Hanser Publications - Bonten, Christian - Plastics Technology Introduction and Fundamentals-Hanser Publications (2019)

Bonten
Plastics Technology
Christian Bonten
Plastics Technology
Introduction and Fundamentals
Hanser Publishers, Munich Hanser Publications, Cincinnati

The Author:
Prof. Christian Bonten,
University of Stuttgart, Institut für Kunststofftechnik (IKT),
Pfaffenwaldring 32, 70569 Stuttgart, Germany
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Preface
Immediately after I started working at the University of Stuttgart in late summer

2010, I revised the course “Fundamentals of Plastics Technology” with the help of
my scientific staff. Since then, this important course has been held unchanged in
Stuttgart for a long time. During the revision we not only updated figures and
contents, but also gave the course a new structure, which I – inspired by didactic
seminars of the German University Association – consider more contemporary.
Numerous film sequences used in the lectures enable the students to understand
the contents more quickly and deeply. I am convinced that the students in my
course become well equipped with a comprehensive, fundamental knowledge of
plastics and plastics technology for their upcoming professional life. If students
want to deepen their knowledge of the subject, they can do so in the three main
areas of “Materials Engineering”, “Processing Technology”, and “Product Engi-
neering” in other courses later on.
This introductory and fundamental lecture series in Stuttgart is an elective course
with four lessons per week for master students of process engineering, mechanical
engineering (e. g. production engineering, automotive engineering), materials sci-
ence, as well as of technology management. The course is actually aimed at techni-
cally educated students, but in the meantime non-technical students (economics,
environmental issues) choose the course as well. While about 100 students had
this subject examined after the 2010 winter semester, the number was growing
year by year subsequently. The increasing interest of highly motivated and disci-
plined master’s students led me to supplement the figures with continuous text
and publish them in the form of a book the first time in 2014.
In winter 2012/13, students started asking me about the critical topics that are
“heard in the media”. I decided to get to the bottom of the topics “environmental
pollution”, “toxins in plastics”, “bioplastics”, and “life cycle analyses” right down to
the original sources and to prepare this as a part of the course as well. These topics
form the final chapter “plastics and the environment” of this book, and I have the
impression that factual information is the best means of clarification. The reader
may decide whether I have succeeded in dealing with the topics in a factual way.
VI Preface
I was a little surprised when, just one and a half years after the start of sales of the
first German edition, the publisher asked me to prepare the second one. The many
reviews that were sent to the publisher were all positive, contained valuable sug-
gestions and encouraged me to continue this book the same way. Since 2016, more
than 500 students chose the course underlying this book in structure and content
and also encouraged me to continue teaching in this way. In the second German
edition, I concentrated on individual additions, revisions, and updates, as well as
the correction of several errors.
In the meantime, I am being asked by university professors from all over the world
to give not only scientific presentations, but master’s courses about plastics tech-
nology there as well. Since not everyone speaks German and I usually do not speak
their native language, I often hold the course in English. To help the students with
the rework, I have decided to translate the second edition of this book into the
English language and made only minor changes.
I would like to thank the publisher for their trust and advice as well as for offering
this book in color and hardcover. I would also like to thank my supporting staff
members, who have carefully worked through and gave valuable hints on mistakes
and the comprehensibility of the text of the first and second German editions.
Technical staff members supported me with figures and photos from their daily
work. The students Adriana Steinitz and Lisa Schleeh greatly helped me with
translation of the text and the figures.
I am sure that with the knowledge of the book I will give every reader/student the
opportunity to quickly gain a foothold in the plastics industry and to enable her or
him to decide early on in which application plastics can do great things.
Stuttgart, September 2019
Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Christian Bonten

The Author:
Prof. Christian Bonten
University Professor Dr.-Ing. Christian Bonten heads the Institute for Plastics Tech-
nology (Institut für Kunststofftechnik; IKT) in Stuttgart, one of the leading German
research institutes in the field of plastics technology. After studying mechanical
engineering in Duisburg/Germany and plastics processing at the University in
Aachen/Germany, Prof. Bonten received his doctorate in the field of welding plas-
tics under supervision of Prof. Ernst Schmachtenberg. After several years of tech-
nical responsibility and later business responsibility at the chemical company
BASF and the bioplastics manufacturer FKuR, he was appointed Director and Head
of the IKT by the University of Stuttgart in 2010. The institute works in all areas
of plastics technology: materials engineering, processing technology, and product
engineering.
How to Use This Book
The special feature of this book is the use of so-called Quick Response Codes
(QR codes), which were developed more than 30 years ago in Japan. In this book
they are used to connect a smartphone with the YouTube channel of the IKT and to
run a film or animation matching the topic. This offers the fusion of the “frozen”
printed book with the highly mobile possibilities of the new media.
QR codes allow the transmission of information by scanning – very similar to the
bar codes on food packaging, but with a higher information density. They are a
square matrix of black and white dots, which represent the coded data in binary
code. Nowadays you do not need a special scanner any more, but simply scan the
code with the camera of your smartphone using suitable software (an “app”).
To use the barcodes, a corresponding app (to be found e. g. under the search terms
“QR code reader” or “QR code scanner”) must be installed, if the smartphone
does not already have it “on board”. Of course, the smartphone must have Internet
access in order to access the IKT YouTube channel. After starting the app, the
QR code should be targeted in the search field: the information is usually recog-
nized quickly and the appropriate YouTube movie runs automatically. Some of the
movies have a soundtrack, so: speaker on!
A video can be played here.
A video can be played here.

http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Hinweis

If teachers in schools or similar non-commercial entities want to make use of the

figures used in this book, we will be happy to send them in high resolution. We
kindly ask to make sure that the “Source: C. Bonten, Plastics Technology, 2019,
Hanser” is always mentioned.
Contents
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V
The Author: Prof. Christian Bonten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII
How to Use This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Plastics – Material of the Modern Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Applications of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.3 Plastics and Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1 From Monomer to Polymer – Basics of Polymer Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.1 Origin of Monomers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.1.2 Polymer Synthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.2.1 Polymerization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.1.2.2 Copolymerization (Special Form of Polymerization) . . . 19
2.1.2.3 Polycondensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1.2.4 Polyaddition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.1.3 The Molar Mass of Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.1.4 Binding Forces and Brownian Molecular Movement . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.4.1 Intermolecular Physical Bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.4.2 Brownian Molecular Motion – Mobility of
Polymer Chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.1.5 Mechanisms of Solidification and Subdivision of Polymers . . . . 33
2.1.6 Primary Structure of Polymers: Constitution and Configuration 36
2.1.7 Secondary and Tertiary Structures of Polymers: Conformation . 38
2.1.7.1 Amorphous Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
XII Contents
2.1.7.2 Crystalline Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

2.1.7.3 Influence of the Primary Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.1.7.4 Superstructures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.1.8 Polymers – Raw Materials Not Only for Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.2 Fundamentals of Force Transmission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.1 Important Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.1.1 Strength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.1.2 Stiffness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.1.3 Toughness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.2.1.4 Stress-Strain Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.2.2 State Ranges of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.2.2.1 Glass Transition Temperature Tg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.2.2.2 Crystalline Melting Temperature Tm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2.2.3 State Ranges of Crosslinked Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
2.2.3 Mechanical Replacement Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.3 Plastics and Plastics Technology – Definition of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3 Plastics Materials Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3.1 Behavior in the Melt – Flow Properties and Their Measurement . . . . . 66
3.1.1 Fluid Mechanics Basics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.1.2 Influences on the Flow Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.1.3 The Concept of Representative Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.1.4 Elongation of Melt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.1.5 Die Swell and Shrinkage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.1.6 Rheometry – the Measurement of Flow Properties . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.1.6.1 Measurement of the Melt Flow Rate MFR . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.1.6.2 The High-Pressure Capillary Rheometer . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.1.6.3 Rotational Rheometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.1.6.4 Extensional Rheometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2 Behavior as a Solid – Solid Properties and Their Measurement . . . . . . 95
3.2.1 Mechanical Properties of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.2.1.1 The Tensile Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.2.1.2 The High Speed Tensile Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.2.1.3 Influence of Time and Temperature on the
Mechanical Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.2.1.4 The Creep Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.2.1.5 The Vibration Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.2.1.6 The Bending Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.2.2 Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.2.2.1 Electrical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Contents XIII
3.2.2.2 Magnetic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

3.2.2.3 Optical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.2.2.4 Acoustic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.2.3 Values for Thermal and Mass Exchange . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.2.3.1 Specific Enthalpy h . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.2.3.2 Specific Heat Capacity cp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.2.3.3 Density ρ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.2.3.4 Thermal Conductivity λ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3.2.3.5 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion α . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3.2.3.6 Thermal Diffusivity a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.2.3.7 Heat Penetration Coefficient b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.2.3.8 Mass Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.3 Influence of Additives on Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.3.1 Reinforcing Materials – Active Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
3.3.1.1 Fibers and the Principle of Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.3.1.2 The Tasks of the Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.3.1.3 Force Transmission of Fiber-Reinforced
Plastic Composites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
3.3.1.4 Defects in Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Composites . . . . . . . 148
3.3.1.5 Nanoparticles as Active Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.3.2 Functional Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
3.3.2.1 Viscosity-Changing Additives – Flowing Agents . . . . . . 154
3.3.2.2 Plasticizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
3.3.2.3 Blending of Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.3.2.4 Impact Modifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.3.2.5 Nucleating Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.3.2.6 Coupling Agents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3.3.2.7 Conductive Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
3.3.3 Fillers – Inactive Additives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.4 From Polymer to Plastic – Introduction to Plastic Compounding . . . . . . 162
3.4.1 The Twin-Screw Extruder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.4.2 Process Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.4.3 Characteristic Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.4.4 Additional Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.5 Process, Structure, Properties – Influences due to the
Converting Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3.5.1 Residual Stresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
3.5.2 Orientation of Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
3.5.3 Orientation of Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
3.5.4 Crystallization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.5.5 Formation of a Macrostructure: Foaming of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . 178
XIV Contents
3.6 Changes over Time – Overview into the Aging of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.6.1 Causes of Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.6.2 Aging Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.6.2.1 Mechanical Aging Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.6.2.2 Physical Aging Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.6.2.3 Chemical Aging Mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
3.6.2.4 Mode of Action of Aging Stabilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.6.3 Aging Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
3.6.4 Characterization of the Aging Progress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
3.7 Brief Description of Some Important Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
3.8 Polyethylene (PE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.9 Polypropylene (PP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
3.10 Ethylene-Propylene-(Diene) Copolymers (EPDM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
3.11 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
3.12 Polystyrene (PS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.13 Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene Copolymers (SBS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.14 Styrene-Acrylonitrile Copolymers (SAN) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
3.15 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Copolymers (ABS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
3.16 Acrylonitrile-Styrene-Acrylate Copolymers (ASA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
3.17 Polyamide (PA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
3.18 Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.19 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
3.20 Polycarbonate (PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
3.21 Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
3.22 Polyoxymethylene (POM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
3.23 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
3.24 Polyether Ether Ketone (PEEK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
3.25 Polyethersulfone (PES) und Polysulfone (PSU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
3.26 Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
3.27 Cellulose Derivatives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
3.28 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
3.29 Polylactide (PLA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
3.30 Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPE-U, also TPU) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
3.31 Polyurethane (PUR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
3.32 Epoxy Resins (EP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Contents XV
3.33 Melamine Formaldehyde Resin (MF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

3.34 Phenol-Formaldehyde or Phenol Resin (PF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
3.35 Urea-Formaldehyde Resin (UF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
3.36 Unsaturated Polyester Resin (UP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
3.37 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4 Plastics Processing Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

4.1 Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
4.1.1 Extruder Screw and Barrel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.1.2 The Helibar® High-Performance Extruder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
4.1.3 Pipe and Profile Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
4.1.4 Flat Film and Sheet Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.1.5 Tube and Blown Film Extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
4.1.6 Extrusion Blow Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
4.1.7 Co-extrusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
4.2 Injection Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
4.2.1 The Injection Molding Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4.2.2 The Plasticizing Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
4.2.3 The Clamping Unit with Injection Mold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
4.2.3.1 Rheological Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
4.2.3.2 Thermal Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
4.2.4 Influence of the Injection Molding Process on the
Properties of the Component . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
4.2.5 Special Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
4.2.5.1 Injection-Compression Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
4.2.5.2 Thermoplastic Foam Injection Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
4.2.5.3 Cascade Injection Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
4.2.5.4 Injection Molding Compounding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
4.2.5.5 Multi-component Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
4.2.5.6 Sandwich Injection Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
4.2.5.7 Fluid Injection Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
4.2.5.8 Back Injection Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
4.2.5.9 Injection Stretch Blow Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
4.2.5.10 Variothermal Mold Temperature Control . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
4.3 Processing of Crosslinking Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
4.3.1 Compression Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
4.3.2 Transfer Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
4.3.3 Injection Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
4.3.4 Polyurethane Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
XVI Contents
4.4 Technology of Fiber-Reinforced Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

4.4.1 Hand Lay-up and Fiber Spraying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
4.4.2 Pressing of SMC and GMT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
4.4.3 Pultrusion of Continuous Fibers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
4.4.4 Working with Prepregs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
4.4.5 Resin Injection Molding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
4.4.6 Three-Dimensional Fiber Reinforced Plastic Structures . . . . . . . 321
4.5 Further Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
4.5.1 Thermoforming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
4.5.2 Mechanical Machining of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
4.5.3 Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
4.5.3.1 Hot Plate Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
4.5.3.2 Hot Gas Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
4.5.3.3 Extrusion Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
4.5.3.4 Ultrasonic Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
4.5.3.5 Vibration Friction Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
4.5.3.6 Laser Welding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
4.5.4 Adhesive Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
4.5.5 Joining by Snap Connections, Screws, and Rivets . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
4.5.6 Coating of Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
4.5.6.1 Coated Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
4.5.6.2 Coating Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
4.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
5 Product Development with Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

5.1 Plastics as Construction Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
5.1.1 Plastic-Specific Unique Selling Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
5.1.2 Material Preselection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
5.2 Geometric Subdivision of Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
5.2.1 Large-Area Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
5.2.2 Housing-Like Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
5.2.3 Container-Like Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
5.2.4 Complex Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
5.2.5 Function-Specific Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
5.2.6 Importance for the Choice of the Processing Method . . . . . . . . . 371
5.3 Designing with Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
5.3.1 Requirements for Products and Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
5.3.2 Benefits of Design Freedom – Integration of
Functional Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
5.3.3 Use of Design Freedom – Increasing the Surface Moment
of Inertia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
Contents XVII
5.3.4 Material-Specific Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

5.3.5 Production-Oriented Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
5.3.6 Stress-Oriented Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
5.3.6.1 Dimensioning against a Permissible Stress . . . . . . . . . . 398
5.3.6.2 Dimensioning against Critical Strain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
5.3.6.3 Dimensioning against the Influence of Time –
Service Life Prediction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
5.3.7 Brief Summary of Designing with Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
5.4 Benefits of Prototypes in Product Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
5.4.1 Rapid Prototyping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
5.4.1.1 Stereolithography (SLA) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
5.4.1.2 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
5.4.1.3 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM) . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
5.4.1.4 3D Printing (3-D-P) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
5.4.1.5 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM or FFF) . . . . . . . . . . . 413
5.4.2 Rapid Tooling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
5.4.2.1 Casting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
5.4.2.2 Laser Sintering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
5.4.3 Selection of a Prototype Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
5.4.3.1 Requirements Placed on the Prototype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
5.4.3.2 Prototypes for Large-Area Products and for
Housing-Like Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
5.4.3.3 Prototypes for Container-Like Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
5.4.3.4 Prototypes for Complex Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
5.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
6 Plastics and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

6.1 Plastic Waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
6.2 Are Plastics Toxic? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432
6.3 Biopolymers and Bioplastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
6.3.1 Biodegradable Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
6.3.2 Bio-based Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
6.3.3 From Biopolymer to Bioplastic – Compounding
of Biopolymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
6.4 Conserving Resources with Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
6.4.1 Origin of the Term “Sustainability” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
6.4.2 The Brundtland Report and the Kyoto Protocol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
6.4.3 Conservation of Resources with Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
6.4.4 Regenerative Energy Generation with Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
XVIII Contents
6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

6.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
A Recommendations for Writing a Bachelor’s/Master’s Thesis

at the IKT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
A.1 Different Demands of Bachelor’s, Master’s, and Doctoral Theses . . . . . 461
A.2 Scientific Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
A.2.1 Source-Examining Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
A.2.2 Theoretical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
A.2.3 Empirical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
A.3 Scientific Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
A.4 Bachelor’s or Master’s Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
A.4.1 About the Title of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
A.4.2 About the Content of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
A.4.2.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
A.4.2.2 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
A.4.2.3 Main Part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
A.4.2.4 Concluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
A.4.2.5 Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
A.4.3 About the Scope of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
A.4.4 About the Writing Style of the Thesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
1 Introduction
“What do you think of when you hear the word ‘plastic’?” is often the first question
to my master’s students at the University of Stuttgart. Interestingly, most of them
think first of all about application areas (lightweight construction, automobiles,
aircraft, but also packaging and thermal insulation), then about the subdivision
into thermoplastics, elastomers, and thermosets, which they may have remem-
bered from high school. Sometimes they think of processing terms such as injection
molding or extrusion, but compared to previous years, the topics of plasticizers,
recycling, and environmental pollution only emerge later and later.
Plastics already seem to be such an integral part of everyday life that every student
associates them with something useful and does not necessarily burden them with
a “cheap” image. In this introduction, we first want to take a look at the young his-
tory of plastics and their current fields of application, before presenting the special
significance of plastics for design-influenced products.
1.1 Plastics – Material of the Modern Age

The earth is presumably 4.54 billion years old, plants (flora) originated only
540 million years ago, fungi, lichens, and the first animals (fauna) appeared about
440 million years ago.
Homo sapiens sapiens, i. e. the intelligent, modern human being, has existed for
about 40,000 years and in this short period of time – from a world-historical point
of view – has created amazing things.
The Copper Age, the last phase of the Stone Age, was followed by the Bronze Age
(Figure 1.1). Bronze is an alloy consisting of at least 60% copper and also contains
tin. Bronze is regarded as the first alloy specifically produced and used by humans,
an achievement that already required metallurgical knowledge. Finally, the Bronze
Age was gradually replaced by the early Iron Age (Hallstatt period). Iron and its
alloys required even more metallurgical knowledge and higher temperatures,
2 1 Introduction
which finally enabled even more superior weapons and tools such as those of the
ancient Romans.
4600
4000
3000
2000
1000
66.5
million years
542
251
2.6
0
before now
Quarternary
Proterozoic
Cretaceous
Ordovician
Carbonifer.
Cambrian
Devonian
Neogene
Miocene
Pliocene
Archean
Permian
Hadean
Jurassic
Silurian
Triassic
until approx. until approx. until until
2000 BC 1000 BC 375 AD 1500
Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age Middle Age Modern

Age
glass paper aluminum

known in Egypt invention in discovery
since the fourth China approx. around 1800
millennium BC 105 AD plastics
porcelain large scale
invention in production 1938
China approx.
700 AD
Figure 1.1 Chronology of development of different materials in human history
For over a millennium, actually no new material in the “known world” (from a
European perspective, i. e. Europe, Africa, Middle East) was invented. It was only at
the beginning of the 18th century that J. F. Böttger and E. W. von Tschirnhaus “in-
vented” European porcelain (which already existed in China for about 1000 years).
Aluminum was first produced at the beginning of the 19th century, and in the
middle of that century the early plastics were introduced (however, it took until the
middle of the 20th century to implement production on a large scale).
Due to the strong and increasing use of plastics, there are historians who already
speak of the “plastics age”. In 1983, the worldwide consumption of plastics reached
125,000,000 m3, for the first time, exceeding that of iron [1]. In the history of plas-
tics, a distinction is made between four eras [2]:
Origins (until 1839),
The era of imitation fabrics (1839 to 1914),
Era of substitutes (from approx. 1914 to approx. 1950),
The era of materials with new properties (from around 1950).
The Era of Imitation Materials

At the beginning of the history of plastics there was an ecological problem, which
is not strange to us even today. Due to the strong demand for ivory for balls for the
1.1 Plastics – Material of the Modern Age 3
billiards game popular in the USA, the elephants in Ceylon, today’s Sri Lanka, were
already close to extinction in the second half of the 19th century.
An American inventor, J. W. Hyatt, succeeded in 1867 in synthesizing a substitute,
celluloid. But celluloid was not only attractive for billiard balls, but also for the
inexpensive imitation of luxury products made of ivory, tortoiseshell, nacre, or
horn for all kinds of everyday objects (Figure 1.2). The invention of G. Eastman,
the head of the Kodak Group, who patented photographic film in 1884, has an even
more epochal significance: thin strips of celluloid as a carrier for a light-sensitive
layer [1].
Figure 1.2 Celluloid: replacement for expensive natural materials [Image source: Deutsches
Kunststoffmuseum (German Plastics Museum)]
It was similar with the development of Bakelite®, the first fully synthetic phenolic
resin-based plastic, by the Belgian Leo Hendrik Baekeland at the beginning of the
20th century. The heat distortion resistant, electrically insulating, and lightweight
material was ideal for the still young electrical engineering industry for use as a
housing material for radios and telephones (Figure 1.3) and for even more complex
geometries of switches and lamp sockets (Figure 1.4). Electrical devices spread
rapidly at that time.
Figure 1.3
Telephone housing made of Bakelite [Image source:
Deutsches Kunststoffmuseum (German Plastics Museum)]
4 1 Introduction
Figure 1.4
Bell button to call for domestic servants [Image source:
Deutsches Kunststoffmuseum (German Plastics Museum)]
The Era of Substitute Materials

