EET 435 Renewable Energy Systems

Module 5 – Classification as micro, mini and small hydro projects - Basic

concepts and types of turbines- selection considerations.
 SMALL HYDRO RESOURCE
harnessing hydropower, both major and minor hydro resources are important and ne
e developed.However, major or large hydro projects involve construction of large dams
many social and environmental consequences.
e include submerging and loss of forest or agricultural land, the need to rehabilit
ate villagers from the submerged area, the risk of increasing seismicity as large amou
r is stored in the reservoir, excessive siltation at the dam site and the adverse effect o
ulation.
opower projects of ratings less than 10 MW are regarded are small hydro plant
l hydropower resources are considered as non-conventional and these resources
cted favourable attention after the oil crisis of 1973.
The small hydropower projects are extremely suitable for hilly, underdeveloped and r
areas as these resources eliminate the need of long transmission system.
These projects have also lower gestation period and lower investment or cost as no
dam or reservoir is needed for such projects.
Small hydro plants can be built by local-staff and smaller organisations using locally
machinery. Hence, decentralised small hydropower or mini hydel schemes are att
option for energy supplies in rural areas.
 CONVERSION OF HYDROPOWER
ric power is generated when water from height is made to flow through hydraulic turb
hydraulic turbine converts the potential energy of water or kinetic energy of flowing s
mechanical energy on its rotating shaft.
old-style water wheels used the impulse generated by the weight of falling water fo
ion, but modern hydraulic turbines operated on the principle of impulse and react
ert kinetic energy and potential energy respectively into mechanical energy.
work done per second or power given by the flowing water can be given by the fol
ession:
 TURBINES
bines convert available energy in the form of falling water into rotating shaft power.
y operate on the principle of either ‘impulse’ (equal pressure on each side of the run
action’ (pressure drops across the runner). The turbines can work on the princi
pulse and reaction.
mpulse Turbines
mpulse turbines pressure energy is converted first in a nozzle into the kinetic ener
h-speed jet of water, which is then converted to rotation in contact with the runner bl
lection of water and change of momentum.
runner can operate in air and the water remains at atmospheric pressure before an
king contact with runner blades.
eeds casing only to control splashing and to protect against accidents.
three impulse turbines considered here are the
Pelton,
Turgo and
. cross flow (also known as Banki, Mitchell or Ossberger turbine).
 TURBINES (CONT..)
elton Turbine
Pelton Turbine consists of a wheel with a series of
t buckets set around its rim as shown in Fig. 2.
gh velocity jet of water is directed tangentially at
wheel.
jet hits each bucket and is split in half, so that each
is turned and deflected back almost through 180°.
rly all the energy of the water goes into propelling
bucket and the deflectedwater falls into a discharge
nnel below.
e must be taken to allow plenty of space on either
of a Pelton runner to allow deflected water to exit
hout splash interference.
optimum efficiency the jet velocity needs to be
ut twice the speed of the bucket.
 TURBINES (CONT..)
unner of such a turbine is large for the power produced.
use of two or more jets placed symmetrically around the rim will allow a smaller runne
n flow of water and hence an increased rotational speed. The required power can s
ned.
wing options are available for control:
Replacement of nozzles: It is possible to divide the yearly flow variation in two, three o
parts and make a nozzle for each flow. The turbine operator can then remove one nozz
replace it with the desired nozzle. This is very low cost method of controlling the flow.
Spear valves: A needle valve or spear valve (as shown in Fig. 2), which is so called b
streamlined spearhead, is arranged to move within the nozzle, allowing variation in ef
orifice cross section area without introducing energy loss.
Varying the number of jets: If multi-jet turbine has shut off valves fitted on each of its
can be run at different flow rates by simply altering the number of jets playing on the run
Deflector plate: The water jet can be deflected away from the buckets of the runner
deflector plate (show in Fig. 2) is rotated into its path. This is very quick and does not r
the shutdown of the flow in the penstock, with consequent pressure surge danger.
 TURBINES (CONT..)
Shut-off valves: It is usual to place a valve, either a gate valve or a butterfly valve, in
turbine manifold. However, certain precautions are to be observed on its use. Pe
wheels are often driven by long penstocks in which surge pressure effects, due to v
closure, can be very dangerous and lead to damage caused by bursting of the pens
The valve must always be closed slowly, particularly during the last phase just be
shutoff. Gate valves are sometimes used mistakenly to regulate flow, by partially clo
them. This causes damage on the valve plate due to cavitation effects
rgo Turbine
Turgo turbine, shown in Fig. 3 is similar to the Pelton but the jet is designed to strike
e of the runner at an angle (typically 20°) so that the water enters the runner on one
exits on the other.
refore, the flow rate is not limited by the spent fluid interfering with the incoming jet (
case with Pelton turbines).
consequence, a Turgo turbine can have a smaller diameter runner than a Pelton fo
valent power. It, therefore, runs at a higher speed. It shares the general characteristi
ulse turbines listed for Pelton.
