absence of further training many TMUIPE
and MUIPE would not be competent to do. Technician Members will have the
appropriate ability and experience to allow them to make their significant contribution to
the civil engineering team.

Extracts from "Becoming a Technician Member of the Institution".

As a Technician Member (Eng Tech) you will have:

- A sound understanding of core engineering principles;

- An awareness of relevant existing technology coupled with the ability to locate and
use new research and development to benefit your work and engineering generally;
- The ability to apply appropriate scientific methods;
- The ability to contribute to the application of engineering science and knowledge,
particularly in your chosen field. This may be research, design, construction,
maintenance or management;
- The capability to function as a reliable member of a team involved in solving complex
problems.
- Commitment to the public interest in all aspects of your work, including health,
safety, risk, financial, commercial, legal, environmental, social, energy conservation
and sustainability;
- Communication to the public interest in all aspects of your work, including health,
safety, risk, financial, commercial, legal, environmental, social, energy conservation
and sustainability;
- Communication skills, in both oral and written English;
- A base of information Technology (IT) skills;
- Commitment to the Institution's Rules of Professional conduct, particularly to your
continuing professional development and competence.

b) Technologist Member (T.Eng)

A "Technologist" acts as an exponent to today's technology and to this end, they

maintain and manage applications of current and developing technology at the highest
efficiency. Incorporated Engineers require a detailed understanding of a recognized field
of technology, so they can exercise independent technical judgment and management in

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that field. They provide independently and as leaders, a significant influence on the
overall effectiveness of the organization in which they work often in key operational
management roles.
Technologist Members (TEng) have a key role to play in the civil engineering team. A
Member will typically have a high level of working experience and knowledge of a
particular field, backed by a general understanding of engineering principles and
techniques. Effective overall performance will often call for commercial awareness and
acumen, backed by organizational and communication skills.

Extracts from "Becoming a Technologist Member of the Institution"

As a Technologist Member (T.Eng) you will have:

- A sound understanding of core engineering principles;

- An understanding of relevant existing technology coupled with the ability to locate
and use new research and development to benefit your work and engineering
generally;
- The ability to apply appropriate scientific methods, which may be indeterminate or
non-routine, to produce alternative solutions to complex civil engineering problems;
- Independent judgment in the application of engineering Science and knowledge,
particularly in your chosen field. This may be in research, complex design,
construction, maintenance or management;
- Commercial understanding and application;
- Commitment to the public interest in all aspects of your work; including health,
safety, risk, financial, commercial, legal, environmental, social, energy conservation
and sustainability;
- Sound communication skills, in both oral and written English;
- A significant base of Information Technology (IT) skills;
- Commitment to the Institution's rules of Professional conduct, particularly to your
own and others‟ continuing professional development and competence.

c) Member (Reg.Eng)

A "Registered Engineer" is concerned primarily with the progress of technology through

innovation, creativity and change. They develop and apply new technologies, promote
advanced designs and design methods; introduce new and more efficient production
techniques and marketing and construction concepts; pioneer new engineering services
and management methods. They may be involved in the management and direction of
high risk and resource intensive projects. Professional judgment is a key feature of their
role, allied to the assumption of responsibility for the direction of important tasks,
including the profitable management of industrial and commercial enterprises.

Member (Reg. Eng) is the normal level at which responsibility lies for the exercise of
judgment, for innovation, creativity and resourcefulness. Members may lead teams, or
may practice in their own names. A Member will typically have an understanding of
many different areas of civil engineering, with a particular mastery in some of them.
Members may pioneer new design concepts, engineering services and management
methods; they may be involved in the management and direction of high risk and
resource intense projects. Members must be able to confront any issue, while being
aware of the limits of their professional competence. To carry such responsibilities, a

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Member will need strength of character; to carry out the role effectively calls for technical
ability, communication skills and power of leadership.

Extracts from "Becoming a Member of the Institution."

As a Member (Reg Eng) you will have:

- A sound understanding of core engineering principles;

- The ability to use relevant existing technology coupled with the ability to locate and
use new research and development to benefit your work and engineering generally;
- The ability to identify and apply appropriate scientific methods, which may be
indeterminate or non-routine, to produce alternative solutions to complex civil
engineering problems;
- Independent judgment in the application of engineering science and knowledge,
particularly in your chosen field. This may be in research, complex design,
construction, maintenance or management;
- The leadership skills to plan, manage and direct the human, material and financial
resources required to solve complex problems, often in multi-disciplinary teams;
- A high level of commercial understanding and application;
- Commitment to the public interest in all aspects of your work, including health,
safety, risk, financial, commercial, legal, environmental, social, energy conservation
and sustainability;
- Strong communication skills, in both oral and written English;
- A significant base of Information Technology (IT) skills;
- Commitment to the Institution's Rules of Professional conduct, particularly to your
own and others‟ continuing professional development and competence.

9.1.4 Activities of the UIPE

1. Continuous Professional Development Seminars and workshops by the Division.

2. Social evenings usually the first Friday of the month.

3. Advice to Government on Laws like the Building Control Act and the
Condominium Law on Science Education.

4. Arbitration of Cases between Contractors, Consultants, and Clients

5. Assessment of candidates for membership and registration

6. Developing the headquarters

7. Representation at National and International Conferences and workshops

8. Advice on the standards of engineering degree courses through visitation

committees.

9. Publication of a regular Journal and Newsletter.

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10. Recognition to academic and professional work.

11. Liaising with other professional bodies regional and International.

12. Organizing of public lectures and debates by distinguished persons.

13. Providing members with a Code of Ethics.

9.2 The Engineers Registration Board

9.2.1 Functions

The functions of the Board shall be to regulate and control engineers and their activities
within Uganda, and to advise the Government in relation thereto.

a) Regulate and administer the practice of engineers.

b) Keep a register of engineers entitled to practice the engineering profession in

Uganda.

c) Design suitable training programmes for students in engineering and set

examinations for qualifying standards.

d) Set ethical standards of practice and disciplinary procedures so as to keep

required standards of engineering

The Board consists of :

i) Chairman
ii) Three Registered Engineers from Government Service
iii) Three Registered Engineers not in service of Government.

The Registrar of the Board is the one who keeps the Register of Engineers.

A Registered Engineer is a person who has had at least 4 years of postgraduate

engineering experience and is a Corporate Member of the Institution.

A Registered Member is required to comply to a Code of Ethics.

9.3 The Development of the Professional Engineer in Uganda

9.3.1 The Accredited Academic Course

Makerere University Faculty of Technology, is in the process of preparing itself for an

accreditation visit. This will be achieved through international professional societies, the
Uganda Institution of Professional Engineers(UIPE), the Engineers Registration Board
(ERB) and the National Council for Higher Education (NCHE), fielding a joint mission.

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The courses at Kyambogo University have developed along the lines at Makerere. As
soon as the first cohort graduate, the process of accreditation can be initiated.

9.3.2 Initial Professional Development

This is a period of structured training that enables a graduate engineer prepare for a
professional review and would minimally take four years. Unstructured training means
the graduate engineer takes more time. The training follows the Training Objectives of
the UIPE, which have been recently revised to incorporate new international thinking on
the subject. The new Combined Training Objectives were recently approved by UIPE
Council and will soon be available for members.

10.3.3 Training Objectives

These Training Objectives, which have been adopted by UIPE from the Institution of
Civil Engineers UK, provide guidance to Graduate Engineers as they embark upon Initial
Professional Development. They are divided into three areas of development namely
personal, engineering and management.

 Personal – effective communication and interpersonal skills, leadership and

professional commitment;
 Engineering – identification and solution of engineering problems and the safe
and economic implementation of solutions;
 Management and commercial - efficient procurement and management of
resources within economic and regulatory constraints to achieve the engineering
objectives.

The different levels of achievement are:

i. Appreciation A: There must be an understanding of the objectives as well as an
appreciation of the reasons for its inclusion.
ii. Knowledge K: You must know how the objective should be achieved in addition to
general understanding and appreciation.
iii. Experience E: The objective should be achieved independently or under supervision.
Experience of the relevant techniques and functions is in addition to showing
appreciation and knowledge.
iv. Ability B: In addition to display of appreciation, knowledge and experience, ability to
carry out the objective without supervision and have competence to supervise others
in the relevant techniques and functions.
v. Range: This sets out the breadth of activity expected to be experienced in achieving
the objective.

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Training Objectives

No Personal Range of Activities

P1 Demonstrate a knowledge and Corporate Strategy; Professional Conduct; Bylaws;

understanding of the history, role and Local Association Affairs; History of the Institution;
purpose of the institution. Papers; Meetings. K

P2 Demonstrate a knowledge and “Engineering Procedures”, “Institutional Proceedings”

understanding of civil engineering and other relevant publications. K
procedures through statutory, technical
and commercial developments.

P3 Demonstrate a knowledge and Read national and local newspapers, journals,

understanding of local, national and watch/listen to news/current affairs programmes. K
international current affairs and how they
affect the profession.

P4 Work and communicate with others at all Report writing; illustrations; negotiations, oral
levels orally, in writing and by presentations. Active participation in public meetings.
presentation. Identify and agree on team Working in and leading teams. B
targets.

P5 By knowledge and understanding of Safety Legislation/Codes of

current legislation and best practice, take Practice/Courses/Seminars B
responsibility for personal and collective
safety.

P6 Maintain personal commitment to the Own Organization. Preparation for Professional

profession and to the employer. Review. Development Action Plan. Personal
Development Record. E

P7 Contribute to the management of the Procedures for maintaining

administration of projects. records/instruction/financial expenditure, Procedures
for quality enhancement. Procedures for
development of personnel. B

2.2 Engineering

E1 Identify engineering problems and define Define client requirements; Identify external restraints
solutions. (political, social, etc) assemble basic data. Apply
engineering principles. Specify possible solutions. B

E2 Conduct appropriate research and Application of engineering principles. Innovation.

analyses to evaluate possible solutions to Technology development. Research and
problems. Development. Feasibility assessment and costing.
Risk analysis. B

E3 Produce and present solutions to Apply Standards/Codes of Practice /Environmental

problems. considerations Specifications
/Quantity/Buildability/Maintainability B

E4 Manage contractual issues by having Responsibilities of parties. Procedures defined by

practical experience of administration of contract. Events or Claims B

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forms of contract.

E5 Establish and manage systems to ensure Formal instructions. Working sketches. Quality
transfer of information to practical effect management. Information Technology. B

E6 Plan, organize, manage and control multi- Programming/Monitoring. Calculation and balancing
disciplinary resources of resource requirements. Cost monitoring. Work and
Method Study. E

E7 Manage and apply safe systems of work. Safety Regulations/Codes of

Practice/Manuals/Policies. Design. Construction.
Recommend improvements to systems. B

2.3 Management

M1 Demonstrate a knowledge and Sources of funding. Financial structures and

understanding of how projects are monitoring (e.g.Profit and Loss accounts, cash flow).
financed and how funds are obtained and Risk K
managed.

M2 Manage the application and know the Standards and Codes (UK and other). Codes of
limitations of established best practice as Practice. Technical Memoranda. Departures from
defined by Standards and codes. established practice. B

M3 Manage quality plans Quality systems and plans (Dimensional Resources)

B

M4 Plan and manage the use of human and Plant/Equipment. Labour. Materials. Staff. Planning.
physical resources in the implementation Use and Performance. E
of solutions.

M5 In deriving engineering solutions, take Environmental impact issues. Interaction between

proper account of relevant regulations design, construction, fabrication and operation. B
and best practice.
M6 Produce engineering solutions in Hazard identification. Risk Assessment. Recommend
compliance with relevant regulations improvements to systems. B
concerning safety and risk.

M7 Measure and record work done for Cost of resources. Overheads. Experience of
payment purposes. payment for additional works. E

M8 Contribute to the management of the Profit/Loss. Financial liability. Pricing Strategy.

commercial aspects of projects by Sources of funding. Use of resources. B
ensuring effective use of resources.

M9 Contribute to the handover and take over Conformity with specifications. Staged handover.
of completed projects or parts of projects. Commissioning programmes. As constructed
information. Working Manuals. Maintenance periods
and Certification. E

Adopted from ICE

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9.3.3 The Professional Review

This is a culmination of the initial professional development, whereby the graduate

member of the institution is subjected to a professional review in order to achieve
Corporate Membership of the Institution (MUIPE) and professional registration
(Reg.Eng). The combined assessment procedures for membership to the two bodies
already shows the new thinking in this direction.

9.3.4 Continuous Professional Development (CPD)

This is a process whereby after an individual achieves his professional registration, he

continues to keep up to date with developments in his field of interest.
CPD is about improving your performance at work, enhancing your career prospects,
increasing your capacity for learning and being more capable and confident when faced
with change.
The Institution of Civil Engineers defines this as: "the systematic maintenance,
improvement and broadening of knowledge and skill, and the development of personal
qualities necessary for the execution of professional and technical duties throughout
your working life".

Benefits to individuals and organisations

Planning, doing and recording your CPD allows you to take stock of your situation and
will allow you to:
o provide documented evidence of your commitment to your chosen
profession and of your continued competence;
o have an excellent reference document for use both in the updating of your
CV and in recalling details of topics you have studied as well as for
appraisals and interviews;
o have a useful aid for your career development providing a means by
which you can plan, record and review your relevant activities;
o have an awareness of your shortcomings and a strategy to overcome
them;
o exploit change and not be driven by it;
o identify your skills which may be of assistance to others.
Organisations benefit from providing and promoting CPD by having:
o efficient and skilful people;
o staff motivated to learn and develop performance which contributes to
business objectives and increases client/customer satisfaction;
o an image as a progressive firm committed to developing its human
resources;
o staff more able to adapt to the changing demands of the business.
Clients and society in general will benefit from:
o an assurance that civil engineers’ skills are being maintained and
developed following professional qualification;
o a quality benchmark of the competence of Members.

So far there are three main bodies that have been actively involved in engineering
related CPD. These are the UIPE, the Uganda Management Institute (UMI) and more
recently Makerere University. Others include private companies, Government Ministries,
Parastatals and Training Institutions.

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9.3.5 The Detailed Process

Becoming a Member of the Institution entitles you to use the designatory letters MUIPE
and may entitle you to register with the Engineers Registration Board as a Registered
Engineer using the designatory letters Reg. Eng.

Professional Review

The purpose of the Professional Review is to find out if a candidate meets the attributes
of a Corporate Member these being:
 A sound understanding of core engineering principles
 The ability to use relevant existing technology coupled with the ability to locate
and use new research and development to benefit your work and engineering
generally
 The ability to identify and apply appropriate scientific methods, which may be
indeterminate or non-routine, to produce alternative solutions to complex civil
engineering problems.
 Independent judgment in the application of engineering science and knowledge,
particularly in your chosen field. This may be in research, complex design,
construction, maintenance or management.
 The leadership skills to plan, manage and direct the human, material and
financial resources required to solve complex problems, often in multi-disciplinary
teams
 A high level of commercial understanding and application
 Commitment to the public interest in all aspects of your work, including health,
safety, risk, financial, commercial, legal, environmental, social, energy
conservation and sustainability
 Strong communication skills, in both oral and written English
 A significant base of Information Technology (IT) skills
 Commitment to the Institution's Rules for Professional Conduct, particularly to his
own and others' continuing professional development and competence.

The Review Criteria will require that a candidate demonstrates that he:
 He has developed and proved his technical, communication and commercial
competence; acquired a working knowledge of statutory and contract procedures
and administration; exercised independent judgment requiring both responsible
experience and the application of engineering principles;
 He has acquired an understanding of economic, financial, safety and
environmental considerations
 He has a knowledge and understanding of the progress of technology through
innovation
 He has demonstrated qualities of vision and leadership; are observant, articulate
and clear thinking and can inspire confidence.
 He has a continuing commitment to your professional development.
The Reviewers will be two senior Fellows or Members selected by the Institution. The
evidence used by the Reviewers to reach a decision as to whether the candidate should
become a Corporate Member of the Institution are:
Documents Submitted

 The Sponsor's completed questionnaires;

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 The Career Report

 The Technical Report
 Any supporting documents
 The record of achievement of the Training Objectives
A Presentation and an Interview at an agreed location with three Reviewers
Two essays written under examination conditions.

Career Report

This 2000 word report on the structured training and responsible experience you gained
during your Initial Professional Development must describe the tasks, the candidate
undertook. It must not be a mere inventory, although it should set out the development
of his career, the precise positions the candidate occupied and the degree of
responsibility assigned to them. He should give an indication of the size and value of the
work undertaken.

The Technical Report

This 4000-word report should demonstrate the candidate's competence as a potential

member. It should describe a particular project (or parts of projects) in which he played
a major part, including taking the lead in some or all of the elements. He must indicate
clearly his role in the development and management of the projects by giving the
background to the important decisions for which you were responsible or to which you
made a significant contribution. Above all, he must show where he has exercised
independent engineering and professional judgment.

The Presentation

The Presentation will normally take such time as the Reviewers require to satisfy
themselves that the candidate has passed or failed to meet the requirements of the
Review; no Presentation will exceed 75 minutes. The interview will start with a 15-
minute presentation based on the candidate's Project Report. Visual aids may be used
as appropriate. Subsequently, the candidate will be questioned by the Reviewers, as
they may deem necessary to determine whether you have satisfied all the criteria to
become a Member.

The Essays

Following the interview, the candidate will be required to write two essays, usually in the
afternoon. Both will test your ability to communicate in writing in acceptable English.
For each you will be allowed 1½ hours, with a short break between. The first essay will
be a choice from two topics set specifically in the context of the candidates' Experience
Report. The purpose is to encourage the candidate to expand upon particular aspects of
your experience and knowledge.

The second essay will again be a choice from two topics chosen by the Reviewers from
the list to be published annually by the Institution. This essay should enable the
candidate to demonstrate that they have thoughts and ideas about the role of the civil
engineer in the community, to explain ideas and concepts and to justify your opinions on
fundamental aspects of the profession and the industry.

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9.4 Professionalism and Ethics

9.4.1 Professionalism

For the Engineering Professional, professionalism implies that maximum use will
be made of skills and knowledge, and that each person will use his or her
competence to the fullest.

 With complete honesty and integrity

 With his or her best effort in spite of the fact that frequently neither client nor
employer is able to evaluate the effort.
 With avoidance of all possible conflicts of interests.
 With the consciousness that the profession is often judged by the performance of
the individual.

Professionalism also means:

 Striving to improve all work until it becomes a model for those in the field. As a
minimum, using the most up-to-date techniques and procedures.
 Proper credit for work and ideas developed by subordinates
 Loyalty to one's employer and client, always with concern to the public safety in
construction, product design, plant operation and all other phases of engineering
 Leadership of less experienced colleagues and subordinates toward personal
development and an enthusiasm for the profession.
 Activity in professional and technical societies, thereby demonstrating an interest
in the profession.
 Registration with the Engineers Registration Board demonstrates to the co-
workers and the public that this is an important hall-mark of the profession, a
willingness to go beyond the minimum to improve standards and protect public
health safety and interests.

9.4.2 Engineering Ethics

According to Thomas Tredgold classic and still standard definition “engineering is the
application of scientific principles to the optimal conversion of natural resources into
structures, machines, products, systems, and processes for the benefit of human kind”.
Engineers are thus society‟s servants. Ethics often has a serious role to play in
engineering design. Questions of safety, risk, and environmental protection are only the
more obvious manifestations of the variables that call for ethical judgment in assessing
their proper influence on design decisions.

The “principles” that underpin engineering need to be thoroughly understood and made
second nature before intuitive judgments and irrational processes can be trusted.
Engineers are entrusted with the social responsibility of ensuring the sustainability of
human society and protecting the environment, however while it is within the capacity of
engineers to determine the limits of acceptance within human society, the limits to which
the ecosystem of the Earth can be pushed are not clearly known.

Philosophy (especially ethics) is an internal practical need of engineering- and is so

recognized by the professional engineering community. Philosophy is important to

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engineering to help with the issues of social context and ethics within engineering
practice. As servants of society, engineers through their education, should acquire
knowledge of a sense of duty, sentiment and humility. Recall that engineering is
characterized by conceptual analysis, reflective insight and interdisciplinary thinking
which are the core elements of philosophy; such elements are important when taking
lessons from previous design failures (their effects on society and the Earth) and in
determining which the best design is for a current project.

The value of ethics can be illustrated by contrasting the imaginative, but real, Goethe‟s
Faust and Palchinsky as engineers. In Faust II, having first abandoned his liberal studies
and then crude magic, Faust has become a civil engineer erecting dams and draining
marshes yet inadvertently killing innocent people. The second historical, but it must be
stressed imaginatively reconstructed: the case of Russian engineer Peter Palchinsky.
Executed by Stalin because he refused to separate his technical knowledge and
humanistic ideals, it is the ghost of the executed engineer Palchinsky that emerges
triumphant in the glasnost that accompanied the demise of the Soviet Union.

A failure to remain connected to the limitation of the human condition is one way to
define the problem of Faust as an engineer. A determination to remain connected to
what is pragmatically known about the world is what has cost many engineers such as
Palchinksy their jobs if not their lives. In other words, engineers as society‟s servants
must always consider the common good, above individual good. The practice of ethical
engineering is to find systems of moral ideas we can use to think through moral
problems in the context of everyday life. We want to find theories, norms, ideals, and
strategies, which will in practice lead us to satisfactory outcomes if we decided to try
them. We simply need to identify things that are less than perfect about the way we now
act and think.

Ethics is the study of the morality of human actions. It is the science of determining
values in human conduct and of deciding what ought to be done in different
circumstances and situations.
Engineering ethics represents the attempts of professional engineers to define proper
courses of action in their dealings with each other, with their clients and employees, and
with the general public.

The problem of engineering ethics, as well as those of other professions, begins with the
fact that the professional possesses specialized knowledge that is superior to that
possessed by clients, employers, or the general public. With this knowledge, a
responsible and honest engineer can be a very useful member of society. An
irresponsible or corrupt engineer can weaken the confidence of the public in the
engineering profession and even become a dangerous member of society.

Engineering is the largest of the learned professions, and yet ironically, engineering
ethics is still much younger, for example, than medical ethics or legal ethics. The
decisions of physicians and attorneys usually affect one person at a time; the judgment
of a design engineer can influence hundreds of lives at once.