Even before World War I, the German Fritz Klatte took the first steps towards the
industrial production of one of the most important mass plastics of the 20th cen-
tury: polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which was invented by the Frenchman Henri Victor
Regnault but could not be produced in large quantities until then.
The mechanical properties and the resistance of this material to chemicals and
environmental influences as well as its low-cost production made it universally
applicable: from acid-resistant protective gloves to bags and suitcases made of imi-
tation leather. The vinyl record replaced the record made of shellac, a secretion of
special lice, and spun on every turntable until well into the 1980s [1].
The Era of Materials with New Properties

Even before the First World War, these pioneers were often dependent only on em-
piricism, on ideas and experiments, in order to make new inventions in the field of
plastics. This changed in 1922 when Professor Hermann Staudinger from Freiburg,
Germany, explained the processes involved in the formation of polymers and plas-
tics with his theory of macromolecules (Nobel Prize 1953).
It is therefore not surprising that numerous new substances were developed in the
1930s: polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA; “Plexiglas®”) from Röhm (now Evonik),
polystyrene (PS) from BASF (now INEOS), polyethylene (PE) from Imperial Che
mical Industries (now Akzo Nobel), and the polyamide (PA) with the brandname
Nylon® from DuPont as well as with the brandname Perlon®, at the same time in-
vented by the University of Stuttgart chemist Paul Schlack [1].
After stagnation during the Second World War, the triumph of plastics was unstop-
pable. Otto Bayer had already developed polyurethane by the end of the 1930s. In
the 1950s there were numerous applications for soft and rigid polyurethane (PUR)
foams, mostly upholstered furniture and sporting goods.
In 1949, Fritz Stastny of BASF created a very lightweight material with expanded
polystyrene (EPS; Styropor®) through his process of foaming polystyrene. It was
immediately used for shock-absorbing packaging of sensitive goods and for ther-
mal insulation. In 1953, Karl Ziegler patented a safe and inexpensive process for
the production of polyethylene (PE) that made this plastic truly marketable (Nobel
1.2 Applications of Plastics 5
Prize 1963 together with Giulio Natta). To this day, polyethylene and polypropyl-
ene (PP) are by far the most widely used materials [1].
Hermann Schnell at Bayer succeeded in synthesizing polycarbonate (PC) in 1953.
It combines transparency with very good mechanical properties. The material is
valued as an alternative to glass in the construction industry and for housings for
electrical appliances, usually also blended with ABS. Today, shatterproof headlamp
diffusers made of polycarbonate ensure greater safety and lower weight in cars.
From around 1982 it was used in large quantities for the manufacture of optical
data carriers. The Compact Disc (CD) almost completely replaced the proven vinyl
record made of PVC, followed by DVD and Blu-ray Disc [1]. Today, however, these
are increasingly being replaced by solid state disks (SSDs) that contain little plastic.
1.2 Applications of Plastics

Plastics are increasingly being used for passenger transport because their low
mass forces also reduce inertia (so-called “lightweight” construction, although in-
ertia is not equal to weight). If inertia is reduced, sportier driving is possible for a
given engine power, or alternatively the engine power and therefore the use of
resources can be reduced.
Figure 1.5 shows selected examples of vehicles and aircraft whose plastic content is
constantly increasing. For example, below right, the A350 series from Airbus is shown,
which now consists of more than 50% by weight carbon fiber reinforced plastics.
Figure 1.5 Application of plastics in passenger transportation [Image source: Deutsche

Bahn AG, BMW AG, Honda Motor Itd., Airbus AG]
6 1 Introduction
The largest area of application for plastics is light food packaging, illustrated in
Figure 1.6 using the example of films and plastic bottles. For many people, it is not
immediately obvious which benefits are provided by packaging. On closer in
spection, it becomes clear that plastic packaging with minimal input quantities
provides a “shield” over the goods to be protected whose material or energetic
efficiency cannot be achieved by other packaging materials. Section 6.3 deals with
this more in detail.
Figure 1.6 Packaging made of plastic
Using the example of European plastics consumption, Figure 1.7 shows that pack-
aging is a very important area of application for plastics, followed by use in the
construction industry, e. g. as insulating material, for pipelines, or as heat-insulat-
ing material for window frames. This is followed by vehicles and electrical engi-
neering applications.
It is particularly noticeable that packaging is more likely a short-lived application
of plastics; on the other hand, plastics in the construction sector are used for
50 years or longer. Here one already notices the d
ilemma under which this class of
material suffers. On the one hand the product should disappear as soon as possible
after usage (packaging); on the other hand it should be usable as long as possible
(building industry).
The term “other” is used, for example, to describe the areas of application: sports
and leisure, furniture, toys, and medical technology. It becomes clear that there is
actually hardly any industry in which plastics are not used!
Figure 1.8 shows sports and leisure applications; most of them would be inconceiv-
able without plastics. The images shown here have also been selected for their
design and color variety: While technical components, which are hardly visible, are
designed according to the technical requirements and usually dyed black, con-
sumer products are often fashionably designed and dyed.
1.2 Applications of Plastics 7
building &
construction 20.1 %
packaging 39.4 %
electrical &
electronics 5.4 %
automotive 8.5 %
others 26.6 %
Figure 1.7 Application of plastics in Europe 2014 [3]
Figure 1.8 Application in the sports sector

8 1 Introduction
1.3 Plastics and Design

Many consumer-related products use design as a unique selling point (e. g. Apple®,
Samsung®, but also BRAUN® and Rimowa®). In some cases, technology and quality
alone can no longer clearly differentiate a company from the competition. Plastics
are the “chameleon of materials” and are therefore a material that designers like to
use. The early plastics made it possible to imitate precious natural materials such
as horn, tortoiseshell, nacre, and ivory (see above), and even modern plastics allow
the imitation of many other high-quality materials.
What also makes plastic components so attractive is not only the lower weight, but
also the usually lower component costs. The low-cost primary forming process,
which we will get to know in Chapter 4 “Processing Technology”, allows a wide
variety of forming options and thereby freedom of design (see also Chapter 5 “Prod-
uct Development”). Both are particularly attractive for engineers and industrial
designers.
The “cost-effective” aspect has certainly led to the fact that plastics had for a long
time a “cheap” image compared to other materials. Today, plastic products are in-
creasingly being processed into high-quality design products without losing their
material identity. Plastics are less and less substitutes for other materials than a
previously “non-existent innovation material” [4].
The design of a vehicle interior, the coordinated color scheme, the feel, and the
sound are an experience that can hardly be associated with a “cheap” one (Fig-
ure 1.9): almost everything here is made of plastic.
Figure 1.9 High-quality vehicle interior made of various plastics [Image source: BMW AG]
Designers particularly like the fact that plastics can be colored (Figure 1.10), which
is hardly possible with any other material. Lunch boxes, ballpoint pens, shower gel
bottles, and many other plastic products are available in a wide range of colors and
color combinations.
1.3 Plastics and Design 9
With the coloring, the more expensive painting step can be saved on the one hand,
whereas on the other hand the component retains its color even if the surface is
damaged. This is an advantage used, for example, by Japanese motorcycle manu-
facturers, who switch from painted sheet metal parts – where technically possi-
ble – to UV stabilized colored plastic components. The result is not only the
above-mentioned aesthetic advantages after scratches, but also a far lower compo-
nent weight at lower manufacturing costs.
Figure 1.10 Everyday objects in different colors, shapes, and surfaces
The variety of shapes has always inspired designers and artists. Figure 1.11 shows
“La Chaise” by the engineer and artist couple Charles and Ray Eames from 1948,
which for decades existed only as a model and was exhibited in museums. At the
beginning of the 1990s, the German-Swiss furniture manufacturer Vitra dared to
invest in its series production with modern materials and certainly does not regret
it today.
10 1 Introduction
Figure 1.11 Aesthetic shape of “La Chaise” [Image source: Vitra AG]
Figure 1.12 shows the world-famous cantilever chair of the Dane Verner Panton.
First he made it as a prototype from glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) manually
on a one-sided wooden mold and showed it to his friends. Their approval encour-
aged him to start series production and he found a daring company in Vitra AG,
which made the chair from polyurethane with the support of Bayer AG (Section
4.3.4). It had to be sanded, primed, and painted afterwards. The chair was so well
received that even larger quantities were thought of and injection molding (see
Section 4.2) came into the game.
Although a lot of money had to be invested in the injection mold, there was no lon-
ger any need for reworking and the color was already included in the material.
BASF now supported the realization with its UV-resistant acrylic ester-styrene-
acrylonitrile (ASA). At the end of the 1990s – as part of a retro wave – the chairs
were reissued, but now injection molded from long glass fiber-reinforced poly
propylene (PP-LGF) with a matte surface.
Figure 1.12 Different stages of the Panton chair [Image source: Vitra AG]
1.4 References 11
1.4 References
[1] N. N., “http://www.deutsches-kunststoff-museum.de,” 2014. [Online]. Available: http://www.deut
sches-kunststoff-museum.de/rund-um-kunststoff/zeittafel-zur-geschichte/. [Accessed April 8, 2014].
[2] F. Waentig, “Konservieren und Restaurieren von gealterten Kunststoffen,” Restaurator im Hand-
werk, No. 2, 2013.
[3] PlasticsEurope, “Plastics – the Facts 2014 – An analysis of European latest plastics,” Brussels, 2014.
[4] G. Klein, “Design for Innovative Materials,” Kunststoffe plast europe, No. 9, 2000, pp. 10–11.
2 Fundamentals
For the engineer working with plastics, an introduction to polymer chemistry is a

necessary basis, because the properties as a material, during processing, and in
the finished component depend strongly on the structure and molecular shape of
the polymers.
This chapter also refreshes some of the basic principles of material mechanics
necessary for understanding this class of materials, aiming towards better compre-
hension and prediction of their special features, e. g. under the influence of time
and temperature.
2.1 From Monomer to Polymer –

Basics of Polymer Chemistry
We will now get to know the origin of the monomers and the three most important
polyreactions, clarify the molar mass and molar mass distribution of polymers,
and gain a better understanding of the acting binding forces. Afterwards, the so-
called primary, secondary, and tertiary structure of polymers will be discussed,
since not only the atoms of the polymer chain, but especially also their arrange-
ment strongly influences the later material properties.
2.1.1 Origin of Monomers
Since the end of the Second World War, at the beginning of the modern era of plas-
tics, crude oil has been used as a raw material for polymer chemistry. In a refinery,
crude oil is distilled (sorted according to molecule size), cracked (split into smaller
molecules), reformed (molecules partially converted), and refined (purified). Sub-
stances such as gases, gasoline (petrol), heating oil, bitumen, lubricating oil, and
coke (chain length increasing) and – depending on where the oil is found – more or
less sulfur is produced.
14 2 Fundamentals
Ethene and propene – two volatile gases – can be extracted from the crude petro-
leum called naphtha. In the past, these gases were called ethylene and propylene,
names that have survived in plastics technology and polymer chemistry to this
day, and were initially waste materials that were incinerated without generating
useful energy. For a long time, however, naphtha has been used to produce poly-
mers.
Synthetic polymers are formed from smaller molecles, the so-called monomers
(“mono”; Greek: one, alone, “mer”, Greek: part, fraction), in the form of threads. If
only a few (e. g. 10) smaller molecules are strung together, so-called oligomers are
formed; they are of a wax-like and partly sticky consistency. If at least 1000 atoms
are linked by chemical bonds, one speaks of polymers (“poly”; Greek: a lot). These
very long molecules are also called macromolecules (“macros”; Greek: large, wide,
long).
Figure 2.1 shows that not only ethene and propene, but also other chemicals are
obtained from crude oil, which are raw materials for other polymers. With only a
few raw materials (crude oil, natural gas, rock salt, sulfur, water, air), a chemical
company can produce about 30 important monomers from which polymers of all
kinds and with a wide range of properties can be produced. In the meantime, BASF
has outsourced or sold the business of some of the polymers described to sub
sidiaries: however, this does not mean that it does not continue to supply the raw
materials for these polymers.
benzene ethylbenzene styrene PBT
cyclohexane adipic acid

PA
caprolactam
SAN
hexanediol
ABS/MABS
acetylene butanediol
oil ethylene ethylene oxide ethylene glycol S/B-polymers
vinyl chloride
PS
propylene acrylic acid
PVC
acrylonitrile
PE
acrylate
C -Mix butadiene PP
Figure 2.1 Polymer production routes [Image source: BASF SE]
Since oil reserves will become scarcer and more expensive in the long term, it
makes sense to try to produce more and more polymers from renewable raw mate-
2.1 From Monomer to Polymer – Basics of Polymer Chemistry 15
rials (Figure 2.2). Biosynthesis either takes place in nature itself (examples of
natural polymers are proteins, cellulose, spider silk) or is deliberately induced in
bioreactors:
Biopolymers from plants (e. g. rubber trees)
Biopolymers from animals (e. g. chitin, casein)
Biopolymers from microorganisms (e. g. synthesis of PHB)
Bio-monomers from microorganisms (e. g. fermentation of starch to lactic acid
and later synthetic polymerization to polylactic acid PLA)
Bio-monomers from plants (e. g. bio-ethanol from sugar becomes bio-polyethylene)
polymer synthesis polymer synthesis in polymer synthesis monomer synthesis monomers from
in plants animals / humans in microorganisms in microorganisms plants
biobased polymers
Figure 2.2 Synthesis of biobased polymers [Image source: IGVP, Univ. Stuttgart]
The example of five possible routes in Figure 2.3 shows which bio-based chemicals
and polymers can be produced from glucose, a simple sugar. Glucose is mainly
produced by plants using photosynthesis from sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide
(CO2) and can be used by all living organisms as a source of energy and carbon.
However, glucose is usually not freely available, but occurs as a disaccharide (lac-
tose, beet sugar) or in its long-chain polymer form (such as starch, cellulose, etc.),
which are both reserve substances and components of the cell structure in plants.
When humans, animals, fungi, and bacteria ingest food, the long-chain saccharides
are first broken down by enzymes into glucose monosaccharide before they are
metabolized.
In Section 6.3, we will discuss bio-based polymers and bio-based plastics more in
detail.
16 2 Fundamentals
glucose
C
ethanol lactic acid succinic acid 5-HMF sorbitol

CHO CHO CHO CHO CH O
lactic acid/ succinic acid furan di-

ethylene sorbitol
acrylic acid butanediol carboxylic acid
polylactic acid polyester polyhydroxy

polyethylene polyurethanes
polyacrylic acid polyamides furanoate
Figure 2.3 Polymers based on glucose [Image source: IGVP, Univ. Stuttgart]
2.1.2 Polymer Synthesis
The three most important chemical reactions (polyreactions) which cause mono-
mers to react to form polymers are polymerization, polycondensation, and poly
addition. While polymerization is a chain growth reaction in which unsaturated
monomers are combined to form polymers, polycondensation and polyaddition are
step growth reactions in which different molecules react alternately to form a long
molecular chain. Both step growth reactions are similar, but while polyaddition
does not split off any by-products, polycondensation produces by-products such as
water, hydrogen chloride, ammonia, and alcohols, which must be removed to con-
tinue the reaction.
2.1.2.1 Polymerization
Polymerization is explained here using the example of a radical polymerization
(Figure 2.4). In radical polymerization, a radical generator, the so-called initiator,
provides radicals, i. e. molecules with free/unpaired electrons, which attack the
C=C double bond in monomers such as ethene. The initiator “grabs” an electron of
this double bond and forms a bond with the monomer. This step is called a chain
start.
By binding to the initiator, the monomer itself becomes a radical and therefore
forms a bond with an adjacent monomer. This in turn becomes a radical and looks
for a next partner. The molecular chain becomes longer and longer, which is called
a chain growth reaction. The growth of the chains is often terminated by recombi-
nation, i. e. the radicals of two molecular chains form a chemical bond.
initiator
molecules
(monomers
with double bond)
start reaction
chain growth
Figure 2.4
Schematic process of radical
macromolecules (polymer) polymerization
QR-Code 2-1
The production of polyethylene originating from ethylene is shown, as

an example of the radical polymerization.
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Polymerization

The length of the molecular chains is determined by the concentration of the

initiator. The higher the initiator concentration, the more chains are started at the
beginning of polymerization and the less monomers are available per chain. The
molecule chains therefore remain shorter with the addition of more initiator.
18 2 Fundamentals
A polymer with n repeating units is formed from n monomers (Figure 2.5). The
monomer is usually a hydrocarbon. The simplest suitable hydrocarbon is ethene
(formerly: ethylene).
n ethene n vinyl chloride n styrene
H H H H H H
n• C C n• C C n• C C
H H H Cl H
phenyl ring
H H H H H H
C C C C C C
H H H Cl H
n n n
phenyl ring
polyethene with n polyvinyl chloride with n polystyrene with n

repeating units repeating units repeating units
Figure 2.5 Structural formulas of different monomers and their corresponding polymers
A hydrogen atom is often replaced by a characteristic atom or group of atoms, the

so-called substituent, which changes the chemical designation of the monomer.
The replacement (substitution) of an H-atom with a Cl-atom results in the m
onomer
chloroethene (trivial name: vinyl chloride). Substitution by a phenyl ring yields
phenylethene (trivial name: styrene). From this, polyethylene (PE), polyvinyl chlo-
ride (PVC), and polystyrene (PS) are produced by radical polymerization.
For some polymerization reactions there are special catalysts, so called organo
metallic compounds which produce a polymer with a particularly regular struc-
ture. The monomer can only be coupled to the chain in a very specific way. The
type of bond between catalyst and chain is called a coordinative bond and is there-
fore called a coordinative polymerization. Important organometallic compounds
are Ziegler-Natta catalysts and metallocene catalysts. (The scientists Karl Ziegler
and Giulio Natta were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1963 for their work on these
catalysts.)
2.1.2.2 Copolymerization (Special Form of Polymerization)

If polymers in their chain reaction are not composed of one type of monomer but of
different monomers, the reaction is called copolymerization. The macromolecules
are called copolymers. The incorporation of two (rarely three) different monomers
greatly influences the properties of the polymer. The sequence of monomer build-
ing blocks in the chain can be statistical, alternating, or blockwise (so-called block
copolymers) (Figure 2.6). Graft copolymers are a special form of copolymers. These
are polymers with a homogeneous main chain onto which shorter side chains of
another type of monomer are grafted.
statistically composed macromolecule composed of blocks

macromolecule (block coploymer)
homogeneous chain with grafted

alternatingly composed
side chains
macromolecule
monomer A
monomer B
Figure 2.6 Types of copolymerization
It is not intended here to give the impression that this is a step growth reaction of
two different monomers. Copolymerization is also a chain growth reaction, only
with two different monomers. It should also be pointed out that the physical (not
chemical!) mixture of different polymers is not the same as a copolymer. Polymer
mixtures are also referred to as polymer blends, occasionally also as polymer
alloys. These are discussed in Section 3.3.2.3.
2.1.2.3 Polycondensation
Polycondensation is a step growth reaction of multifunctional molecular building
blocks. In Figure 2.7, two bifunctional molecules react to form a polymer and form
a by-product, which must be removed in order not to slow down the reaction. Low
molar mass by-products such as water, ammonia, and hydrogen chloride are
formed. If the by-products are not removed, the reaction process is interrupted.
20 2 Fundamentals
by-product
(must be removed)
example: polyamide 6.6
O O
H H
C C C
n• N C N + n•
O O
H H
H H
diamine dicarboxylic acid
H H
+ (2n-1) • O
N C N C C C
H
n
H
Figure 2.7 Polycondensation
In this way, polyamide 6.6 (PA66), for example, is produced from a bifunctional
amine (1,6-diaminohexane) and a bifunctional carboxylic acid (e. g. adipic acid). A
macromolecule with an amide group (CONH) is formed and water is removed as a
by-product.
As distinguished above, polycondensation is a step growth reaction since, in addi-
tion to the reaction of individual bifunctional monomers with an existing chain,
two chains of any length can also react with each other to form an even longer
chain. In comparison to radical polymerization, this does not lead to the termina-
tion of chain growth, since the chain ends still have functional groups and can
therefore continue to react with bifunctional monomers, oligomers, and polymers.
QR-Code 2-2
The polycondensation of heptanedioic acid and 1,6-hexanediamine is

shown.
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Polykondensation

2.1.2.4 Polyaddition
In the polyaddition step growth reaction, two different multifunctional molecular
building blocks (Figure 2.8, here bifunctional) also react with each other. However,
no by-product is formed. The coupling of the reactive monomers results from the
change of place of one or more atoms, preferably hydrogen atoms, which d etach
relatively easily from their respective end groups (–OH, –NH2, –COOH). An exam-
ple is the polyaddition of bifunctional isocyanate with a bifunctional alcohol to
polyurethane. Polyurethane is specifically discussed in more detail in Section 4.3.4
“Polyurethane Processing”.
example: polyurethane
diisocyanate dialcohol
n O C N N C O + n H O O H
O C N N C O O H
2n
polyurethane
Figure 2.8 Polyaddition