 TURBINES (CONT..)
o does have certain disadvantages also.
irstly it is more difficult to fabricate it as compared to a
Pelton wheel, since the buckets (or vanes) are complex in
hape, overlapping and more fragile than Pelton buckets.
econdly, the Turgo experiences a substantial axial load on
ts runner which must be met by providing a suitable
bearing on the end of the shaft.
ossflow Turbine
sflow turbines are also called Banki, Mitchell or Ossberger
nes.
ossflow turbine, shown in Fig. 4, has a drum- shaped
er consisting of two parallel discs connected together
their rims by a series of curved blades.
shaft of the runner is always kept horizontal in all cases
ke Pelton and Turgo turbines which can have horizontal as
as vertical orientations)
 TURBINES (CONT..)
peration a rectangular nozzle directs the jet to
ull length of the runner.
water enters the top of the runner through the
ed blades imparting most of its kinetic energy.
en passes through the runner and strikes the
es again on exit, imparting a smaller amount of
gy before falling away with little residual
gy.
effective head driving the cross flow runner can
ncreased by inducement of a partial vacuum
e the casing.
is done by fitting a draught tube below the
er which remains full of tail water at all times.
ful design of valve and casing is necessary to
d conditions where water might back up and
merge the runner.
 TURBINES (CONT..)
use of symmetry of a crossflow turbine the runner length can theoretically be increa
value without changing the hydraulic characteristics of the turbine.
ce, doubling runner length merely doubles the power output at the same speed.
lower the head, the longer the runner becomes, and conversely on high head
sflow runner tends to be compact.
e are, however, practical limits to length in both cases.
e blades are too long they will flex, leading quickly to fatigue failure at the junction of
disc.
ase of short runner operating on high head, efficiency losses at the edges be
iderable.
major attractions in the crossflow turbine are:
Firstly, it is a design suitable for a wide range of heads and power ratings.
Secondly, it lends itself easily to simple fabrication techniques, a feature which is of in
n developing countries. The runner blades, for instance, can be fabricated by cutting
engthwise in strips.
 TURBINES (CONT..)
eaction Turbines
ction turbines exploit the oncoming flow of water to generate hydrodynamic lift fo
pel the runner blades.
y are distinguished from the impulse type by having a runner that always functions w
mpletely water-filled casing.
reaction turbines have a diffuser known as a ‘draft tube’ below the runner through wh
er discharges.
draft tube slows the discharged water and reduces the static pressure below the runn
reby increases the effective head.
two main types of reaction turbine are:
Francis turbine and
. the propeller turbine (with Kaplan variant).
eneral, reaction turbines will rotate faster than impulse types given the same head an
ditions.
e propeller type will rotate even faster than Francis.
 TURBINES (CONT..)
e high speeds have the very important implication that the reaction turbines can oft
tly couple to a generator without any speed-increasing drive system.
ficant cost savings are made in eliminating the drive and the maintenance of the hydr
mes very much simpler.
he whole, reaction turbines need more sophisticated fabrication than impulse
use they involve the use of large, more intricately profiled blades.
extra expense involved is offset by high efficiencies and the advantage of high ru
ds at low heads from relatively compact machines.
ever, for use in micro-hydro in developing countries, these turbines are less attractive
brication constraints.
eaction turbines are subject to the danger of cavitation and tend to have poor pa
efficiency characteristics.
 TURBINES (CONT..)
ncis Turbine (Fig. 5 construction of Francis turbine.)
nlet has a spiral shape.
g is scrolled to distribute water around the
e perimeter of the runner.
uide vanes, direct the water tangentially to the
er.
unner blades are profiled in a complex manner.
eration, water enters around the periphery of the
er through guide vanes, passes through the runner
s before exiting axially from the center of the runner.
adial flow acts on the runner vanes (blades), causing
unner to spin.
guide vanes (or wicket gate) may be adjustable to
efficient turbine operation for a range of water flow
tions.
 TURBINES (CONT..)
he water moves through the runner its spinning radius decreases, further acting on
er.
water imparts most of its ‘pressure’ energy to the runner and leaves the turbine
ght tube.
guide vanes regulate the water flow as it enters the runner, and usually are linked
rnor system which matches the flow to turbine loading.
e Propeller Turbine and Kaplan
eller type turbines are similar in principle to the propeller of a ship, but operatin
rsed mode.
al construction is shown Fig.6.
often fitted inside a continuation of the penstock tube. Water flow is regulated by u
wiveling gates (wicket gates) just upstream of the runner (propeller).
part flow efficiency characteristic tends to be poor.
kind of propeller turbine is known as a ‘fixed blade axial-flow’ turbine, since the
metry of the turbine does not change.