The Moral Foundations of Engineering Ethics

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Engineering ethics involves the study of moral issues and decisions. It seeks answers to
questions about conduct and behaviour that is normally correct. But what makes certain
actions morally right and others morally wrong? Martin and Schinzinger, in Ethics in
Engineering, 1989, describe four types of moral theories that help to answer this
question:
Utilitarianism. This theory considers the good and bad consequences of action and
seeks to maximise utility, defined as the overall balance of good over bad
consequences. Our actions ought always to produce the most utility, considering
everyone affected by those actions.
Duty ethics. This theory maintains that there are duties which ought to be performed
even though performing them may not always produce the most good: to be fair, to be
honest, etc.
Rights ethics. Under this theory, an action is morally right if it does not violate the rights
of other people.
Virtue ethics. This theory regards an action right if it supports good character traits
(virtues) and wrong if it manifests bad character traits (vices).

The Framework of Engineering Ethics

The engineer‟s primary responsibility is to place the safety of the public above all else.
He or she must be sensitive to and strive to avoid the potential for harm, but, given a
choice, should opt for doing good. Whereas the engineer is a knowledge expert specially
trained to design and evaluate the performance characteristics of technology within his
or her area of expertise, he or she should understand that his or her knowledge about a
problem is sometimes incomplete. A competent engineer will acknowledge his or her
limitations about a technology.

The guiding principles of professionalism can be attributed to rules of professional

conduct, which is the Code of Ethics listed below.

9.4.3 The Code of Ethics for Engineers (Rules of Professional Conduct)

1. Only members of the Institution whose names appear on the current Register of
Uganda Engineer' Registration Board may use the title "Engineer" before their
names.

2. Any member of the Institution, provided he or she is a Registered Engineer, shall

practice only in a branch of engineering in which he or she is competent.

3. An engineer shall order his or her conduct in such a way to safeguard at all times
the safety, health and welfare of the public in the performance of his or her
professional duties, and uphold and advance the dignity, standing and reputation
of the profession.

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4. An Engineer shall discharge his or her duties with complete fidelity. He or she
shall not accept remuneration for services rendered other than with his/her
employer's permission.

5. An Engineer shall not act so as to injure, or attempt to injure whether directly or

indirectly, the professional reputation, prospects, or business of another Engineer
provided that this rule shall not be taken as prohibiting expression of technical
opinion on behalf of his client before a tribunal or in a commissioned report or of
lodging a complaint on the conduct of another Engineer to the Institution of
Professional Engineers and/or to the Engineers Registration Board.

6. An Engineer shall not, directly or indirectly, attempt to supplant another Engineer;

nor shall he/she intervene or attempt to intervene in connection with Engineering
work of any kind, which to his/her knowledge is entrusted to another Engineer.

7. An Engineer shall not review the work of another Engineer for the same client,
until he or she has either obtained the consent of such Engineer, or has been
notified by the client in writing that the connection of such an Engineer with the
work has been terminated.

8. An Engineer shall not knowingly compete with another member on the basis of
professional charges. Provided that such competition shall be permissible where
competitive offers are sought in accordance with formal procedures which
include the following:

a) that quality of service be recognized as a primary factor in the selection

process and in the evaluation of offers;

b) that the nature and scope of the duties are sufficiently defined in the
invitation to submit proposal so as to maintain the principle of equality
between competitors;

c) that any fee proposal once made may not be revised prior to the award of
the commission.

The operation of this provision shall be revised by the Council at intervals of not more
than two years and a report made at a General Meeting.

9. Engineers may publicize their names or the names of their firms through public
media for the sole purpose of letting the public know where they are located and
what services they offer. Any such publication shall make no reference implicitly
or explicitly, to the cost of services.

10. An Engineer, without disclosing that fact to his or her employer in writing, shall
not be a director or member of, or a shareholder in, or act as an agent for, or be
salaried employee of any commercial, contracting or manufacturing business
which is or may be involved in the class of work to which his or her appointment
relates; nor shall he or she receive directly or indirectly any royalty, gratuity or
commission on any article or for the purposes of the work in respect of which he

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or she is employed unless or until such royalty, gratuity, or commission has been
authorized in writing by his or her employer.

11. An Engineer shall not be the medium of payments made on his or her employer's
behalf unless so requested by his or her clients but shall only issue certificates to
his or her clients for payments; nor shall he or she in connection with work on
which he or she is employed place contracts or orders except with the authority
on behalf of his or her employer.

12. An Engineer shall not accept financial or other compensation from more than one
interested party for the same service, or for services pertaining to the same work,
without the consent of all interested parties.

13. An Engineer shall not use the advantages of salaried position to compete unfairly
with other Engineers.

14. An Engineer who is engaged in engineering work in a country abroad will order
his conduct according to the customs of that country adhering as closely as is
practicable to the principles of the code.

15. Engineers shall associate professionally only with reputable persons or

organizations.

16. An Engineer shall act in all professional matters as a faithful advisor to his or her
employer and in administering contracts, shall remain fair to the contractor.

Engineers shall continue their professional development throughout their careers, and
shall provide opportunities for the professional development of those Engineers under
their supervision.

9.4.4 Philosophy in Engineering

Philosophy in engineering occurs as the logical process of formulation of concepts, the

design of solutions and the creation of physical manifestations of those solutions.
Moreover, engineering is not free to be applied at will to any perceived need, but must
work within cultural constraints and adhere to the moral and ethical standards of the
society in whose service it is employed. In essence, to grasp the greater meaning of
engineering requires the development of philosophical concepts such as a cognitive
awareness of life, self, others and the external world. This needs to be blended with a
higher understanding of science, the environment and society. Philosophy and its
concepts are therefore useful in the different aspects of one‟s career as an Engineer as
will be shown below. We are all to some extent students of philosophy, in so far as we
undertake to conceptually analyse, reflect on, and generalize about the aspects of our
lives and works.

Personal Career Development

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It has been said that “necessity is the mother of invention” and “an engineer is usually
the father”. Engineers seek optimal solutions to problems. Science and engineering are
commonly linked by the engagement of the two fields in both problems and solutions.
Scientists, however, are more interested in the problem whereas engineers are more
interested in the solution (Simon Done). Scientists often study a problem because it is
there. Engineers generally study a problem because a solution is required (Simon
Done).

Whatever an engineer produces, be it a product or a service, must answer the question

“what is it for?” (Michael Reid). Engineers make judgments and provide explanations to
justify their choices. Engineering rhetoric is the development of such explanations that
identify and validate a particular solution as best. Engineering thinking involves
analogical reasoning as well as deduction, for which a body of acquired and assimilated
knowledge is required. It is therefore important that the professional engineer, and the
engineering student, be the main protagonist of his/ her process of learning and work of
the professor/ instructor is to motivate, to help, to approach the knowledge from different
points of view, so that it can acquire ample vision from the critical sense and the freedom
of expression. Philosophy in engineering becomes important in this aspect- it is an
exercise that develops skills in analysis, questioning and expression and as paving the
way towards the development of knowledge and understanding.

The contents of whatever course is being undertaken must be considered in the social
context to which it is developed, constituted by multiple interactions and social relations.
The professional Engineer should be proactive and attend training courses, learn on the
job- especially through mentors or voluntary work/ internships. In some organizations,
engineers can request a mentor or coach from anywhere in the organization to help
them with a specific skill, or to work on their next career move. Even if the process does
not exist in an organization, engineers might want to ask anyway as the right person-
someone who enjoys helping others- is likely to be very willing. Engineers should always
look for role models, and when they find one, learn as much from them as they can.
They should adopt continuous learning and up-grading of their skills and knowledge
base. The body of engineering knowledge is too large for an individual to master and so
some degree of specialization inevitably occurs (Simon Done). To be defined as an
engineer, it may be sufficient to simply have an understanding of where to find the
necessary information, coupled with a basic skill to enable the information to be put to
use.

Engineers wanting to do something about their careers should start by assessing the
resources they have around them;

1) Who can help them with their career plan?

2) How well does the appraisal process work?
3) Who could be their mentor, coach or role model?
4) What resources are available in human resources and training?
5) How well do they understand the power structure (within the organization)? Use
positive politics, and not the knife-in-the-back routine.
6) What initiatives does the company support?
7) What opportunities does it offer?

Engineers should also learn from the successes and failures of previous projects
undertaken, as well as their own personal successes and failures. Design failures are

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inherent in the fallible practice of engineering and the learning curve that constitutes
technical progress. But philosophical conceptual analysis and reflection are part of the
very process by which engineers learn from design failures. Taking in hand the core
principles of philosophy, in the case of design failures, various engineers have:
 undertaken conceptual analysis of right and wrong, good and bad, in engineering
practice
 sought a reflective deepening of their insight and understanding of the ethical
dimensions of engineering experience;
 pursued interdisciplinary, cooperative research into professional ethics codes,
disciplinary procedures, more educational strategies, and more.

This serves to ensure that future projects, and engineers themselves, take fewer detours
and work with better efficiency.

Handling Projects and Work Assignments

Engineering activities involve relationships between human beings and nature, among
human beings, and between engineering projects and society. Engineering projects will
always have the aim of solving, or alleviating, a problem. During the course of project
survey, justification, decision-making, project determination and evaluation of the
progress and results, the Engineer should dare to be practical and realistic and start
from objective realities. Engineers should have a good understanding of the project
including its technology, substructure, environment, materials and technology, adopt a
scientific decision-making procedure that includes such factors as practical investigation,
statistical analysis, specialists evaluation and pilot study. To put it another way, the
Engineer should possess a good epistemology of the project being dealt with (drawing a
parallel, epistemology is defined in Webster‟s Comprehensive dictionary as “that
department of philosophy which investigates critically the nature, grounds, limits, and
criteria, or validity, of human knowledge”). There are also such human factors as
success and frustration, difficulty and confidence, competition and co-operation, secrecy
and communication, for which good communication skills will come in handy.

A) Project Design

Engineering‟s goal (problem solving) and its method (deduction and analogy) is much
closer to medicine and ethics than to science. Its rhetoric (justifying its analogies) is
closer to law, and perhaps economics. Engineering does differ from other disciplines that
rely on analogical reasoning. For medicine and law it is usually very easy to define the
terms of success. Not so for engineering, which must begin its search for solutions by
demanding clarity on what sort of solutions will do, and how they will be measured. The
criteria question, “How will I know I have succeeded?” is the first step in design, and
uncovers user requirements, presuppositions, physical limitations, and values. Defining
criteria require systematic analysis, and again draws on both analogy and deduction. In
making decisions concerning different constraints and criteria, the engineer draws on
similar previous problems and solutions. Analogical reasoning is thus at the heart of
Engineering thinking.

Engineering design is a social process i.e. aimed at meeting a human need through the
solution of a problem, and this means that there are alternatives (Louis Bucciarelli). The
alternatives may be better or worse and in such a situation, “The really important and

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interesting question becomes: What do we mean by a better design?” But such is an

eminently philosophical question. Only through conceptual analysis, rational reflection
and general modes of thought can such an issue be adequately addressed.

Engineers may be distinguished from others by their ability to innovate, making a

problem abstract, applying scientific principles, knowledge, understanding and analysis,
before re-applying the answer to create a practical solution. Engineering professionals
should apply, and engineering students should be taught, both simple and compound
problem solving. Both modes of engineering thinking are different, and are expounded
on below.

Simple problem solving is deductive. Method, theory, its application, heuristics learned
are used to solve the problem. Illustrative examples do not validate concepts in simple
problem solving; the concepts stand in their own right derived from theory. For
engineering students, this involves telling them what they should do and examples
simply help students to master those concepts.

Compound problem solving relies on analogy. One must learn to think analogically, and
refer to case-based examples of particular engineering topics. Courses on critical
thinking are useful for alerting both the engineer, and the engineering student, on the
dangers of reasoning based on patterns (including analogies) alone. However, they
rarely incorporate insights on how to use analogy effectively and it is here that
philosophy finds a use. Learning to use analogy effectively and reliably is a worthwhile
complementary studies component in any engineering program. Most philosophy is
concerned with our box of conceptual tools, sometimes its aim is to sharpen tools
already in the box and sometimes it aims to add or subtract tools with an eye to the jobs
to be done. For the tools are concepts. They are about people‟s general patterns of
thought and their use of implicit beliefs, which cannot be mechanically expressed in
available vocabulary and are among other things that come into play, during problem
solving. The second-type of analogy based learning/teaching is in the engineering
discipline itself, where engineers study and students should be told, what has been done
in a variety of past situations. Such practical examples take on the fundamental role of
not merely illustrating concepts, but more importantly, contributing to them.

Because design is common to all types of engineering, it has often been understood,
researched and taught as an abstraction. In teaching, the abstraction is illustrated
through real design projects for students to tackle. This mode of teaching reflects the
normative stance of simple problem solving- develop a common theory, apply it to
examples. But if understanding of compound problem solving as an analogical judgment
is correct, then design methodology should also include a case-based approach. Rather
than learning to solve problems using a generic recipe, engineers and engineering
students should learn to solve problems by getting as much information as possible on
analogous previous problems, their solutions, and their solution processes, and then
applying this information skillfully. At times, it may also be easier to break-up a
compound problem into a set of simple problems and solve each one individually before
compounding it as a whole once again. This type of judgment on which is the best
approach can only come with experience and maturity in the engineering profession.
Testing must then be done, as this is an integral part of validating that a design functions
properly; in the same way, a philosopher always seeks to verify and validate the truth of
his statements and knowledge.

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B) Project Presentation and Defence

Engineering problems involve interacting, but qualitatively different constraints.

Engineering solutions must be justified by explaining weights given to qualitatively
different criteria. The impact of technology on its problem domain, on the business
developing it, and on society are important management, historical and ethical
questions. But they logically depend on deeper philosophical questions about what
justifies the arguments, what validates the method, what makes explanations plausible
and why. This is engineering thinking.

The Engineer can expect to constantly be called upon to defend and justify (both
verbally and in writing) the selected Project Design before colleagues, Clients and such.
Philosophy of language and communication skills thus become important in determining
the helpful separation between what words literally mean, what someone might
reasonably be expected to have communicated with them on some occasions, and what
the actual communicative intent was. When people assert sentences, they cause a
reaction and a particular state of mind associated with these sentences in the audience.
Communication and thinking produce practical effects, and different ways of
communication and thinking produce different states of mind, produce different practical
effects. Some such states, and the use of sentences associated with them, can have
better practical effects than others. It is important that the right intent/meaning is
communicated in both oral and written communication (e.g. Project Proposals, Project
Progress reports, Official letters of correspondence etc). For this to apply, the engineer
must ensure that (accurate) knowledge is presented and the manner and language of
its presentation achieve these aims.

C) Site Work

In practice, engineers often encounter decision-making situations said to be exigent.

Such situations are so complex as to deny engineers the reflection required to invoke
ethical theories, and so novel as to discourage engineers from appealing to case
studies. What theory would enable a systematic means of deciding morally exigent
situations? Borrowing from an African perspective, the rule “Do what a person of good
character would do” should be used to determine one‟s ethics. Assuming that given
enough time, engineers can make technically and morally laden decisions that are
defensible and have lasting value, by what means can they make such decisions in
exigent, complex and novel situations?

Aristotle would advise engineers to develop good moral habits. But, many philosophers
and engineers today would advise “Do the best you can with what you have,” i.e. attempt
ad hoc an approximation of a defensible decision that suits the moment. But for many
engineers lacking a full body of experience to allow them to make such mature
judgment, this may not be possible- most especially for the graduate engineer. Most
especially with regard to site work, there will be exigent situations in which the decision
maker acknowledges the imperative to act rather quickly (Ferguson 1979 and Whiteback
1998), but which are sufficiently complex enough to deny the decision maker the
foresight into the consequences of his or her actions. Such situations are sufficiently
novel as to deny the decision maker the reflective time needed to consider the moral
status of the non-human environment, et al, to deny the decision maker the reflective
time needed to consider ethical theory or applicable cases. The motivation for this
alternative is the notion of a “scientific praxistic”.

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A scientifically exigent decision making situation is one in which the decision maker
seeks to make his or her decision with or without scientific certitude, but with the
commitment of the parties in the situation (Broome 1999). To get the commitment,
engineers should transcend science by a means called “science praxistics” (Broome
1991). Simply put, a science praxistic consists of three things. First is a “heuristic” i.e. a
statement having a pseudo-scientific and/ or pseudo mathematical certitude (Koen
1984). Second is an “assigned world” i.e. a state of mind in which scientific facts and
heuristics coexist in a coherent plan of action (Broome 1985). Third is a rhetorical
argument/ justification for getting the affected parties to commit to the plan.

In making exigent decisions, the engineer should thus be able to take a decision based
on the body of knowledge he has (his own personal heuristics and assigned world) and
present a rhetorical argument/ justification for his decision with or without a defensible
ethical rationale, but without loss of collegial status and respect among other engineers.
Without the capacity for sound mature judgment which comes with a certain measure of
age, we then go back to the statement “Do what a person of good character would do”.
Engineers can put characters, legendary, historical or living (e.g. mentors), into complex
and novel situations and work them through these situations quickly, the result being a
believable plan of action that they can put into practice and hold up. One should always
remember to be wise and maintain the respect of his colleagues- even when he is
opposed to them.

9.5 References

1. NCE International Magazine of ICE, October 2006, pp. 26 – 31.

2.Engineering Thinking & Rhetoric by J.A.Robinson
http://www.intuac.com/userport/john/writing/nthinking.html
3. The Philosophy of Engineering and My Outlook on Development, speech by Du
Xianwan http://www.cae.cn/english/member/content.jsp?id=637
4. The Importance of Philosophy to Engineering by Carl Mitcham htttp://campus-
oei.org/salactsi/teorema02.htm
5. Philosophy as engineering by Adam Morton http:///www.arts.ualberta.ca/-
amorton/PAPERS/engineer.htm
6.ICE Engineering and Philosophy E-Forum, Summary of Discussions October –
December 2005, prepared by Andrew Fox
7. The Concrete Sumo by T. H. Broome Jr
8. Laws of Uganda, The Engineers Registration Act ,1969, The Uganda Printing and
Publishing Company, Entebbe, Uganda.
9. The Engineers Registration Board Newsletter, Vol1, Issue 1 October 2006.
10. Guidelines for Professional Registration of Civil Engineers, 1st Edition,1998, The
South African Institution of Civil Engineering and Engineering Council of South Africa,
Johannesburg S. Africa.
11. Professional Reviews, Guidelines and Procedures for Reviewers 1st Edition 2000
The South African Institution of Civil Engineering and Engineering Council of South
Africa. Johannesburg, S. Africa
12. Routes to Membership, Member, The Institution of Civil Engineers, London, UK..

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10 THE ENGINEER IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

10.1 Development and the MDGs

Development is an indication or measure of the quality of life an individual or group

people like a nation. A commonly used measure is the Human Development Index
(HDI).
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite statistic used to rank countries by
level of "human development" and separate developed (high development), developing
(middle development), and underdeveloped (low development) countries.

The statistic is composed from data on i) Life Expectancy,ii) Education (Literacy) and
per-capita GDP (as an indicator of Standard of living) collected at the national level.

i) Life Expectancy is the expected (in the statistical sense) number of years of life
remaining at a given age. The life expectancy of a group of individuals is heavily
dependent on the criteria used to select the group. Life expectancy is usually calculated
separately for males and females. Females live longer than males in countries with
modern obstetric care. In countries with high infant mortality rates, the life expectancy at
birth is highly sensitive to the rate of death in the first few years of life.
ii) Education or Literacy has traditionally been described as the ability to read and
write. I The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
defines literacy as the "ability to identify, understand, interpret, create, communicate,
compute and use printed and written materials associated with varying contexts. Literacy
involves a continuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their goals, to develop
their knowledge and potential, and to participate fully in their community and wider
society."
iii) Standard of Living is generally measured by standards such as real (i.e. inflation
adjusted) income per person and poverty rate. Other measures such as access and
quality of health care, income growth inequality and educational standards are also
used. Examples are access to certain goods (such as number of refrigerators per 1000
people), or measures of health such as life expectancy. It is the ease by which people
living in a time or place are able to satisfy their wants.

The idea of a 'standard' may be contrasted with the quality of life, which takes into
account not only the material standard of living, but also other more intangible aspects
that make up human life, such as leisure, safety, cultural resources, social life, physical
health, environmental quality issues etc. More complex means of measuring well-being
must be employed to make such judgments, and these are very often political, thus
controversial. Even between two nations or societies that have similar material
standards of living, quality of life factors may in fact make one of these places more
attractive to a given individual or group.

The gross domestic product (GDP) or gross domestic income (GDI) is a measure of
a country's overall economic output. It is the market value of all final goods and services
made within the borders of a country in a year. It is often positively correlated with the
standard of living, though its use as a stand-in for measuring the standard of living has
come under increasing criticism and many countries are actively exploring alternative
measures to GDP for that purpose.

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GDP can be determined in three ways, all of which should in principle give the same
result. They are the product (or output) approach, the income approach, and the
expenditure approach.

In Africa, there are three countries that have an HDI above 0.8 and are considered to
have High Human Development Index. These are Libya, Seychelles and Mauritius.
Uganda with an HDI of 0.514 falls under the Medium Human Development and is
ranked 157 out of about 190 nations according to the 2009 UNDP Human Development
Report.

The Millennium Development Goals provide a large set of targets aimed at improving
the lot of humanity in the new century by the year 2015. These targets were agreed
upon on 8th September 2000 at the United Nations Millennium Declaration (General
Assembly Resolution 55/2), which was adopted by all 189 Member States of the United
Nations (147 of them represented directly by their Head of State or Government).

They represent a partnership between the developed countries and the developing
countries “to create an environment – at the national and global levels alike – which is
conducive to development and the elimination of poverty”.
The HDI enables to know to what extent we have met the Millennium Development
Goals MDGs and progress towards the achievement of the MDGs is in itself an indicator
of an improved Human Development Index.

10. 2 Achievement of the MDGs

Each of the MDGs can be examined separately as follows:

Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger

By good socio-economic policies and investments in improved agriculture

Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education

By good educational policies and investments in appropriate infrastructure for

educational institutions.

Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women

By good gender policies and educating the girl-child, through primary, secondary and
tertiary education.

Goal 4: Reduce child mortality

By good healthcare policies and investment in healthcare; in terms of human resources,

medicines, infrastructure and knowledge

Goal 5: Improve maternal health

By good healthcare policies and investments in healthcare in terms of; human

resources, medicines, infrastructure and knowledge.