22 2 Fundamentals
QR-Code 2-3
The polyaddition reaction is explained using the example of an epoxy

resin.
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Example-of-Polyaddition

2.1.3 The Molar Mass of Polymers
It may be known from school lessons that the molar mass, formerly called molecu-
lar weight, can be determined from the sum of the masses of the individual atoms.
The molar mass of a macromolecule can now be calculated by addition of the molar
masses of the individual monomer units. For this, however, it must be known how
often the monomer units are contained in the polymer chain. This number is called
the degree of polymerization n. Since not all polymer chains have the same length,
n is always only an average value.
Since the chain length can only be an average value, the molar mass of a polymer
can only be an average value as well. In reality, there is a molar mass distribution,
i. e. shorter chains, medium-long chains, and longer chains. An example of such a
molar mass distribution is shown in Figure 2.9.
number of molecules ni of a fraction
Mn number average
Mw weight average
molar mass Mi of a molecule fraction
Figure 2.9 Example of a molar mass distribution of a polymer

So there are few molecules with very low molar mass (see coordinate origin) and
few with very high molar mass (running to the right). In between, there is a char-
acteristic distribution, which has its maximum at one point. Since some properties
of the polymers and the plastics produced from them correlate with the molar
mass, knowledge of them is very helpful.
But how can such a distribution be summed up in a single number? It turns out
that some properties depend on the so-called molar mass number average Mn and
others on the so-called molar mass weight average Mw . The number average is
simply the sum of the mathematical product of the number of single molecules
present ni times the molar mass Mi, divided by the sum of the number of single
molecules ni.
k
∑ ni Mi
i=1
Mn = k
(2.1)
∑ ni
i=1
The weight average additionally takes into account the weight of the counted mol-
ecule lengths and is defined by the mass fraction mi of the macromolecules with
the molar mass Mi.
k
∑ mi Mi
i=1
Mw = k
(2.2)
∑ mi
i=1
The wider the molar mass distribution, the further apart the values of weight and
number averages are. The polydispersity results from the quotient of the two mean
 
values. Instead,  Mw , the so called “non-uniformity” U, is also often given.
 M 
 n
Mw
U= −1 (2.3)
Mn
The difference can be clearly explained by analogy with a purse with coins (Fig-
ure 2.10). The 2 Euro (€ 2) coins correspond to particularly long chains (high molar
masses) and the 1 cent (€ 0.01) coin to very short chains (low molar masses). The
number average is the average value of a coin and is calculated from the total value
of the coins divided by the total number of coins:
24 2 Fundamentals
k k
∑ ni Mi ∑ mi 5 ⋅ 0.01 + 15 ⋅ 0.02 + 27 ⋅ 0.05 + 32 ⋅ 0.1 +  50
i=1 i=1
Mn = k
= k
= = = 0.31 (2.4)
5 + 15 + 27 + 32 +  159
∑ ni ∑ ni
i=1 i=1
159 coins in total, value: 50 €

Mn = 0.31 €
40 = 50 €/159 coins
32 33
Mw = 0.87 €
30
stack value
27 27
number n i
20 15 15
10 5 5
0
0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0
coin value M i in €
Figure 2.10 Descriptive explanation of average value and distribution
The average value of each coin is € 0.31.

The weight average can be calculated by letting the individual coin stacks partici-
pate in the formation of the total sum, not in the ratio of the effective particle num-
bers (number of coins), but by weighting the coin stacks. This means that the ratio
of the sum of all stack values is formed by the total sum (value) of the coins.
It is assumed that in the wallet there are not:
Table 2.1 Determination mi Using Coins as an Example

ni Mi mi
5 coins at 0.01 0.05
15 coins at 0.02 0.30
27 coins at 0.05 1.35
32 coins at 0.10 3.20
etc.
but rather:
mi · Mi mF1
0.05 · 0.01 0.0005
0.30 · 0.02 0.0060
1.35 · 0.05 0.0675
3.20 · 0.10 0.3200
etc.
mF1: stack value
The following applies to the weight average:
k k
∑ mi Mi ∑ mF I
0.0005 + 0.0060 + 0.0675 + 0.3200 + 
i=1 i=1
Mw = K
= k
=
50
∑ mi ∑ mi (2.5)
i=1 i=1
43.46
= = 0.87
50
Therefore, the weight average value of each coin is €0.87.

Since the molar mass of the polymer is an important criterion for various proper-
ties of the later plastic, the most important methods for their determination will be
briefly presented here.
Measurement with the Capillary Viscometer

The molar mass of the polymer can be determined using a capillary viscometer,
e. g. the Ubbelohde viscometer (Figure 2.11). The polymer must first be dissolved
using a suitable solvent. Now a defined volume of this solution is allowed to flow
through a capillary of the viscometer and the time required is measured.
Figure 2.11
Ubbelohde viscometer
26 2 Fundamentals
With the help of physical correlations and mathematical relationships, the so-
called limiting viscosity number (“Staudinger index” [η]) can ultimately be calcu-
lated.
For real macromolecules, the Mark-Houwink relationship applies, with which the
number-average molar mass is calculated:
α
 η  = K ⋅ Mn (2.6)
 
K and α are characteristic parameters which are listed in the literature for a large
number of polymer solvent systems at different temperatures. For linear, un-
branched molecules (see “secondary structure” below), α has values between 0.5
and 1.
This method is a relative method. The quality of the determination of Mn depends,
among other things, on the agreement of the test conditions and the molar mass
distribution (polydispersity) of the respective polymer.
In addition, the polymer can also be melted instead of brought into solution and
can also be pressed through a capillary. However, gravity is not sufficient to deter-
mine this so-called melt flow index (MFI) and the force of some weight plates is
used to help. The results can be determined quite quickly, but do not give a value
for a molar mass, but rather only an indirect statement. Further details are given
in Section 3.1.6 “Rheometry – Measurement of Flow Properties”.
Measurement with Size Exclusion Chromatography

The measurement using size exclusion chromatography (SEC) provides an exact
molar mass distribution and can also determine absolute molar masses using light
scattering detectors. The polymer to be measured is applied in solution to a
separation column with a porous structure and passes through it sequentially (Fig-
ure 2.12).
GPC
separation
column
with
porous
packing
detector detector detector
Figure 2.12 Size exclusion chromatography (SEC)

The principle of size exclusion chromatography: Large macromolecules only have a

few pores in which they can be deposited. This is why they are detected relatively
quickly by the continuous solvent stream and rinsed out of the separation column
first. The smaller a macromolecule is, the more often it can settle in a pore on its
way through the separation column. This means that the smaller the macromole-
cules, the later – i. e. with a time delay – they leave the column.
2.1.4 Binding Forces and Brownian Molecular Movement
As a basis for understanding the molecular binding forces in polymers, it is neces-

sary to provide a reminder of the different binding forces between atoms:
Metallic Bonds
In the metallic bond, the electrons can move freely in a metal lattice (atomic lat-
tice) (Figure 2.13). The valence electrons (outer electrons) of the metal atoms can
easily be separated from the atom because they are only bound weakly. A lattice
of positively charged metal ions, the so-called atomic bodies, forms in the metal.
The “electron gas”, named after the physicist Enrico Fermi, consists of free outer
electrons. The high electrical conductivity, magnetism, and also the high thermal
conductivity of metals are the result of this free mobility.
Figure 2.13
Metallic bonds
Atomic Bond
The atomic bond is a chemical bond and is also called the main valence bond
(chemical primary valence bond). Atomic bonds are formed especially between
non-metals and share at least one binding electron pair of the outer electrons (va-
lence electrons) (Figure 2.14). The atoms in the macromolecules of polymers are
linked by main valence bonds.
28 2 Fundamentals
Figure 2.14
Atomic bond, using the example of a hydrogen molecule
H2 (also: covalent bond, main valence bond)
Further terms for atomic bonds or main valence bonds are: covalent bonds, ho-
mopolar bonds, and electron pair bonds. An atomic bond has a certain direction of
action, i. e. it is a directional bond and therefore determines the geometric struc-
ture of a compound (in contrast to an electron gas). The strength of a bond is
described by the binding energy. The formation or breaking of an atomic bond is
called a chemical reaction.
Once more repeating school material, a reminder of the binding nature of these
often-used elements is provided here. In general, atoms (elements) strive to take
up a noble gas electron configuration when forming a chemical bond (shell model:
eight outer/valence electrons; except hydrogen: two outer electrons). Electrons are
always arranged in pairs. Unbound outer electrons of one atom therefore enter into
a “partnership” with those of another atom – a molecule is formed. The binding
energy of main valence bonds can have values from 40 to 800 kJ/mol.
The number of atomic bonds an atom can form is called valency or binding capac-
ity. It depends on the number of outer electrons. The “8-minus-n” rule applies to
the binding capacity of a covalently bonded atom of the IV – VII main groups of the
periodic table, with n equal to the outer electron number of the corresponding
atom. For chlorine (Cl), oxygen (O), nitrogen (N), and carbon (C) with 7, 6, 5, and 4
outer electrons, respectively, a binding capacity of 1, 2, 3, and 4 is calculated. The
hydrogen atom strives for the configuration of helium (noble gas) with 2 outer elec-
trons and can thus take up 1 electron within a chemical bond. This means that
hydrogen is monovalent. Since sulfur (S) stands in the main group VI of the 3rd
period, this can additionally form 6 bonds.
The macromolecules of a polymer are formed by such atomic bonds. The fragment
of a polyethylene macromolecule shown in Figure 2.15 consists of about 70 ethylene
monomer units. Most polyethylenes even have 100,000 repeating units. However,
these cannot be shown here.
Figure 2.15
Fragment of a polyethylene macromolecule
Polymers are organic compounds because they are based on carbon. Besides car-
bon (C), important components of organic compounds are hydrogen (H), oxygen
(O), and nitrogen (N). In polymers, the heteroatoms chlorine (Cl), fluorine (F), sul-
fur (S), and silicon (Si) are occasionally used as well.
2.1.4.1 Intermolecular Physical Bonds

Physical bonds are secondary valence bonds . They describe the type and size of
the attraction forces existing between the polymer chains. Further terms for sec-
ondary valence bonds are: intermolecular forces, secondary valence forces, and
secondary bonds. These attractional forces are strongly distance-dependent and 2
to 2000 times weaker in relation to the main valence bonds.
Dipole-Dipole Forces
Dipole-dipole forces consititute a very strong secondary valence bond. They occur
between molecules with permanent dipole moments. The dipole moments derive
from the different electronegativities of the chemical elements. In polyvinyl chlo-
ride (PVC), for example, the chlorine atom is more electronegative than the carbon
and the hydrogen atoms (Figure 2.16, left) and therefore attracts their electrons (in
the orbital model, this corresponds to an asymmetric electron cloud).
This creates a permanent dipole: attraction forces, the so-called dipole-dipole
forces, arise between the dipoles of neighboring polymer chains. Their binding
energy is 1/50 to 1/200 of a main valence bond.
30 2 Fundamentals
H H H H H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C C C C C
H H
δ+ H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
C C
H Cl
δ- H H H H H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C C C C C
H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl H Cl
Figure 2.16 Dipole-dipole forces
Hydrogen Bonds
Hydrogen bonds are a special form of the dipole-dipole bond and are formed by a
hydrogen atom covalently bonded to a much more electronegative atom (e. g. O, N, F)
whose common electrons are shifted in the direction of this atom (Figure 2.17).
δ-
N C
δ+
H
δ-
N C
H Figure 2.17
δ+ Hydrogen bonds
The hydrogen atom, which is partially positively charged by the electron shift, is
more strongly bound to another electronegative atom of a second macromolecule
and thus acts as a “hydrogen bridge” between the two molecule chains. With
∼ 20 kJ/mol, this strongest type of intermolecular force reaches the order of weak
main valence bonds. Figure 2.18 shows hydrogen bonds in polyurethane (PUR)
and polyamide (PA).
O=C N H O=C
HC N H O=C N H O=C O
N H O=C CH HC O C
O=C CH HC CH C CH
CH HC CH HC CH HC
HC CH HC CH HC CH
CH HC C=O HC CH O
HC C=O H N CH O C=O
C=O H N CH H N C=O H N
H N CH HC C=O H N CH
O CH HC
polyamide 6.6 polyurethane
hydrogen bonds
Figure 2.18 PA66 and PUR as examples for formation of hydrogen bonds
Induction Forces
Induction forces are very weak secondary valence bonds. Molecules with perma-
nent dipoles can cause electron shifts in adjacent nonpolar molecules and thus
induce dipole moments. The binding energy is only 1/500 to 1/2000 of a main va-
lence bond.
In summary, the following applies to the secondary valence forces already listed: a
prerequisite for the occurrence of dipole-dipole forces and/or induction forces is
the presence of permanent dipoles.
Dispersion Forces
With binding energies of 1/500 to 1/1000 of a main valence bond, dispersion
forces (also Van der Waals forces, London dispersion forces) are also very weak. By
random movement of the electrons and the resulting deformations of the electron
cloud, momentary dipoles are formed even in non-polar molecules. These rapidly
varying dipoles, which compensate each other to zero on a time average, also in-
duce dipoles in the neighboring molecules in the rhythm of their own frequencies,
but they are not permanent.
To illustrate this, Figure 2.19 shows spheres strung together as atoms which are
connected to each other by main valence bonds and form polymer chains. Between
the polymer chains there are secondary valence forces of different kinds, depend-
ing on the atoms of the polymer chain.
32 2 Fundamentals
innermolecular chemical bonds

(“main valence bonds”)
usual notation C C
intermolecular physical bonds

(“secondary valence bonds”):
• hydrogen bonds
• dipole-dipole forces and induction forces
• dispersion forces
Figure 2.19 Clarification of chemical and physical binding forces
2.1.4.2 Brownian Molecular Motion – Mobility of Polymer Chains
QR-Code 2-4
Brownian motion is demonstrated here, viewing fat droplets in milk.

http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Brownsche_Molekularbewegung

Physical binding forces correlate with the distance between the polymer chains,
and this distance between the polymer chains is temperature-dependent. The ef-
fect is based on Brownian molecular motion.
Not only atoms and low-molecular molecules vibrate more strongly with each de-
gree above absolute zero, but also macromolecules. At low temperatures the chains
are close to each other and looped together, Brownian molecular motion is inhib-
ited. Nevertheless, the average oscillation amplitude of the chains increases with
increasing temperature, initially without disentanglement of the loops.
The growing increase in distance during heating causes a weakening of the sec-
ondary valence forces and therefore their “adhesion” to the neighboring polymer
chain. Heating initially leads to micro-Brownian motion processes. These are intra-
molecular movements of chain segments and side chains. Rotation and rearrange-
ment occur, resulting in gradual conformational changes, i. e. the spatial orienta-
tion can change. As the temperature continues to rise, the polymer chains become
more and more mobile. If the temperature continues to rise even more, the molec-
ular chains can even slide away from each other, so that the molecules are even
more freely mobile and derail (macro-Brownian movement). The material is now
flexible and deformable.
With the length of the individual polymer chains (keyword: degree of polymeriza-
tion) the number of loops between the polymer chains is also increasing. The
longer the polymer chains, the more Brownian movement is required for unloop-
ing.
As the temperature decreases, however, the mobility of the polymer chains de-
creases with each degree again, up to a (polymer-specific) temperature at which
Brownian molecular movements are very small, the chains again lie very close to
each other and the secondary valence forces become particularly stronger again.
This temperature is referred to as the glass transition temperature Tg, since the
microstructure has solidified like glass below this temperature (see also Section
“State Ranges of Plastics”).
2.1.5 Mechanisms of Solidification and Subdivision of Polymers
As a rule, plastics are processed into a component in a flowable state and are then
supposed to solidify. According to Brockhaus [1], solidification is the “transition
from the liquid to the solid state of aggregation. In the case of chemically uniform
materials, this occurs when the solidification temperature falls below the pressure-
dependent solidification temperature. The solidification of substances which are
liquid under standard conditions is called freezing.” The solidification of some
polymers is irreversible.
Subdivision of Polymers: Thermoplastic , Thermoset, and Elastomer

When substances cool down, their Brownian molecular movement is reduced, so
that solidification is easy to understand with so-called thermoplastics (from Greek
“thermós” = “warm” and “plasso” = “form”). In molten thermoplastics, the poly-
mer chains come so close together during cooling that the secondary valence
forces between the chains become stronger again. If a thermoplastic has a structur-
ally favorable structure (see Section “Primary Structure of Polymers”), the macro-
molecules even come so close together that they form particularly ordered struc-
tures (crystals) with a high packing density (see Section “Secondary and Tertiary
Structures of Polymers”). A thermoplastic is basically soluble, i. e. a suitable sol-
vent can diffuse between the chains, widen their distance and thereby weaken the
secondary valence forces.
There are also polymers whose molecular chains do not form purely filamentary
structures but are able to build chemical bonds with each other. This is then a
main valence network and the polymers are “crosslinked”. The crosslinking reac-
tion usually occurs during polymerization, when trifunctional monomers are used.
Depending on the crosslinking density, a distinction is made between elastomers
(wide-meshed network, Figure 2.20, left) and thermosets (close-meshed network,
Figure 2.20, right).
34 2 Fundamentals
Figure 2.20
Main valence networks of elastomers
and thermosets
The network structure of elastomers is so widely meshed that it can be very exten-
sible and still slightly absorbs (swells) “molecularly suitable” media. The strongly
crosslinked structure of a thermoset is hardly stretchable and no longer meltable.
It is so tightly “woven” that hardly any medium can penetrate and is therefore con-
sidered to be non-swellable.
For didactic reasons, the following comparisons are used to subdivide plastics into
their main groups (Figure 2.21):
A thermoplastic is like chocolate. It can be melted, brought into various shapes,
and left to solidify again. If this is done too often, the quality suffers.
An elastomer is symbolized here with jelly bears. Although the comparison is
not entirely accurate, the bears are supposed to remind us of the high extensibil-
ity of elastomers. Elastomers are commonly called rubber, but be aware of that
the uncrosslinked precursor is often called rubber as well.
A thermoset can be easily compared to a cookie or cake. As soon as it has been
baked, i. e. chemically reacted, it can no longer be melted.
plastics
thermoplastic elastomer thermoset
Figure 2.21 Different groups of plastics

Crosslinking of Elastomers
Crosslinking to elastomers is called vulcanization and was discovered by Charles
Goodyear in 1839. A mixture consisting of (non-crosslinked) rubber, sulfur, cata-
lysts, and fillers is heated, and the already long-chain rubber molecules are cross-
linked by sulfur bridges. This transfers the material from plastic rubber to an elas-
tic elastomer. The term vulcanization comes from the fact that crosslinking takes
place with the aid of sulfur or sulfur compounds, and this odor was only known
from volcanoes.
The elasticity (resettability) of the elastomer depends on the number of sulfur
bridges. The more sulfur bridges there are, the harder the elastomer becomes. The
number of sulfur bridges again depends on the amount of sulfur added and the
duration of vulcanization. As the elastomer ages, these sulfur bridges are gradu-
ally replaced by oxygen bridges and it loses its elasticity (resettability).
Subsequent Crosslinking of Thermoplastics