 TURBINES (CONT..)
ough traditionally the propeller is profiled to
mize the effect of pressure lift force acting on it,
gns have been produced with flat section blades
h offer less efficiency but are more easily
cated.
kind of design can be considered seriously for
o hydro applications where low cost and ease of
cation are priorities.
also possible to consider casting the propeller
ng in concrete.
e-scale hydro sites make use of more
isticated versions of propeller turbine.
ng the pitch of propeller blades simultaneously
wicket gates adjustment has the effect of
ntaining high efficiency under part flow conditions.
 TURBINES (CONT..)
turbines are known as ‘variable pitch’ propeller
es or Kaplan turbines.Wicket gates are carefully
filed to induce tangential velocity or ‘whirl’ in the
ter.
ter enters radially or axially through these guide
nes.
iable pitch designs involve complex linkages and are
ually not cost effective in any except the largest of
cro hydro applications.
opeller (Kaplan) can be installed in vertical,
rizontal or inclined positions.
umber of installation designs and arrangement of
ves are possible.
. 7 shows three typical designsfor horizontal and
lined installation of the turbine.
 TURBINES (CONT..)
bulb type’ design the generator (and gear box if
is contained in a waterproof bulb, submerged in
low. Only electric cable duly protected leaves the
.
cross’ design requires a complex right angle drive
ansmit power to the generator, which is placed in
parate chamber. ‘S’ design requires the bend in
water passage to link the turbine with the
rator.
pical design for vertical installation of the turbine
own in Fig. 8
verse Pumps or Pumps-as-Turbines (PATs)
rifugal pumps can also be used as turbines.
ntial advantages are: low cost owing to mass
uction, availability of spare parts and wider
er/support networks.
 TURBINES (CONT..)
ause of high speed they can be directly coupled to generator without requiring co
e.
AT closely coupled to an induction motor sometimes referred to as ‘monobloc’ pum
mercially available.
motor runs as an induction generator.
disadvantages of PATs are: as yet poorly understood characteristics, no direct corr
ween pump characteristics and turbine characteristics, lower typical efficiencies, un
r characteristics and poor part flow efficiency.
eneral, PATs are most appropriate for medium head sites.
many countries pumps are manufactured in large quantities for water supply and irr
poses, whereas there may be no local manufacturer for water turbines.
hese countries PATs may be economical for a wide range of heads and flows.
 TURBINES (CONT..)
d Control of Turbines
re is a tendency in turbine to speed up when the load on turbine falls and turbine
wn when load is increased.
necessary to run the turbine at a constant speed by using a governor.
governor can
educe or increase the water flow through a nozzle of an impulse turbine,
hange the passage between the guide vanes to reduce or increase water flow in a
low reaction turbine (Francis turbine) and
hange the passage between both guide and runner vanes to reduce or increa
water flow through the axial flow reaction turbine (Kaplan).
 TURBINES (CONT..)
bility of Turbines
e Turbines are classified according to their specific speeds.
e selection of turbine on the basis of specific speed is made in the following ways:

Low specific speed. Impulse turbines have a low value of specific speeds and the
turbines are suitable to work under high head and large discharge conditions. T
specific speeds of these turbines vary from 8 to 50.
Medium specific speed. Reaction turbines such as Francis turbines have specific spee
varying from 51 to 225. These turbines are suitable to work under moderate head a
discharge conditions.
High specific speed. Reaction turbines such as Kaplan turbines have high specific spee
varying from 250 to 850. These turbines are suitable to work under low head and la
discharge conditions.
 TURBINE CLASSIFICATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND
FICATION SELECTION
ines can be crudely classified as high-head, medium-head, and low-head machines, as s
ble 1.
his is relative to the size of machine: what is low head for a large turbine can be high head
l turbine; for example a Pelton Turbine might be used at 50 m head with a 10 kW system
d need a minimum head of 150 m to be considered for a 1 MW system.
l turbines designed for micro hydro applications often will have no method of altering the
of water.
arger machines, some method of altering the flow is normal and if flow control device
d to the turbine, then the same head of water can be maintained above the tu
irement while flow reduces.
 TURBINE CLASSIFICATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND
SELECTION (CONT..)
ACTERISTICS
erent turbine types respond differently to changed flow at constant head.
refore an important aspect of their characteristics is their performance at part
w conditions.
pical efficiency characteristics are given in Fig. 9.
important point to notice is that the Pelton and
oss flow turbines retain high efficiency when
nning below designed flow.
contrast the Francis drops in efficiency, producing
ry poor power output if run at below half the
rmal flow.
ed pitch propeller turbines perform very poorly
cept at 80 to 100 per cent of full flow.
 TURBINE CLASSIFICATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND
SELECTION (CONT..)