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Table 11.1 Millennium Development Goals Indicators

Millennium Development Goals (MDGs)
Goals and Targets
Indicators for monitoring progress
(from the Millennium Declaration)
Goal 1: Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger
Target 1.A: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of people whose 1.1 Proportion of population below $1 (PPP) per day
income is less than one dollar a day 1.2 Poverty gap ratio
1.3 Share of poorest quintile in national consumption
Target 1.B: Achieve full and productive employment and decent work for all, 1.4 Growth rate of GDP per person employed
including women and young people 1.5 Employment-to-population ratio
1.6 Proportion of employed people living below $1 (PPP) per day
1.7 Proportion of own-account and contributing family workers in total
employment
Target 1.C: Halve, between 1990 and 2015, the proportion of 1.8 Prevalence of underweight children under-five years of age
people who suffer from hunger 1.9 Proportion of population below minimum level of dietary energy
consumption
Goal 2: Achieve universal primary education
Target 2.A: Ensure that, by 2015, children everywhere, boys and girls alike, 2.1 Net enrolment ratio in primary education
will be able to complete a full course of primary schooling 2.2 Proportion of pupils starting grade 1 who reach last grade of primary
2.3 Literacy rate of 15-24 year-olds, women and men
Goal 3: Promote gender equality and empower women
Target 3.A: Eliminate gender disparity in primary and secondary education, 3.1 Ratios of girls to boys in primary, secondary and tertiary education
preferably by 2005, and in all levels of education no later than 2015 3.2 Share of women in wage employment in the non-agricultural sector
3.3 Proportion of seats held by women in national parliament
Goal 4: Reduce child mortality
Target 4.A: Reduce by two-thirds, between 1990 and 2015, the under-five 4.1 Under-five mortality rate
mortality rate 4.2 Infant mortality rate
4.3 Proportion of 1 year-old children immunised against measles
Goal 5: Improve maternal health
Target 5.A: Reduce by three quarters, between 1990 and 2015, the maternal 5.1 Maternal mortality ratio
mortality ratio 5.2 Proportion of births attended by skilled health personnel
Target 5.B: Achieve, by 2015, universal access to reproductive health 5.3 Contraceptive prevalence rate
5.4 Adolescent birth rate
5.5 Antenatal care coverage (at least one visit and at least four visits)
5.6 Unmet need for family planning
Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
Target 6.A: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the spread of 6.1 HIV prevalence among population aged 15-24 years
HIV/AIDS 6.2 Condom use at last high-risk sex
6.3 Proportion of population aged 15-24 years with comprehensive correct
knowledge of HIV/AIDS
6.4 Ratio of school attendance of orphans to school attendance of non-
orphans aged 10-14 years
Target 6.B: Achieve, by 2010, universal access to treatment for HIV/AIDS for 6.5 Proportion of population with advanced HIV infection with access to
all those who need it antiretroviral drugs
Target 6.C: Have halted by 2015 and begun to reverse the incidence of 6.6 Incidence and death rates associated with malaria
malaria and other major diseases 6.7 Proportion of children under 5 sleeping under insecticide-treated
bednets
6.8 Proportion of children under 5 with fever who are treated with
appropriate anti-malarial drugs

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Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability
Target 7.A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country
policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources
Target 7.B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant
reduction in the rate of loss
Target 7.C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable
access to safe drinking water and basic sanitation
Target 7.D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives
of at least 100 million slum dwellers
Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development
Target 8.A: Develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-
discriminatory trading and financial system
Includes a commitment to good governance, development and poverty
reduction – both nationally and internationally
Target 8.B: Address the special needs of the least developed countries
Includes: tariff and quota free access for the least developed countries'
exports; enhanced programme of debt relief for heavily indebted poor
countries (HIPC) and cancellation of official bilateral debt; and more generous
ODA for countries committed to poverty reduction
Target 8.C: Address the special needs of landlocked developing countries and
small island developing States (through the Programme of Action for the
Sustainable Development of Small Island Developing States and the outcome
of the twenty-second special session of the General Assembly)
Target 8.D: Deal comprehensively with the debt problems of developing
countries through national and international measures in order to make debt
sustainable in the long term
Target 8.E: In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to 8.13 Proportion of population with access to affordable essential drugs on a
affordable essential drugs in developing countries
Target 8.F: In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits 8.14 Telephone lines per 100 population
of new technologies, especially information and communications
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6.9 Incidence, prevalence and death rates associated with tuberculosis
6.10 Proportion of tuberculosis cases detected and cured under directly
observed treatment short course
7.1 Proportion of land area covered by forest
7.2 CO2 emissions, total, per capita and per $1 GDP (PPP)
7.3 Consumption of ozone-depleting substances
7.4 Proportion of fish stocks within safe biological limits
7.5 Proportion of total water resources used
7.6 Proportion of terrestrial and marine areas protected
7.7 Proportion of species threatened with extinction
7.8 Proportion of population using an improved drinking water source
7.9 Proportion of population using an improved sanitation facility
7.10 Proportion of urban population living in slums
Some of the indicators listed below are monitored separately for the least
developed countries (LDCs), Africa, landlocked developing countries and
small island developing States.
Official development assistance (ODA)
8.1 Net ODA, total and to the least developed countries, as percentage of
OECD/DAC donors’ gross national income
8.2 Proportion of total bilateral, sector-allocable ODA of OECD/DAC donors
to basic social services (basic education, primary health care, nutrition,
safe water and sanitation)
8.3 Proportion of bilateral official development assistance of OECD/DAC
donors that is untied
8.4 ODA received in landlocked developing countries as a proportion of their
gross national incomes
8.5 ODA received in small island developing States as a proportion of their
gross national incomes
Market access
8.6 Proportion of total developed country imports (by value and excluding
arms) from developing countries and least developed countries,
admitted free of duty
8.7 Average tariffs imposed by developed countries on agricultural products
and textiles and clothing from developing countries
8.8 Agricultural support estimate for OECD countries as a percentage of
their gross domestic product
8.9 Proportion of ODA provided to help build trade capacity
Debt sustainability
8.10 Total number of countries that have reached their HIPC decision points
and number that have reached their HIPC completion points
(cumulative)
8.11 Debt relief committed under HIPC and MDRI Initiatives
8.12 Debt service as a percentage of exports of goods and services
sustainable basis
8.15 Cellular subscribers per 100 population
8.16 Internet users per 100 population
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Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases

By good healthcare policies and investments in healthcare in terms of; human

resources, medicines, infrastructure and knowledge.

Goal 7: Ensure environmental sustainability

Target 7.A: Integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies and
programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources
Target 7.B: Reduce biodiversity loss, achieving, by 2010, a significant reduction in the
rate of loss.
Target 7.C: Halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe
drinking water and basic sanitation
Target 7.D: By 2020, to have achieved a significant improvement in the lives of at least
100 million slum dwellers.

By good environmental management policies and investment in the environment in

terms of human resources, infrastructure and knowledge.

Goal 8: Develop a global partnership for development

Target 8.E: In cooperation with pharmaceutical companies, provide access to affordable
essential drugs in developing countries.

By good healthcare policies and investments in healthcare in terms of; human

resources, medicines, infrastructure and knowledge.

Target 8.F: In cooperation with the private sector, make available the benefits of new
technologies, especially information and communications

By good macro-economic and information and communications technology policies and

investments in information and communications technology in terms of; human
resources, infrastructure and knowledge.

In order to achieve the MDGs which are indicators of progress and the improvement of
the HDI, we principally need the following:
I. Good policies and these refer to the different sectors and include, Macro-economic
Planning, Finance and Banking, Healthcare, Agriculture, Transport (Roads, Railways),
Water and Environment, Information and Communications Technologies, Energy and
Minerals, Oil and Gas, Housing and Urban Development, Education and Sports, Science
and Technology, Trade and Industry among others.
Good policies are based on knowledge (which is science) research and innovations,
from the pure scientists; the chemists, physicists, biologists, the applied scientists;
the civil, mechanical, electrical, electronics, telecommunications chemical, computer
engineers, the agronomists, the doctors, pharmacists, and the social scientists the
economists, the bankers, the educationists

II. Financing and Investments in infrastructure, equipment and consumables from both
Government and Development Partners

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III. Human Resources with knowledge (science) and skills in the different specialities.

The Engineers role is in the formulation of good policies, which would apply to the
infrastructure related sectors, which include, Health, Water and Environment, Transport,
Housing and Urban Development, Information and Communications Technologies,
Energy and Minerals, Oil and Gas, Agriculture in addition to supporting other key sectors
with infrastructure like Macro-economic Planning, Finance and Banking, Science and
Technology, Decentralization and Local Government.
His role is primarily in the construction and maintenance of infrastructure in the above
mentioned sectors. As a result, there are four main roles of the Engineer; as a Client, a
Consultant, a Contractor and Researcher. These are discussed below.

10.3 The Role of the Engineer in Development

The role of the engineer in development can be best understood with respect to the
engineering method and project cycle or as discussed in Section 4.3 and 4.4
respectively. The steps of the above methods are; project appraisal, feasibility studies,
project selection; design, tendering and evaluation, construction and operations and
maintenance. The Engineer as a Client, Consultant, Contractor and Researcher is
explained.

11.3.1 Client

A Client is an individual, organization or group of organizations that makes a formal

application for project implementation against the standard set by the Sector’s Principles
and Criteria. To facilitate the training of engineers Ministries, Departments and Agencies
second their staff especially the younger engineers to work with Consultants and
exposed to methods of analysis design and supervision. This works well in building the
capacity of its staff

i) Project Appraisal
A Client would Identify a problem e.g. a need for water supply, road or electricity scheme
and prepare a project (investment) proposal, which would include cost estimates for the
investment. This proposal is then appraised by Government or Development Partners
e.g. European Union, World Bank, African Development Bank for the commitment of
funding. Once this is approved, funds are then committed towards this project.

ii) Feasibility Studies

Quite often, the Client procures consultants to assist in conducting the feasibility study.
Consultants are procured based on their response to a Request for Proposals. The
consultant who submits the best evaluated technical and financial proposal will be
selected. Once they are procured they will be sign a contract and be commissioned by
the Client to carry specific tasks to determine, the preferred option of the project. The
Client will review this feasibility study (sometimes with Development Partners) and it will
be approved or otherwise, revisions requested. The Client usually pays the Consultant
after this stage in the contract.

iii) Design
The Consultant will then proceed with the preliminary design and the Client (sometimes
together with Development Partners) makes comments on the preliminary design, which

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are communicated to the Consultant. The Client will then give the Consultant an
instruction to proceed with the final design. When the Consultant completes the final
design he will submit to the Client for approval. The Client will then review the final
design (sometimes with the Development Partner) and approve it and process payment
for completing the design.

iv)Tendering and Evaluation

With an approved tender process, the Client will now invite for tenders from competent
contractors (prequalified) or may conduct open tendering and in rare cases appoint a
particular contractor directly. Where there is open tendering or you have prequalified
contractors will be required to submit bids for the construction works. Thes bids will be
submitted by a specified time and place in the tender documents. The Client may
evaluate the bids on his own or may seek the services of the Consultant.
Once the tenders have been evaluated, the Evaluation Report will be reviewed and
approved by the Contracts Committee, within the Client Ministry, Local Government or
Agency. After approval of the evaluation report a contract for the execution of the works
will be signed between the successful Contractor and the Client.

v) Construction
The successful contractor will commence with the construction once he receives an
instruction from the Client. The Client will supervise (or sometimes be assisted by a
Consultant) the Contractor on a regular basis. This means monitoring the progress,
ensuring quality workmanship, attending progress meetings and preparing monthly
reports on progress. The Client will pay the Contractor the advance payment and interim
payment certificates (as certified by his supervisory staff or Consultant) and pay the
defects liability certificate at the end of the defects liability period. The Client
commissions the project on satisfactory completion of the works.

vi) Operations and Maintenance

After completion of the works, the Client will be responsible for operations and
maintenance. Some contracts like the installation of solar equipment have an additional
maintenance period (of up to two years) after completion of the works done by
contractors. Consultants are not usually involved in maintenance.

11.3.2 Consultant

This is a person or group of persons who carry out a specific assignment on behalf of
the client project appraisal, feasibility study, design or supervision, tender evaluation or
operations and maintenance. Some of the consultants engaged are university lecturers
who assist in carrying out some of the necessary activities required for the specific
consultancies. Foreign consultants usually include indigenous Ugandans as part of their
team, or associate, with indigenous consulting firms, in order to be considered more
favorably, when submitting their proposals. This is Government policy and it is to
facilitate the transfer of technology.

i) Project Appraisal
Consultants are sometimes engaed by the Client to assist in project identification or
appraisal for an infrastructure project, like a road, power scheme or water scheme. More

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often they are engaged by Development Partners like the World Bank, African
Development Bank, European Union etc.

ii) Feasibility Studies

During this stage the Consultant will study at different options for creating the
infrastructure. For instance, in a water supply project, he would consider whether
surface or groundwater would be the preferred water source and take into account the
investment costs for abstraction, treatment, pumping, storage, distribution, operations,
maintenance and tariffs for the consumers. The feasibility study would be submitted to
the Client for a decision on the preferred altenative.

iii) Design
Once the feasibility study is approved, the Consultant will proceed with to prepare a
preliminary design. This will include the design calculations, specifications, drawings and
bills of quantities and an engineer‟s cost estimate. The preliminary design will be
submitted to Client and sometimes the Development Partner. When comments are
provided, the Consultant will proceed and prepare the final design. The Consultant will
then prepare the final design and submit to the Client for approval. Once the final design
is approved the Consultant will prepare the tender documents for the tendering and
evaluation stage.
The tender documents will comprise of the standard documents as the i) Form of
Tender, Form of Contract and Form of Securities ( tender security, performance security
and advance payment guarantee) and the project specific documents being the i)
Specifications, ii) Book of Drawings and iii) Bill of Quantities.

iv) Tendering and Evaluation

The Client maybe asked the Consultant to participate in this stage of the project cycle.
The Client normally issues the tenders to the prospective contractors, after which the
Consultant would be required to evaluate the tenders once the Client has received them.
The Consultant would prepare an Evaluation Report, which if approved would be the
basis of award of the tender by the Client.

v) Construction

During the course of construction the Consultant will supervise the Contractor on a
regular basis. Quite often the Consultant will appoint a Resident Engineer or a Clerk of
Works who is resident on site. This means monitoring the progress, ensuring quality
workmanship, organizing progress meetings and preparing monthly reports on progress.
The Consultant will certify the advance payment, interim payment certificates and the
defects liability certificate at the end of the defects liability period. The Consultant will
prepare the As Built (the actual construction as compared to the design) drawings of the
works.

vi) Operations and Maintenance

Consultants are rarely involved at this stage of the project cycle. If they are required they
will monitor the operations and maintenance of the facility and train the Client‟s Staff in
these functions. They will prepare monthly reports and make recommendations on how
to manage the facility.

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11.3.3 Contractor

Contractors are not usually required to participate in the stages of project appraisal,
feasibility study, design unless it is a turnkey project whereby, a contractor may even
initiate a project and carry out all the necessary studies, solicit financing and then
implement the investment. The traditional role of the contractor begins in the tendering
and evaluation stage.

i) Tendering and Evaluation

The prospective contractor will purchase the tender document and participate in the
tender process by submitting his bid at an agreed place and time. The bid will be
evaluated and will include the priced bills of quantity, the schedule of work, the key
technical and administrative staff, the specialized equipment and the previous
assignments completed. The bids of the different contractors will be evaluated according
to specified criteria and the best evaluated bid will be awarded the contract by the Client.
The Contractor will then sign a contract with the Client.

ii) Construction
After the Contractor has received an instruction to proceed, he will be required to
mobilize his team of personnel. This will include; engineers, technologists (foremen) civil,
mechanical, electrical) technicians and artisans (masons, carpenters, plumbers,
electricians, metal fabricators, steel benders, painters etc) depending on the nature of
the particular assignment. He will be required to follow the workplan as agreed upon in
his contract. He will follow specifications, interprete the drawings, set out the buildings,
roads or water pipeline, procure materials and ensure health and safety of workers on
site. Based on his progress, he will present interim payment certificates to the
Consultant, who will review and assess them before presenting them for payment to the
Client. The Contractor will also submit the retention certificate after the end of the
defects liability period.

iii) Operations and Maintenance

Some civil works, building contracts may include an operations and maintenance
component for a specified period after the main works. This would depend upon a
particular Client‟s requirements. Quite often operations and maintenance is done as a
separate contract after the main works. In this case, the Contractor will be required to
carry out work as specified in the contractor and will be paid according to the certificates
he submits.

Government has provided some local companies with equipment on loan. The larger
contracts are still taken by foreign companies. Sometimes they subcontract local
companies or are in joint venture.

11.4 The Construction Sector

11.4.1 The Ministry of Works and Transport

The construction sector is led by the Ministry of Works and Transport (MOWT) as the
overall Ministry responsible for government infrastructure and development.

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The different sub-sectors under this ministry include; Road Infrastructure, Transport
Services.
a) Road Infrastructure; this sub-sector has the following objectives
 Improved road accessibility in the country
 Increasing participation of the local population
 Enhance road infrastructure safety
 Improve traffic flow in Kampala and other urban areas
 Creation of a performance oriented road authority
 Promotion of private sector financing towards road infrastructure
development
b) Transport Services
 Road transport sector participation
 Increase integration of road transport with rail and water transport
infrastructure
 Promote efficient road safety management practices to reduce the rate of
human loss through transport accidents
 Preservation of road and bridge structures by establishment of effective
axle load control system

They provide policy guidelines, develop standards and monitor the implementation of
government projects. Before independence and until June 2006, it was called the
Ministry of Works, Housing and Communication and sometimes Ministry of Public Works
or Public Works Department (PWD or PIDA). They were responsible for the construction
and maintenance of government infrastructure, which included housing, roads and
bridges and water supply schemes, hospitals and health centers, markets and schools.
Some of the smaller projects were executed through direct labour contracts or the force
account method; while the majority was contracted out to the consultants who carried
out the feasibility studies, preliminary and final designs and contract superposition, while
contractors carried out the direct implementation. The Housing and Urban Development
Departments have now moved to the new Ministry of lands, Housing and Urban
Development (MOLUD).

The Ministry has several specialized parastatals under it. These include; National
Housing and Construction Corporation (NHCC), which is responsible for developing,
subsidized housing schemes, Uganda Railways Corporation (URC), Civil Aviation
Authority (CAA). The Road Agency is responsible for developing and maintaining the
truck road network, whereas the MOWT is responsible for district and urban roads. The
URC is responsible developing and managing the railway network and ferry network on
Lake Victoria. The MOWT manages the ferries on Lake Kyoga, Lake Albert and the
River Nile. The CAA is responsible for developing and maintaining the airports in
Uganda.

11.4.2 Other Construction Units

The Construction Sector has been decentralized at the sectoral building level and
currently there are construction units in the different ministries. They include; Ministry of
Health which plans, develops and monitor public hospitals, health centers, and clinics;
the Ministry of Education and Sports which plans, develops and maintains public
educational buildings like schools, primary and secondary, vocational, tertiary institutions
like technical colleges and universities. The Ministry of Internal Affairs which plans

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develops and maintains prisons and police stations and barracks. The Ministry of
Defence Construction Unit is responsible for planning, development and maintenance of
defence buildings which include barracks. The Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry
and Fisheries is responsible for farm infrastructure planning and maintenance of
government irrigation schemes. Water for Production Department has moved under the
Directorate of Water Development.

11.4.3 Local Governments

At the Local Government Level, the District Engineer has overall responsibility for the
public infrastructure development in the district; specifically roads and public institutions
like schools, hospitals, health centers, prisons, farm schools. In the townships and
municipalities, the town engineer and municipal engineer are responsible for approval of
building plans, whereas in Kampala, the City Engineer and Surveyor give approval for
the construction of buildings in both the city and Kampala District. Private and public
developers will seek approval of architectural, structural and electrical drawings from the
respective authorities. The details about the various organizations follow below.

11.4.4 The Uganda National Roads Authority

Th Road Agency Formation Unit was created in September 1998 to effectively manage
the implementation of the Road Sector Development Programme (RSDP) in the
MOWHC as a performance oriented semi- autonomous organization. Its objectives
include;
 Strengthening of weak pavements
 Upgrading of selected district roads to National roads
 Upgrading of selected links from gravel to bitumen (called paved roads)
 Road safety improvement and environment protection
 Ensuring quality and value for money in the design and construction of highway
infrastructure
 Maintaining the existing road network to agreed standards and implementing
capacity improvement to ease congestion
In 2006, the Road Authority was finally formed by an Act of Parliament.

The management of the National Roads network;

Maintenance and development of the national roads network;

Advising the Government on policy matters concerning roads generally;

Assisting in the coordination with relevant ministries, departments and agencies of Government.

Linking ferries to the national roads, and managing the axle load control.

Contributing to the addressing of transport concerns in overall national planning through coordination with the relevant
ministries, departments and agencies of Government;

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Collaborating with international organizations, inter-government organizations and agencies of other states and the
private sector on issues relating to the development and maintenance of roads;

Entering into agreement or other arrangements with any person for the provision of roads services, subject to such
charges as may be agreed.

Advising and assisting the Minister on matters, say, related to the planning, design, construction and maintenance of
roads, whether the roads are part of the national roads network or not.

Establishing and maintaining road reserves.

11.4.5 The Civil Aviation Authority

The mandate of CAA is to promote the safe, regular, secure and efficient use and
development of civil aviation inside and outside Uganda. The authority also advises
government on;
 Policy matters concerning civil aviation generally
 International conventions relating to civil aviation and the adoption of measures
necessary to give effect to the standards and recommended practices under those
conventions.