Thermoplastics are linear molecules and not crosslinked. However, they can still
be crosslinked to a limited extent after synthesis. After the actual polymerization
into thermoplastics, radicals can be formed on the polymer chains, for example
with high-energy radiation, which combine and thus lead to crosslinking of the
polymer chains. Irradiation by an electron beam usually takes place after shaping,
i. e. after extrusion or injection molding (see Chapter 4). In the case of semi-crystal-
line thermoplastics, radiative crosslinking is only possible in the amorphous
regions.
A further variant for the subsequent crosslinking of thermoplastics is the targeted
introduction of peroxides, which decompose during the manufacturing process
(time-delayed process with the aid of temperature and pressure) and form radicals.
The radicals attack the polymer chain, creating reactive sites that can chemically
bond. In this process, crosslinking takes place in the melt. In semi-crystalline ther-
moplastics, the crystallites form only around these crosslinking sites. However,
subsequent crosslinking of thermoplastics is considered costly and is rarely used,
for example to increase heat resistance.
Thermoplastic Elastomers
Thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) comprise a subgroup that has only existed since
the 1960s. They are very ductile (not as strong as elastomers) and can only un-
dergo elastic recovery up to a certain elongation but can be processed thermo
plastically. This makes them weldable and easier to recycle. A disadvantage com-
pared to elastomers is the lower dimensional stability under heat.
On the one hand, thermoplastic elastomers are made of purposefully constructed
block copolymers (Figure 2.22, left) or on the other hand of mixtures (blends) of
stronger, stiffer and softer, more ductile blend partners (Figure 2.22, right).
36 2 Fundamentals
Such block copolymers are composed of incompatible hard and soft segments. As a
result of the incompatibility of these different segments, segregation occurs l ocally.
The hard segments partially crystallize, forming a so-called domain and a physical
network. The soft segments in between are particularly extensible.
block copolymers blends
mixture of
domain structure hard and soft plastics
hard
soft
soft hard
Figure 2.22 Morphology of thermoplastic elastomers
2.1.6 Primary Structure of Polymers: Constitution and Configuration
Thermoplastics are used to explain the terms of the primary structure:

the constitution and
the configuration.
The constitution describes the chemical construction principle of a molecule from
atoms. For polymers, this is the type of chain atoms, their length (molar mass), and
their type of sequence. This includes the type of end groups and substituents and
the frequency and length of the branches (Figure 2.23).
The configuration, however, describes the spatial arrangement of atoms and
groups of atoms in the molecule of the same constitution. The spatial arrangement
of polymer chains is described in particular by tacticity. Isotactically ordered poly-
mer chains always arrange their substituents on the same side (i. e., all substitu-
ents have the same orientation), syndiotactic chains have their substituents alter-
nately on both sides, and atactic chains have no order pattern (Figure 2.24) [2, 3].
H
monomers form C H
chain molecules: H C
H n
chain molecules
can be linear:
chain molecules
can be branched:
Figure 2.23 Primary structure – constitution
isotactic
syndiotactic
atactic
Figure 2.24 Primary structure – configuration

38 2 Fundamentals
The primary structure describes the structural composition of a polymer chain and
thereby influences the chemical, mechanical, and thermal properties. However,
the primary structure mainly influences the formation of so-called secondary and
tertiary structures, which also have a very large influence on the properties.
2.1.7 Secondary and Tertiary Structures of Polymers: Conformation
The secondary structure describes the arrangement of chain sequences and the
geometric shape of a single macromolecule. The secondary structure can be de-
scribed by the conformation. It shows the exact spatial arrangement of molecules
with defined constitution and configuration. Different conformations result from
rotations around single bonds of the polymer backbone.
Contrary to some pictorial representations, the chains are not linearly arranged,
but the single bonds between two C atoms have a so-called valence angle of 109.5°
(see Figure 2.25).
C C C C
+
C C C C
C
0.1
m 54
5 4n φ = 109.5° nm
0.1
C C
0.252 nm
Figure 2.25 Bond gaps and bond angles of polyolefins [3]
It seems proven that around the axis of a C—C single bond there is a high degree of
free rotation, even better if an oxygen atom is part of the main chain. This is not
possible with double or triple bonds. If double bonds are in the main polymer
chain, it is rather stiff. Aromatic rings in the main chain are also considered stiff,
but also increase temperature resistance. A polymer chain with continuous single
bonds is therefore more flexible, i. e. less stiff.
In spite of the free rotatability, the example of polyethylene should show that
neighboring C atoms with their substituents (in polyethylene, all the substituents
are hydrogen atoms) sometimes occupy an energetically unfavorable position (Fig-
ure 2.26). In the case of polyethylene, this threshold is quite weak at 12.6 kJ/mol,
so that a very free rotation can be assumed even at room temperature. However,
the larger and more bulky the substituent is, the greater the hindrance (so-called
steric hindrance). Examples are polystyrene with its ring substituent and poly
propylene with CH3 as substituent (see also Figure 2.30).
Epot in kJ/Mol
12.6
| | | | | | | Figure 2.26
0 60 120 180 240 300 360
Course of the potential energy for the inner
torsion angle in degree rotation of a polyethylene molecule [3]
In amorphous polymers, the disordered, statistical cluster dominates (Figure 2.27),

while in semi-crystalline polymers a folded chain is often present (Figure 2.28) [2, 3].
The secondary structures of polymers include:
the stretched chain,
the disordered ball,
the folded chain, and
the helix.
Figure 2.27
Secondary structure – statistical “ball of wool”
40 2 Fundamentals
2.1.7.1 Amorphous Structures

In the case of so called amorphous polymers, the macromolecules are present in
disorder next to each other or intertwined, similar to the fibers in a cotton ball. Due
to their irregular structure, amorphous polymers do not have a long-range order,
but only a short-range order, i. e. an order only to the nearest neighboring atoms.
Thermosets and elastomers as well as thermoplastics with “bulky” side chains or
substituents, which prevent the alignment of the polymer chains, solidify amor-
phously. The plastic made of amorphous polymers appears transparent, as long as
no refractive or colored additives are added.
2.1.7.2 Crystalline Structures

In the case of semi-crystalline polymers, the macromolecules are able to “crystal-
lize” in many places close to each other. The structure of the macromolecules must
be regularly built up over a large area. It is also a requirement that there are no
“bulky” substituents that prevent the molecules from aligning.
Due to their regular structure, the macromolecules of a polymer capable of crystal-
lization can be so close to each other that a dense package is formed and the sec-
ondary valence forces can act very strongly. However, not all regions can crystal-
lize and there are also disordered amorphous regions. These polymers are therefore
called semi-crystalline.
In contrast to amorphous polymers, semi-crystalline polymers are opaque because
the phase boundaries between amorphous and crystalline refract light.
free chain ends
chain folding
crystallite
molecular chain
Figure 2.28 Secondary structure – folded chain

2.1.7.3 Influence of the Primary Structure

The primary structure has a large influence on the secondary and tertiary struc-
tures and thus on the properties. This shall be explained with the help of a changed
configuration, the tacticity, in Figure 2.29. In isotactic polypropylene (i-PP, Fig-
ure 2.29, top), the substituents point to one side, which is why the main chains of
the polypropylene can align well and close together. As a result, the i-PP has a high
melting point of about 184 °C and a degree of crystallization of up to 60% (i. e., 40%
remain amorphous). Crystal formation is deepened further below.
The substituents of syndiotactic polypropylene (Figure 2.29, center) are arranged
alternately and therefore do not align well (the packing density is lower here).
This leads to a lower crystallinity compared to i-PP and to a lower melting point
(Tm ∼ 160 °C).
If the substituents are atactic, i. e. arranged without a rule (Figure 2.29, bottom),
the main chains can hardly adhere to each other and do not crystallize. This is the
case with atactic polypropylene (a-PP). It remains amorphous at room tempera-
ture, waxy and sticky, and is hardly commercially usable [4].
H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H
C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C C
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
isotactic
H H H H H H
H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H H C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H
syndiotactic
H H H
H H H H H H
H C H H C H H C H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H H
H C H H C H H C H
H H H
atactic
Figure 2.29 Primary structure influences secondary and tertiary structures
Another influence of the primary structure on crystal formation, the steric hin-
drance, is illustrated by the example of polypropylene (PP) and polystyrene (PS)
(Figure 2.30). The steric hindrance of the aromatic ring in polystyrene prevents
the molecular chains from being placed close together, while the relatively small
CH3 substituents of polypropylene allow a helical structure of the chains with the
formation of a dense packing.
42 2 Fundamentals
The less “bulky” the thread molecules are and the more ordered the structure is,
the larger the crystalline area is and the higher the degree of crystallization is.
As the degree of crystallization increases, properties such as density, stiffness,
strength, heat resistance, and chemical resistance increase.
polypropylene polystyrene
low steric hindrance: high steric hindrance due to

good crystallization aromatic ring:
poor crystallization
Figure 2.30 Influence of the primary structure on the secondary and tertiary structure;
according to [2]
Changes in the constitution are also changes in the primary structures which in-
fluence the crystallinity and thus also the properties (Figure 2.31). This will be
explained in more detail below using polyethylene as an example:
As a linear thread molecule with a few short side chains (1 to 10 C atoms long
per 1000 C atoms), the polymer can crystallize very well (up to 80%) and achieve
a high density for polyethylene (0.94–0.97 g/cm3). Therefore it is called high

density polyethylene (PE-HD or HDPE).
However, several short side chains (15 to 30 short chains with a length of up to
6 C atoms per 1000 C atoms) interfere with crystallization (55 to max. 65%) and
lead to lower density (0.92–0.94 g/cm3). This polyethylene has a very linear
structure and a lower density (linear low density: PE-LLD or LLDPE).
If many medium-length side chains (20 to 40 branches per 1000 C atoms) are
allowed to grow, “bulky” branches are formed which cannot be built into the
crystal. This disturbance also affects the degree of crystallization, which in this
case is only between 40 and 50%. This polyethylene has an even lower density
(PE-LD or LDPE) with values from 0.915–0.935 g/cm3.
PE-HD (“high density”)
PE-LLD (“linear low density”)
PE-LD (“low density”)
Figure 2.31 Different constitution influences crystallinity
2.1.7.4 Superstructures
If you take a closer look by means of a light microscope through a thin section at
crystalline structures (Figure 2.32), you can see spherical superstructures, called
spherulites. Depending on the molecular structure, additives, and cooling condi-
tions, their size can range from 50 to 500 μm.
These spherulites constitute a long-range order and are part of the tertiary struc-
ture. They show radially aligned crystal lamellae, which are only 20 to 60 nm thick.
The thread molecules in the lamellae are arranged tangentially. Within the lamel-
lae, it is assumed – and this can only be proven indirectly so far – that the molecu-
44 2 Fundamentals
lar chains are closely packed to each other and that high secondary valence forces
prevail.
Crystallization takes place at interfaces in the cooling melt (nucleation sites), since
Brownian molecular motion of the polymer chains is slowed down at these – differ-
ently oscillating – interfaces. With slow cooling, macromolecules capable of crys-
tallization have more time to arrange themselves more uniformly, i. e. to crystallize
more uniformly. This also increases the degree of crystallization. In contrast, crys-
tallization can even be suppressed at very high cooling rates (e. g. in a beverage
bottle made of crystallizable polyethylene terephthalate (PET)).
plastic plate / component crystal lamella molecular chain
C C
C C C
C C C C C
C C C C C
C C C C Cc
C C C C C
C C C
C C
a b
a ≈ 0.736 nm
b ≈ 0.492 nm
c ≈ 0.254 nm
spherulite
~50 to 500 µm
lamella thickness
~20 to 60 nm
Figure 2.32 Crystalline structures; according to [5]
In addition: the more ordered the amorphous macromolecules in the melt are (ori-
entation), the better the macromolecules can crystallize. An ordered orientation in
the melt results from a velocity distribution during processing and the resulting
shear (see Section 3.1.1). Figure 2.33 shows a crystal structure with a magnifica-
tion of 500 μm and an enlarged spherulite (50 μm). This is a light microscopic
picture with polarization filter viewing through a polypropylene.
50 µm
Figure 2.33
500 µm
Spherulite structure
Thin sections of polyamide 6 (PA6) can be penetrated in the transmission electron

microscope (TEM) (Figure 2.34). The black auxiliary lines are intended to identify
the inner core of a spherulite. The diagram next to it shows that the crystal lamel-
lae are not always formed by their own molecule chains which are folded back, but
that molecule chains are components of different lamellae and repeatedly pass
through the amorphous phase.
TEM picture of
polyamide 6 (PA6)
Figure 2.34 Spherulite with lamellae and clarification of tie molecules
The illustration also shows that there are molecule chains that connect different
lamellae with each other. These molecules are called “tie molecules” and are inte-
grated in at least two lamellae. The tie molecules play an important role in defor-
mation. While lamellae themselves transmit large forces before they deform, the
load between the lamellae is carried by these tie molecules.
If there are many tie molecules which tighten at the same time under a load, high
forces and more energy can be carried (Figure 2.35). Many studies have shown
that small spherulites must have more tie molecules than large ones.
Under deformation, e. g. in the edge area of injection molded components or in
welding seams, hardly any spherulites are formed during crystallization, but so-
called shish-kebab structures which consist of a rod-shaped whisker and flat crys-
tallite structures that have grown away from it laterally (Figure 2.36).
46 2 Fundamentals
F
F
tie molecule
loose chain end F

loose loops
F
Figure 2.35 Loaded lamellae and amorphous region, according to [6]
shish-kebab whisker
Figure 2.36 From the failure analysis facility of the IKT (left): isotactic polypropylene pro-
cessed in push-pull injection molding with whisker structures; polarized transmitted light, thin
section 10 µm; right: whisker and shish-kebab structures, schematically according to [6]
2.1.8 Polymers – Raw Materials Not Only for Plastics
At the end of these basic principles of polymer chemistry, it should be pointed out
that polymers do not necessarily have to be raw materials for plastics. Polymers
can be found in many forms in nature, for example. As explained above, proteins,
spider silk, cotton, hair, but also the complex deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) are
polymers, as are the complex carbohydrates cellulose, starch, chitin, and wood
(hemicellulose). These natural polymers are not used on an industrial scale for the
production of plastics.
Polymers are not only raw materials for plastics, but also for other materials (Fig-
ure 2.37). They are also raw materials for chemical fibers (polyamide, polyester
fibers) and for natural fibers (cotton or silk fibers made from natural polymers).
The chemical bases of some polymers for plastics and man-made fibers may be the
same, but for fibers the molecular chains are specially aligned and arranged. Chem-
ical fibers are a component of textile technology, not of plastics technology. In the
section on fiber plastic composites (Section 3.3.1), aspects of textile technology –
where necessary – in combination with plastics are discussed again specifically.
plastic
plastics industry
products
ic
plast g
essin
proc
plastics
textile textile industry

textile products
processing
synthesis
monomers polymers compounding
coating lacquer industry
materials coating paper industry
substrate
leather industry
surfaces
plastics industry
textile industry
functional
additives
add
dose plastics industry
into other materials textile industry
coatings industry
Figure 2.37 Polymers – raw material not solely for plastics
Polymers are used in large quantities for surface coatings. These are not always,
but often, lacquers (also so-called powder lacquers); adhesives can also be regarded
as very special coatings. Polymers are required as functional additives to improve
the properties of coatings/lacquers, man-made fibers/textiles, plastics, cosmetics,
and even food. However, they are not plastics themselves. The term “functional
polymer” is sometimes used for this purpose. However, we do not speak of “func-
tional plastics”.
48 2 Fundamentals
2.2 Fundamentals of Force Transmission

Requirements for engineers’ products are rarely described without terms of ap-
plied force and resulting deformation. A reminder of the most important terms will
be provided in this section.
The behavior of polymers with increasing temperature and the resulting influence
on the force transmission are also discussed. Mechanical substitute models, which
can describe the behavior of polymers in melt and in solids at different t emperatures,
are explained in order to be able to use them for predicting the material behavior.
2.2.1 Important Terms
The terms strength, stiffness, and toughness are explained here in a catchy way in
order to stick better in the memory.
2.2.1.1 Strength
The strength of a material is its internal cohesion against an applied force and can
be described in simplified terms as “resistance to cracking”. Depending on the
primary, secondary, and tertiary structure of the polymer chains and the type and
orientation of additives, a plastic can transfer more or less force. The higher the
resistance to cracking, the “stronger” the material. (Physicists often call the inter-
nal connection “cohesion”, from the Latin cohaerere = connected.)
2.2.1.2 Stiffness
The stiffness of a material describes its “resistance to deformation”. The same ap-
plies here: depending on the primary, secondary, and tertiary structure of the poly-
mer chains and the type and orientation of additives, plastics more or less give way
to an imposed load. If the resistance to deformation is high, the material is “stiff”.
If the resistance is low, the material is “flexible”.
2.2.1.3 Toughness
Toughness is a term used to describe the energy absorption capacity of a material.
The following also applies here: depending on the primary, secondary, and tertiary
structure as well as the type and orientation of additives, a material can absorb
higher energy through high force absorption and/or through high ductility.
The force transmission of a material is usually determined by engineers with the
help of the uniaxial tensile test. A test specimen, shown in Figure 2.38 with a
square cross-section A0 and length l0, is measured along its principal axis by Δl
stretched.
2.2 Fundamentals of Force Transmission 49
F
A0
∆l
F
stress σ=
A0
∆l
strain ε=
l0
l0
σ
E=
ε
Figure 2.38
Determination of the force transmission and terms
F of the mechanics
A force is induced by the forced elongation. During the measurement, this force is
related to the perpendicular cross-section of the specimen. This geometry-indepen-
dent force is called stress and is abbreviated as σ (“sigma”). To ensure that the
change in length Δl is also geometry-independent – i. e. independent of the original
length l0 – it is related to l0. The quotient Δl/l0 is called strain ε (“epsilon”).
2.2.1.4 Stress-Strain Diagrams

It is possible to determine the resistance to deformation, the so-called stiffness of
the material, from the tensile test as well. If the resulting stress σ is related to the
given deformation ε, the quotient “modulus of elasticity” is obtained.
The description of the extensibility of materials includes the terms “brittle” and
“ductile”. The term “brittle” is used for materials with a low extensibility, the term
“ductile” for highly extensible materials.
Strangely enough, the term “ductile” is equated with “tough” in some literature. As
described above, however, toughness or energy absorption increases either as a
result of greater deformation (“ductility”) or as a result of higher force absorption
(“strength”). Therefore, high toughness can also be achieved by high forces with-
out large deformation (“brittle”).
QR-Code 2-5
Simulation of a tensile test with the ARAMIS software.

http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Aramis

50 2 Fundamentals
Several stress-strain diagrams (Figure 2.39) are used to explain designations ac-
cording to ISO 527-1 “Plastics – Determination of Tensile Properties – Part 1: Gen-
eral Principles” (Edition 2012). The strain ε is plotted on the abscissa (x-axis) to
deform the specimen. The stress σ adjusted to the forced strain is applied to the
ordinate (y-axis) at the same time.
The characteristic values from the tensile test are described as follows according to
[7]: For materials without yield strength (curve a), the maximum stress is the “ten-
sile strength” σm and the corresponding strain is the “strain at tensile strength” σm.
Here, stress at break σb and elongation at break εb are identical with these values.
For materials with yield strength (curves b and c), the first maximum is called
“yield strength” σy and the corresponding elongation “elongation at yield” εy. The
stress at break is called “breaking stress” σb and the elongation “nominal breaking
elongation” εtb. The yield strength here is also called tensile strength, regardless of
whether the ultimate stress is greater (curve b) or not (curve c).
In addition to materials without yield strength and with brittle behavior (curve a),
there are also materials without yield strength and with ductile behavior (curve d).
In this case, too, tensile strength or elongation at tensile strength and fracture
stress or fracture elongation are identical by definition.
σm σb
σb
σm σy b
σm σy
σb c
σm σb
εm εm εm εtb εtb εm Figure 2.39

εb εy εy εb Stress-strain diagram [7]
Figure 2.39 provides a reminder that the area enclosed by the diagram represents
the energy absorption (toughness) (force multiplied by distance = energy). The
slope at the origin (here red dotted line) is a measure for the modulus of elasticity.
The mechanical stress of solids and fluids can basically be described by normal
stresses (tension/compression) and shear stresses (Figure 2.40). If tensile stresses
occur, the body responds with “elongation”. If compressive stresses occur, the
result is called “compression”. If shear stresses occur, the result is “shear deforma-
tion”.
F F
F
l0 l0
F F
F
F
τ F
γ
l‘>l0 l‘<l0 τ
F
F
tensile stress inside compressive stress inside shear stress inside

(response: elongation) (response: compression) (response: deformation)
Figure 2.40 Typical stresses and their responses
Figure 2.41 lists some frequently occurring superimpositions of stresses: “peel-

ing” is only possible with flexible (soft) components. The crack propagation front is
always the main force application point, which is why the peeling stress is consid-
ered to be very challenging. A bending load, e. g. in the bar shown here, generates
a compressive load (with resulting compression) on the underside and a tensile
load (with resulting elongation) on the top. The virtual “neutral fiber” is neither
stretched nor compressed. Torsional stress generates shear, tensile, and compres-
sive stresses with their respective responses of shear deformation, elongation, and
compression in the torsioned component. Here, as well, there is no stress in the
neutral fiber, which is identical to the torsion axis in the picture.
52 2 Fundamentals
peel stress bending stress torsional stress
F F
F tensile stress F
neutral
compressive stress
Figure 2.41 Superimposed stresses
2.2.2 State Ranges of Plastics
For the mechanical behavior of plastics under temperature changes, we remember

that the molecular motion of the long polymer chains also correlates with the abso-
lute temperature. They “oscillate” more strongly at higher temperatures, resulting
in an increase in their mean oscillation distance. A larger oscillation distance on
average over time also means lower secondary valence forces and thus the possi-
bility that the molecule chains slide against each other with less force and the
material expands.
2.2.2.1 Glass Transition Temperature Tg