ION
cis turbine is one of the few turbines which turns at a reasonable speed at certain pow
head
bination.
mpulse turbine operated under these conditions of head and flow would be much
nsive, cumbersomely slow turning and would need a greater speed increasing transmission
dition to giving high speed at low head-to-power ratios, reaction turbines are particularl
d to low head applications for a second reason.
power conversion is caused partly by pressure difference across the blades, the drop in
w the blades (known as ‘suction head’) is as effective in producing power as the head abo
ne.
generally difficult or expensive to place micro hydro turbine lower than about 2 meters
urface level of water down steam of the turbine.
low head site of, say, 10 meters the suction head then represent 20 per cent of the
able at the site.
 TURBINE CLASSIFICATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND
SELECTION (CONT..)
s likely to be very significant in terms of the overall economy of the scheme.
ntrast, impulse turbines do not usually make use of any suction head as their casing ru
ospheric pressure. However, sophisticated cross flows on low heads often use suction heads
ng noted the advantage of using a suction head, it should also be observed that the magn
e usable suction is limited.
is because very low water pressures are induced on the blades of a reaction turbine ru
r high suction.
e can be low enough to vaporize the water in pockets (or ‘cavities’) of vapor attached t
nal surfaces of the turbine.
cavities form and collapse at a very high rate which after a period of time can cause se
ng and cracking of the blades.
phenomenon is known as ‘cavitation’.
actical terms great care must be taken to situate the runner at a position which preven
bility of damage to cavitation.
 TURBINE CLASSIFICATION, CHARACTERISTICS AND
SELECTION (CONT..)
opriate turbine is selected based on the
elines depending mainly on the available head
discharge (Q) and power required (P).
a particular head they will tend to run most
ently at a particular speed, and require a
cular flow rate.
required speed at the generator shaft is
eved using speed-increasing gear or pulley and
drive.
approximate ranges of head, flow and power
cable to the different turbine types are
marized in the chart of Fig. 10 (up to 500 kW
er).
e are approximate and dependent on the
ise design of each manufacturer.
 SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS
do you classify small hydropower plants?
hydropower plants having capacity below 10 MW are classified as small hydropower p
hese plants have small generation capacity, there is no need for large reservoir or da
e water.
seasonal variation in water flow in the water stream affects the power output from
ts.
nnial streams flowing in hilly areas with steep gradients are the most suitable sites for
ts.
e plants can, therefore, meet the power requirements of most of the hill areas.
ral international agencies are providing technical and financial assistance fo
truction of small hydropower plants in developing countries to improve the quality of
erdeveloped areas.
l hydro resources are largely free from any pollution and their potential is, the
easingly being utilized.
 SMALL HYDROPOWER PLANTS (CONT..)
ending on the capacities, small hydropower plants can be classified as follows:
Micro hydel plants. The plants generating power up to 100 KW are called micro
plants.
Mini hydel plants. The plants generating power above 100 kW but less than 1000
(1 MW) are classified as mini hydel plants.
Small hydel plants. The plants generating power in the range of 1-10 MW are classif
small hydel plants.
ending upon available heads, the small hydropower plants (micro, mini and small) ca
lassified as follows:
Ultra-low heads up to 3
Low heads from 3 to 30
Medium heads between 30 and 75
High heads above 75
 CONVERSION OF HYDROPOWER (CONT..)
small hydel schemes can also be classified as follows:
Independent schemes. In these schemes, the stream flow is captured, regulate
developed for the purpose of power generation only. The low head scheme
unsuitable to be developed as independent power generation schemes.
Subordinate schemes. As the name suggests, the main purpose is not to ge
electricity, but to supply water for irrigation or drinking. These schemes are suitab
micro and mini hydel plants because of the availability of small slopes in the canal sys
rits of Small Hydropower Sources
potential of small hydropower resources remains untapped for the following reasons:
Small hydel plants entail high cost of power generation per unit
High managerial and administrative costs due to installation at isolated and remote a
Low load factor or utilization of power
Unstable operation of isolated system due to changes in stream flow in different sea
Generation depends upon availability of flow
Susceptible to losses due to extreme climatic conditions leading to flooding, th
damaging the equipment
 CONVERSION OF HYDROPOWER (CONT..)
erits of Small Hydropower Resources
The advantages of small hydel plants are as follows:
The plants can be built locally at low cost.
It can be considered as a renewable energy resource.
It is a non-polluting resource.
Its installation does not require long gestation period. Installation may be also withi
months.
Its operating costs are low as skilled manpower is not required for operatio
maintenance.
It is an ideal decentralised power generation resource which is meant to supply ene
local areas, thereby eliminating distribution losses and costs.
The project neither submerges any area nor displaces any nearby villagers as necess
the case of a large hydropower with the construction of dam.
. Small hydropower plants can be developed to augment hydropower capacity of ex
irrigation dams.
Thank You