It also provides air navigation services including;

 Licensing of air transport
 Co-ordination and direction of search and rescue services
 Certification of operators and aircraft
 Regulation of civil aviation
 Establishment, maintenance, operation and ownership of airports and aerodromes
in the country. Any other functions as may be conferred upon it by the government

11.4.6 Uganda Railways Corporation

This is a Government parastatal body whose legal status was established in 1992 as an
autonomous commercial entity responsible for operating rail and marine transport in
Uganda. Its operations have been recently privatized.
URC‟s system is rooted in the British colonial metre gauge Uganda Railway that was
transformed after World War one into the East African Railways. Its operation after the
demise of the EARC had been hampered by civil war and inefficient management in
Uganda. Only the 5 mile, 8 km line between Kampala and Port Bell and the 120 mile
main line from Kampala to the Kenyan border at Tororo remain in use.
Recently prospects for the URC have improved. Uganda Railways have been joint
recipients of the 2001 World Aware Business Award for "assisting economic and social
development through the provision of appropriate, sustainable and environmentally
complementary transport infrastructure

11.4.7 National Housing and Construction Company Limited

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National Housing and Construction Company Limited is a public enterprise that was
established by the National Housing Corporation Act of 1964. This was repealed by the
1974 Decree to form National Housing and Construction Corporation. In July 2002, the
Corporation became a Public Limited liability company known as National Housing and
Construction Company Limited (NH &CCL). The Company was set up to increase the
housing stock in the country, rehabilitate the housing industry and encourage Ugandans
to own homes in organized environment.
The Company is jointly owned by the Government of Uganda (51%) and the
Government of Great Socialist Peoples‟ Libyan Arab Jamahiriyah (GGSPLAJ) 49%
shares.
The main objectives of the company are;
 To build and increase housing units in the country
 To encourage Ugandans to own houses
 To engage in any other function found necessary for the furtherance of the above
objectives
The company is involved in construction of new units and rehabilitation of existing ones.

11.5 The Water and Sanitation Sector

11.5.1The Ministry of Water and Environment

The major functions of the new Ministry of Water and Environment include;

 Water Resources Management covering hydrological and hydro geological data,

control of resources utilization, control of water quality, development and
management of water supplies

 Environmental Affairs including forestry management and wetlands management

 Meteorological Services including meteorological data, weather and climate

forecasting, and advising on atmospheric pollution.
The Water Development Department of the Ministry of Public Works (MOPW) was
moved to the then Ministry of Water, Lands and Mineral Resources soon after
independence. This was a specialized department responsible for carrying out the
survey of water resources availability, the design and implementation of water supply
and sewerage schemes. The National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC) was
later formed in the early 1970s, and became responsible for the development of urban
water schemes. The now Directorate of Water Development (DWD) is responsible for
policy guidance, implementation and monitoring of water supplies and sanitation
schemes for small towns and rural growth centers, schools, hospitals, farms and
institutions.

10.1.1 The Directorate of Water Development

This is the Government‟s lead agency responsible for managing water resources,
coordinating and regulating all water sector activities and providing support services to
Local Governments and other service providers in the delivery of water supply and
sanitation services. It consists of departments namely;
 The Department of Water Supplies which has other sub-sectors namely; rural water
and sanitation, urban water and sanitation, and water for production.

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 Department of Water Resources management which is concerned with

management and maintenance of water resources

The policy recommends the exploitation of groundwater as compared to surface water.

For groundwater development, hydrologists are employed as part of the consultant‟s
team, while specialized drilling contractors carry out the borehole drilling. At the District
Local Government Level, the District Water Officer is responsible for the implementation
of rural water schemes.

10.1.2 National Water and Sewerage Corporation (NWSC)

Currently the corporation is responsible for the provision of water supply and services in
22 towns, spread all over the country, with a population of 2.4 million. This represents
75% of the large urban centers.
It is a utility parastatal 100% owned by The Government of Uganda. It was established
under decree No: 34 following recommendation by World Health Organization. (WHO).
The mandate of the corporation as defined in the National Water and Sewerage
Corporation act of 1995, Section 5 (1), is to operate and provide water and sewerage
services in areas served by it, on a sound, commercial and viable basis.
The NWSC operations were initially in three towns of Kampala, Jinja, and Entebbe. In
1998 additional towns of Mbale, Tororo, Masaka, and Mbarara were handed over to
NWSC Water Development Department, WDD, now known as the Directorate of Water
Development (DWD). This was after the completion of the IDA financed rehabilitation
program.
The 22 towns currently served by the NWSC include; Kampala, Entebbe, Jinja, Tororo,
Mbale, Masaka, Mbarara, Gulu, Lira, Fort Portal, Kasese, Kabale, Soroti, Arua, Malaba
and Mukono. These represent the larger Urban Centers within Uganda.The respective
area managers are responsible for management, development and maintenance of
urban water schemes of the particular area.

10.1.3 The Ministry of Health

Activities of the Ministry of Health vary and are comprehensive in nature. The Ministry
carries out training of both health workers and communities in personal hygiene,
sanitation, prevention and treatment. The ministry‟s strategic objectives are;

 To establish policies, guidelines and standards for the delivery of a minimum health
care package in the Districts and at National level
 To co-ordinate and facilitate all stakeholders in the health sector to achieve the
national goals for health.
 To provide sufficient referral and tertiary health care services so that patients who
cannot be successfully treated at District level can receive appropriate medical
attention.
 To ensure that sufficient health professional training is undertaken to meet national
requirements and regulate the employment of all health professionals to ensure
minimum standards of professional practice
 To co-ordinate research activities in order to support health policy and programme
improvements

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 To develop health infrastructure and quality assurance system that facilitates district
and national planning and policy implementation, monitoring and evaluation
 To provide efficient and effective systems and interventions for the aversion of or
early identification and control of epidemics

The Environmental Sanitation and Hygiene programme under the Ministry of Health
plays a big role in the sanitation sector. Activities carried out under this programme
include;
 National Sanitation Review Workshops. These are mainly attended by the District
Health Inspectors

 Sanitation advocacy meetings for all district and 25 LC III level leaders are held
with an effort to raise the profile of sanitation.

 Sanitation initiatives geared towards increasing the coverage and behavioral

change are carried out and these include:

 Home improvement campaigns

 Radio programmes

 Drama

 Training of science teachers

 Supporting schools to construct latrines

 Sanitation technology options are developed and distributed to districts.

 Sanitation advocacy materials for districts and LC IIIs are developed and
distributed.

 Political leaders at district and sub-county levels are actively participating in

sanitation promotion activities and are budgeting and disbursing funds for
implementation and monitoring of sanitation activities.

In 2000/2001 in addition to continuing some of the activities outlined above the Ministry
undertook to facilitate the construction of demonstration latrines in difficult areas, e.g. the
rocky, sandy/collapsing soils and water logged areas, using technologies that are
socially acceptable, technically feasible, affordable and easily replicable by communities

10.2 The Energy Sector

10.2.1 The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development

The Ministry of Energy and Mineral Development (MEMD) is responsible for the
planning, development and implementation of energy projects. Major roles of the
ministry include;

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i) To provide policy guidance in the development and exploitation of the energy and
mineral resources.
ii) To acquire, process and interpret technical data in order to establish the energy and
mineral resource potential of the country.
iii) To create an enabling environment in order to attract investment in the development,
provision and utilization of energy and mineral resources.
iv) To inspect, regulate, monitor and evaluate activities of private companies in energy
and mineral sectors so that the resources are developed, exploited and used on rational
and sustainable basis.

Under the Ministry fall five specialized agencies; the Uganda Electricity Transmission
Company (UETCL) owns the high voltage transmission network on behalf of the
government, and is directly responsible for the planning, development and maintenance
of the network. The Uganda Electricity Distribution Company (UEDCL) owns the
distribution network, which has been concerned with the planning, development and
maintenance of the distribution network. The Uganda Electricity Generation Company
(UEGCL) is the owner of Kiira and Nalubaale hydropower stations and is responsible for
generation, planning and maintenance. This function has been concessioned to Eskom
Globeq. UETCL, UEDCL and UEGCL were all unbundled from the then Uganda
Electricity Board (UEB) which was responsible for planning, developing and
maintenance of the generation, transmission and distribution infrastructure together with
the setting of tariffs.

Since the electricity reforms of 1999, the Electricity Regulatory Authority was created
and is responsible for setting the tariffs and giving licenses for various studies,
generation and distribution. Furthermore, the Rural Electrification Agency (REA) which is
responsible for the planning, development and maintenance of electrical infrastructure
projects, has been created, it is the secretariat of the Rural Electrification Board. The
mode of implementation is through public private partnerships.

10.2.2 The Rural Electrification Agency

The objective of the Rural Electrification Fund (REF) is to promote the equitable
distribution of rural electrification in Uganda through the increased provision of access to
electricity for economic, social and household use. The REF provides grants for the
following;
 To support rural electrification programmes and activities including general support
activities for the preparation and implementation of rural electrification projects, such
as promotion campaigns, gathering of information on rural investment opportunities
and costs, and promotion of productive uses of electricity
 To lower the financial threshold for the private sector and local communities for
investments in rural electrification projects

10.2.3 The Electricity Regulatory Authority (ERA)

This is an independent statutory body established within the Electricity Act 1999 to
regulate the generation, distribution, sale, export and import of electrical energy in
Uganda. It has five major objectives namely;
 To establish and manage a regulatory framework that provides incentives for
generation and delivery of affordable quality electricity to different consumers

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 To ensure adequate growth in national coverage of the network

 To contribute to the creation and sustainability of a conducive investment
environment in the electricity sector
 To provide a conducive work environment that retains high caliber competent
personnel in a competitive labour market
 To promote ERA‟s sustainability

10.2.4 Uganda Electricity Transmission Company Limited (UETCL)

UETCL is a public limited liability company which was formed in 2001 as a result of the
power sector reform and liberalization policy that unbundled Uganda Electricity Board
(UEB). It has four licenses for its activities and these are;
 Operation of high voltage transmission grid (HVTG)
 System operator; it operates the Uganda power system with the objective of
dispatching available electricity to meet load requirements at lowest reasonable cost
for consumers
 Bulk power supply; it‟s empowered to enter into such power purchase agreements
as may be necessary to provide continuous and economic supply of electricity
 Power export and import; it imports and exports electric power pursuant to the terms
of the agreements for such international power transactions

10.3 The ICT Sector

The new Ministry of Information Technology and Communication is responsible for

developing and implementing the Government information and communication
technology policy. The Uganda Communication Commission is the regulator and
provides licenses to the service providers within the sector. It gave the first operations
license to Celtel, the second to MTN and the third to Uganda telecom. It also provides
licenses to computer dealers and their agents. This Sector employs mainly
telecommunications, electrical engineers and ICT specialists.

10.3.1 The Uganda Communications Commission (UCC)

The UCC was established in 1997 as an independent regulator in the communications

sector. It is mandated to issue operational licenses to different communication service
providers and operators. These include;
 Courier services
 Internet access services
 Broadcasting frequencies
 Mobile trunked radio services
 Radio communication services
 Public communication services
 Paging services
 Inmarsat M (satellite services)
 Equipment vending services and installation

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10.4 The Manufacturing Sector

The Ministry of Tourism Trade and Industry provides the policy guidelines and licenses
for the development of industries. It monitors the quality of the products in an industry
through the Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS), which also has upcountry
offices. The UNBS develops and monitors standards.

The main manufacturers have a body called the Uganda Manufacturers Association
(UMA) that brings them together. It owns the Lugogo show grounds and several shows
exhibiting a wide range of products locally and internationally are displayed. The main
industries are food and drink processing which include dairy, meat, mineral processing,
metal work, automotive repair, timber and wood processing. They employ mainly
mechanical, electrical and chemical engineers. The Uganda Small Scale Industries
Association USSIA brings together the smaller industries and enterprises. This Sector
mainly employs mechanical, electrical and chemical engineers.

10.4.1 The Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS)

Uganda National Bureau of Standards (UNBS) is a statutory organization established by

an Act of Parliament of June 1983 and became operational in 1989. UNBS is mandated
to develop and promote standardisation, quality assurance, laboratory testing and
metrology.
The role of UNBS includes the following;
 Formulation and promotion of the use of standards;
 Enforcing standards in protection of the public health and safety
and the environment against dangerous, counterfeit and substandard products;
 Ensuring fairness in trade and precision in industry through
reliable measurement systems ;
 Strengthening Uganda‟s economy by enhancing competitiveness
of local industries and promotion of quality exports through standardisation,
quality assurance, testing and metrology.
In pursuit of its mandate, UNBS carries out the activities below;
 Standards development;
 Assisting industrialists/manufacturers and producers to improve
on the quality of their products and services;
 Providing efficient information services on all matters related
to standards, quality assurance, metrology and testing ;
 Market surveillance to rid the market of dangerous, counterfeit
and substandard products;
 Verifying accuracy of weighing and measuring instruments used
by traders and consumers in commercial transactions and calibrating measuring
and testing equipment used in industry;
 Carrying out shipment inspection and conformity assessment for
exports, imports and tender supplies;
 Assisting the private sector, procurement agents, government
and the general public in conformity assessment of goods by testing , measuring
and inspection against standards or specifications;

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 Carrying out factory inspection to evaluate conformance with

standards; and
 Liaison with national, regional and international standardisation
and related bodies.

10.4.2 The Uganda Manufacturers Association (UMA)

The Uganda Manufacturers Association (UMA) is one of the leading organizations in

Uganda and the wider East African region representing the broad industrial and
commercial sectors of Uganda's economy and providing an important forum and voice
for the private sector. Since it was revived in 1988, UMA has championed the growth of
a strong industrial base in Uganda. The Association ensures that the views of its
members, as well as the Ugandan business community in general, are considered by
the Government in formulating policies and legislation affecting them. UMA has a
membership comprising of small, medium and large enterprises drawn from both the
private and public sector.

Objectives of the Uganda Manufacturers Association

 Promote, protect and co-ordinate the interests of industrialists in Uganda

 Act as a watchdog and an effective mouth piece for its members

 Initiate and facilitate discussions and exchange of information amongst members

 Advise Government on key policies affecting industry

Partnership with Government and Stakeholders

Structural adjustment of Uganda's economy continues to pose great challenges as well

as opportunities for manufacturers and indeed for all investors. It also acknowledged that
the only way forward for manufacturers is to accept the challenges and seize those
opportunities by strengthening their competitive position and expanding into regional
markets. In attempting to bring about meaningful contribution to Uganda's economic
development, UMA recognises the need to work in collaboration and in consultation with
the Government as well as other stakeholders. UMA has actively worked with
Government towards the reform and improvement of policies that affect the development
of the private sector. For example, the Association regularly contributes ideas and
recommendations for inclusion in the National budgets.

10.4.3 The Uganda Small Scale Industries Association (USSIA)

Micro and small-scale enterprises play a dominant role in rural districts of Uganda.
Despite a driving business spirit, the growth and competitiveness of these enterprises is
hampered by a lack of technical training and business advisory services. Donor-
supported advisory services cease once funding stops and most new enterprises
stagnate soon after. Entrepreneurship is inhibited by the tendency to presume that
growth and improvement in productivity requires increases in capital and investment.
The Uganda Small Scale Industry Association (USSIA), Northern Uganda
Manufacturers‟ Association (NUMA) and the Uganda Gatsby Trust (UGT) were eager to

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establish self-sustaining advisory services and promote a culture of innovation, better

use of existing resources and less dependence on cash inputs.

10.5 The Agriculture Sector

10.5.1 The National Agricultural Research Institute (NARO)

The National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO) is the apex body for guidance
and coordination of all agricultural research activities in the national agricultural research
system in Uganda. NARO is a Public Institution established by an act of Parliament,
which was enacted on 21st November 2005.

NARO is a body corporate with perpetual succession and a common seal.

NARO comprises of the council as its governing body, committees of the council as its
specialised organs, a secretariat for its day-to-day operations with the semi autonomous
public agricultural research institutes under its policy guidance.

The Objective of NARO is for the coordination and oversight of all aspects of agricultural
research in Uganda.

The functions of the National Agricultural Research Organisation are to:

a. Provide strategic direction for publicly funded agricultural research in

Uganda and act as a forum for agricultural researchers in Uganda;

b. Coordinate and oversee, in collaboration with the Uganda National

Council for Science and Technology and other lead agencies, the
development, consolidation and implementation of agricultural research
policy and national research strategies, plans and budgets relating to
publicly funded agricultural research;

c. Set national priorities and harmonize agricultural research activities of the

national agricultural research system, constituent institutions and public
agricultural research institutes, civil society organisation, private sectors
and farmer organizations and promote delivery of quality and efficient
agricultural research services;

d. Advise and coordinate formulation of policy and legislative proposals,

research standards, codes of ethics, conduct and practice; and guidelines
for delivery of agricultural research services;

e. Provide guidelines, guidance and ensure delivery of quality agricultural

research by agricultural research service providers;

f. In collaboration with other relevant agencies, provide policy guidance to

local governments on matters relating to agricultural research;

g. Carry out monitoring and evaluation of national agricultural research

programmes, projects and activities to ensure adherence to the set work
plans, standards and regulations;

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h. Mobilize funds for agricultural research and manage the agricultural

research trust fund including raising funds for research of national
strategic interest;

i. Coordinate and promote cooperation and collaboration between Uganda

and other countries, institutions, scientific or professional societies and
other agricultural research service providers, with regard to agricultural
research, development and technology transfer in the agricultural sector
so as to optimally utilise agricultural resources and improve production
capacity of such resources;

j. Provide leadership and advocacy for the promotion, protection and

development of agricultural research in Uganda;

k. Make grants or provide funds to any institution or person for the

advancement of agricultural research and development on both
competitive and non-competitive basis; and

l. Perform such other functions as are conferred on the organisation by this

Act or any other law for the purpose of promoting agricultural research
and development.

In carrying out the above functions, NARO is a forum for agricultural researchers in
Uganda. NARO is therefore mandated to convene a meeting at least once a year of
representatives of agricultural research service providers, farmers, private sector and
civil society and other stakeholders for the purpose of discussing issues relevant to
agricultural research and setting agricultural research priorities.

10.6 Uganda National Council for Science and Technology

Scientific advance and the resulting technological innovations are known to be the main
drivers for economic growth and transformation. Uganda‟s effort at achieving a higher
economic growth rate is increasingly embracing Science and Technology to achieve a
knowledge-based technology–led economy. To this end the government established the
UNCST in 1990 as a semi-autonomous agency with the responsibility of developing and
implementing strategies for integrating Science and Technology into the national
development process, providing advice to the government of Uganda on policy matters
necessary for advancing Science and Technology and, coordinating and guiding
research and development (R&D) in Uganda.

The vision of the UNCST is to be the center of excellence for the management and
integration of science and technology into the national development processes.

UNCST‟s mission is to provide effective and innovative leadership in the development,

promotion and application of Science and Technology (S&T) and its integration in
sustainable national development.

The UNCST works through specialized committees that include the agricultural
sciences, industrial sciences, engineering and technology, natural sciences, physical
sciences, health sciences, information sciences, social sciences and humanities. In

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addition there are standing committees such as the HIV / AIDS Research Committee
and the National Biosafety Committee that are set up by the Council to undertake
specialized work.

10.6.1 The Uganda Industrial Research Institute

Uganda Industrial Research Institute (UIRI) is a parastatal institution under the auspices
of the Ministry of Tourism Trade and Industry (MTTI).The mandate of UIRI is to engage
in activities that lead to rapid industrialization of Uganda by identifying appropriate and
affordable technologies that will enhance and add value to local products so they can be
processed for national, regional and international markets. This is done through focused
research and development and also through designing prototypes to help train and
develop enterprises.

The Mission of UIRI is;

 To improve capacity and competence of indigenous entrepreneurs in undertaking
viable industrial production processes and in their ability to produce high quality
marketable products through research training and technical know how.
 To provide demand driven scientific and industrial research and development and
also provide internationally competitive technical services that will lead to rapid
industrialisation for the benefit of the people of Uganda.

One of the Ugandan Government’s main economic policies is the export-led growth
strategy (ELGS). This foresees the active participation of the private sector in the steady
improvement of quality of Ugandan produce, with the mid to long-term goal of increasing
the quantities of exportable goods made in Uganda. UIRI is fully involved in this process,
and concentrates on measures to encourage production of value-added commodities.
Rather than be an exporter of raw materials, as has so far been the case, Uganda
should sell semi-finished or final products. This in turn will improve the income and
welfare of the country.
UIRI is integrated in the Strategic Exports Programme (SEP) and contributes to this by:
 Research into uses of natural resources
 Development of resource-uses and appropriate technologies
 Training and technical assistance to entrepreneurs and industries
 Encouraging small-scale income generation, improvements in production methods
and high quality of end products

UIRI expertise helps the country‟s long-term export prospects by countering specific
short-term problems:
 Lack of skills on the part of entrepreneurs

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 Limited processing of material (value addition)

 Lack of capacities in sub-sectors

UIRI is expanding and improving current industries and openings for income generation,
and is generating models that can be copied for other potential products and industries.
The aim is to standardise the means of production in an industry, with emphasis on
consistent quality from all producers. As the quantities of quality produce in a given
industry rise, the Ugandan producers will earn a reputation and be able to expand from
the home market to being international exporters.
 Research into uses of natural resources
 Development of resource-uses and appropriate technologies
 Training and technical assistance to entrepreneurs and industries
 Encouraging small-scale income generation, improvements in production methods
and high quality of end products

UIRI expertise helps the country‟s long-term export prospects by countering specific
short-term problems:
 Lack of skills on the part of entrepreneurs
 Limited processing of material (value addition)
 Lack of capacities in sub-sectors
UIRI is expanding and improving current industries and openings for income generation,
and is generating models that can be copied for other potential products and industries.
The aim is to standardise the means of production in an industry, with emphasis on
consistent quality from all producers. As the quantities of quality produce in a given
industry rise, the Ugandan producers will earn a reputation and be able to expand from
the home market to being international exporters.

10.7 The Different Roles of an Engineer

10.8 References

1. Paul H. Wright, Introduction to Engineering, John Wiley & Sons 2000 New York,
USA
2. Government Handbook, Magazines Africa, Kampala, Uganda
3. http://www.answers.com/topic/uganda-railways-corporation
4. http://www.caa.co.ug/regulatory.php
5. http://www.nhcc.co.ug/about.php
6. http://www.health.go.ug/ncps.htm#Environmental

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7. http://www.health.go.ug/activities.htm
8. http://www.unbs.org/main.php?menuid=1
9. http://www.enteruganda.com/uma/about_uma.php
10. http://www.unido.org/en/doc/27802
11. http://www.uiri.org/
12. http://www.naro.go.ug/
13. http://www.nwsc.co.ug
14. http://www.uncst.go.ug

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11 APPROPRIATE TECHNOLOGY

11.1 Renewable Energy Technology

Economic growth, Industrialization and the growing populations of the developing

countries demand a huge growth in energy: while global environmental problems call for
cuts in fossil fuel use. At present, some mature renewable energy technologies (RETs)
present a viable option for meeting the growing energy demand, especially for providing
energy services in remote and rural areas. In Asia, technologies in use include: wind
generators, small hydro turbines, bagasse-based cogeneration and biomass gasifiers.