Glass transition is the softening of the amorphous molecular structures due to in-
creasing Brownian molecular motion during heating. The thermoplastic changes
from a brittle-stiff to an elastically flexible (“thermoelastic”) state (Figure 2.42).
Amorphous thermoplastics undergo continuous change to the plastic (“thermo-
plastic”) state as the temperature continues to rise.
Plastics manufactured from amorphous polymers are generally used below their
glass transition temperature, as they only have sufficient strength for use there.
However, primary forming (see Chapter 4 “Processing”) takes place far above this
softening temperature, at which the amorphous polymer flows with as little resis-
tance as possible.
softening / thermal
glass transition decomposition
application primary forming

temperature of of amorphous
amorphous plastics plastics
elongation at break εB
tensile strength σM
amorphous
structure
solid thermoelastic thermoplastic decomposed
Tg temperature TZ
Figure 2.42 Condition ranges of amorphous plastics
The higher the temperature, the less flow resistance (viscosity) can be expected
from the melt. However, it should be considered that main valence bonds can also
be separated by too high temperatures. The so-called decomposition temperature
TZ must under no circumstances be exceeded.
2.2.2.2 Crystalline Melting Temperature Tm

As already explained, plastics made of semi-crystalline polymers have amorphous
and crystalline regions. The amorphous regions behave as described above and
soften when Tg is exceeded. However, the crystalline regions allow a high strength
level beyond the glass transition.
If an even higher energy level is exceeded, Brownian molecular movement is so
great that even the tightly packed crystalline regions of a semi-crystalline thermo-
plastic become mobile and slide towards each other. When this so-called crystal-
line melting temperature Tm is exceeded, solid, semi-crystalline plastics are spon-
taneously brought into the melt state (Figure 2.43).
Plastics manufactured from semi-crystalline polymers are generally used above
their glass transition temperature and below their crystalline melting tempera-
ture. They obtain higher extensibility thanks to the softened amorphous regions
and still have the high strength of the crystallites. A high extensibility combined
with strength leads to high toughness of the semi-crystalline thermoplastics when
they are used in this temperature range. Of course, primary forming takes place
above the crystalline melting temperature Tm. Even with semi-crystalline thermo-
54 2 Fundamentals
plastics, the decomposition temperature TZ must not be exceeded under any cir-
cumstances.
softening / crystalline thermal

glass transition melting range decomposition
application primary forming of

temperature semi-crystalline
of semi-crystalline plastics
plastics
crystallite
solid thermoelastic thermoplastic decomposed
Tg temperature Tm TZ
Figure 2.43 Condition ranges of semi-crystalline plastics
2.2.2.3 State Ranges of Crosslinked Polymers

Elastomers are crosslinked polymers whose force transmission takes place not
only via secondary valence forces, but above all via main valence bonds. As a re-
sult, temperature has less influence on the mechanical properties. Between the
crosslinks there are amorphous areas which allow greater extensibility above the
glass transition temperature Tg; therefore, elastomers are used, if possible, above
Tg – in the thermoelastic area.
In Figure 2.44, the application temperature range can only be represented qualita-
tively. It is considered to be very large. Since elastomers cannot be melted due to
chemical crosslinking, they are in a solid state up to the decomposition tempera-
ture and do not have a thermoplastic range.
Crosslinked thermosets also still have some movable, randomly ordered polymer
chains between the crosslinks, which permit greater mobility when the glass tran-
sition temperature Tg is exceeded (Figure 2.45). The Tg, however, is at significantly
higher temperatures than that of elastomers due to the tight mesh. The extensibil-
ity of thermosets also increases above Tg, but only slightly. The strength below and
above Tg is often at a high level. Since thermosets are not very extensible, an appli-
cation above Tg would make sense, but this temperature level is not always reached.
Thermosets can also be used over a very wide temperature range without major
property changes and are solid until decomposition.
softening / thermal
application temperature
of elastomers
weakly cross-linked
solid thermoelastic decomposed
Tg temperature TZ
Figure 2.44 Condition ranges of elastomers
softening / thermal
application temperature
of thermosets
tightly cross-linked
solid thermoelastic decomposed
Tg temperature TZ
Figure 2.45 Condition ranges of thermosets

56 2 Fundamentals
2.2.3 Mechanical Replacement Models
In order to understand the mechanical behavior fundamentally, this section pres-

ents basic patterns of material behavior under mechanical stress more in detail. If
polymer melts or polymer solids are subjected to mechanical stress, they respond
with deformation. We distinguish between elastic, plastic and viscous behavior,
which usually occur at the same time.
Elastic Behavior
Important: elastic does not mean extensible! Elastic is typically used incorrectly in
general parlance. In the mechanical context it means “resetting”. The elastic be-
havior (Figure 2.46) is particularly well known from metallic materials: each stress
is clearly assigned a corresponding strain response. If this is directly proportional,
the behavior is called ideal-elastic and the mechanical substitute model is a spring.
The strain level is determined by the proportionality factor, called the Youngʼs
modulus or elastic modulus E (in analogy to a springʼs stiffness).
The elastic behavior is explained by stretching the valence angles of the polymer
chain under load and their spontaneous snap-back when the load is relieved. In
thermoplastics, the proportion of purely elastic strain is rather low compared to
plastic and viscous strain. An elastomer not only shows high strain, but also has a
high elastic content. Even a thermoset has quite a high elastic content, connected
with a low strain.
stretching of valence angles mechanical replacement model:

spring
E
F F
Figure 2.46 Elastic behavior of plastics

Viscous Behavior
The word viscous describes the basic mechanical pattern of a permanent, irrevers-
ible deformation after a load is applied. During applied load, polymer chains slide
along each other or flow alongside each other (Figure 2.47). Right after the load has
been taken away, the chains remain in their new state and no resetting takes place.
The mechanical replacement model is a damper. The resulting strain rate e is de-
termined by the flow resistance η (“eta”, viscosity).
sliding of molecular chains mechanical replacement model:

damper
F F
F F
η
F F
Figure 2.47 Viscous behavior of plastics
Due to the crosslinking, polymer chains of thermosets and elastomers can actually
only slide against each other in partial areas; they only show negligible viscous
behavior. Thermoplastics, on the other hand, exhibit a pronounced viscous behav-
ior, since the secondary valence bonds bind the polymer chains much less than the
main valence bonds. At higher temperatures and stronger Brownian molecular mo-
tion, the viscous behavior is correspondingly more pronounced due to the even
weaker secondary valence bonds.
The adjective plastic means in principle only “permanently deformed” and could
also describe the state after viscous flow. In mechanics, however, permanent
changes are attributed to the plastic behavior, in which strong bonds between the
atoms are changed (Figure 2.48), e. g. dislocations in metallic materials are dis-
placements of atoms which change their previous bonding partners.
In polymeric materials, plastic behavior is caused not only by molecules sliding
against each other and disentangling, but also by crazes and cracks, i. e. breaking
of covalent bonds. Purely viscous behavior is not considered to be associated with
cracks and damage.
58 2 Fundamentals
cracks and strong displacement mechanical replacement model:

of molecular chains friction block
F F
F
FR
F F
Figure 2.48 Plastic behavior of plastics
The mechanical replacement model is a friction block. After the overcoming of a

resistance, the static friction force (corresponding to breaking of first covalent
bonds or unloops), further permanent deformation at a lower force level is possi-
ble.
Viscoelastic Behavior of Plastics

In plastics, these forms of behavior do not occur individually, but are superim-
posed. Although thermosets and elastomers have a largely elastic (resetting) be-
havior due to their crosslinking, they are not free of viscous and plastic compo-
nents depending on the load level and temperature. Even an (uncrosslinked)
polymer melt, regardless of whether it is sheared and/or stretched, does not be-
have purely irreversibly plastically due to the many loops, but rather partially elas-
tically, i. e. resetting. This behavior is called viscoelasticity because flowing (vis-
cous) and resetting (elastic) processes occur at the same time.
Thermoplastics have a pronounced viscoelastic behavior even in the solid state. If
a load is applied, there is a spontaneous expansion response from the change in
valence angle and then a time-delayed expansion due to the sliding of the chains
under load. In order to model at least the flowing (viscous) parts and the elastic
parts together, the mechanical replacement models spring and damper are linked
in different ways.
The most simple replacement model is the Maxwell model (Figure 2.49, center), a
series connection of spring and damper. The spontaneous expansion response
results from the elasticity model E of the spring and the superimposed expansion
response – depending on the viscosity η – results from the damper. This time-
delayed expansion response is not reset after relief (load removal) and is irrevers-
ible.
The Burger model (Figure 2.49, right) can represent the viscoelastic deformation
behavior of polymers particularly well and can also be described analytically. In
this model, the Maxwell model is connected in series with a parallel connection of
spring and damper. If this is stressed, a part of the elongation occurs sponta-
neously, as in the Maxwell model, and another part with a time delay. An addi-
tional elongation part is added with a time delay by the spring/damper combina-
tion connected in parallel. However, this part of the elongation is also reset
realistically when the parallel-connected spring relieves the load, but with a time
delay.
Unfortunately, plastic flow cannot be represented analytically. Although the substi-
tute model “friction block” is helpful for understanding, it is not possible to predict
when the first crazes or microcracks will occur. This unpredictable behavior is
called “nonlinear” because the relationship double load → double response is no
longer valid. Therefore, plastics, especially thermoplastics, behave in a non-linear-
viscoelastic manner.
F F
t0
F F
t1
t2
series connection parallel and series connection

(Maxwell model) (Burger model)
E
F F E
η F
η
Figure 2.49 Mechanical replacement model to describe the viscoelastic behavior

60 2 Fundamentals
2.3 Plastics and Plastics Technology –

Definition of Terms
Plastic
Now we turn to the term plastics. The term is not standardized, although standard-
ization organizations have been dealing with it for years. In most languages a term
like “plastics” is used due to the materialʼs plastic shape variety. In French they are
called “matèries plastiques”, in Spanish “materiales plásticos”, or simply “plastic”
in Turkish. The German term “Kunststoff”, which means “artificial material”, was
coined by Dr. Richard Escales already in 1911 for his new trade journal “Kunst
stoffe”. This term was adopted by a few other languages, like “kunststof” (Dutch)
and “konstmaterial” (Swedish). The globally most important plastics exhibition is
therefore simply called “K”!
For clarification: The term polymer must not to be equated with the term plastic,
but describes the raw material, which becomes plastic only in combination with
cleverly selected and suitably incorporated additives. Therefore, the author defines
plastics in this way:
“Plastics are materials consisting of polymers and additives. Polymers are macro-
molecules of natural or petrochemical origin”.
From the author’s point of view, fibers, coating materials, and polymers as addi-
tives cannot be considered as plastics.
Plastics Technology
According to the definition of the Scientific Alliance of Plastics Technology (Wis-
senschaftlicher Arbeitskreis Kunststofftechnik – WAK) in Germany, a plastics en-
gineer concentrates on the interactions between material, processing, and design
in order to derive the feasibility and properties of the plastic product. “This means
that not only plastic components and semi-finished products, but also the neces-
sary machines, procedures, and development processes are part of plastics engi-
neering activities.” [8]
“In addition to the findings of the natural sciences, plastics technology also uses
the system of experience, intuition, and creative power of the engineer in order to
arrive at technically new and economically interesting solutions. It is the sum of
engineering knowledge and skills in the field of materials science of plastics, con-
struction with plastics, and plastics processing”. [8]
The strong intertwining of the fields of materials engineering, processing technol-
ogy, and design engineering actually applies to all classes of materials, but only in
plastics technology does it seem to be employed in this way. It is illustrated by the
WAK with Figure 2.50 [8]. The Institute for Plastics Technology (Institut für Kunst-
2.4 References 61
stofftechnik; IKT), in which the author researches and teaches, has aligned its
three major research groups accordingly and this book is also subdivided into the
three interlocking areas “Plastics Materials Engineering”, “Plastics Processing
Technology”, and “Product Development with Plastics”.
material
polymer
technology
processing design
Figure 2.50
Characteristics of plastics technology
[Image source: WAK]
2.4 References
[1] N. N., “Brockhaus Enzyklopädie Online,” Database-Infosystem University of Stuttgart, 2013.
[2] G. W. Ehrenstein, Polymer Werkstoffe: Struktur – Eigenschaften – Anwendung, 3rd. ed., Munich:
Carl Hanser Verlag, 2011; English edition: Polymeric Materials: Structure, Properties, Applications,
Carl Hanser Verlag, 2001.
[3] G. Menges, Menges Werkstoffkunde Kunststoffe, 6th ed., Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2011; English
edition: T. A. Osswald and G. Menges, Materials Science of Polymers for Engineers, 3rd. ed.,
Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2012.
[4] A. J. Peacock and A. Calhoun, Polymer Chemistry: Properties and Applications, Munich: Carl
Hanser Verlag, 2006.
[5] C. Bonten, Kunststofftechnik für Designer, Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2002.
[6] A. Lustiger and R. Markham, “Importance of tie molecules in preventing polyethylene fracture
under long-term loading conditions,” Polymer, Vol. 24, 1983, pp. 1647–1654.
[7] DIN EN ISO 527-1: 2012.
[8] N. N., Broschure of the WAK, Bayreuth, Germany: WAK, 2013; https://www.wak-kunststofftechnik.
de/fileadmin/downloads/7_ueber-uns/WAK-Broschuere_eng_25.02.2014_klein.pdf.
MATERIALS PROCESSING
ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY
PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT
Materials Engineering
3 Plastics Materials
Engineering
First of all, we need to specify what is a raw material and what is a material you
can work with.
In metal materials engineering, iron ore becomes a pure iron by means of a pro-
cessing step, so-called smelting. Later on, the raw material, the pure iron, is con-
verted into a metal (material) through further processing steps with alloying part-
ners as well as through targeted structural changes. In the case of ceramic materi-
als, well-chosen selections of natural or synthetic raw materials are kept malleable
in a suspension (“slurry”) and only obtain the final properties of the final material
by means of the sintering process.
When applied to plastics, this means that the monomers introduced in Section 2.1
are made from the elements carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, rarely others,
and the raw material “polymer” is then synthesized (Section 2.1.2). By compound-
ing polymers (Section 3.4) including additives the material “plastic” is created.
With the aid of a further process step, the so-called processing (Chapter 4), plastics
are converted into components (Figure 3.1).
synthesis compounding converting
matter resource raw material material component
elements monomers polymers plastics plastic parts
Figure 3.1 Process steps from the matter to the component
In most cases, the aim of material development is to achieve certain solid state
properties. The properties are presented in Section 3.2 and influences on them
Sections 3.3 to 3.6. However, these properties are not always the key to the success
of plastic products, but the energy saving and cost-efficient processing.
66 3 Plastics Materials Engineering
Since the processes of compounding and processing always take place in the mol-
ten state, the flow properties of the polymer melt and the plastic melt as well as
how they can be influenced will be presented first.
3.1 Behavior in the Melt – Flow Properties

and Their Measurement
Rheology is the study of the deformation and flow behavior of materials. The term
comes from the Greek rei~ (rhei)“flowing” and λóγος (logos) “teaching”. Knowledge
of the flow behavior, the rheology, is therefore an essential part of plastics engi-
neering and allows the design of shaping tools to be adapted to the pressure re-
quirements of the machines and to estimate the orientation states of the polymer
chains.
Since thermosets and elastomers cannot be melted again after solidification, the
compounding step (mixing and adding of additives that tailor the properties) as
well as the conversion step to a component take place directly in one step, i. e. from
the easy flowing monomer to the finished component. Low-viscosity monomers are
so-called Newtonian liquids (see below) with low viscosity (low flow resistance),
which only strongly increases during the reaction to the polymer and becomes
“pseudoplastic” (see below). However, we will not go into the flow behavior during
the chemical reactions in detail in this section. Only in Section 4.3 “Processing of
Crosslinking Plastics” will this be dealt with in detail.
In this section, essential rheological basics are conveyed and the special flow
ehavior of a thermoplastic melt is explained. The effects and consequences of
b
the flow processes on the finished part are briefly explained and the measuring
technique for obtaining rheological material value functions (“rheometry”) is pre-
sented.
3.1.1 Fluid Mechanics Basics
Uncrosslinked polymers are easily deformable at higher temperatures without

chemical changes in structure (constitution and configuration). Thermoplastic
polymer chains slide at higher temperatures under the effect of force and reduce
the load under shear, elongation, and compression.
Typical one-dimensional flows of plastic melts are shown in Figure 3.2. The gap
flow with a qualitative velocity distribution is shown here in cross-section, and
next to it the pipe flow. Finally, a drag flow is shown on the right-hand side. The
3.1 Behavior in the Melt – Flow Properties and Their Measurement 67
lower plate stands while the upper plate is moved and with vp “drags” the melt in
the z-direction. The velocity profile increases with distance y to the standing plate,
until it assumes the highest value at y = H.
vp
y r
z H z H
y
z
two plate model
Figure 3.2 Velocity profiles of typical flows
Polymer melts and plastic melts are usually sheared during plastic processing, e. g.
in the pipe flow of a flow channel or in the drag flow of a processing screw. Due to
the wall adhesion, a velocity profile forms over a channel cross-section, as shown
in Figure 3.2.
A volume element in the melt (Figure 3.3) is sheared by the difference in velocity.
In the case of pipe flow, the parabolic velocity profile means that the shear rate at
the channel wall is greatest and zero in the center of the duct. In a drag flow with
a linear velocity profile, the shear rate is constant over the channel height.
vp
v τ
τ γ̇
τ
τ H v
deformed γ̇ = const.
liquid particle
Figure 3.3 Volume element in shear flow and drag flow
Some flow-mechanical basics shall be remembered here at the two plate model
with drag flow (Figure 3.4):
The shear stress τ induced by the plate of surface A is simply calculated with force
F divided by surface A.
F
t= (3.1)
A
The shear rate, i. e. the rate at which the deformed liquid particles shear from each
other, is the derivative of the velocity over the gap height, i. e. the ratio of velocity vp
and the distance between the two plates H. The resulting shear rate has a unit of 1/s:
∂v v p
g = = (3.2)
∂y H
The flow resistance, the so-called viscosity η, can be calculated from the quotient
“imposed load” τ divided by “load response” g . It usually has the unit Pa s.
τ
η= (3.3)
γ
(By the way: The calculation of the resistance to solid state deformation, the modu-
lus of elasticity, which is also determined by “imposed load” σ divided by “load
response” ε, is carried out quite analogously.)
vp
force F
τ moving plate of surface A
deformed liquid particle
H v (y)
y
z
Figure 3.4 Two-plate model with drag flow
Shear Thinning Behavior

In a “race” of two liquids we want to present the special features of a so-called
shear thinning liquid (such as a polymer melt) (Figure 3.5). A Newtonian liquid
(water–glycerin mixture) was dyed blue and a shear thinning liquid (polyacryl-
amide dissolved in water) was dyed green. The circular capillary and all dimen-
sions are identical.
QR-Code 3-1
Race of two liquids: The blue one has Newtonian behavior, the green
one shear thinning.
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Wettlauf

The same fluid column loads both fluids at the beginning, so that equally high
shear stresses τ can be assumed. While the green, shear thinning liquid has a low
flow resistance (viscosity) η at high shear stress and high shear rate, the blue,
Newtonian fluid retains its viscosity no matter how high the shear stress τ is.
As the fluid column sinks (and thus the shear stress τ decreases), the shear rate
also decreases and the flow resistance η of the green, shear thinning medium in-
creases. Thus the green medium becomes disproportionately slower, while the
Newtonian medium always overcomes the same flow resistance and only passes
through more slowly proportionally to the decreasing fluid column.
ØD pipe ØD 600
550
start 500
mark 450
400
height in mm
350
300
250
x 200
zN (t)
150
z (t)
z 100
z0 50
r 0| | | | | | | | | | |
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
time t in s
l
Ød Ød
circular capillary
Figure 3.5 Race of the liquids
With fluids – unlike with stress-strain curves – the induced stress is plotted loga-
rithmically on the abscissa (x-axis) and the responding shear rate logarithmically
on the ordinate (y-axis). With Newtonian liquids (Figure 3.6), such as water or
honey, the gradient is linear, so that the viscosity η from Equation 3.3 here gives a
constant ratio. A typical representation is also viscosity η above shear rate g ,
which is a parallel to the abscissa at constant viscosity.
lg shear rate
lg viscosity
lg shear stress lg shear rate
Figure 3.6 Newtonian behavior of a liquid