However, before full commercialization of renewables can be achieved, there‟s need for
technological improvements, appropriate financial mechanisms, enhancement of
institutional/research capacity, and public awareness. Governments have a strong role
to play in promoting renewable energy, by way of introducing and implementing
appropriate policies.

Objectives of the RETs programme in Asia

 To conduct technical research in adapting certain RETs to local conditions where
the science and technology is weak
 To innovate and implement mechanisms for disseminating RETs in the selected
countries
 To train entrepreneurs and technical personnel with a view to disseminate RETs
 To disseminate the results of the programme among policy makers

11.1.1 Activities and achievements

Activities

Activities carried out include: development of solar driers, solar-biomass hybrid driers,
PV power supply systems, Improved PV accessories and appliances, improved
briquetting systems, briquette stoves and gasifiers. These were designed and adapted to
local conditions and requirements.
 Demonstration systems were installed to create awareness on the technical and
financial viability of renewable energy systems
 Construction, operation and maintenance manuals of the developed devices
were prepared
 Enhancement of research capacity through inter-institutional collaboration,
tailored research/study programmes, training and fellowships
 Results of the adaptive research and demonstration were presented in journals,
magazines, conferences and seminars

Achievements

Photovoltaics
 A database on PV systems and accessories available in the participating
countries has been compiled in the form of technology fact sheets (TFS)
 Adaptive research and capacity enhancement of PV technicians and
entrepreneurs has led to the development of accessories locally

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 Local production of accessories facilitated the maintenance, repair and

replacement of PV appliances by local technicians
 PV micro-utility systems have been developed and demonstrated on a fee-for-
service basis
 Demonstration of solar systems and battery charging stations

Solar drying

 Improved types/designs of driers were developed to cater for requirements of

various groups of end-users and products from fish to fruit drying
 Training and capacity enhancement on fabrication, operation and maintenance of
driers has been provided for operators, technicians, entrepreneurs and users
 Evaluation procedure for solar driers

Briquetting

 Improved heated-die screw-press briquetting systems have been developed

 A stand-alone briquetting system, which could run in locations with no access to
the electric grid has been developed in Bangladesh
 Transfer of heated-die screw-press briquetting technology to different areas
 Many briquette stoves have been developed to suit domestic, institutional and
commercial use
 Training on fabrication, operation and maintenance of briquetting machines

11.1.2 Rural Electrification in Bangladesh

The shortage of power in Bangladesh is revealed by the fact that only 15% of the
population is served by the power generation authorities. Due to improved institutional
and financial support today, the country has now explored the option of renewable
energy sources.

11.1.3 Photovoltaics System

The system has a very simple configuration; sunlight is converted into electrical energy
by PV modules and stored into batteries. The electrical energy is later used to run
appliances. A PV system has four components: PV module to convert sunlight into
electrical energy, battery to store and deliver electrical energy in usable form, charge
controller to regulate level of charging and discharging to and from the battery, and
appliances e.g. lamps, TV, any dc motor driven device, computers etc.

Benefits

 It converts sunlight, the most abundant renewable source of energy

 It is a stand-alone independent system
 It can easily be carried to remote places
 No monthly fuel bill
 Users can become owners of the system
 Almost maintenance free

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 Environmentally friendly

Applications

 To light houses, offices and businesses

 To operate radio, cassette, TV
 To operate computer and telecommunication equipment
 To lift water for irrigation and other applications
 To operate any dc driven device and after inverting, any ac motor driven device

Concerning rural electrification using PV technology, two approaches can be adopted; (i)
battery charging facility by central charging stations, (ii) standalone PV systems installed
at the homes of the customers. Customers pay a monthly fee for the service depending
on the capacity of the system.

Obstacles of expansion using PV technology in rural areas

The major obstacles of rapid expansion of PV systems are as follows;

I. the high cost of the system due to high price of the PV module in the international
market and imposition of government taxes
II. Lack of awareness about the PV technology requires long time, effort and money
for familiarizing the PV technology to the rural areas. Private sector and NGOs
may find it difficult to cover the initial cost of dissemination of the technology
III. an alternative to reach large numbers of rural households could be development
of an easy financing system so that the buyers can pay the system price over a
long period of time.

11.1.4 Wind Energy Exploration

Wind energy usually experiences problems of little wind to run turbines. This rules out
the possibility of using only wind turbines to sustain a particular load. The installation of
hybrid systems (wind/PV/diesel) may be a technologically viable option.

11.1.5 A biomass-fired gasifier stove (IGS-2) for institutional cooking

Gasifier stoves seem to be promising for community type cooking as these can be
operated continuously if necessary, and they produce very little or no smoke. An
improved briquette-fired gasifier stove suitable for institutional kitchens and traditional
cottage industries has been designed and developed at AIT, it can be fired by sized
biomass briquettes or wood.

Several institutional stoves were designed, fabricated and tested in Asia to evaluate their
performances. While designing, main focus was on utilization of briquettes as fuel and to
get clean combustion. Testing was carried out to determine overall efficiency using water
boiling test and to observe general operational feature e.g. smoking, ease of start-up,
etc.

Components of the IGS

The stove comprises:

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 a fuel chamber made of mild steel sheets,

 a reaction chamber with an outside wall made of mild steel sheet and inner wall
made of bricks cemented together
 primary air inlet
 combustion chamber whose inner surface is insulated with a layer of refractory
cement 2.5cm thick

Wood chips, twigs and rice husk briquettes could be used as fuel in the stove. These are
sized by cutting them into small pieces. The stove may be started after loading the fuel
chamber; the water seal should be filled with water to arrest any gas leakage through the
lid. It usually takes 6-8 minutes for start up after the fuel is ignited. The butterfly valve at
the primary air inlet should be kept fully open during start-up. The stove can be loaded
while operating and can be run continuously for 24 hours a day if needed.

11.1.6 Biogas and Liquid Biofuels

Biomass residues can be converted into various non-solid fuel forms, these fuels are
referred to as biogas liquid biofuels. The conversion helps to improve quality, specific
energy, transportability etc. In Europe and United States, as well as in several
developing countries, there is a move towards cultivating energy crops specifically for
the production of biomass as a fuel.

11.1.7 Biogas

Biogas is produced by anaerobic digestion; matter is broken down by microbiological

activity in the presence of air. This phenomenon occurs naturally at the bottom of ponds
and marshes and gives rise to marsh gas or methane which is combustible. There are
two ways of obtaining biogas:
 fermentation of human and/or animal waste in specially designed digesters
 capturing methane from municipal waste land fill sites

The digestion of animal and human waste yields several benefits:

 production of methane for use as a fuel
 waste is reduced to slurry which has a high nutrient content which makes an
ideal fertilizer
 during the digestion process bacteria in the manure are killed, which is a great
benefit to environmental health

Two popular simple designs of digester have been developed; the Chinese fixed dome
digester and the Indian floating cover biogas digester, they differ in the gas collection
method but the digestion is the same. Both have been designed for use with animal
waste or dung. The table below shows some typical applications for 1m3 of biogas

Application 1m3 biogas equivalent

Lighting Equal to 60-100 watt bulb for 6 hours

Cooking Can cook 3 meals for a family of 5-6

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Fuel replacement 0.7kg of petrol

Shaft power can run a one horse power motor for two
hours

Electricity generation can generate 1.25 KWh of electricity

Table 1. Some biogas equivalents (adapted from Kristoferson 1991)

11.1.8 Biomass gasification

Gasification is the process by which solid biomass materials are broken down using heat
to produce a combustible gas, commonly known as producer gas. Common feedstocks
for combustion include wood, charcoal, rice husks and coconut shells.

The gas has several applications. It can be used directly in a burner to provide process
heat or it can be used in internal combustion engines, but requires cleaning and cooling
for this application. Plant ratings for small scale power output range from several
kilowatts up to several hundred kilowatts and for heat production the output can be
several megawatts.

The small scale gasifier technology is reasonably simple and cheap and can be
manufactured locally, although care should be taken to ensure safety standards are
maintained as carbon monoxide, which is produced during combustion, is a toxic gas.

11.1.9 Liquid Biofuels

Liquid biofuels are fuels derived from biomass processed to produce a combustible
liquid fuel. There are two main categories:
 alcohol fuels- ethanol and methanol
 vegetable oils- derived from plant seeds such as sunflower, sesame, linseed and
oilseed rape

Ethanol is the most widely used liquid biofuel. It is an alcohol fermented from sugars,
starches or from cellulosic biomass. It is used as a renewable energy fuel as well as for
manufacture of cosmetics, pharmaceuticals and production of alcoholic beverages. It
can be substituted for gasoline in passenger cars and light vehicles.

Methanol is produced by a process of chemical conversion. It can be produced from any

biomass with moisture content of less than 60%; potential feedstocks include forests and
agricultural residues, wood and various energy crops. It can be blended with gasoline to
improve the octane rating of the fuel. Both ethanol and methanol are often preferred
fuels for racing cars.

Vegetable oils can be extracted from biomass and used as fuel. The method of
extraction is the same as that for edible oils from plants. There are two well established
technologies for oil extraction;

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 the simple screw press for physical extraction, the press can be motorized or
hand operated
 Solvent extraction, a chemical process which requires large, sophisticated
equipment. It is, however, more efficient

The oil can be used for lighting, heating and as fuel in internal combustion engines.

However, with the forms of energy so far discussed, there are certain concerns that
should be addressed before they are explored;
 Environmental concern for biomass, there is the issue of land degradation and
deforestation. This can be overcome by proper management of sustainable
energy crops

11.1.10 References

1. Prof. S.C. Bhattacharya, Renewable Energy world, 2003, Asia

2. Dewan A.H Alamgir Experience of application of Renewable Energy
Technologies for Rural Electrification in Bangladesh
3. Karekezi, S. and Ranja, T., Renewable Energy Technologies in Africa.
AFREPEN, 1997
4. Johansen, T.B. et al, Renewable Energy sources for Fuels and Electricity, Island
Press, 1993, Washington D.C.
5. Stassen, H.E., Small-scale biomass gasifiers for heat and power: a global review.
World Bank technical paper no. 296, Energy series 1995
6. Ravindranath, N.H. and Hall, D.O., Biomass, Energy and the Environment: A
developing Country Perspective from India. Oxford University Press, 1995
7. Keyun, Deng, State of the art of the utilization of agricultural residues and other
biomass and identification of priority projects in China in Agricultural Biomass for
Sustainable Rural Development, ESCAP, 1993, Bangkok
8. Kammen, D.M.,1999
9. Reddy Amulya K.N>, Robert H. Williams, and Thomas B. Johansson, Energy
After Rio: Prospects and Challenges, UNDP, 1997

11.2 Water Technology

11.2.1 Rainwater harvesting

A sufficient, clean drinking water supply is essential to life. Millions of people around the
world still do not have access to safe water. There are many reasons for this but
generally, the poor of the world cannot afford the capital intensive and technically
complex traditional water supply systems which are widely promoted by governments
and agencies throughout the world. Rainwater harvesting (RWH) is an option that has
been adopted in many areas of the world where conventional water supply systems
have failed to meet the people‟s needs.

Traditionally, in Uganda and Sri Lanka, for example, rainwater is collected from trees,
using banana leaves or stems as temporary gutters; up to 200 litres may be collected

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from a large tree in a single storm. RWH has come to mean the control or utilization of
rainwater close to the point rain reaches the earth. It is effectively divided into;
 Domestic RWH
 RWH for agriculture, erosion control, flood control and aquifer replenishment

There is a complex set of inter related circumstances that have to be considered when
choosing the appropriate water source. These include cost, climate, hydrology, social
and political elements, as well as technology. RWH is rarely considered by planners and
engineers often due to lack of information- both technical and otherwise. RWH is a
technology that is flexible and adaptable to a very wide variety of conditions, being used
in the richest and poorest societies, and in the wettest and driest regions of the world.

11.2.2 Components of a domestic RWH system

The typical DRWH system used in developing countries will usually comprise a
collection surface (a clean roof or ground area), a storage tank, and guttering to
transport the water from the roof to the storage tank. Other peripheral equipment is
sometimes incorporated, e.g. first flush systems to divert the dirty water which contains
roof debris after prolonged dry periods; filtration equipment and settling chambers to
remove debris and contaminants before water enters the storage tank or cistern; hand
pumps for water extraction; water level indicators, etc.

11.2.3 Typical domestic RWH systems

Storage tanks and cisterns

The water storage tank usually represents the biggest capital investment element of a
DRWH system. It therefore requires careful design- to provide optimal storage capacity
while keeping the cost as low as possible. For storing large quantities of water, the
system will usually require a tank or a cistern. The cistern for this purpose is a below-
ground storage vessel and the tank is an above- ground storage vessel. Typically the
tanks/cisterns for domestic systems have maximum capacity of 20-30m3. The choice of
the system depends on a number of technical and economic considerations listed below;
 Space availability
 Options available locally
 Local traditions for water storage
 Cost of purchasing new tank, materials and labor
 Materials and skills available locally
 Ground conditions
 Whether the system will provide total or partial water supply

Collection surfaces

For DRWH the most common surface for collection is the roof of the dwelling, others can
be, courtyards, threshing areas, paved walking areas, plastic sheeting, trees, etc. in
some cases, as in Gibraltar, large rock surfaces are used to collect water which is then
stored in large tanks at the base of the rock. The rapid move towards the use of
corrugated iron sheets in many developing countries favors the promotion of RWH.

Guttering

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Guttering is used to transport rainwater from the roof to the storage vessel. Guttering
can be done using factory made PVC type to home made guttering using bamboo or
folded metal sheet. Guttering is usually fixed to the building just below the roof and
catches the water as it falls from the roof.

First flush systems

Debris, dirt, dust and droppings will collect on the roof of a building or other collection
area. This if allowed into the tank will contaminate the water and the quality will be
reduced. Diversion of the “first flush” can be a manually operated arrangement whereby
the inlet pipe is moved away from the tank inlet and replaced when the first flush has
been diverted. Other systems use tipping gutters to achieve this, the most common
system uses a bucket which receives the first flush and the weight of this water off-
balances a tipping gutter which then diverts the water back into the tank. The bucket
then empties slowly through a small-bore pipe and automatically resets. Another system
relies on a floating ball that forms a seal once sufficient water has been diverted.

Filtration systems and settling tanks

There are a wide variety of systems available for treating water before, during and after
storage. A German company, WISY, has developed an ingenious filter which fits into a
vertical down pipe and acts as both filter and first flush system. The simple trash rack
has been used in some systems but it has a number of associated problems, it removes
only large debris and it can easily become clogged and requires regular cleaning. The
sand-charcoal-stone filter is often used for filtering rainwater entering a tank. However
this filter will overflow if the inflow exceeds the rate at which the water can percolate
through the sand.

Post storage filtration includes systems such as the up flow sand filter or twin
compartment candle filters commonly found in LDCs.

11.2.4 Sizing the system

The main design carried out is to size the water tank correctly to give adequate storage
capacity. The storage requirement will be determined by a number of inter-related
factors;
 Local rainfall data and weather patterns
 Size of roof or other collection area
 Runoff coefficient (this varies between 0.5 and 0.9 depending on roof material
and slope)
 User numbers and consumption rates

Three different methods may be used for sizing RWH system components
1. demand side approach
This is used to calculate the largest storage requirement based on the
consumption rates and occupancy of the building. It assumes sufficient
rainfall and catchment area and
2. supply side approach

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In low rainfall areas where the rainfall is of uneven distribution, more care has
to be taken when sizing the tank. There may be an excess during some
months and a deficit in others. Storage capacity should be carefully analyzed
to avoid unnecessary expense.
3. computer model

11.2.5 User behavior patterns with domestic Rainwater Harvesting

In some parts of the world, the rainwater harvested is used merely to capture enough
water during a storm to save a trip or two to the main water source. In arid areas of the
world, systems have sufficient collection surface area and storage capacity to provide
enough water to meet the full demands of the user. There are many variables that
determine the patterns of usage e.g.
 rainfall quantity (mm/year)
 rainfall pattern, this will determine the feasibility of a RWHS
 collection surface area (m2)
 available storage capacity (m3)
 daily consumption rate (lpcd)
 alternative water sources
 cost
 water management strategy

11.2.6 Rainwater quality and health

Rainwater is often used for drinking and cooking, so it is vital that the highest possible
standards are met. Generally the chemical quality of rainwater will fall within the WHO
guidelines and rarely presents problems. Two issues are mainly considered;
 bacteriological quality- the catchment surface should always be kept clean
 the need to prevent insect vectors from breeding inside the tank- in areas with
malaria, providing water tanks without any care for preventing insect breeding
can cause more problems than it solves. Mosquito proof screens should be fitted
to all openings

11.2.7 Human powered water- lifters

The choice of water lifters available is large and varied; they can be broken down into
the following categories;
 groundwater- open well, shallow-well and deep- well pumps
 surface water

The simplest and cheapest method of lifting groundwater is by use of a rope and bucket
in a wide shallow well. These can operate up to a depth of 100m. It may not be possible
to construct a well if the water table is too deep or if the foundations are very hard (rock)
or very soft (e.g. fine running sands).

11.2.8 Hydraulic ram pumps

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A hydram is an automatic pumping device which utilizes a small fall of water to lift a
fraction of the supply flow to a much greater height, i.e. it uses a larger flow of water
falling through a small head to lift a small flow of water through a higher head.

11.2.9 References

1. John Gould and Erik Nissen- Peterson, Rainwater catchment systems for
Domestic supply, IT Publishers Ltd, 1999
2. Arnold Pacey and Adrian Cullis, Rainwater Harvesting, IT Publications
3. Lee, Michael D. and Visscher, Jan Teun, Water Harvesting- A Guide for planners
and project managers, IRC international Water and Sanitation Center, 1992
4. W.K. Kennedy and T.A Rolgers, Human and Animal Powered Water-lifting
Devices, ITDG Publishing, 1985
5. Peter Fraenkel, Water Pumping Devices- A handbook for users and choosers,
ITDG Publishing, 1986

11.3 Housing Technology

Access to housing and secure accommodation is an integral part of government‟s

commitment to reduce poverty and improve the quality of people‟s lives. In South Africa,
the cabinet approved a comprehensive housing plan for the development of integrated
sustainable human settlements in September 2004. It provides for comprehensive
oversight by government in promoting the residential property market. This includes the
development of low-cost housing, medium- density accommodation and rentals housing.
The plan also aims at changing spatial settlement patterns. The government gives
housing subsidies to the poor.

Legislation policy
 rental housing act 1999
 home loan and mortgage disclosure act, 2000
 housing consumer protection measures act, 1998
 prevention of illegal eviction and unlawful occupation of land act, 1998

Capacity building

One of the major constraints in housing delivery is the lack of capacity, which entails an
efficient workforce and the installation of appropriate technology, equipment and
systems for monitoring, evaluation and reporting purposes. A strategy and guidelines for
housing capacity building, as well as guidelines for provincial housing capacity business
plans were developed.

National housing education and training programme

The programme has undergone major transformation and improvement since its
inception in 1998. Formal education and training in housing is carried out at the
Professional Housing Institute. A Housing Standard Generation Body was established, it

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commits itself to the generation of standards and qualifications to ensure quality

education and training Programmes in the sector.

11.3.1 Housing technology in south Asia

Cost-effective housing technology for rehabilitation of tsunami affected areas

In the aftermath of the 2004 tsunami, Practical Action has been working with partners in
Sri Lanka to develop cheap but high-quality housing that can be built quicker than
conventional housing. This housing construction is the result of a technology that has
been developed by architect Laurie Baker, and has been tested and proven during the
past 40 years in India. It was tested in Sri Lanka during 2004, and proved to be
appropriate to the conditions in rural Sri Lanka. Practical Action trained a team of
masons on the job, both on theoretical and practical aspects.

11.3.2 Technology features

Brick wall with 'rat-trap bond'

 Strength is equal to standard 9" (229mm) brick wall, but consumes 20% less
bricks.

 The air medium that is created by the bond helps maintaining a good thermal
comfort inside the building.

 As the construction is appealing to the eye from both internally & externally,
plastering is not necessary.

 100 square feet (9.3 sq m) of this wall will cost only rs. 6454/- as against the
traditional 9" wall that costs rs. 8759/-.
The overall saving on cost of this wall compared to the traditional 9" wall is about 26%.

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11.3.3 Brick making Co-operatives

Brick making is an important craft in many rural and peri-urban areas, but the income it
provides can be a very marginal one.

Practical Action helps brickmakers to form co-operatives which can

provide employment for men and women, as well as supplying locally
produced bricks for use in local building projects. They can provide
technical advice, helping the brick makers to experiment with, for
example, new types of kiln, alternative fuels for the kilns, and different
ways of using the kiln to get the most efficient and productive process.

It can also advise and train co-operative members on how to organise

their enterprise, get legally registered, get access to credit, and improve
brick quality to improve their access to markets. For instance, in Sudan, Practical Action
together with the brickmakers of the Shambob Co-operative researched new techniques
which raised both the quality and the quantity of their brick production, doubling their
incomes in two years. These techniques included fuelling their kilns with organic
residues such as cow dung and bagasse (a waste product of the local sugar industry)
instead of wood; improving clay preparation and moulding and replacing traditional
clamps with a permanent, more efficient Scotch Kiln.

In Zimbabwe more than 60 brick production sites have spontaneously taken up a more
fuel-efficient technology adapted by Practical Action following a number of
demonstration projects. The technology uses coal instead of wood to fire traditional
clamps, and considerably lowers the cost of production by reducing an average fuel
consumption of one tonne of wood per 1000 bricks to just 150kg of coal.

11.3.4 Enabling housing standards

Poor women and men can use appropriate building technologies both as a business to
generate income, and as a source of affordable shelter materials. But Practical Action
found that in some countries, the adoption of these technologies by local communities
was being held back because the building laws and housing standards did not recognize
these as legal houses built with affordable materials.

In Kenya, Practical Action was involved with other campaigners in a ten-year struggle to
revise inappropriate housing standards which were a legacy from the period of British
colonial rule - and reflected British suburban building standards. In 1996 the campaign
was finally successful, and a new building code appropriate to low income settlements
was accepted by the national parliament. On the ground, however, things were slow to
change - local authorities, not the national government, were responsible for

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implementing the change, and many did not even know of the new code, while others
had little idea how to use it.

Practical Action, backed by the UK government‟s Department for International

Development (DFID) embarked on a two-year project in Nakuru, a city of 350,000
people, to demonstrate how the new code could be used to improve the shelter of poor
people. The project involved organising and training a group of artisans to produce
stabilised soil blocks for house construction. But beyond that, Practical Action worked to
bring together all the local players to ensure that houses built with SSBs would be easy
to plan, design and build - and above all, be accepted by the local authority.

At the same time, Practical Action researched the process of revising national housing
standards in both Kenya and Zimbabwe, to see for both what lessons could be learned
from the history of revision, and to see what different stakeholders - from professional
architects to poor people - wanted from such a process.

Practical Action also conducted desk research to find out how many developing
countries suffered the same problems as Kenya - that of a legacy of either inappropriate
(colonial) or non-existent housing standards. The research revealed that this is a
widespread problem in the developing world, and Practical Action has become a leading
player in looking at reforming institutional structures to benefit poor people‟s Shelter
position.
A preliminary project considering the worldwide situation of relaxation and reform of
building standards and regulations and how this was contributing towards development
of settlements was completed last year. This study also included more in-depth analysis
of the standards reform processes being undertaken in Kenya and Zimbabwe. The
project, together with discussion of associated issues of standards and regulation
reform, is presented in the book Double Standards, Single Purpose

11.3.5 References

1. Harrison, P. et al. eds., Confronting management: Housing and Urban

Development in a Democratizing Society, University of Cape Town Press,
2003, Cape Town
2. Keegan, T.J., Facing the Storm: Portraits of Black lives in Rural South
Africa, 1988, cape Town
3. Rumit Mehta and Larry Bridwell, Innovative Construction technology for
affordable mass housing in Tanzania, East Africa
4. Construction Management & Economics, 2005, vol. 23, issue 1, pages
69-79

11.4 Agriculture Technology

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11.4.1 The role of modern science and technologies in agriculture for poverty
alleviation

In Africa particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, agriculture remains the largest single sector
employing the bulk of the population. In most of these countries, agriculture accounts for
35% of the Gross Domestic Product (GDP), employs about 62% of the population,
represents about 60% of export earnings, contributes to food security and supplies raw
materials to domestic industries.

About 70% of poor and food-insecure people reside in rural areas. Productivity gains are
essential not only for economic growth, but also for maintaining adequate food supplies
for the growing world population. Therefore, accelerated public investments are needed
to facilitate agricultural and rural growth; high yielding varieties resistant to biotic and
abiotic stress factors, and environmentally friendly production technology. There is also
need to facilitate strong extension services, dissemination of information, improved
infrastructure and markets, primary education, healthcare, and adequate nutrition.

11.4.2 Need for application of new technologies

About 800 million people in the world are food insecure and 160 million per-school
children suffer from malnutrition. Food insecurity and malnutrition result in serious public
health problems and a lost human potential in developing countries. Food security is a
critical concern in South Asia, against the current background of rapid population growth.
The resource poor small-scale farmers, who contribute substantially to food production
in this region, need to be empowered with such appropriate technologies to enhance
sustainable agricultural productivity and production.

International Crops research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) was
established in 1972.Its mandate crops are sorghum, pearl millet, chickpea, pigeon pea,
and groundnut; these six crops are vital to life for the ever-increasing populations of the
SAT. ICRISAT‟s mission is to conduct research which can lead to enhanced sustainable
production of these crops and to improved management of the limited natural resources
of the SAT.

11.4.3 Conventional technologies for sustaining food production

Farmer innovated agro-technologies

 soil fertility management by recycling organic waste

 green manuring
 crop rotations
 water shed management
 pest control
Studies found that farmers require more information on relationships between pests and
predators, plant growth and soil moisture, and crop and livestock. Social learning
contributes significantly to sustainable agriculture as well as to innovation and adoption
of new ideas. ICRISAT research has come up with the following results;
 Improved varieties with high yields and resistance to insect pests, diseases, and
drought.

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 Raising soil fertility and developing community-scale water sheds; through crop
diversification to restore fertility.
 Integrated pest management; several insect resistant varieties have been
developed and released for cultivation by the farmers
 Information and communication technology; a novel method of sharing
information, knowledge and skills with poor, inaccessible communities is being
piloted by ICRISAT in collaboration with the commonwealth of learning and other
national partners

11.4.4 Harnessing Biotechnology to Enhance Food Security

Conventional approaches to germplasm enhancement and crop breeding have had

dramatic impacts on food productivity, particularly in systems with high inputs of fertilizer,
water and pesticides. Modern tools of biotechnology will provide some of the impetus
needed to achieve major breakthroughs in agriculture in the future. Some of the modern
techniques include;
 Wide hybridization to access pest resistance and quality traits from the wild
relatives of crops
 Marker assisted selection to accelerate the introgression of desired genes into
high yielding locally adapted cultivars
 Introgression of exotic genes from unrelated organisms to increase resistance to
pests, drought, quality traits, nitrogen fixation, etc.

11.4.5 Food processing and industrial uses

Other examples of appropriate technology include alternative uses of crops through

value addition, novel food products and industrial uses of crops. Lack of proper
processing and preservation technologies forces farmers to sell their produce in raw
form. Many farmers cannot store their food grains and are forced to sell them
immediately after the harvest when prices are low. A number of options have been
developed for product processing that increase both longevity and nutrition.

Development of appropriate technologies will require continuous investment in research,

especially in publicly funded institutions.

11.4.6 Smallholder irrigated agriculture

Many countries in Sub- Sahara Africa have potential land and water resources to
increase irrigated agriculture. Irrigation with higher yields can allow countries to grow
more of their food and be less dependent on imports especially in view of the common
occurrence of droughts in the region. One way for countries to increase agricultural
production is to encourage and increase options and opportunities for smallholders to
take up irrigation. In Zimbabwe for example, smallholders provide their own labor and
manage the systems making good use of agricultural extension services. An on-going
study in villages around Kumasi in Ghana shows that up to 80% of farmers are
practicing dry-season irrigation in order to provide high value vegetable crops. Informal
dry-season irrigation has developed as a widespread income-generating activity without
any encouragement from NGOs or government. However, government intervention
could be beneficial to local irrigators.

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11.4.7 Informal irrigation in Zambia

Informal irrigation in Zambia is generally set up spontaneously and managed by farmers

without the use of intensive capital. These systems are found near waterlogged valley
areas (called dambos) where cultivation is based either based on lift irrigation along
stream bank cultivation areas or on ridge and mound cultivation systems above high
water tables. Crops include tomato, cabbage, rape and onion.

Traditionally the farmers have used a very laborious bucket-carrying method to irrigate
their dambo plots. A recent FAO/ IPTRID mission recommended;
 The availability of low-cost pumps would increase the potential of irrigable land
near to water sources
 The private sector should become involved in providing suitable equipment
 In order to improve food security, the high cost of irrigation equipment in Africa
needs to be reduced to the levels in Asian countries

The Special Programme for Food Security identified the treadle pump as an appropriate
low-cost irrigation technology of smallholder farmers in Zambia. It has two cylinders to
increase the discharge, also it is efficient to use since the operator stands on the pump
and makes full use of his own body weight. Local modifications have been made to the
pumps and a manufacturing base has been established that includes a countrywide
network of 17 stockists

11.4.8 Groundwater development.

In sandy dambos, the shallow wells dug for irrigation tend to collapse. A vibro-bailer
technique has been developed for the installation of tube well technologies (previously
used in Ghana).

Management

Half the schemes, of 12,000 ha and serving 1500 smallholders, are managed by the
farmers themselves, but the government also manages schemes either directly (32%) or
jointly the farmers (18%). Most schemes (70%) use surface irrigation, but some 30% are
utilizing sprinkler technologies.

Socio-economic impacts

Main impacts have been;

 Increases in crop yields
 New crops cultivated
 Substantial increase in income
 Improved food security in the area
 Improved employment opportunities reducing urban migration
 Development of farmers entrepreneurial skills
 Acquisition of assets
 Saving to government of relief payments and contribution to national
development

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Lessons learnt about successful scheme are;

 Farmers should be fully involved in the planning and construction
 Farmer managed schemes do well due to sense of self-ownership
 Efficient technology saves on labor and energy costs
 Marketing skills are important in order to identify lucrative opportunities

11.4.9 Constraints to sustainable agricultural production in sub-Saharan Africa

9 political conflicts; political turmoil in SSA over the past two decades as a result of
bad governance has provided the ground for both the formulation of ineffective
agricultural programmes and strategies and the failure to implement good
programmes
10 Government policies; adverse planning and policy setting is another hurdle
constraining sustainable food production. Very few countries formulate their
development plans and policy objectives based on a rational diagnosis of the
diverse variables affecting food production
11 Degradation of the regions natural resource base; only 56% of Africa‟s land is
suitable for agricultural activities. Nonetheless, a major portion of the continent‟s
521 million hectares arable land is practically unusable owing to pest infestations,
such as those of tsetse flies
12 Natural calamities; the degradation of the region‟s resources is also partly caused
by inhospitable climatic conditions and natural calamities . in recent years the
climate has been very unpredictable
13 Deforestation; the depletion of the region‟s soil and water resources has been
caused by the appalling deforestation. The rate of deforestation in Africa is believed
to be about 4 million hectares per year
14 Shifting cultivation; this involves gradual movement of communities onto new
land- this is rare in Africa. Bush fallow cultivation is mainly practiced and the land is
not given enough rest to help restore the soil fertility.
15 Insufficient mechanization; Africa is the world‟s least mechanized region.
According to hunger project (1990) 1% of farm power is mechanized, 10% comes
from animals and 89% is human power, farm sizes are bound to be small due to
reliance on human power mainly
16 Rural infrastructure; the rural infrastructure is seriously deficient especially as
regards transportation. In SSA, a good percentage of farmers headload their
produce from the farm site to their villages and may require walking distances
varying from 3-10 miles to periodic markets to sell their produce. Storage structures
are poor and processing facilities are obsolete. Packaging and handling services
are wasteful and time consuming. Marketing also leaves a lot to be desired
17 inadequate support for agriculture research; many poor countries which depend
mostly on agriculture grossly under invest in agricultural research
18 uncoordinated and ineffective linkage between research and technology
users; this is due to a number of factors which include;
 lack of transparent, agreed upon research policy
 inappropriate linkage strategies and management
 donor driven development strategy

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11.4.10 References

1. Hunger project, Tools of trade: Do farmers have the right ones?,

African Farmer, 1990
2. Spencer, D.S.C., Infrastructure and Technological constraints to
agricultural development in the humid tropics of Africa, Africa
Economic Review, African Development Bank, 1996, Abidjan,
Cote D‟ Ivoire
3. Stifel, L.D. Transforming Nigerian Agriculture: The role of
research: IITA, 1978, Ibadan, Nigeria
4. Taylor, A.; G. Boukambou, M. Dahniya, B. Ouayogode, R. Ayling,
M. A. Noor and M. Toure., Strengthening National Agricultural
Research Systems in the Humid and Sub-humid zones of West
and Central Africa; A framework for Action, World Bank technical
paper No. 318, 199, Washington, D.C

11.5 Technical Brief on Labour Based Technology

11.5.1 Introduction

Infrastructure development is a main area for resource allocation in many countries. It is

estimated that up to 60% of a developing country's investments go to infrastructure
development. Infrastructure development can contribute to substantial employment
creation through labour based execution of works. Both, construction and rehabilitation
activities can provide immediate employment opportunities while maintenance activities
would provide additional, more sustainable, employment opportunities. An adoption of a
local resource based strategy, which not only seeks to optimize the labour component of
infrastructure works but also emphasizes the use of other local resources, have an
additional employment impact as a result of the local supply industry providing raw
materials and tools. An indirect employment effect results from the multiplier effect as a
result of increased local income and spending. An increase in local expenditures will
boost the local economy while an increase in local income could result in further
stimulation of small and medium enterprises if the extra earnings are invested
productively.

What is Labour Based Technology?

The concept of Sustainable Infrastructure Development is partially based on the

adoption of labour based technology. Under the local circumstances prevailing in many
developing countries and the types of work involved at local level, this technology is
often the most appropriate choice. To understand why, and before defining exactly what
labour based technology is, and how and where to apply it, it is important to understand
the principles of appropriate technology choice. Since the rational selection of an
appropriate construction technology requires considerable technical analysis of the
various activities involved, the next paragraphs will deal with this in more detail.

11.5.2 Choice of Technology

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Construction technologies can, on the basis of their content of labour and equipment, be
classified as: equipment intensive, labour based or labour intensive technologies. The
choice of the technology may affect the overall cost, the overall duration of the
construction, and the overall quality of the asset. Some works allow only one type of
technology, while others can be done in various ways.

11.5.3 Equipment Intensive Technology

Equipment intensive technology is defined as the combination of labour and equipment

in which most work is done by labour-replacing equipment, supported by a small labour
force. Equipment intensive technology is often the established "modus operandi".
Although the technology might be appropriate in circumstances with high wage levels,
low labour availability and high skill levels, its application is often ineffective at local level
where individual projects are relatively small and dispersed over a large geographical
area.

11.5.4 Labour Intensive Technology

To avoid a common misconception, it is important to distinguish between labour based

methods, and labour intensive methods. In contrast with labour based technology, labour
intensive approaches seek to maximize employment with a minimum use of mechanized
equipment, often at the expense of cost and quality.

11.5.5 Labour Based Technology

In selecting the most appropriate technology, it is however important that, irrespective of

the type of technology, resources are used efficiently, quality standards are maintained
and time limitations are observed. For these reasons, labour based technology has been
developed to maximize opportunities for the employment of labour (skilled and
unskilled), while supported by light equipment, under strict conditions of cost
competitiveness, acceptable engineering quality standards, and timely implementation.
Labour based work methods are competitive only if the conditions are met and can then
provide a lasting alternative to traditional equipment-intensive construction methods.

11.5.6 Common Misconceptions

There are several categories of infrastructure Programmes that use large numbers of
unskilled labour.

Relief Programmes responding to natural or man-made catastrophes, (i.e. droughts,

severe floods, war, etc). Their prime objective is to provide food and income to the
affected individuals. Although such programmes may also improve infrastructure, this is
largely considered as a by-product or at best on secondary benefit. Employment
Generation Programmes. These projects give little attention to cost-quality effectiveness.
Once more, asset creation is a secondary objective. Asset-Creation Programmes
attempt to improve infrastructure at the lowest possible cost, maintaining accepted
quality levels and applying the most appropriate technology. Simultaneously they supply
employment opportunities, providing supplementary cash income. To avoid a common
misconception, it is important to distinguish between labour-based methods and labour-
intensive methods. In contrast with labour-based technology, labour-intensive

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approaches seek to maximize the use of labour with minimum use of mechanized
equipment, often at the expense of cost and quality efficiency.

11.5.7 Benefits

As shown in the figure above, significantly for some types of works, a switch from
equipment based to labour based technology increases the labour content while in
others only marginally. Besides the overall cost, the overall duration of the construction
and the overall quality of the asset, there are other factors that are influenced by the
choice of technology. The choice of technology not only determines the amount of labour
needed, and which tools can be used, but also what role local contractors play, what
locally available materials can be used, and finally how much the local communities are
involved.
Community involvement is very important, in the sense that it can create a sense of
ownership of the assets, and enable the local community to acquire some technical or
managerial skills. This can be a good basis for future cooperation in development
activities, such as the maintenance of the improved assets, while the experience with
joint responsibilities in infrastructure operation and maintenance may enhance other
community participatory activities as well. The use of local materials and equipment is
beneficial for local producers, and makes the project less dependent on foreign imports
of materials and expertise and thus save foreign exchange. Since a large part of the
infrastructure budgets are spent on wages, a portion of this is saved as funds for
generating other economic activities, or used for local consumption and thus increase
the local consumer products manufacturing.

Labour-based work methods can only be efficiently applied if the projects are properly
designed, planned, and implemented. Due consideration should therefore be given to
the use of appropriate work methods and the availability of adequate tools and light
equipment. Also, adequate time should be allowed in the project schedule, adequate
labour availability should be ensured, and reasonable wage rates and employment
conditions adopted to motivate the workers.

11.5.8 Project Preparation

During projects preparation, it is important to select appropriate construction methods for

each activity, in accordance with the design specifications, Unit costs are calculated on
the basis of estimated task rates, local wage levels, material costs and equipment
prices. These cost factors are important in order to compare alternative construction
methods. Finally, the total construction quantities on the basis of the selected designed
and work methods are estimated and summarized. The next paragraphs will show this
process in some detail.

11.5.9 Suitability of Activities

The suitability of labour-based work methods for some construction activities is

summarised in the table below.

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Similarly, certain maintenance activities are best carried out using labour. Again, the
most appropriate technology depends on the nature of the work and the availability of
labour and equipment in the area. The suitability of labour-based work methods for some
maintenance activities is summarised in the table below.

11.5.10 Comparison of Activities

A final choice of work methods should be made on the basis of a comparison, for every
activity. This is exemplified in the figure below. The alternatives that turn out to be more
expensive or less suitable technically are replaced by the cheapest solution which still
delivers the same quality of work as required by the design.

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11.5.11 Summary of Activities

When all details of the intended construction methods have been recorded in an
organized manner, the quantities of work are estimated. These quantities form the basis
of the total cost analysis and ultimately determine the future inputs of labour, materials,
tools and equipment. An example for a road construction project is given in table below.

11.5.12 Project Implementation

After approval of work programme, the construction works can start. Infrastructure
projects can be completely contracted out, but also can be executed directly by the local
government authorities. For more detailed or technical information, the ILO has
developed manuals for all parts of the construction cycle (planning, implementation and
maintenance), for different functions to be performed (execution, contracting,
supervising, monitoring) and for different types of works involved.

11.5.13 Management of the Labour Force

The workers should be recruited by advance public announcement of the works.

Villagers of the communities should be given first priority for works. A quota system can
be used to distribute employment opportunity among the various community fractions.

Payment of wages can be done in several ways. Experience shows that for labour-
based works, the task work system is preferable to the daily wage system, due to the
self-motivation, the lower costs of supervision and the higher productivity. However, the
task work system requires close supervision in the daily setting out of work and overall
setting of task sizes.

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Contractors can be engaged to undertake not only relatively large and complicated
construction works, but also smaller rural infrastructure works. Conditions can be
stipulated in the contract document to ensure maximum benefits to the community. Such
conditions may avoid the use of large construction equipment to maximize local labour
employment.

Balancing of gang sizes, i.e. ensuring that the labour is used in the most efficient way,
and that each of the operations on average proceed at the same pace, is the daily task
of the technician. The size of the gang will vary according to the work being undertaken,
and depends on the amount of work on each operation, the task rates being used, the
available labourers and the sequence of operations. Too many labourers assigned to
equipment will leave the workers idle, or obstruct the works due to limited space. Good
gang balancing is important because it also determines the length of the construction
time.

If the works do not proceed according to plans, the problems must be identified and
corrected before the work plan can be adjusted. Often work delays result from
inappropriate or poor tools/equipment, delayed delivery of construction materials, wrong
understanding of the tasks by workers or contractors, or different conditions at the site
than anticipated. Particularly delays in payment to the labour force should be avoided at
any time, since the dependency of the project progression on the labour force is higher
than in equipment base execution of works.

11.5.14 Example from Thailand

A set of 8 video CDs on labour based road construction has been developed by the ILO
in collaboration with the Public Works Department of Thailand. Fragments of the first
introductory video are available for download on the labour based technology main-
page. The following paragraphs are derived from the video script, and form a step-wise
textual complement.

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Survey and Setting out

By conducting a topographic - survey, the alignment of the road is determined. When the
alignment has been set - out, the detailed setting out can begin by determining the width,
which includes the slopes and drains along the side of the road, as well as the road
reserve.

Particular attention will need to be given to the alignment. The horizontal alignment is set
out of the plane of the road, and include bends or curves. The vertical alignment covers
the levels of the road and the cross-section profiles of the road. Finally, the cross-section
needs to be set out. This shows the actual shape of the road, the dimension of the
camber, the cross flows and the side drains.

Site Clearing

Clearing is the first task after setting out the alignment. Trees, vegetation and other
obstacles are removed from the road reserve. The clearing operation involves the
removal of bush, grass and other vegetation (grubbing), trees and stumps and boulders.

Earthworks

This is one of the most costly operations of road construction. Earthworks consist of
shaping a stable terrace or foundation for the road. Earthworks include excavation
(leveling, cutting to cross-filling, cutting to spoil, and borrowing), soil haulage and
unloading, spreading and compaction. Fills are built up in layers which need to be

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spread and compacted. Compaction is very important to make the fill strong and
durable.

Structures
Structures need to be built to cross waterways and for drainage. Common structures are
bridges, drifts and culverts.

Drainage Systems

Water needs to be drained away as quickly as possible from the road surface and its
border zones. To avoid damage to the road, its foundations and its structures, Water
should be drained in a controlled way so that the flow does not become too large or too
fast and causes erosion.

There are different drainage components used for roads, such as road camber, catch
water drains, side drains, scour checks, mitre drains, culverts and drifts. All components

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of the drainage system need to work together to allow the water to flow in a controlled
manner "off the road", as well as "away from the road".

Gravelling

Once the correct amount of earth is placed in layers and well compacted to
the right level and profile, the gravelling works can start. Gravelling is done by placing a
layer of gravel on the top of the earth road. This is done in order to make the road strong
and durable. It is important to locate a good source of gravelling materials, preferably not
too far from the road construction site. The gravelling material is spread in thin layers of
15-20 cm and compacted well.

At this stage it is extremely important to organize the labour force, material delivery and
equipment properly. Sufficient tools and labour to work at the desired speed need to be
ensured. Also enough vehicles need to be arranged for, in order to deliver sufficient
gravel materials at a reasonable production rate. Wheel barrows can be used for short
hauling, Titans or two wheeled tractors drawn by trailers could be used for intermediate
distance and trucks for the long hauling distances.

Epilogue

The reliance on equipment-based construction methods has evolved for a number of

reasons. A particular factor has been the educational background of the technical
leadership in most developing countries. Often acquired in engineering schools that
advocated the latest technology and production methods, this background conditioned
planners and engineers to favour the use of heavy equipment in all circumstances.
Equipment-based methods were perceived to have productivities, costs and
performance that were predictable; they were associated with high quality results; and
they were surrounded by an aura of technological progress.