With shear thinning fluids – such as blood or polymer melts – shear rate and shear
stress do not behave linear to each other. As the shear stress τ increases, the shear
rate g increases disproportionately (Figure 3.7, left). The shear thinning fluid thus
becomes thinner at higher shear rates. Consequently, the quotient η, the viscosity,
decreases with increasing shear rate (Figure 3.7, right).
lg shear rate
lg viscosity
Figure 3.7
Shear thinning behavior
lg shear stress lg shear rate of a fluid
We try to explain the phenomenon of shear thinning behavior molecularly. On the

one hand, polymer chains in the melt are disordered and intertwined like a tangle
of cables (Figure 3.8). The cable entanglement resembles entangled polymer
chains: the more slippery the cable, the lower the secondary valence forces. On the
other hand, the more and larger “substituents” (here: bulbs of the light chain), the
more difficult it is to slide.
Figure 3.8
Cable tangle (light chain)
Let us now imagine a polymer chain between many. Figure 3.9 shows the polymer
chain in red simplified without side chains and without bulky substituents.
Figure 3.9
Reptation model according to [1]
The movement possibilities of the polymer chain are limited by the loops surround-
ing it. This results in a certain freedom of movement (here shown ideally in tubular
form), within and along which it can move relatively easily. This is the basis
assumption of the reptation model by de Gennes (Nobel Prize 1991) [1].
On the one hand, this visualization clearly shows that with increasing tempera-
ture, i. e. increasing Brownian molecular movement, not only the red polymer
chain, but also all surrounding chains oscillate far more and thus the tube radius
of the movement space of the red chain increases. On the other hand, it is easy to
understand from this model that with increasing deformation of the melt, addi-
tional loops arise, which can change and increase the tube radius/movement
range. In extreme cases, all polymer chains are aligned (oriented) in the direction
of movement and no longer looped at all. In this case even less resistance (viscos-
ity) would be opposed to sliding. Figure 3.10 illustrates the orientation and sliding
at higher shear rates even more.
low γ̇ Newtonian: η = const.
medium γ̇ Newtonian - shear thinning

transition
lg viscosity
high γ̇ shear thinning: η = η ( γ̇)
lg shear rate
Figure 3.10 Explanation of shear thinning behavior
In plastics technology, we usually use the representation (Figure 3.7, right) of the
viscosity above the shear rate to describe the shear thinning melt behavior of
plastics. Characteristic is the so-called zero viscosity η0 (viscosity at low shear
rates → 0) as well as the shear rate at which the viscosity drops significantly (“tran-
sition shear rate”).
Two mathematical approaches have been established which make the flow behav-
ior of plastic melts accessible for analytical considerations: the power law approach
and the Carreau approach.
Power Law Approach

The power law approach (Figure 3.11) describes the course of viscosity in the
shear thinning behavior range of the flow curve. The Newtonian range including
zero viscosity is not included.
lg viscosity
lg η
n-1 = ——
lg γ̇
Figure 3.11
lg shear rate Power law approach
The power law approach is determined by the following formula:
γ = Φ ⋅ τ m (3.4)
Φ is the fluidity and m the flow exponent, which indicates the slope in the shear
thinning behavior range. From Equation 3.4 and Equation 3.3 it follows that:
−1 1
−1
η = Φ m ⋅ γ m (3.5)
With the consistency factor k:
−1
k =Φ m (3.6)
and
1
n= (3.7)
m
the following applies:
η = k ⋅ γ n−1 (3.8)
Carreau Approach
The three-parametric approach of Carreau (Figure 3.12) is a material model that
can describe both the shear thinning and the Newtonian range:
lg viscosity
A
-C
1/B Figure 3.12

lg shear rate Carreau approach
The Carreau approach is described by the equation:
A
η= C
(3.9)
(1 + B ⋅ γ )
The values mean the following:

A: Zero viscosity (at shear speeds → 0)
B: Reciprocal of the transition shear rate (at the intersection of the tangents of the Newtonian and
the shear thinning regions)
C: Slope of the curve in the shear thinning range
Table 3.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Power Law Approach

Advantages Disadvantages
mathematically very easy to use approach viscosity is incorrectly approaching infinity for
low shear rates
well suited for the description of the shear fluidity depends on m
thinning area → parameters of the function are not physical
parameters
Table 3.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Carreau Approach

valid for the entire shear rate range unsuitable for polymers without a Newtonian
plateau
parameters A, B, C represent physical para for good approximations sufficient measuring
meters and thus real material values points in all areas of the curve are required
3.1.2 Influences on the Flow Behavior
Pressure and Temperature

The resistance to flow, the viscosity of thermoplastic melts, depends on various
boundary conditions. According to the view that Brownian molecular movement
also causes macromolecules to vibrate more strongly, it is self-explanatory that a
higher temperature makes the polymer chains slide more easily against each other.
Thus, the characteristic viscosity curve of a melt shifts to lower values on the one
hand, and on the other hand, the transition from Newtonian to pseudoplastic be-
havior shifts to higher shear rates. In total, the curve is shifted by −45° (Fig-
ure 3.13).
temperature pressure
T0 < T1 < T2 p0 < p1 < p2
lg viscosity
lg viscosity
shift -45° shift -45°
lg shear rate lg shear rate
Figure 3.13 Influence of temperature and pressure on the viscosity curve
The same applies to higher pressure. If the (compressible) melt is subjected to a

higher pressure, the molecular chains are pressed closer together despite Brown-
ian molecular movement. Consequently, the thermoplastic melt flows less well at
higher pressure and the viscosity increases. Once again, there is a −45° shift in
the viscosity curves. The effect of an increase in pressure on the flow behavior is
much smaller compared to an increase in temperature.
This relationship is to be illustrated by curves of a high density polyethylene
(PE-HD) measured in real terms (Figure 3.14). The diagram on the left shows the
shear stresses imposed on a plastic melt and their reaction in the form of the shear
rate. After measurements at 180 °C, the same material at 210 °C and 240 °C was
pressed through the capillary of a high-pressure capillary rheometer. (The mea-
surement procedures are described in more detail in Section 3.1.6.2.)
105 180 °C
210 °C
240 °C
104
shear rate γ in 1/s
103 180 °C
103 210 °C
240 °C
viscosity η in Pa · s
102 102
101 101
103 104 105 101 102 103 104 105
shear stress τ in Pa shear rate γ in /s
1
Figure 3.14 Flow (left) and viscosity curve (right) of a PE-HD
The resulting viscosity curves η over shear rate g (in the right diagram) show dif-
ferent viscosity levels (especially at low shear rates). The shifted transition from
Newtonian to pseudoplastic is not so easily visible here. The advantage is that, if
we know the viscosity curve of a thermoplastic melt at one temperature, we can
deduce the curve at higher or lower temperatures. The only thing we need is the
temperature shift factor aT, which we have to determine on the basis of three zero
viscosities at three temperatures. The Carreau approach described above can be
supplemented by the formula:
h0 (T )
aT = (3.10)
h0 (T0 )
and can shift the viscosity curve for different temperatures, where T0 is the refer-
ence temperature and T is the temperature to which the curve is shifted:
aT ⋅ A
η= C
(3.11)
(1 + aT ⋅ B ⋅ γ )
For the calculation of the temperature shift factor aT, two approaches are state of
the art.
The Arrhenius approach is used for semi-crystalline thermoplastics:
E0  1 1 
log aT = ⋅  −  (3.12)
R  T T0 
with the flow activation energy E0 and the universal gas constant R = 8.314 J/mol.
For amorphous thermoplastics, the approach of William, Landel, and Ferry (WLF)
is used:
C1 ⋅ (T − TS )
log aT = − (3.13)
C2 + T − TS
C1 and C2 are material constants (standard recommendation for many plastics:

C1 = 8.86, C2 = 101.6 K) and TS is the material-specific standard temperature (usu-
ally about 50 K above Tg).
Molar Mass
There are, of course, other influencing parameters on viscosity. The molar mass
distribution (Figure 2.9) also has an influence on the flow behavior. If the polymer
chain is long enough, i. e. a real macromolecule (“critical molar mass”), the viscos-
ity curve is also shifted by −45° (Figure 3.15).
This is based on the opinion that the longer the molecular chain is, the greater its
flow resistance η. The shorter the molecular chain (but without falling below a
critical limit Mc), the lower the flow resistance. The diagram on the right shows
that the zero viscosity correlates approximately with the weight average MW and,
as soon as Mc is exceeded, with MW 3.5. This means that above Mc the viscosity with
double molar mass (e. g. 20,000 g/mol instead of 10,000 g/mol) increases approxi-
mately tenfold.
molar mass
Mw0 < Mw1 < Mw2
lg zero viscosity
Mc η0 ~ M3.5
w
lg viscosity
shift -45°
η0 ~ Mw
lg shear rate lg molar mass weight average
Figure 3.15 Viscosity dependence on molar mass

Figure 3.16 shows that “narrow” molar mass distributions (i. e. all polymer chains
of similar length) show a sharper transition from Newtonian to pseudoplastic than
the same thermoplastic melt with a broader molar mass distribution. This is due to
the fact that shorter chains only start exhibiting the shear thinning effect at higher
shear rates than longer chains do. Thus the transition is “smeared”.
number of polymer chains

lg viscosity
lg shear rate respective molar mass
Figure 3.16 Molar mass distribution influences viscosity curve
Additives
Finally, in anticipation of Section 3.3, we would like to take a closer look at the in-
fluences of additives on the flow properties. Let’s take a look at two extremes: plas-
ticizers have the task of sitting between the polymer chains and thus weakening
the secondary valence forces. This makes not only the solid more flexible and duc-
tile, but also the melt. As the plasticizer content increases, the chains slide better
against each other and shift the viscosity curves 90° downwards (Figure 3.17).
plasticizer content filler content

MP0 < MP1 < MP2 cF0 < cF1 << cF2
lg viscosity
lg viscosity
shift 90° shift 90°
lg shear rate lg shear rate
Figure 3.17 Influence of additives on the viscosity curve
An increasing filler content, on the other hand, reduces the flowability because the
filler itself does not flow. A shift of the viscosity curves by 90° also applies here,
but to higher viscosities with increasing filler content. A special condition occurs
when the filler content becomes very high. Then the flow resistance can increase
extremely at low shear rates and block flow (so-called yield point; example: tooth-
paste does not drip out of the tube).
In the following example (Figure 3.18), the bioplastic polylactide is modified with
an additive. The additive comprises elastomer particles, which serve to improve
the impact strength (see Section 3.3.2). The figure shows two viscosity curves.
mathematical description
of the viscosity curve
CARPOW
Carreau
lg viscosity
15 % elastomer particles
0 % elastomer particles
lg shear rate
Figure 3.18 Viscosity curve of highly filled polymer melts and their description
The unfilled polylactide melt shows the typical behavior of a polymer melt (green
curve), which can be described with the Carreau approach. In contrast, the modi-
fied material with a proportion of 15% by weight of elastomer particles has a
flow restriction (blue curve). The viscosity increases strongly at low shear rates.
This process can be described mathematically by an approach first developed by
Dr.-Ing. Kalman Geiger at the IKT.
The so-called CARPOW approach consists of the CARreau and the POWer law ap-
proach, and is represented in Equation 3.14. The power law approach here does not
describe the shear thinning behavior range at high shear rates, but the increase in
viscosity by the filler at low shear rates. The agreement between measurement and
calculation is remarkable.
d A
η (γ ) = n
+ C
(3.14)
γ (1 + B ⋅ γ )
The CARPOW approach can be used to determine the pressure requirement of the
processing machine and to design the processing tools precisely, if highly filled
compounds are to be processed.
3.1.3 The Concept of Representative Viscosity
In the case of viscous fluids, the shear rate over the flow channel is not linear, so
the flow actually can no longer be calculated analytically. However, the use of ana-
lytical calculation approaches is desirable because they are fast and require only
little computational effort.
For Newtonian fluids, the Hagen-Poisseuille law specifies the analytical relation-
ship between volume flow and pressure gradients of a laminar flow. If flow proper-
ties of polymer melts are calculated with Newtonian fluid formulas, this leads to a
deviating flow curve (so-called “apparent viscosity curve”), which must be cor-
rected. Figure 3.19 shows this on the basis of measurement curves for a poly
propylene determined at the IKT. Then, the true flow curve can be determined by
complex differentiation of the apparent flow curve (so called Weißenberg-Rabinow-
itsch correction). The correction results in a shifted curve for the true viscosity
curve.
105
apparent viscosity ηs in Pas
true viscosity η in Pas
104 lg e0
103
102 η (γ̇) = ηs (e0 · Ds)
101 | | | |
1 101 102 103
apparent shear rate Ds in s
true shear rate γ̇ in s
Figure 3.19 True and apparent flow curves
The concept of representative viscosity allows a correction of the apparent flow

curve, which is much easier with comparable accuracy. Since the viscous shear
rate changes parabolically towards the wall, it must assume the same value as the
Newtonian shear rate at a point other than the center of the channel (Figure 3.20).
R rrep γNewtonian
r
x
γshear thinning Figure 3.20
Shear rate curves
In practice, this location is approximately the same for almost all thermoplastics
and provides a correction factor e that has been empirically determined:
rrep
e0 = ≈ 0.815 (3.15)
R
for pipes and
hrep
e= ≈ 0.7222 (3.16)
H
for slits.
By multiplying by this correction factor, the conventional analytical formulas can
be used for slit and pipe flows. The shear rate in a pipe cross-section is calculated:
4 ⋅ V
γ rep = ⋅ e0 (3.17)
π ⋅ R3
The viscosity can be calculated from:
aT ⋅ A
ηrep = C (3.18)
(1 + aT ⋅ B ⋅ γ rep )
The pressure loss results in:
8 ⋅ ηrep ⋅ V
∆p = ⋅∆l (3.19)
π ⋅ R4
and the shear stress results in:
∆p
t= ⋅ R ⋅ e0 (3.20)
2 ⋅∆l
For a slit the shear rate is calculated:
6 ⋅ V
g rep = ⋅e (3.21)
B⋅ H2
The viscosity is calculated:
aT ⋅ A
ηrep = C (3.22)
(1 + aT ⋅ B ⋅ γ rep )
The pressure loss is calculated:
8 ⋅ ηrep ⋅ V
∆p = ⋅∆l (3.23)
π ⋅ R4
And the shear stress:
∆p
t= ⋅ H ⋅e (3.24)
2 ⋅∆l
3.1.4 Elongation of Melt
In flow processes through a slit or a channel and in drag flows (e. g. between two
plates, see above), the melt is usually subjected to shear stress (Figure 3.21, left).
However, it is sheared and simultaneously elongated in mixing processes, e. g. in a
processing screw (see Section 3.4) (Figure 3.21, right).
γ
F
F
τ
τ
ε
F Figure 3.21
shear deformation γ strain ε Difference between elongation and shear
Also, there are plastic processing methods in which the melt is stretched quite
strongly, e. g. when plastics are foamed (see Figure 3.22, left, and Section 3.5.5),
the bubble formation stretches the surrounding melt more than it is sheared.
During film blowing (see Figure 3.22, center, and Section 4.1.5), the melt is also
stretched in the extrusion direction and circumferential direction after exiting the
die. Finally, also in thermoforming (see Figure 3.22, right, and Section 4.5.1), the
very warm plastic semi-finished product in the thermoelastic state is stretched to a
component, more than sheared.
Figure 3.22
Stretching processes in plastics
foaming thermoforming processing
The coating of, for example, paper is not plastic processing, but melt is extruded
onto the very fast paper and stretched enormously. Another topic is fiber spinning,
which is part of textile technology: Here the melt is extremely stretched in the
main direction and thus the molecules are oriented.
The strain viscosity μ is defined very similarly to the mechanical stiffness of the
material. However, the resistance to melt strain here is the quotient of the tensile

stress σ (not shear stress) and the resulting strain velocity e:
σ
µ= (3.25)
ε
Figure 3.23 shows the flow curves for shear (green) and strain (blue) of the same
low density polyethylene (PE-LD) melt.
107 PE-LD
extensional viscosity µ in Pas
θ = 150 °C
shear viscosity η in Pas
106
µs
0
= 3η0
105 η0
ηs
104
103
10-5 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102
strain rate ε̇ in s
shear rate γ̇ in s
Figure 3.23 Shear and extensional viscosity of PE-LD

In the Newtonian range, the resistance to strain deformation is about three times
as high as the shear viscosity: this relationship is also called the Trouton relation-
ship or Troutonʼs law. This means that the melt has a greater resistance to elongat-
ing deformation than to shearing deformation. We can imagine that when the melt
is stretched, it is not moved in one flow direction, but is pulled from at least two
sides, which makes sliding more difficult. At low shear rates it can be assumed that
the molecules are pulled out of the surrounding loops along their reptation tubes.
If the macromolecules are very linear, then the resistance does not increase with
 it runs parallel to the shear viscosity.
increasing strain rate e,
If, however, they are branched, in particular long-chain branched, the resistance
increases strongly. This process is recognizable as a hump in the blue curve in
Figure 3.23 and is called strain hardening, although this is probably less due to
increasing strength than to decreasing deformability: during deformation at higher
strain rates, the molecular chains can probably no longer glide along their repta-
tion tubes alone, but also tug at the tube boundaries.
The photo of the cable entanglement (Figure 3.8) clearly shows that this can lead to
greater entanglement. Anyone who has ever had to untangle cables knows that
jerky pulling (= high strain rate) only tightens the cables.
At even higher strain rates one can assume that the polymer chains are now
aligned and slide better against each other. The strain viscosity decreases again.
A higher strain viscosity means a higher resistance against the strain deformation
(requires higher forces/pressures), but also a higher resistance against impending
melt fracture during processing (film tear, foam bubble collapse, etc.). Depending
on the application and type of plastics processing, a high strain viscosity is either
desirable or not at all.
3.1.5 Die Swell and Shrinkage
Already in the basics Section 2.2.3, the difference between viscous and elastic ma-
terial behavior was explained and with it also the phenomenon of viscoelasticity. On
the basis of the viscoelastic material behavior of polymers, important phenomena
for the processing of polymers arise in practice. These phenomena can be seen, for
example, in the loss of inlet pressure, die swell, and shrinkage through orientation.
The inlet pressure loss will be discussed in more detail later in Section 3.1.6.
If a melt is pressed through a constriction (e. g. through a nozzle), the polymer
chains in the capillary are accelerated (continuity equation) and thereby sheared
in the direction of flow. This alignment was made possible partly by valence angle
changes (elastic), partly by changing the position of the polymer chains (plastic).
While the plastically deformed parts do not reset, the elastic parts are reset
immediately after leaving the nozzle. A so-called die swell occurs (Figure 3.24).
in front of channel
channel constriction constriction: channel outlet
bundle of sheared molecules bundle of

molecules molecules
Figure 3.24 Die swell
Instead of looking at an extruder nozzle, let’s now take a look at a gap of an injec-
tion mold (see Section 4.2); quite similar deformation mechanisms occur here.
During injection, some molecular chains are also elastically and plastically de-
formed the same time and thus oriented.
However, this condition is quickly frozen in the injection mold – especially with
thin-walled components. With transparent plastics, it can be made visible in polar-
ized light (Figure 3.25, left). So-called polarization filters are used to obtain polar-
ized light. These are filters made of anisotropic and thus optically birefringent
plates that only allow one direction of light oscillation to pass through. If these fil-
ters are placed against each other in such a way that the planes of oscillation
passed through them are perpendicular (transverse) to each other, the system (po-
lariscope) is opaque.
Figure 3.25
Orientation and shrinkage
Amorphous, transparent plastics such as PC, PS, or PMMA appear black between
crossed polarizers of a polariscope if they are isotropic, i. e. free of tension or orien-
tation. Mechanically stressed components or components subject to stress due to
the manufacturing process show optical stress birefringence, which appear to the
observer as isochromatics (lines of the same color). The color and the distance of
the lines are a measure for the birefringence and thus for the existing stress states.
If the polymer chains frozen in this oriented state are given more room to move
again (higher temperature and sufficient time), the elastically deformed chains
quickly recede, e. g. in Figure 3.25, the right. This resetting is also known as the
memory effect. It is deliberately used in shrink films; however, in most compo-
nents too much orientation is undesirable and can lead to premature failure due to
cracking (between orientations) or to unwanted deformation. Shrinkage measure-
ment is used to estimate the degree of orientation of semi-crystalline polymers and
plastics.
At this point it is important to emphasize the difference between contraction and
shrinkage. Contraction describes the effect of denser molecular arrangement
during solidification (e. g. during crystallization of a thermoplastic or during cross-
linking of a thermoset) and thus clearly a change in volume. Shrinkage occurs ex-
clusively by resetting orientations. This may change the shape, but not the volume.
Many publications do not distinguish between contraction and shrinkage, but that
would be helpful to better describe the mechanisms acting after processing.
3.1.6 Rheometry – the Measurement of Flow Properties
The design of processing machines, tools and dies requires material data that ade-
quately characterize the flow behavior. Rheometry is concerned with measuring
and describing these flow properties. The rheological material data of commer-
cially available materials are stored in public databases such as “CAMPUS” (Fig-
ure 3.26).
QR-Code 3-2
This is a link to the public plastics database CAMPUS

http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Campus

The rheological properties of a substance depend on:

the type of load (shear, strain),
the level of the load,
the duration of the load, and
the temperature.
Figure 3.26 Rheological material data in the public database CAMPUS
3.1.6.1 Measurement of the Melt Flow Rate MFR

The melt flow index (MFI) or melt flow rate (MFR) is a widely used rheological pa-
rameter. Here, the melt flow rate per time is measured by a standardized capillary
under load (Figure 3.27) and related to the measuring time of 10 min. Usually, the
mass that has flowed through is measured. The volume (so-called “Melt Volume
Index”, MVI) can also be measured if the density is known at the measuring
temperature. In order to ensure that the values are comparable, the measuring
temperature and load weight are given, e. g. “MFR 190/5” stands for 190 °C and
5 kg.
This measurement method is simple, fast, and requires only a small amount of
plastic. This makes it particularly suitable for incoming goods inspection. Unfor
tunately, the result is only a point value (Figure 3.28) and does not describe the
entire viscosity curve, since the resulting shear rate is measured only at one shear
stress, caused by the applied load.
load
insulation
heating coil
metal cylinder
piston
borehole for
temperature plastic sample
sensor
capillary
Figure 3.27
scale Measurement of the melt flow index
lg viscosity
Figure 3.28
lg shear rate MFR value is only one point on the viscosity curve
In addition, the test parameters load and temperature are adapted to the material
to be measured so that meaningful values are measured. This, however, affects
comparability. For example, 190 °C is sufficient for polyethylene (PE) (at a weight
of 2.16 kg), but 230 °C is used for polypropylene (at the same weight). The higher
the MFR value, the more melt was forced through the capillary in 10 minutes.
Thus, a high MFR value indicates a low melt viscosity.
3.1.6.2 The High-Pressure Capillary Rheometer

The high-pressure capillary rheometer (Figure 3.29) is a test device for the exact
determination of the stationary shear viscosity as a function of shear rate g and
temperature ϑ. The functional principle of this rheometer is similar to that of the
MFR tester, but the piston is moved at a defined speed instead of by a defined load.
This means that the melt is pressed through a temperature-controlled capillary
with a defined geometry in a speed-controlled manner.
vpis
piston
melt p0
reservoir
lg viscosity
capillary
p1
p2
p3
lg shear rate
expanded
melt strand
Figure 3.29 The high-pressure capillary rheometer
The pressure drop along the capillary is measured for a specific shear rate g each.
The shear stress τ can be calculated from the pressure drop Δp and capillary geom-
etry. This, divided by the shear rate g set at the piston speed, gives the viscosity η
of the respective flow state. By increasing the piston speed, the shear rate is
changed and a different pressure drop occurs, which allows the viscosity to be cal-
culated again. As explained in Section 3.1.4, the calculated apparent viscosity
curve must be converted into a true one for this calculation.
Due to the viscoelasticity of the melt, the high-pressure capillary rheometer expe-
riences a pressure drop at the inlet, i. e. there already is a pressure drop due to the
compression of the polymer chain in the capillary. Since this pressure drop is
polymer-specific, the measured pressure losses may have to be corrected by this
amount (so-called “Bagley correction”).
For this purpose, the same polymer is sent through different capillaries of different
L/D ratios one after the other and the respective pressure is measured. The
L
respective measured pressure losses are extrapolated to an = 0 (Figure 3.30).
D
The value there must be the pressure loss at the inlet, which now can be sub-
tracted from the measured pressure loss.
∆p
L
pressure loss
at the inlet
∆p ∆p ∆p
D
L D L D L D L/D
Figure 3.30 Viscosity measurement with the high-pressure capillary rheometer
The advantages of the high-pressure capillary rheometer are obvious: The determi-
nation of the wall shear stress τW is quite easy as soon as the Bagley correction has
been carried out, based on the pressure drop over the capillary. With the piston
feed, a wide measuring range can be realized that covers the entire shear rate
range relevant to processing (Chapter 4: e. g. extrusion and injection molding). The
flow shape is comparable to that of processing, on- or in-line measurements are
applicable, and in pressure-controlled operation even the shear rate can be deter-
mined with the respective set shear stress.
The biggest disadvantage is the time required, which is too great for a fast-incom-
ing goods inspection. In addition, several 100 g of granulate are required for the
many measuring points that are approached.
3.1.6.3 Rotational Rheometer

In terms of equipment, rotational rheometers are less complex than the high-pres-
sure capillary rheometer. They allow evaluation on the basis of a pure drag flow,
which occurs, for example, in processing screws. The measuring principle is al-
ways the same: a measuring body rotates or oscillates with the plastic melt. A de-
fined angular velocity can be set and the very precise measurement of the torque
allows, in particular, the determination of the complex shear modulus and its com-
ponents, the storage and loss modulus.
The shear modulus G is – equivalent to the modulus of elasticity for tensile stresses
(see Section 2.2.1) – the ratio of shear stress to resulting shear. The storage modu-
lus G' contains the elastic portion of the deformation, i. e. it is a measure of the
elastically stored energy, while the loss modulus G" contains the viscous portion,
i. e. the energy “lost” during shear due to rearrangement processes. The two quan-
tities thus serve to describe the viscoelastic behavior. The quotient of G" and G' is
called the mechanical loss factor tan δ. The viscosity is also derived from the stor-
age and loss modulus.
There are different types of rotational rheometers: the plate-plate system (Fig-
ure 3.31), the cone-plate system (Figure 3.32) and the Couette system (Figure 3.33).
These are described in more detail below:
R
r
Figure 3.31
Plate-plate rheometer
With the plate-plate rheometer, the upper flat plate (h = const.) is rotated against
the lower standing plate (rotary or oscillating). The shear rate of the drag flow is
also formed here as a quotient of the velocity v of the moving plate and the dis-
tance between the plates:
v
g = (3.26)
h
As one plate here is turning, however, instead of being pulled in a spatial direction,
the speed is a function of angular velocity ω:
v (r ) = r ⋅ w (3.27)
So the shear rate is:
r ⋅ω
γ = (3.28)
h
The advantage of this system is a simpler sample preparation and installation of

the samples. For this purpose, granules are usually pressed into a test specimen
plate, and a round test specimen is sawn out, and placed between the plates of the
rheometer and slowly heated. Even filled systems can be measured. A disadvan-
tage is certainly that there is no uniform shear rate in the measuring gap, as the
peripheral speed increases with the radius. Therefore, only small shear deforma-
tions can be measured in vibration tests.
With the cone-plate rheometer (Figure 3.32), a very flat cone (angle < 4°) pro-
duces an approximately homogeneous shear flow despite increasing radius r, i. e.
constant shear rate and shear stress over the entire measuring gap.
h(r) β
r
Figure 3.32
The cone-plate rheometer
The shear rate g is also calculated:
v
g = (3.29)
h
h results thereby to:
h(r ) = r ⋅ tan (b ) ≈ r ⋅ b (3.30)
Due to the small gap angle β, a direct measurement of the shear rate is possible
from the quotient of angular velocity and gap angle using the following formula:
r ⋅ω ω
γ = = (3.31)
r ⋅β β
The only disadvantage is that some filled material systems cannot be measured
because the fillers can jam in the center in the area of low gap heights. This can
lead not only to incorrect measurements, but also to damage to the device. Parti-
cles with sizes of about 80 to 150 μm can be measured.
Table 3.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Plate-Plate Rheometer and Cone-Plate Rheo
meter
Plate-Plate Rheometer Cone-Plate Rheometer
Advantages Easy sample preparation Almost constant shear rate
Universally applicable
Variable gap height
Compensation of temperature effects
possible
Disadvantages Shear rate not constant over radius Sample preparation not easy
Not useful for filled systems with
particle diameters ≥ gap
Long waiting times when installing
highly viscous samples
The Couette rheometer (Figure 3.33) is made of two concentrically arranged cyl-
inders in which the sample is subjected to a shear flow by rotation of a cylinder.
The large shear areas on the cylinder walls allow large torques even with low flow
resistance, so that even low-viscosity substances such as monomer solutions can
be measured. A disadvantage, however, is that highly viscous thermoplastic melts
cannot be measured. There are also error influences due to the flow in the bottom
area and on the concentric circular ring surface.
Ri
Ra
Figure 3.33
The Couette rheometer
Experiments with Rotational Rheometers

With rotational rheometers, different types of tests can be performed on melts (Fig-
ure 3.34). With a constant speed and thus a constant shear rate, the resulting
shear stress can be determined by means of the torque setting. In this so-called
clamping test, the viscosity function for small and medium shear rates can be de-
termined by varying the speed and thus the shear rate.
A rotational rheometer can also be used to apply a constant shear stress and record
the increasing shear. This is called a creep test. Conversely, a constant deforma-
tion and thus shear can be induced in the relaxation test and the spontaneous
shear stress can be measured with its decay over time.
In the so-called oscillation test, oscillating shear is induced and the resulting
torque/shear stress is measured. The vibration test mainly provides information
about the viscoelastic behavior of the melt. A phase shift between 0° (purely elas-
tic behavior) and 90° (purely viscous behavior) occurs between the shear angle
and the shear stress response, which can be used to characterize the viscoelastic
properties of the plastic melt. The storage and loss modulus (G', G") as well as the
loss factor tan δ can be determined.
clamping test creep test

τ, Md
τ, Md
γ̇, ω
γ
t t t t
relaxation test oscillation test

τ, Md
γ
τ, Md
γ
t t
t t
deformation
Figure 3.34 Different types of experiments with rotational rheometers
The qualitative viscosity curve shown in Figure 3.35 shows the shear rate range in
which the various rheometers operate. The high-pressure capillary rheometer can-
not achieve very low shear rates, but it can map the entire shear rate range rele-
vant for plastics processing: from the very slow flow processes in thermoforming,
through extrusion, to injection molding at very high shear rates.
rotational rheometer
105
capillary rheometer
lg viscosity η in Pas
104
103
102
thermoforming extrusion injection molding Figure 3.35
101 Application range of
10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 capillary and rota-
lg shear rate γ in s tional rheometers
Although rotational rheometers tend to map small shear rate ranges, they never-
theless provide more diverse information about the flow behavior. Both types are
therefore justified.
Table 3.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Rotational Rheometers

wide range of rheological measuring methods sensitive to parallelism of the plates
viscosities of up to 1 mPas measurable thermal degradation possible during long test
periods
small sample quantities fluid instabilities limit the maximum possible
rotational speed
simple cleaning inertia correction necessary
3.1.6.4 Extensional Rheometer

Last but not least, it should be explained how a melt can be subjected to tensile
stress and thus its strain behavior can be determined (Figure 3.36). The measuring
procedure is comparable to a tensile test on a solid specimen. A deformation is in-
duced and the resulting stress is determined by means of a force transducer. The
rod-shaped plastic specimen is continuously heated in an oil bath until it melts.
The oil is selected so that at melt temperature it has the same density as the poly-
mer melt in order to avoid gravitational or buoyancy forces during the test.
toothed belt
photoelectric
guide carriage position measuring
system
drive
measuring medium
(silicone oil)
drawbar ρ(T)oil ≈ ρ(T)specimen
specimen
glass vessel
specimen
surrounding heating force transducer

medium
Figure 3.36 Uniaxial extensional rheometer according to Münstedt

3.2 Behavior as a Solid – Solid Properties and Their Measurement 95
3.2 Behavior as a Solid – Solid Properties

and Their Measurement
Solid state properties are immensely important for the proper use of plastic prod-
ucts and are presented in this section. The final properties of the product are deter-
mined only after processing, and therefore the influences of processing on the
properties are also presented in Section 3.5.1.
The solid state properties of plastics are completely different from those of other
classic construction materials (Figure 3.37). Letʼs take a look at the properties of
thermoplastics compared to steel (value = 1): The density is about 10 times lower;
the melting temperature is also lower. However, the heat of fusion is approximately
the same or slightly higher. This is because the heat capacity of plastics is quite
high. The thermal conductivity, on the other hand, is lower by a factor of 100.
density
melting temperature
heat of fusion
heat capacity
thermal conductivity
thermal expansion
Young‘s modulus
max. tensile stress
price per kg
price per dm³
10 10 10 1 10 10
gray cast iron The properties are related to steel

(steel = 1).
aluminum
The values are not equally available
magnesium in the source for all materials.
technical ceramics
thermoplastics
Figure 3.37 Comparison of properties of thermoplastics; according to [2]

Often, the high thermal expansion causes problems with plastic-metal hybrid com-
ponents. The Youngʼs modulus is 10 to 100 times lower, but can be compensated by
component design (keyword: “higher surface moment of inertia”) and fibers
aligned in the load direction. However, the maximum tensile stress, which is lower
by a factor of 10, can only be improved with fibers in the load direction.
The price per kg of material is considerably higher than that of steel. Plastic is
therefore anything but a cheap material. The price per liter is at a similar level and
also a fair view, since plastic components, when they replace those made of steel,
usually have the same volume, but not the same weight (“lightweight construc-
tion”).
In the following sections, these and other properties will be discussed in more de-
tail.
3.2.1 Mechanical Properties of Plastics
3.2.1.1 The Tensile Test

A reminder of the fundamentals of force transmission was given in Section 2.2.
The mechanical properties of plastics are also measured by means of tensile tests.
The test is called “quasi-static” because the test specimen is loaded rather slowly
compared to the real load.
Figure 3.38 shows a schematic arrangement for the tensile test according to ISO
527 “Plastics – Determination of tensile properties”. At the upper edge of the pic-
ture the controlled movable cross beam of the machine is indicated, over which a
strain is induced on a test specimen (approximately in the middle) by means of
clamping jaws.
F
traverse (regulated)
temperature
sensor
heating strain
chamber measurement
Figure 3.38
force transducer Tensile test –
F
schematic setup
The resulting force is recorded by a load cell (in the lower image area). The test
specimen to be measured can be enclosed by a controlled temperature chamber in
order to also measure the influence of temperature. The resulting strain is mea-
sured very precisely during the test procedure using so-called extensometers (see
also the photo in Figure 3.38).
With this method it is possible to imprint a tensile stress in the uniaxial stress
state very precisely and for all plastics. This allows material stiffness (character-
ized by the Youngʼs modulus at the origin of the curve), strains, and strengths to be
determined (Figure 3.38). A particular advantage of this method is its widespread
use and universal applicability, but a possible disadvantage is the low test speed.
QR-Code 3-3
Quasi-static tensile test on a plastic specimen in the IKT test labora-

tory. For a better representation, the temperature chamber was not
used here.
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Zugpruefung

Figure 3.39 gives an impression of how different the behavior of structural steel,
engineering plastic polycarbonate (PC), standard plastic polyethylene of low den-
sity (PE-LD), and other common plastics is.
600 v = 50 mm / min
τ = 23 °C
steel S355 humidity = 50 %
500
400
stress σ in MPa
300
200
100 ABS
PC PA6
PP PE-LD PE-HD
0 | | | | | |
0 30 60 90 120 150
strain ε in %
Figure 3.39 Comparison steel – plastic
Different thermoplastics also behave differently towards each other. The amor-
phous thermoplastics polycarbonate (PC) and polylactide (PLA), selected as exam-
ples in Figure 3.40, are far stronger but at the same time far less ductile than the
semi-crystalline thermoplastics polypropylene (PP) and high-density polyethylene
(PE-HD) selected here.
70 v = 50 mm / min
PLA
τ = 23 °C
60 humidity = 50 %
POM
PC
50
PS PA6
stress σ in MPa
40
ABS
30
20 PP PTFE
PE-HD
10 PE-LD
0 | | | | |
0 50 100 150 200
strain ε in %
Figure 3.40 Comparison of different thermoplastics
Figure 3.41 qualitatively shows a typical stress-strain curve of a semi-crystalline

thermoplastic. Close to the origin, i. e. in the range of small strains, plastics, in-
cluding thermoplastics, behave in a linearly elastic manner. This means that after
minor deformation they would spontaneously “reset” to their original state.
linear elastic
linear viscoelastic
non-linear viscoelastic
necking area
stationary plastic
flow
stress
Figure 3.41
Deformation behavior under
strain load; according to [3]
If one stretches a little further, a flow is superimposed, which can reset itself over
time: here the material behaves linearly viscoelastically. In the further course of
elongation, irreversible unloops, crazes, and microcracks, i. e. an irreversibly plas-
tic deformation, are added. From now on, the material behaves as nonlinearly
viscoelastic overall, because it still partially resets after relief.
Only after exceeding the yield point do the viscous behavior and the plastic defor-
mation dominate, also recognizable by the constriction of the test specimen with a
cross-sectional change. The elastic recovery is very low here.
3.2.1.2 The High Speed Tensile Test

Special testing machines allow for tensile tests at very high speeds. Figure 3.42
shows the high speed tensile testing machine of the IKT with test speeds of up to
20 m/s (!). In the background you can see the temperature chamber retracted here,
very similar to that of the quasi-static tensile test (see above), so the temperature
influence can also be recorded. An upper carrier grips a transverse yoke, which is
attached to the upper part of a tensile specimen. The lower clamping is operated
hydraulically.
moving traverse
upper carrier
broken specimen
clamping
load cell
Figure 3.42 High speed tensile testing machine of the IKT
Characteristic for this test arrangement is the uniaxial tensile stress with determi-
nation of a stress-strain curve as in the quasi-static tensile test, but at very high
speeds. Compared to the impact tensile test with a pendulum impact tester (see
below), very high loading speeds can be applied and set at different heights. The
specimen is also deformed at a constant speed, while an impact pendulum slows
down when it hits the ground (see below). Stresses and strains can be measured
fully instrumentally. A disadvantage is certainly the far greater equipment effort
compared to an impact pendulum.
Figure 3.43 shows the behavior of polyoxymethylene (POM) at room temperature
under load with very different strain rates. Lower strain rates result in greater
strain at lower strength, while very high loading rates show less strain at higher
strength.
100 material POM

θ = 23 °C
90 humidity = 50 %
100 s
10 s
80
1s
70 0.1 s
0.01 s
stress σ in MPa
60
50
40
30
20
10
0| | | | | | | | | | |
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
strain ε in %
Figure 3.43 Stress-strain curves for different types of strain
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High-speed tensile test on a plastic specimen in the IKT test laboratory.