At the same time, the substitution of labour for machines appeared to have negative
connotations. Large numbers of labour are needed to approach the output of a single
piece of equipment. Doubts were entertained about the ability of unskilled workers to

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produce high quality work. Labourers were regarded as being indisciplined, unruly,
unreliable and consequently, requiring extensive supervision. In sum, the extensive use
of labour was judged to increase the risk of higher costs, to bring about longer
construction periods, and to produce results of dubious technical quality. These risks
tended to make public sectors in most developing countries -the front line of potential
users - resist the use of unskilled labour in construction.

Reliance on equipment has shown to have some disadvantages, however. Equipment-

based operations entailed heavy expenditures of foreign exchange. Such costs might be
an unavoidable burden for urgently needed high technology projects. But for the
construction of smaller, more scattered and technically less demanding rural projects,
politicians and administrators began to look for ways to put local resources to work. If
much of the work could be done by hand, the rural population would not only receive the
benefits of the finished product but would, in addition, secure the much needed income
from its construction, considerable employment from its maintenance, and a sense of
participation, civic pride and unity.

11.5.15 References

1. http://www.iloasist.org/lbt1.html

11.6 Education Technology

11.6.1 Utilization of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) for

education in Africa

Education can play a cardinal role in ensuring that African institutions, teachers and
teacher educators have the opportunity to utilize information and communication
technologies. A high level of ICT can impact positively on economic and other forms of
development.

Present-day educational challenges cannot be met with traditional means alone. The
introduction, use/re-use and deployment of new as well as old electronic and
communications technology are being considered an important contribution to the
solution of the problems in education. The strategies for the application of such
technologies in education focus particularly on;
 teacher education
 curriculum development
 distance learning
 education policy, planning and management

11.6.2 Utilization of electronic and communication technology

Several countries in Africa region are already familiar with different technologies
introduced in the education systems. Various technologies have been used for distance
education, but print- based correspondence courses have been and will continue to be
the dominant delivery mechanism in both developed and the developing worlds. Print is
still the cheapest technology and even if the costs of high-tech dissemination fall below
those of print, it will take long before it phases out.

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Despite some early weaknesses and failure, new technologies, particularly the
computers and networking technologies, have, by creating conditions for rapid
connections, opened up possibilities for different educational and learning opportunities.
From radio and satellites to computers at the desktop and palmtop, various
communication channels have been used to deliver education and training both on-
campus and off-campus. A variety of computer –assisted programmes/ instructions have
proliferated and the use of computing and information systems in management has
increased tremendously.

Internet connectivity in African nations is rising, although accessibility remains only in

capital cities and / or particular areas of large cities. One of the biggest problems in the
majority of educational institutions in Africa today is the lack of resource materials, in
particular the lack of library facilities. Many university libraries are unable to purchase the
latest books and journals because of a serious shortage of funds. At primary and
secondary school level, many classes function with the minimum of resources, often with
one or two textbooks in a class. This serious deficit can be tackled through the utilization
of radio, audio cassettes, television, videos, diskettes and CD ROMs, which offer a low
cost but high impact way of providing educational materials to many learners who are
derived of such facilities.

The International Institute for Capacity Building in Africa (IICBA) has began setting up its
Teacher Education Network which utilizes where possible electronic media, including
internet. The network recognizes the importance of the improvement of teachers‟
academic and professional skills, their teaching methodologies and their contribution to
the improvement of educational systems. IICBA‟s plan to establish a Curriculum
Development Network aims at serving a number of vital functions in the development of
curriculum that is time-sensitive and desperately needed in the new development
context.

11.6.3 Developing digital libraries in South Africa

A digital library is a collection of information that is stored and accessed electronically.

The information stored in the library lends an archival quality to the collection, which
might have a topic common to all the data. The purpose of a digital library is to provide a
central location for accessing information on a particular topic. A digital library must keep
topics separate; otherwise it would be totally useless. Digital libraries are by nature
located at the intersection between library and information science, computer science
and networked information systems. At the Campbell collections of the University of
Natal, the focus has moved from the information object to the information content, and
from preservation to access.

The growing technological expertise and skills of library and information science
graduates makes librarians more marketable, and librarians are being heavily recruited
by the private sector. New modes of operation and new tools mean change, but people
and organizations have a natural aversion to change, especially where it is perceived as
daunting, complicated or costly.

11.6.4 Combined use of ‘old’ and ‘new’ technologies

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Old and new technologies are being used together to add value to educational
endeavors around the world and in the process, are providing bridges to the digital
divide.

11.6.5 Use of mobile technology

The aim of m-learning is to develop prototype products and services, which will deliver
information and learning experience via technologies that are inexpensive, portable and
accessible to the majority. The products and services in development are designed to
capture the interest of young adults (16 to 24) who are not currently taking part in
education or training to assist them in the development of life long learning objectives.
The m-learning infrastructure includes a learning management System which, when
combined with the microportal interface layer under development will facilitate access to
m-learning materials and services from a variety of mobile devices as well as web and
TV access.

11.6.6 Trends in ICT applications in primary and secondary schools

The models that have evolved in the primary and secondary education sectors as a
result of the use of distance education methodologies often use the label „open school‟.
Open schools are merging to provide;
 education opportunities in dispersed locations where conventional schools are
not viable
 a choice to students (and their parents) of what they want to learn
 a safety net to school drop-outs so that they do not lapse into illiteracy
 an education to those who cannot attend conventional schools for a variety of
social and economic reasons, as well as to those who missed out and are now
„over age‟.

11.6.7 Trends in ICT applications in non-formal education

Non-formal education (NFE) is an integral part of a life long learning concept that allows
young people and adults to acquire and maintain the skills and abilities needed to adapt
to a continuously changing environment. Most of the learning is organized by the learner
and occurs through self study outside the formal educational system. Some portion of
this type of learning is organized by the “provider” where one finds formally organized
courses and workshops almost on every subject imaginable. Another portion of the NFE
activity includes programmes that are more targeted to both content and learner groups.
This type of activity is usually sponsored and designed to achieve particular ends such
as professional up-grading, religious education, corporate in-house training, literacy
development or community development more generally.

11.6.8 Can ICTs improve access to education for girls and women?

Conditions that prevent girls and women form accessing educational opportunities
include; illiteracy, poverty, time, famine, socio-cultural factors, mobility and relevancy.
ICTs have the potential to erase or remove some of these barriers including restricted
access to technology, and factors inhibiting usage such as high costs and lack of skills
and information. There‟s evidence that under proper conditions ICTs may increase the
quality of basic and secondary education for girls and women. An example is provided

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by World Links which links students and teachers around the world via the internet for
collaborative projects and integration of technology into learning. Also, when ICTs use
local languages and incorporate a strong visual component, they have the potential to be
an effective educational tool to reach women with limited literacy.

The work of women as role models is extremely important in improving the quality of the
educational experience for girls and women; and women educators need to have a
degree of comfort with ICTs if they are to be effective role models for their female
students.

11.6.9 References

5. Coombs, P.H., The educational crisis: A systems analysis, Oxford,

1968, New York
6. Coombs, P.H., The World crisis in education, Oxford, 1985, New
York
7. Yapi, A., the relevance of technology in developing countries,
UNESCO- Africa, 1997
8. Potashnik, M. and Capper, J., Distance education: Growth and
diversity, Finance and development. The World Bank, 1998,
Washington, D.C
9. Ochao, M.L. and Henao, B.M., can networks help to modernize
schooling, 1997, Colombia

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12 CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR THE AFRICAN ENGINEER

12.1 Introduction

It is no doubt that Africa has not taken the lead in contributing to modern trappings of
human progress. We examine the lack of contribution from African Engineers. This
chapter discusses some initiatives launched to address this matter, and poses important
challenges to the African Engineer.

It is perhaps incomplete to talk about Engineering Education and Industry and

Commerce, without bringing in Research and Development. Hence the acronym EERD
will be used to stand for Engineering Education, Research, and Development, while I&C
will be used to stand for Industry and Commerce.

12.2 Situational Analysis for National Development and Sustainable

Development

Sustainable Development refers to development which meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

National Development refers to human beings living in a nation where their needs are
adequately met.

It is in this context that it should be noted that the production of all goods and services
necessary for national development are possible only with adequate Engineering inputs.
This clearly marks the link between Engineering and national development, hence
sustainable development.

An extract of the so-called cause and effect tree, or hierarchy reflecting a situation
analysis for national development is summarized below.
 The relevance of Engineering(EERD) for national development not fully/widely
appreciated i.e. a cause for the effects:
-poor linkage between I&C and EERD
-low level of funding for EERD
 Poor linkages between I&C and EERD are cause for the effects:
-mismatch between needs of I & C and products of EERD
-low level of outputs from EERD institutions
 Low level for funding are the causes of:
-low level of outputs from EERD institutions
-continued use of aged facilities and out dated processes in I&C.
 Existence of some questionable human values (e.g. corruption and unethical
practices), are direct causes of:
- poor management and retrogressive leadership, particularly of the
production sector.
 Low level of output from EERD institutions combined with poor management and
retrogressive leadership of the productive sector, lead to the effects:
-Poor quality of goods and services produced.
-Low productivity in I&C.
 Poor quality of goods and services leads to the effects:
-Increasing difficulties in the market place.

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 Increasing difficulties in the market place combined with low productivity in the
I&C are the causes of:
- low addition of value to the national economy.
With low addition in the nation, the end effect is clearly constrained development or
growth, hence constrained sustainable development in the continent.

It should be noted that there are other contributing causes for the poor performance in
I&C, however the overriding issue is that because of low collaboration between I&C on
one hand and EERD institutions on the other hand, I&C are evidently performing below
optimal levels

12.3 Challenges of Sustainable Development for the African Engineer

1. Inadequate appreciation of the linkages between engineering and national

development.
2. Minimal cooperation between I&C on the one hand and EERD on the other hand.
3. Mismatch in skills and the numbers of engineering graduates and the skills and
numbers required by I&C, for routine work and for innovation.
4. Misunderstanding about the modalities of I&C and EERD collaboration and the
expected benefits to accrue to both sides.
5. Low level of relevant Engineering Research and Development. This is due to the
low levels of funding and the low numbers of researchers.
6. Low productivity in Industry and Commerce.
7. The challenge of good Human values.

12.4 Challenges of Engineering in Uganda

12.4.1 Introduction

Educating and training of graduate engineers in Uganda started in 1970 with the opening
of the Faculty of Technology at Makerere University with a batch of 27 students. Four
years ago, another university, Kyambogo University started engineering programmes.
These two institutions now constitute the nucleus of engineering teaching, learning and
research in the country. The challenges experienced so far in educating and training
engineers are both systematic and economic, techno-economic, governance,
demographic and institutional.

Faculties of engineering are being increasingly asked to provide value for money in
terms that the public, rather than academics, understand; Universities are still reminded
to maintain standards of excellence in teaching and research. They are also required to
seek as much financial support as possible from sources other than the Government.

12.4.2 Relevance of Engineering Programmes

The role of any programme should be analysed according to its role and place in the
society, its mission, relationships with the public and private sector, community and
sources of funding.

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Traditionally, relevance of engineering programmes was judged according to the

appropriateness of the training to meet government/ public service. This, however, has
changed due to restructuring and privatization of the economy. Engineering programmes
have to respond positively and quickly to the demands of market place and industry, and
at the same time produce graduates who can create jobs through fast adaptability and
entrepreneurship.

Furthermore, there is the issue of accreditation of the engineering degrees with

professional engineering institutions both in our countries and in the advanced world,
which is required, in order to enhance our global competitiveness, in our goods and
services and to facilitate the mobility of our engineers.

12.4.3 Status of Research and Development Activities

Development in science and technology is not only an important determinant of a

country‟s level of socio-economic development, but also enhances its international
competitiveness and its position in the world economy. It has an important role of
advancing and refining knowledge, improving teaching and providing solutions to
problems facing the society. In many African countries, there is low level of support to
science and technology.

For most of the few research projects conducted, results are not adequately
disseminated. For example in Tanzania, it is reported that about 70% of all research
findings/ developed technologies in the past 20 years have not reached targeted
beneficiaries. This is a serious shortcoming and it indicates misuse of the available
resources for research and development.

12.4.4 Training for Engineers

Industries are major partners in the training of engineering professionals. It has become
progressively hard to get places to train student engineers, since most of the industries
are privatized and regard training students a bother and outside their mandate.
Furthermore, small-scale industries are too small to run coherent training programmes.

12.4.5 Entrepreneurship

With increasing privatization of industries in Uganda, and their embracing of automation

through ICT applications, the job market and opportunities are shrinking. A culture of
research, innovation and yearning for challenge should intrinsically be interwoven within
all engineering programmes.
Engineering consulting entails intellectual activities that are knowledge and technology
intensive requiring specialized skills. Domestic consulting engineering is still fragmented,
with limited resources and skills in firms. There are also a host of other challenges posed
by the political and social economic environment.
It is estimated that foreign aid accounts for about 10 percent of the GDP and 40 – 70
percent of the government‟s annual expenditure budget in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). It
is estimated that over 90 percent of foreign aid projects in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are
implemented by foreign consulting firms, with adverse consequences on the
development of domestic consulting engineering capacities in Sub-Saharan Africa.

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12.4.6 Marginalization of Domestic Firms

Donor supported projects undermine development notably through imperfect competition
in the procurement of consultancy services and lack of confidence on the part of the
donors and recipient governments in the ability of domestic consultants to deliver these
services at an acceptable standard of quality.

Most multilateral and bilateral projects are procured on the basis of international
competitive bidding, biased in favour of the global market. Often, procurement is
restricted to goods and services originating from the donor country, thereby excluding
firms from the recipient countries from competing though there are some that are
capable of doing so.

12.5 Building Sustainable Practices in Africa and Securing Regular Access to

Work Opportunities in Africa

12.5.1 Policy for Development of Local Construction Industry in Uganda by

Ministry of Works, Housing and Communications (MoWHC)

Against a background of an old legal framework that is overdue for drastic revision, the
Local Construction Industry (LCI) has suffered from lack of consistency with present day
needs. MoWHC with other stakeholders including UACE, have for sometime embarked
on a process of review, with proposals due for national legislative amendment.

Areas of concern range from contractors, engineering advisory service advisors, labour
force, equipment, and the practice in the profession by and large.

Over dependence on foreign contractors and consultants for maintenance, rehabilitation

and new construction work to the detriment local firms in the construction industry has
been a big concern. Poor access to equipment is yet another one. Financing issues are
other concerns, further handcapping participation of indigenous players.

Government therefore considers establishing a Construction Industry Development

Board (CIDB) an imperative, and, strengthen regulatory bodies for engineers, architects
and surveyors. Government also intends to support selected training institutions, and,
promote labour-based methods and encourage partnership in tendering between local
and foreign firms.

It is the intention of Government to recognize CIDB as its supreme advisory body on the
LCI. Further, all maintenance work funded by Government shall be contracted to local
contractors while supervision of all maintenance work shall be contracted to local
consultants. Other schemes are also foreseen to promote growth of the LCI, including
training.

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12.5.2 How Foreign Aid Projects have undermined the Development of Domestic
Consulting Engineering Capacities in Africa

The paper takes an overview of the problems characterizing intricacies of who gets what
depending on the influence of the donor – recipient setup and mindsets in the
underdeveloped world. The miniature size of practices, fragmented capacities, low
resources and limited influence in decision-making mean less bargaining power and low
business and margins for local firms.

With substantial donor budgetary contributions, 90 percent plus foreign aid projects are
implemented by foreign firms, leaving local firms in the cold.

Processes are not built around using and developing local capacities and restrictions on
sourcing from donor countries often abound. Foreign firms are frequently pre-selected
which results into marginalization of the local firms. It has been noted that some of these
foreign firms do not have the manpower.

With the event of globalization, local firm‟s participation is threatened by competition on

the global platform.

Large prestigious projects that eliminate small local entities are not good for capacity
building and need to be broken down into small ones to attract, promote and build local
capacities. This approach should be adopted through repackaging large into smaller
local-friendly projects, requiring associations and JVs with foreign firms and encouraging
local partnering between firms.

It was noted that the paper did not tackle whether there was political and professional
will to reverse the above. The response was that policies should be formulated and
procurement rules should be changed to include local firms (affirmative action). Capacity
building should be promoted through giving up-coming professionals opportunity to
perform.

12.5.3 Developing of Capacity in Uganda and Africa – the Role of Member Firms,
Member Associations and GAMA

There is need to emphasize skills in terms of education and experience as a reflection of

service capacity in order to counteract Globalization, which is seen as making Africa
more vulnerable.

Low levels of research and skills characterize Uganda, with mentoring portrayed as
wanting, calling for more continuous professional development. Efforts at training
graduate engineers in Government are still considered insufficient, with a few
departments as the Directorate for Water Development (DWD) that has a two-year such
programme. The large number of small firms despite a few major clients is another
feature of the local marketplace.

Regarding necessary intra continent redress, the Schools of Consulting Engineering in

Republic of South Africa (RSA) along with key roles being played by the more developed
practices in RSA and Egypt are seen as a plausible nucleus for change for the better.

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Resources pose obstacles at the moment by way of difficult financing, technology, cost
of services, and, need for a better logistical setting.

Competitiveness is undermined by often small core firm management teams, contrary to

the need for larger numbers essential for sustainability and continuity.

Facilitation by Governments is sought with regard to carving out increased participation

for local firms by way of:

• ensuring counterparting, recognizing that often the smaller local entities are better
suited for the job, ensuring retention of profits in the country;
• easing monetary conditionality, lowering taxes on equipment, early payment for
services delivered, and improving Local Construction Industry (LCI) framework.

As for GAMA and its Member Associations (MAs) a case is made for regional
qualifications and other accreditation, networking, and, building of critical masses for
activities.

12.5.4 Capacity Building Initiatives by the Engineers Registration Board -

Tanzania

Training of graduate engineers has seen a rapid increase over the years. Over 40 years,
numbers rose from 2 to 5500 plus, with the order of 500 currently added annually. By
1977, the Engineers Registration Act No. 49 of 1968 vetted 211 out of 2,500 for
registration. As that law remained weak, only 837 of the order of 5000 were vetted in
1994. Concerns of the seventies and eighties were about low registration, need for
training and improvement of the law.

A National Construction Council (NCC) was established by Act No. 20 of 1979 for
improving coordination, and, review of Board for Architects, Quantity Surveyors and
Contractors‟ Act No. 35 of 1972 as a result of the efforts by the Engineers Registration
Board (ERB) and Institution of Engineers Tanzania (IET). The council had the
responsibility of advising government on all matters pertaining to the construction
industry. In 1985 a ministerial committee was set up to review the registration of
consulting firms and construction companies in the construction industry in Tanzania.

The ERB/IET joint training project was established to identify the training needs of all
engineers, review the legislature and identify organizations and projects for provision of
professional training.

The new ERB act has embraced matters of professional training in engineering and
regulation of engineering activities.

Using its own resources the board commissioned consultants to design and
operationalize the Structured Engineers Apprenticeship Programme (SEAP) and the
Continuing Professional Development (CPD). The programme also caters for the
engineers who have been employed by government and its institutions who lacked
professional experience and skills. The Board has made CPD mandatory for all
practicing engineers.

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The Board is currently working out the following strategies: identifying sources of funding
other than government, skills development levy and ensuring that all donor funded
engineering projects have a training component for engineers.

12.5.5 Quality Management and Effective Service Delivery in Consulting Services

Starting with a definition of quality, focusing on exceeding customer satisfaction, the

paper cites attributes of specifications, fitness for purpose and customer satisfaction.

The scope of the process was highlighted in planning, assurance and control, bearing in
mind timing and cost. Alongside the above, the human element, risk, communications
and procurement aspects were identified.

The intellectual dimension and its tenets were seen as paramount, necessitating
certification. Partnering to marshal requisite skills for a service and due rewards, given a
good vision and plan were seen as essential ingredients for good service delivery.

12.5.6 Capacity Building for Consultancy in the Telecommunications Sector

A number of strategic moves for sustainable development were identified and several
policies developed based on Vision 2025, Poverty Eradication and Action Plan (PEAP),
implemented through sectors of agriculture, education, health and governance. ICT was
also identified as a cross-cutting enabler for the above sub-sector developments.
Capacity building needs to enable ICT as a development tool.

In order to discuss the issue of capacity building, some general background information
has been provided in this sector, relating to ministerial policy announcement of 1996 with
the following goals for 5 years. Telephone density was expected to increase by a factor
of 8, from 0.26/100 to 2/100, improving facilities and service quality, adding new
services, and, increasing geographical coverage beside others. Generally the goals
have been achieved.

Equally, general policy objectives as detailed out in Communications Act of 1997 have
been substantially adhered to. Several changes have taken place with time coupled with
dynamism of the sector, with identified gaps. A review of the 1996 policy was done and
now is in advanced stages.

The main focus should be in developing human resource development of skills and
competencies of professionals in key disciplines, partnership by UACE with
industry/employers and institutions, developing and implementing programmes
addressing gaps like skills set of professionals and numbers, beside others.

Capacity building is needed because sector reforms demand consultancy services as

markets open up to competition. Demand in regulation, service delivery, etc,
phenomenal sector growth, needs for services in various areas of consultancy,
alongside major technological transformations, need unique solutions through
consultancy.

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12.5.7 Marketing, Branding and Image Building for the African Consulting
Engineer
Development of Consulting Engineers through Procurement Practices

Africa is a continent with several problems including famine and wars. Good
infrastructure and an enabling environment are as a result not abundantly available.
Without engineers there would be no water, no sanitation, no electrical energy, no roads,
no railways, no airports no harbours and no communications. There would not be any
healthcare facilities; no schools, no industry or commerce, and, there would simply be
nothing.

However, consulting engineers need informed clients, a base load of work with
reasonable prospects of sustainability, good working relationships with our clients based
on mutual respect and trust. Not to do work at the least cost degrades the profession
and the ultimate quality of the product, and, an attractive profession that can retain the
brighter minds in Africa.

African consulting engineers need to get more organized and their countries need to rely
less on borrowing. QCBS needs to be discouraged in the form it is used by the World
Bank, based on worldwide participation that does not favor local appointments. There is
need to encourage QBS because it ensures appropriate quality on engineering projects
which are unique and can reduce corruption.

Let us stop the QCBS bandwagon before it is too late and get on with implementing
procurement practices that lead to the development of good consulting engineers and
excellent engineering.

12.5.8 The Role of the Consulting Engineers in Waste Management in Africa

Integrated waste management is a holistic and integrated course of action that

incorporates waste avoidance, the minimisation of waste generation at source (reduce,
cleaner production), recycling (re-use), waste collection and transportation, waste
treatment and/or waste disposal, with the objective to optimise and maximise the
efficiency of waste management with the minimum adverse effect on the environment.
Waste can be categorized as domestic and household waste, garden, or green, waste,
commercial waste, non–hazardous industrial waste, construction waste, hospital and
medical waste (health care risk wastes), hazardous and toxic waste etc.
The following operations are necessary for implementation of a waste management
project: integrated waste management planning, transportation planning, transfer station
siting and design, landfill siting, permitting, design and construction administration, QA,
monitor and audit operations, pollution control, maintenance, composting and/or
processing plants, reclamation and recycling, waste classification and delisting –
analytical work, hazardous and healthcare risk wastes.

Several disciplines are involved in these projects: planning, transportation planning,

technical reporting with permit applications, analytical testing and evaluation of pollution
potential and risks, chemical and mechanical engineering in process design and
geotechnical investigations

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Designs are carried out on earthworks for facilities and landfills, road works for access
roads and storm water structures, pipe and drainage design for services and leachate
collection, dams for leachate or contaminated storm water, liners for special cells in
landfill, structural for transfer stations, weigh bridges, sumps, pumps for leachate
transfer and control, process design, treatment of leachate or composting plants, beside
others.
Appropriate solutions for Africa should be developed and the challenge to develop
sustainable and affordable solutions should be kept in mind during the design stages.

12.5.9 Other Achievements of the African Engineer

Africa can boast of several initiatives directed at exactly the issues raised under the
challenges. These include.

1. Several African countries already have comprehensive Science and Technology

Policies in place, or are currently in the process of developing these. Such
policies will go a very long way in creating the necessary supporting environment
for the EERD in the continent.
2. The Engineering degree programmes in several African Universities now include
1-year compulsory industrial attachments before graduation. This is proving to be
very beneficial in terms of speedy development of practical skills by the students.
3. The issue of raising the level of appreciation of the linkages between
Engineering(science and technology) and national development is currently
being vigorously addressed in several African countries through events like,
schools bridge building competition, science and technology fairs, radio and
television programmes on science and technology, etc.
with higher levels of awareness, the necessary efforts for capitalizing on the
potential of engineering to contribute immensely to national development would
hopefully be forthcoming.

4. Two good examples of the few remarkable African Engineering outputs include:
-development in copper leaching, perfected on the Zambian copper belt
-liquid fuels from coal as developed in South Africa.

12.6 Addressing the Challenges

By far, an immediate route to addressing the above challenges and more is that of the
relevant education and training of the African Engineer. Clearly a certain amount of
innovation has to come from African Engineers. The EERD should do more, but would
be able to do better with improved partnerships with Commerce and Industry. Linkages
between I&C are therefore of utmost importance.

12.6.1 Linkages to be built between I&C and EERD Institutions

There are many opportunities for Industry and Commerce to support EERD institutions.
These include:
1. Involvement of representatives from I&C in curriculum development. This way I&C
influence what gets taught.

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2. Professionals from I&C can get involved as part time lectures and researchers in
EERD institutions.
3. I&C can provide attachments for students on vacation thus affording them
opportunities for practical experience.
4. I&C can collaborate with EERD institutions in identifying priorities for research and
development and also finance work in the identified areas.
5. Clearly also I&C can continue and in fact increase financing of scholarships for
students at EERD institutions.
6. EERD institutions on their part can offer short continuing engineering education
courses to personnel from I&C. invariably such courses would cover new
developments based on research findings, which in turn will make meaningful
contributions to increased productivity in industry and commerce. But clearly the
EERD institutions must first undertake the relevant research and development work.
7. EERD institutions would do well to educate and encourage their students to develop
entrepreneurial skills. That way, several years down the line, the leaders of the I&C
might very well understand the need for linkages with the EERD for their own
survival.
8. Clearly also joint research and development work between EERD institutions and
I&C will be beneficial to both sides and the necessary contributions to national
development might very well result from such collaborations.

It should be noted that the above points have not said any thing about the part to be
played by the African Government. This is because it‟s ridiculously simple! African
Governments are to give higher priorities to engineering by implementing supportive
Science and Technology Policies. This should in all cases include increasing the
necessary funding for EERD.

We can note the very strong linkages between EERD institutions and I&C, through low
productivity in I&C to the negative effects on national development.
The African Engineer faces distinct challenges of sustainable development in the
continent.
Overall these challenges can be addressed through relevant engineering education,
strengthening the linkages between EERD institutions on the one hand, and I&C an the
other hand.
Linkages between EERD institutions and I&C in Africa can only be to the individual
nations and the continent as a whole. Several arrangements as to how cooperation
between EERD institutions and I&C can be developed have been noted.

The challenge remains to graduates from the various Faculties of Engineering in Africa
to increasingly be able to stand up to the challenges and provide much needed
innovative inputs to national development.

In conclusion, the involvement of industry and commerce is critical for a sound

engineering education, research and development on the continent because their
survival depends on the active involvement of the EERD institutions, and sustainable
development is unlikely without productive industry and commerce.

12.7 African Renaissance

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The word renaissance brings about connotations of the revival in Europe in the 15th and
16th Centuries of classical modes of thinking, architecture and aesthetics. The word
renaissance implies a revival and rebirth of different concepts be they political, cultural or
social. The term African Renaissance was first used fifty years ago by the scholar
Cheikh Anta Diop. However, it has since gained popular currency in recent years with
journalists, politicians and ideologues. What, however, is meant by the term „African
Renaissance‟ and can such a concept be achieved in our post globalization world.

Diop used the term in relation to the colonial struggle of African nations against their
European masters. The term was a battle call for the oppressed masses that had
hitherto not had the opportunity of national self determination or political will. The
concept of an African Renaissance that would occur upon the dawn of independence
was extremely potent because the nations were „newly freed‟ from the shackles of
colonialism.

The resurrection of the term occurred in South Africa when Thabo Mbeki felt that his
nation could take a leading role in the political and economic transformation of the
continent as South Africa had experienced a re-birth in 1994 with the end of apartheid
and the transition to Black majority rule. The term was also used by Michel Camdessus
the former managing director of the IMF in his assessment of the recent turn around of
several African countries economies. Although thinkers seeking to counter the prevalent
Afro pessimist view in the print media and academia have adopted the term „African
Renaissance‟, Fantu Cheru points out that part of the problem with the African
Renaissance concept is that there is no clear framework and process by which the
political and economic change can occur.

The African Renaissance has been gathering apace in international organizations and
academic institutions, as practitioners and scholars strive to make it less amorphous.
Cheru states that the Renaissance should tackle three core issues:

 Self-determination over economic and political development

 Dedication to the protection and promotion of human rights
 Commitment to democracy and regional solidarity within the wider international
community

The African Renaissance is challenged by globalization and economic liberalization

measures. These often grate against poorer countries attempts to promote eradication
of mass poverty and social development. One of the reasons that Africa has failed to
capitalize upon the economic opportunities afforded by globalization is that the continent
lacks basic infrastructures, transparent and cohesive institutions and skilled human
resources. Of equal challenge to the concept of the African Renaissance is the way that
the continent relates to the wider international community. In the traditional international
relations state system African states normally chose from two bi-polar ideologies; either
those of the liberalized West or the Communist East. In the aftermath of the end of the
Cold War African states are forced to realign themselves in a unipolar World.
Cheru highlights the lack of participation from African civil society in stemming the
malaise. He talks of an African psyche that has been damaged by political leadership
addicted to mendicancy, and a people with an inherent distrust of its own institutions.
There is even limited enthusiasm for African manufactured products and services as the
continent continually looks outwards for its resources and goods.

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For an African Renaissance to truly occur one perhaps has to look to the work of
pioneering scholars such as Diop who sought to de-mythologize the notion of an
endemically helpless people with limited cultural, social and economic possibilities.
Furthermore African states need to participate collectively within pluri-lateral bodies such
as the WTO, rather than agitating as sole states. Moreover, stakeholders such as the
African business community need to be consulted by governments and the role of civil
society strengthened. All philosophical ideals underpin Diop‟s canon, in his promotion of
a unified Africa.

12.7.1 The Role of Information and Communication Technologies in Science and

Technology in Africa

Science and technology form the basis for economic growth, the development of local
industries, and improved education and research. Naturally, the society that does not
embrace and foster science and technology cannot expect sustainable growth.

The need for building local capacities to participate fully in the generation and application
of the results of scientific research for sustainable development is now widely accepted
in Africa. Supported by local and international institutions such as the United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO), a number of countries in
the region have formulated explicit national policies for the promotion of science and
technology. However, most of these efforts have not realized the expected benefits due
to poor understanding of science and technology and economic development, and the
absence of indigenous programmes of action to promote science and technology.

Structural and attitudinal changes are required for African countries to participate fully in
such a global information economy. First, the policy frameworks that are based on the
concept of natural monopoly need to be modernized to open rooms for private-sector
participation in communication and the development of science and technology. African
countries should make considerable efforts to develop the capacity of human resources
in science and technology, and to improve the scientific, technological and industrial
infrastructure.

A sweeping change has occurred in the science and technology scene in Africa over the
last few years. This was prompted by three major factors:
 An increasing call for sustainable human development by maintaining ecological
balance and providing the African population with adequate food, energy and water
 The global trend towards free trade that has made it difficult to protect domestic
industries with formal and informal barriers; increasing use of technology and
investment in research and development have become the most important factors to
attain global competitiveness.
 The growth of information and communication technologies and their effects on the
operation of governments and the work of individuals leading to a new culture and a
global village

In today‟s world, those who do not have access to ICTs are much more vulnerable to
obscurity and obsolescence. They provide venues for sharing research findings and
improved teaching. ICTs provide tools to link research and development to the industry
and the industry to customers and designers. It is now possible to tailor products to
individual needs and carry out research based on individual preferences.

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Research in computer science and engineering could lead to new technologies that may
solve local problems. Attainment of this in Africa requires the development of human
resources, increasing awareness of ICTs, the emergence of a knowledge society,
democratization of access so as to reduce the gap between the elite and under-served
population, and building the necessary scientific knowledge base.

12.7.2 The Renaissance through Science and Technology

The economic and social needs of the masses of African people have become more
pressing and even desperate. While the capacity of many postcolonial African
economies to meet these needs has progressively dwindled since the euphoria of
independence has dissipated.

Long before Europeans set foot on the continent, Africans had achieved technological
and scientific sophistication in such varied fields as astronomy, metallurgy, agricultural
science and medicine. The enterprises of science and technology are not, contrary to
the conventional Western portrayal, alien or new to Africa and its people. However, both
internal and external factors led to a discontinuity in this rich tradition, culminating in the
unfortunate state where Africa was relegated to a virtual footnote to the history of its
conquerors.

The optimism for African renaissance has been equally captured from another historical
perspective: while Africa has been despoiled and incomparably ravaged through slavery,
colonial conquest and cultural subjugation, „its peoples have abundantly proved their
resilience by withstanding this entire onslaught.‟ This situation can be contrasted with
historical developments in the Americas where many native communities- for example,
the Aztecs, the Mayas and the Incas- were exterminated by the conquerors.

Paradigms and Pathways

One of the most critical shortcomings in the developmental vision of Africa has been the
failure of its political leadership to recognize the pivotal role played by science and
technology in shaping and anchoring national economies for the long term.
The failure to grapple holistically and fundamentally with the policy imperatives of a
science and technology-led development has not been helped by the continent‟s post-
independence leadership‟s penchant for autocracy, cronyism, kleptomania and other
such aberrations. These tendencies have led to the inability of Africa to hold on to its
best talents, as collapsing economies and fractured sociopolitical institutions led many of
Africa‟s intelligentsia to seek professional solace, and not uncommonly also political
refuge, mostly in the west.

The situation in Africa contrasts sharply with the developments in East Asia, a region
with which Africa was economically on comparable terms only three decades ago.
Southeast Asia has since become an acknowledged economic powerhouse, driven
primarily by high-technology manufacturing. Governments in that part of the world have
placed the utmost premium on science and technology as the key drivers of national
development; hence they are committed to funding research and development even in
the most difficult times.

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That there is an urgent need for Africa to turn the corner is no longer in dispute. We
need not only to recognize the urgency of the situation, but also to find amenable
mechanisms through which it can be addressed. The essential challenge for Africa is still
to nurture and anchor a science and technology culture, starting at the foundation levels
of our educational system.

In the latter regard, the issue of language and instruction comes across as demanding a
strategic consideration. The marginalization of indigenous African languages remains
the weak link in Africa‟s attempts at finding its voice and wind. While Africa‟s elite have
found sanctuary for their children in metropolitan language schools and bureaus, the
masses of African people remain excluded from science and technology discourse. And
yet, as we are painfully reminded, no other country in the world has ever undertaken
development based on a foreign language.

We are thus challenged to contemplate science and technology policy issues not simply
from a mechanistic and tertiary-level paradigm, but to think more in terms of the total
development body of the nation. That is, we must not only worry about the small
numbers of science and technology graduates we currently produce from our higher
education system, the most critical question is whether we have a sound supply system
for our higher education in the first place.

Of Ways and Means: Seeing the Windows of Opportunity

For Africa to undergo a true rebirth there needs to be a strategic focus on leveraging
technologies that are reasonably accessible, and that are potentially multipurpose in
terms of application. Information technology in the broad sense, including media
technology, offers an unparalleled opportunity for the regeneration of the African
economy.

12.7.3 Science and Technology: Towards Prosperity in Africa

Science- an organized process to seek new knowledge- and technology- the application
of knowledge utilize national resources and wealth- have the potential to bring about the
prosperity on the African continent, so that together with other continents, this continent
can put human beings first.

During the science and technology breakaway session, the issue of teaching children in
foreign languages was raised. What are the prospects of dividing most African
languages into five or seven main groups? How must Africa ensure that children taught
in their mother tongue at the beginning of their education become empowered to deal
with concepts, and that diverse culture, which can also result in multilingualism, are a
source of knowledge in order to find solutions to issues?

It is against this background that the issue of indigenous knowledge systems was
focused upon. Indigenous knowledge systems reside among the majority of African
people. It is the fallback, always, when nothing else holds. There are four broad
categories in which indigenous knowledge systems can play a role in the re-awakening
and re-emergence of the continent:
 They can be transformed into enterprises and industry, in turn, transform our
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 They can be unpacked within the context of social issues, such as culture,
philosophy and religion
 They can be unpacked to reveal the significance and bearing of institutions
 They have formed liberatory processes in different African countries, for example,
the Convention for democratic South Africa (CODESA), in conflict resolution, and so
on

The proposed agenda from the breakaway session scrutinizes the following:
 Education; teaching and learning, language, demystification and democratization
 Telemedicine
 Indigenous knowledge systems and technology
 Reversing the African Science and Technology brain drain
 Creating an integrated knowledge management programme for Africa

There are more challenging issues in the science and technology sector on the
continent. In the meantime, the key question is: How does the continent organize itself,
mobilize and develop its human resources; audit its knowledge to facilitate the process
of its re-emergence and development; and put in motion the recovery of its potential?

.
12.7.4 Lowering Infrastructure, Information and Finance Barriers

Services such as telecommunications, power, transportation, water and sanitation; often

called “hard” infrastructure are vital for economic growth. But the financial sector part of
“soft” infrastructure is just as important. Africa needs both types of infrastructure to
develop competitive agriculture and manufacturing. To make sure that development is
broadly based, it is essential that as many people as possible have access to all these
services.

If Africa can rapidly equip itself with an excellent information and communication
technology infrastructure, it will be able to exploit the gains offered by the emerging
knowledge-based economy.

In developing infrastructure, Africa faces problems more severe than any other region.
Vast distances and low population density make service provision costly. The division of
Sub Sahara Africa into 48 states, many of them landlocked, makes the barriers worse
because small national markets limit scale economies, reduce competition and increase
risk. Costs are also a problem; Africa‟s transport costs are the highest of any region. The
continent is isolated from major maritime and air routes and is served by peripheral, high
cost routes. Freight costs for imports are 70% higher in East and West Africa than in
developing Asia.

Though Africa requires an estimated $18 billion a year in infrastructure investments,

investment is not the whole story. Substantial benefits could be reaped from more
effective operations and maintenance of existing facilities, from better regulations and
policies. Widening access to infrastructure services, especially for rural populations
requires both more resources and innovative approaches. Community and user
involvement in infrastructure construction, maintenance, and management- especially in
water supply, irrigation and rural roads is an important way for improving services in rural
areas.

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Access to infrastructure is more unequal in Africa than any other part of the world. The
distribution of services is skewed; urban areas receive more than 80% of services, while
rural areas, with more than 70% of the population get 20%. Some of the consequences
of lagging infrastructure development include;
 Low competitiveness
 Weak market integration
 Slower growth
 Poverty and inequality

Causes of lagging infrastructure development

 Difficult geography
 Widespread poverty and low urbanisation
 Small states
 Inadequate investment
 Bad policies

Many indicators of lagging infrastructure development reflect low demand rather than
inadequate supply.

The way forward

Geography and other structural factors impose constraints on infrastructure

development; but this need not be destiny, much can be done within existing constraints.
Some examples include:

 Boost investment
 Develop public-private partnerships; complete reliance on public ownership and
provision of infrastructure has created inefficiencies in management and put an
undue financial and managerial burden on the state
 Improve government credibility; political uncertainty is high in Africa, and in
traditional utilities the capital costs are high, expected lifetime of the investment is
long, and returns will be in local rather than foreign currency. Thus investment
appears quite risky and investors may demand a high risk premium
 Increase cross-border and regional cooperation; this could improve the
infrastructure linking African states with each other and with the rest of the world
 Widen access; widening access to infrastructure services, especially for rural
residents requires more resources and more innovative approaches

12.7.5 Engineering and Gender Issues

Engineers‟ work has an impact on society, economically, environmentally and socially.

However, society is not uniform and some people will benefit or be adversely impacted
more than others. In low-income countries, the development of infrastructure can
transform the domestic chores of collecting water, fuel or food and can improve the local
environment through improved sanitation. Many of these tasks are the responsibility of
women, yet they can be excluded from the development process. Engineers can

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contribute to the inclusion of socially excluded groups of people through increasing the
involvement of men and women in engineering decision making and adopting
technologies that suit women‟s needs, resulting in better structures and more equitable
societies.

What is gender?

In development engineering, gender issues are seen as an integral part of the

development process, although engineers rarely have any formal instruction in the topic.
Gender is concerned with the way society acts towards men and women, as opposed to
the physical differences. The term sex refers to tangible differences, while gender refers
to the way men and women behave. Gender differences can vary between cultures,
classes and over time.

An unequal power relation within a society leads to some people having a greater role in
decision making and others being socially excluded leaving them poorer, vulnerable or
exploited.

What is the relationship with engineering?

Society is not uniform and different sectors of society use infrastructure in different ways.
The pedestrian, cyclist, car driver and lorry driver all use roads, but in different ways and
they are given different priorities during the design process. In low-income countries,
women are normally responsible for domestic work while men carry out commercial
activities such as paid employment. Thus innovations that have an influence on
household tasks such as water supply connected to the household, will impact more
directly on the lives of women, than will innovations such as long-distance travel, that
have an influence on the commercial world.

Projects have been known to fall short of their maximum potential impact due to the
failure to involve the main users. The users need to be consulted regarding the different
design parameters to ensure that the system is going to be usable.

Developing the guidelines for engineers

1. Reviewing literature; there is well documented literature on women and water.

The main concerns centre on hearing women‟s voices, either through direct
participative consultation exercises or through representation on local water and
sanitation management boards.
2. Gathering evidence; many of the participative methods used by development
professionals to consult with local men and women have been prepared and
practiced by social scientists. Eliciting mainly social or economic information, the
focus is on agreeing mechanisms for community-based operation and
maintenance of infrastructure and cost recovery.

The involvement of local men and women in the development of the infrastructure that
they will be using makes the technical aspects of a project more effective. Governments
in particular will have to operate outside normal conventions to facilitate rather than
implement reform. The international development targets to reduce world poverty will

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require the physical services that engineers can build, but infrastructure will only
contribute to these targets if they address the needs of poor people.

13.7.6 References

1. Eng. Dr. J.B Turyagyenda, Dr. D Kibira, Prof E Lugujjo; Workshop on

Engineering Education and Training in East Africa- Proceedings, July 2005, Jinja,
Uganda.

2. http://www.uace.or.ug/index.php?option=displaypage&Itemid=67&op=page&Sub
Menu=

3. http://www.uace.or.ug/index.php?option=displaypage&Itemid=70&op=page&Sub
Menu=

4. http://www.uace.or.ug/index.php?option=displaypage&Itemid=70&op=page&Sub
Menu=

5. Alaphia J Wright. The African Engineer and the Challenges of Sustainable

Development.in the Continent. Keynote Address,Annual General Meeting,
Zimbabwe Institution of Engineers. 2001.Harare, Zimbabwe.
6. C J Liebenberg; The Role of the Consulting Engineer in Waste Management in
Africa

7. Arthur Taute; Development of Consulting Engineers through Procurement

Practices, South Africa

8. Patrick Masambu; Capacity Building for Consultancy in the Telecommunications

Sector,Uganda.

9. Eng. B. L. M. Mwamila, Eng. A. O. Mkamba and Eng. E. Mushi; Capacity

Building Initiatives by the Engineers Registration Board , Tanzania.
10. Malegapuru W. Makgoba and Thabo Mbeki, African Renaissance, Mafube
Publishing Limited & Tafelberg Publishers Limited, 1999, Cape Town, South
Africa.
11. Fantu Cheru, African Renaissance, Roadmaps to the Challenge of Globalization,
Zed Books and David Philip,2002, New York USA and Cape Town, RSA.
12. Karima Bounemra, Ben Soltane and Lishan Adam, The Role of Information and
Communication Technogies in Science and Technology in Africa. African
Renaissance, Mafube Publishing Tafelberg Publishers Limited, 1999, Cape
Town, South Africa.
13. Mashupye Ratale Kgaphola and Namane Magau. The Renaissance through
Science and Technology. African Renaissance, Mafube Publishing Tafelberg
Publishers Limited, 1999, Cape Town, South Africa.

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14. Mongane Wally Serote. Science and Technology: Towards Prosperity in Africa.
African Renaissance, Mafube Publishing Tafelberg Publishers Limited, 1999,
Cape Town, South Africa.
15. The World Bank, „can Africa claim the 21st century‟, Washington, D.C, USA
16. B.J. Reed and S. Coates, “Engineering and Gender Issues-evidence from low
income countries.”

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