For a better representation, the temperature chamber was not used.
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
3.2.1.3 Influence of Time and Temperature on the Mechanical Behavior

This time-dependent behavior can also be seen in the “slow” quasi-static tensile
test. Figure 3.44 shows stress strain curves of a polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA)
at room temperature at high and low traverse haul-off speeds. The influence of
speed, i. e. time, is also visible here.
Molecularly, this behavior can be explained in such a way that polymer chains,
which are constantly subject to Brownian oscillations even at room temperature,
have more time to yield to the forced strain through rotations and unloops of the
main and side chains at a lower strain rate. This results in a lower resistance to
deformation (stiffness) within the test specimen and it stretches more strongly
with less stress build-up.
The time-dependent behavior is much more pronounced in thermoplastics than in
thermosets or elastomers. Here, crosslinking prevents the polymer chains from
sliding against each other.
material PMMA
θ = 23 °C
90 humidity = 50%
1000 mm/min
80
70
stress σ in MPa
60
5 mm/min
50 50 mm/min
500 mm/min
40
30
20
10
0 | | | | | | | |
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
strain ε in %
Figure 3.44 Stress-strain curves at different strain rates
The strong temperature dependence can be explained in a similar way. Figure 3.45
shows the results of tensile tests on a high-density polyethylene (PE-HD) with the
same strain rate but different test temperatures. It can be seen that a higher test
temperature leads to increased ductility and lower stress and modulus of elasticity.
35
material PE-HD
0 °C
50 mm/min
30 humidity = 50%
25
23 °C
stress σ in MPa
20
15 40 °C
60 °C
10
80 °C
100 °C
5
0 | | | | | | | | | | |
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
strain ε in %
Figure 3.45 Stress-strain curves at different temperatures

Brownian molecular movement of the polymer chains increases with temperature

and facilitates the turning and disentangling of the main and side chains, so that
less resistance is encountered to forced deformation at higher temperatures (more
flexible = less stiff). Thus, the test specimen responds with less force while resist-
ing deformation.
The qualitative Figure 3.46 is intended to illustrate that the result of a slow tensile
test at room temperature can be similar to a fast tensile test at 60 °C, for example.
Within certain limits, curves can be transferred into each other. It should be noted
that the characteristic temperatures should not be exceeded; for example, the soft-
ening temperature Tg must not be exceeded for amorphous thermoplastics.
Semi-crystalline thermoplastics must not come close to the crystallite melting tem-
perature and must not fall below the glass transition temperature in the sense of
this transferability.
23 °C, fast tensile test

stress
23 °C, slow tensile test

60 °C, fast tensile test
60 °C, slow tensile test
strain
Figure 3.46 Time and temperature behavior can be converted into each other
With the help of the so-called time–temperature superposition principle (Fig-

ure 3.47), the mechanical behavior for different temperatures and different load
speeds can be converted into each other. The relationships are represented by
Equation 3.32.
 e  1 1 
log   = k ⋅  −  (3.32)
 eref   T Tref 
The time–temperature superposition equation (TTS equation) establishes the rela-

tionship between strain rate and temperature. To be able to apply the TTS equa-
tion, a reference condition is required, e. g. a certain stress-strain curve, at which
reference temperature and reference strain rate are known. Now it can be calcu-
lated at which temperature strain rate pairing the same behavior of the plastic is
achieved. The activation factor k is material-specific.
v+
ϑ+
stress
Figure 3.47
The time–tem-
perature super-
position principle
strain (TTS)
3.2.1.4 The Creep Test

If the viscoelastic behavior already has an influence on the results of the qua-
si-static tensile test, how does it affect long-term loads? Figure 3.48 (left) shows
the creep test facility of the IKT. It has 60 test stations, 30 of which are tempera-
ture-controlled. The detailed picture (center) shows a tensile test specimen which
is subjected to long-term uniaxial tensile stress via a lever mechanism with weight
plates (see Figure 3.48, right).
F
Figure 3.48 Creep test facility of the IKT

The mechanical long-term behavior is shown schematically in Figure 3.49. The

specimen with length l0 is spontaneously subjected to a force F0 or stress σ at a
time t1, which is then kept constant over time and relieved at t2. The strain re-
sponse is partly spontaneous (at t1, elastic behavior) and partly time-delayed (see
strain curve up to t2, viscous and plastic behavior).
elastic behavior
stress σ
ε (t)
strain ε
εrev
σ (t) plastic behavior
εrev
εirr
t1 time t t2
Figure 3.49 Retardation; creep behavior
This further stretching without further stress increase is called “creep” or “retar-
dation”. At higher temperatures, the material creeps faster or already at lower
loads. At relief at t2, the body reacts partially elastically and part of the strain spon-
taneously resets (εrev). Another part of the strain retreats with a time delay (visco-
elastic) and third part does not retreat at all (εirr; partly irreversibly plastically de-
formed, partly irreversibly microcracks).
Creep is particularly pronounced in amorphous thermoplastics. It occurs far less
with semi-crystalline thermoplastics, since the crystallites offer greater resistance.
With elastomers and thermosets, creep is considered negligible.
The viscoelastic behavior can also lead to the reduction of stresses (so-called “relax-
ation”) (Figure 3.50). Under constant strain (example: a screw stretches a screw
anchor (wall plug) when screwing in), a stress occurs spontaneously in the test
specimen, which then relaxes over time. This relaxation also occurs faster at higher
temperatures, and more strongly in amorphous thermoplastics than in semi-crystal-
line thermoplastics. It is negligible for thermosets and elastomers.
impressed
strain
stress σ and
strain ε
stress
response
Figure 3.50
time t Relaxation
3.2.1.5 The Vibration Test

Let’s consider a few other mechanical loads that typically occur in plastic compo-
nents. A look at the engine compartment of the sports car in Figure 3.51 shows
that the plastic mountings of a combustion engine are subjected to oscillating loads.
Figure 3.51
Example of an oscillating load
on a plastic component
[Image source: BASF SE,
ContiTech AG, Porsche AG]
Such loads can be simulated with the aid of hydropulsers (Figure 3.52). A test
specimen from the tensile test can be seen again, which is fastened in the picture
only in the upper clamping. The lower clamping is on a traverse, which can carry
out sinusoidal movements upwards and downwards.
upper clamping
non-clamped
specimen
(here: tension rod)
lower clamping
moving traverse
Figure 3.52 A hydropulser of the IKT

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View of the dynamic testing of a specimen in the IKT test laboratory. The
temperature chamber was not used here for a better representation.
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
In Figure 3.53, top left, sinusoidal stress is shown. With a maximum stress σa, a
component or test piece is oscillating at a mean stress σm. Since the plastic behaves
viscoelastically, it must be assumed that a certain flow takes place with every in-
crease in stress, which partially flows back when the stress drops. This flow is
time-delayed and causes the sample to heat up slightly (temperature rise: see bot-
tom left).
This rise in temperature also makes macromolecules more mobile and allows them
to slide more easily against each other. The strain response thus becomes larger
and may not run against a limit value, depending on the load level (Figure 3.53,
right). The temperature builds up, leading to failure. In dynamic tests, the fre-
quency must be adjusted so that the specimen heats up only slightly. Otherwise,
the test is invalid.
ε εa
σa εm (t, θ)
stress
strain
σm εu (t, θ)
ε0 (t, θ)
t
θ ε
ultimate strain
temperature
εmax (t, θ ∆θ)

strain
permissible
∆θ service life
θ
t loading time
Figure 3.53 Plastics under oscillating load; according to [4]
Figure 3.54 provides a small insight into the failure analysis of the IKT. Using the
example of these images from the scanning electron microscope (SEM), typical
failure images due to oscillating stress are shown. Typical striations are particu-
larly visible in the picture at the bottom left. The upper two images also show oscil-
lation patterns, once near a component edge (top left), once more in the middle of
the component (top right). The drawing file (bottom right) shows brittle failure on
the left and ductile failure on the right.
Figure 3.54 Pictures illustrating failure from the IKT failure analysis, caused by oscillating
stress
3.2.1.6 The Bending Test

Another quasi-static test is the three-point bending test (Figure 3.55). Here, a
test piece supported on both sides is loaded for bending by the modified tensile
testing machine. The resulting stress is displayed above the calculated outer fiber
strain. This is a multi-axial stress condition. The outer fiber strain is calculated
according to ISO 178 “Plastics – Determination of bending properties” with Equa-
tion 3.33:
6sh
ef = (3.33)
L2
Where s is the deflection at the edge, h is the height of the sample, and L is the
support distance. An advantage of this measuring method is the testing of a bend-
ing load, which is closer to actual practice than the uniaxial tensile load. A dis
advantage may be the more complex structure of the test equipment. The support
distance specified in the standard depends, for example, on the thickness of the
test specimen.
≥ 5°
L/2
L
l
Figure 3.55 Schematic of the three-point bending test, according to ISO 178 (2011)
QR-Code 3-6
This video shows a quasi-static three-point bending test in the IKT

test laboratory
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
Bending Load and Tensile Load in an Impact Pendulum

The so-called impact bending test applies bending stress at higher speeds. One of
the impact pendulums of the IKT is shown in Figure 3.56. If the pendulum is re-
leased, its potential energy is converted into kinetic energy (Equation 3.34). The
energy consumed when the test specimen breaks is measured by the pendulum
deflection and directly shown as impact strength.
E pot = m ⋅ g ⋅ h = Ekin = m ⋅ v 2 (3.34)
Figure 3.56 also shows in detail the test specimen support with the test specimen
inserted and the hammer not yet hitting it. The plastic specimen is a small rectan-
gular body which may have a defined notch to weaken very impact resistant mate-
rials. Depending on the standard, a distinction is made between “Charpy” and
“Izod”.
The advantages of this testing procedure are the quite simple construction and the
very easy operation. Disadvantages are the speed defined by the impact pendulum
height, the fact that the impact pendulum is decelerated during the impact, and
that it is rarely fully instrumented, i. e. usually gives the toughness value only.
plastic specimen
with/without notch
lay direction
Figure 3.56 Impact bending test according to Charpy at the IKT
When explaining the widely used impact bending test, it should also be mentioned
that rapid tensile tests (∼ 4 m/s) can also be carried out with an impact pendulum,
although not at the speeds at which the IKTʼs high-speed tensile testing machine
operates (∼ 20 m/s). A small tensile test piece (with or without notch) is clamped
over a transverse yoke (Figure 3.57, left) in such a way that a pendulum with a
slightly different geometry can swing over and strike in front of the transverse
yoke (Figure 3.57, right). The test specimen is subjected to uniaxial stress and here
as well the energy value can be read off immediately.
lay
dire
ction
transverse plastic specimen impact pendulum

yoke with/without notch (strikes against the transverse yoke
and thereby pulls at the specimen)
Figure 3.57 Impact tensile test at the IKT
The main advantage over a rapid test with a high-speed tensile testing machine or
the universal testing machine is its simple design and evaluation, while the same
disadvantages apply as for the impact bending test: The speed cannot be freely
selected and is not constant during the test, and the impact pendulum is usually
not further instrumentalized, i. e. it only measures the toughness as an integral
value.
3.2.2 Physical Properties
Of course, the mechanical properties of plastics are important, but are not regarded
as their strength. Often, they must be improved with suitable additives (Section
3.3). It is much more often the physical properties that make plastics so special.
3.2.2.1 Electrical Properties

For more than a century, electrically insulating materials have become increas-
ingly important in order to be able to use electricity. At the beginning of electrical
engineering, before plastics were invented, out of necessity, current-carrying
cables, for example, were routed through channels filled with non-conducting oils.
The insulating properties of plastic components in combination with the variety
of low-cost forming methods paved the way for electrical engineering and elec-
tronics.
Polymers themselves are generally not electrically conductive, as the covalent
bonds mean that no free moving charge carriers are available. The electrical resis-
tance of pure polymers is typically in the range of 1016 Ω. They can be used with-
out hesitation to insulate normal household electrical voltages (Figure 3.58). Ex-
ceptions are some intrinsically electrically conductive specialty polymers, which
are mostly used for special coatings, not for plastics. We will not mention these
special polymers further here.
Figure 3.58 Insulation of household electrical voltages

Enormous, non-household voltages of e. g. 10 kV can even destroy a plastic by ion

migration. The ability to withstand even high voltages is described by the so-called
dielectric strength. Charged particles (ions) can migrate better through thermo-
plastics than through a crosslinked thermoset.
Thermosets have the highest dielectric strength, even at high temperatures. Insu-
lators for a high-voltage line have a plate-stack-like shape. This serves to increase
the surface area in order to also reduce leakage currents over e. g. a moist surface.
Humid or dusty surfaces can reduce the so-called surface resistance. In particular,
low-molecular constituents arising in degraded aging components can migrate to
the surface of the part and conduct a small electrical current there.
Dielectric strength and surface resistance are two particularly important parame-
ters for plastics in electrical or electronic applications that can be influenced by
impurities, inhomogeneity, and the surface properties of the plastic.
The insulation of electrical currents favors the electrostatic charging of plastic
products. Plastic powders can adhere strongly to each other and to other surfaces,
such as those of metal components used in plastics processing. This is usually not
desired. Electrostatic charging in underground mining can even be fatal if it leads
to discharge flashes and explosions. Printed circuit boards with electrical compo-
nents, hard disks, etc., can also be destroyed by static charging.
In such cases, a low electrical resistance or even explicitly a certain conductivity is
required. In anticipation of Section 3.3 “Influence of Additives on Properties”, it
should be mentioned here that conductive soot, graphite, but also conductive
fibers, powders, and platelets, e. g. of metal or carbon, can be added to the poly-
mers. Figure 3.59 shows the decrease of the specific breakdown strength with in-
creasing carbon black concentration. At a so-called percolation threshold, conduc-
tive bridges are formed along which charge carriers can move unhindered: The
conductivity rises sharply and the resistance drops rapidly.
A special value is the electrical permittivity. This does not describe the ability of
electron migration, but the ability to align polarities of the main polymer chain or
chain segments in the electric field. These so-called dielectric-conductive plastics
with high permittivity can be strongly heated in the high-frequency alternating
electric field and can thus be used for high-frequency welding of e. g. infusion
bags, file spines, and blister packs (Figure 3.60). Another example is the use in
capacitors to increase capacitance. Examples of dielectrically conductive polymers
are PVC, polyacetylene, and poly-p-phenylene.
percolation area
volume resistance
Figure 3.59
Percolation of conductive soot
particles lowers the specific volume
carbon black concentration resistance
Figure 3.60 High-frequency welded components
3.2.2.2 Magnetic Properties

Pure polymers are slightly diamagnetic, which means that an external magnetic
field can induce magnetic moments that counteract the magnetic field. However,
there are no permanent magnetic moments in the material that can be aligned as
with ferromagnetic materials. In the second half of the 20th century, plastic tapes
coated with ferromagnetic particles were used as data carriers (Figure 3.61).
Figure 3.61 Plastic films in data carriers magnetizable by coating
Due to the low magnetism and the low electrical conductivity, electromagnetic
waves penetrate plastic components unhindered. This can be exploited; for exam-
ple, automotive antennas are preferably mounted under plastic body parts, where
they can perform their task without loss, weather-protected and saving space.
In basic research, intrinsically ferromagnetic polymers are being developed. How-
ever, they have not yet achieved practical application in plastics.
3.2.2.3 Optical Properties

Due to the rapid growth of information technology, the desire for compact storage
media with ever larger storage volumes has grown. The floppy disc became obso-
lete and was gradually replaced by optical media in the 1990s. In 1982, the Com-
pact Disc (CD) with 700 MB storage space (compared to 1.4 MB on a floppy disc)
was introduced onto the market.
When that data volume was no longer sufficient, the Digital Versatile Disc (DVD)
with up to 8.5 GB and finally the Blu-ray Disc with up to 128 GB storage capacity
were developed. A CD player uses a semiconductor laser (diode laser) with a wave-
length of 780 nm (infrared; see Figure 3.62 for a schematic). The Blu-ray laser uses
an indium gallium nitride diode laser with a wavelength of 405 nm (ultraviolet).
The smaller wavelength of the laser allows a small beam diameter, focusing on
different planes and thus a higher data density. All three information levels of a
Blu-ray Disc are made of polycarbonate and must meet the highest optical require-
ments. These include a uniformly distributed refractive index n and a high trans-
parency τ.
protective coating
aluminum vapor data pits and lands
deposition
carrier
focusing lens
semipermeable
mirror
semiconductive laser
photodiode
Figure 3.62 Laser scanning of an optical data carrier (schematic)
Transparency is the ability of matter to transmit visible light; the term is often ex-
tended to other wavelengths for simplification. Visible light is only a narrow range
of the wavelength spectrum of electromagnetic radiation (Figure 3.63).
visible range
UV IR
100 102 104 106 108

}
1 Å 1 nm 1 µm 1 mm 1 cm
gamma x-ray UV NIR MIR FIR
Figure 3.63 Spectrum of visible light
In Figure 3.64, the three radiation components transmission, reflection, and ab-
sorption are distinguished analogously to heat transfer. A high degree of reflection
and absorption reduces the amount of radiation transmitted by the material – the
transparency decreases.
transmission
absorption
plastic
Figure 3.64 Transparency correlates with a high proportion of unscattered, transmitted

radiation
Figure 3.65 shows the transmission τ of the five materials polycarbonate (PC),
polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA), polystyrene (PS), polyethylene terephthalate
(PET), and polylactide (PLA) at different wavelengths compared to window glass. A
low UV transmission of all three materials and a quite high transmission (between
83 and 92%) of visible light can be seen. In the infrared, i. e. thermal wave range,
however, the five materials behave differently.
100 % –
polymethylmethacrylate
90 % – window glass
polyethylene terephthalate
80 % –
70 % –
transmission τ in %
60 % –
polystyrene
50 % –
40 % –
polycarbonate
30 % –
20 % – polylactide
visible
10 % – range
UV IR
0 % –| | | | | | |
300 600 900 1200 1500 1800 2100
wavelength λ in µm
Figure 3.65 Transmission of different polymers at different wavelengths

Behind standard window glass and the laminated glass of car windows you can no
longer get tanned nowadays. Window glass completely blocks wavelengths in the
so-called UVB radiation range, but allows UVA radiation to pass through. So you do
not get a tan, but your skin ages and you can get a sun allergy. Modern laminated
glass in automobiles, on the other hand, covers the entire UV range.
The optical impression of transparency depends not only on the transmission but
also on the refraction of the light rays. Strong refraction leads to optical “distor-
tion” or turbidity. The refractive index n is determined in the same way for trans-
parent plastics as for glasses: The sine of the angle α of the incoming light in the
vacuum is set in relation to the sine of the radiation angle β refracted by the trans-
parent plastic (Figure 3.66).
α vacuum
β plastic
Figure 3.66
Refractive index n
Using the example of PMMA, Figure 3.67 shows how the refractive index n changes
with the temperature. The rising temperature causes the mean oscillation distance
of the polymer chains to increase, which influences the refraction of light. Espe-
cially from the glass transition temperature onwards, the mean oscillation distance
of the polymer chains increases more strongly and reduces the refractive index n.
1.51
refractive index n0
1.50
1.49
Tg=105 °C
1.48
1.47
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
temperature θ in °C
Figure 3.67 Dependence of the refractive index n of PMMA on temperature [4]

While amorphous polymers show strong transparency, semi-crystalline polymers

appear clouded, because light is scattered within. This cloudiness is also called
opacity. The light is scattered on phase boundaries in the plastic that are larger
than the wavelength of the incident light. These phase boundaries can be crystal-
lites, i. e. densely packed polymer chains, tiny cracks, or additive particles. This
makes semi-crystalline polymers appear opaque in their natural state. However,
plastics based on amorphous polymers are not necessarily transparent, because
they might lose their transparency with coloration or other additives.
QR-Code 3-7
The increasing cloudiness caused by crystallization is illustrated by

the example of this pocket warmer.
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Taschenwaermer

Figure 3.68 examines the transparency of polyamide 6.6 (PA66) over a larger wave-
length range. It can be seen that at some wavelengths the absorption (inverse of
transmission) experiences a maximum, whereas at other wavelengths radiation is
almost completely transmitted.
100 –
90 –
polyamide 6.6
transmittance τ in %
80 –
70 –
60 –
50 –
| | | | | |
3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000
wave number υ̃ in cm
Figure 3.68 Transmission measurements using infrared spectroscopy
Figure 3.68 demonstrates a so-called infrared spectrum. Infrared spectroscopy

uses the absorption of functional groups of the polymer and the additives and pro-
duces a clear absorption pattern (“fingerprint”) of the material.
Strong chemical bonds and atoms of smaller mass cause absorption maxima at
high wavenumbers (short wavelength or high frequency) in the IR spectrum.
Weaker chemical bonds and large mass atoms cause absorption maxima at low
wavenumber values. Such infrared spectra are used for failure analysis to deter-
mine the material used and for the targeted detection of possible foreign inclusions
in the damaged part.
A refractive effect is used to observe the optical anisotropy. The orientation of poly-
mer chains and also internal stress states caused by molecular deformations pro-
duce different refraction in different spatial directions. Figure 3.69 shows the fro-
zen orientation state of polystyrene polymer chains of a CD case (many orientations,
on the left) and of an uncoated but slightly scratched CD blank made of poly
carbonate (few orientations, on the right).
injection
gate
blank CD
gate CD case (with scratches)
Figure 3.69 Orientations made visible with polarization filters
Here, the orientations are made visible by means of a polarization filter. The irradi-
ated object lies between two polarization filters which are twisted against each
other and make strong orientations visible with rainbow colors. The more intense
the coloration, the stronger the orientation. Therefore, the CD with low orientation
remains gray, whereas the highly oriented CD case appears rather colored.
Color Measurement
The CIE system (CIE = Commission internationale de l’éclairage) with the three
axes L, a, and b became established in the mid-1970s as the standard for the color
measurement of normally reflecting or transparent samples (Figure 3.70).
While L describes the brightness of the color from 0 (black) to 100 (white), a rep-
resents the green-red axis and b the blue-yellow axis. With the three coordinates,
colors can be measured quite reliably and made internationally comparable.
L* = 100
-b* -a*
blue green
+a* +b*
red yellow
Figure 3.70
The CIE lab color space
Colorants are additives that are used because of their coloring properties. They are
divided into (soluble) dyes and (insoluble) pigments. These dyes and pigments act
as scattering centers and reflect light diffusely with changed wavelengths. If the
scattering centers are undirected (usually in the case of organic dyes and spherical
pigments), the color impression is independent of direction. If the scattering
centers are directed (see Figure 3.71; mostly platelet-shaped pigments), there is a
direction-dependent color impression.
incident
light exiting
light
spherical pigment platelet-shaped pigment

intensity
intensity
Figure 3.71
wavelength wavelength
Coloring by directional and
shift of the non-directional pigments;
wavelength spectrum according to [4]
The color impression always depends on the gloss of a surface. Looking at the plas-
tic sheet in Figure 3.72 with three different surfaces, it becomes clear that the
rougher surface appears lighter than the smoother one, although the entire sheet
has the same color. The rough surface reflects part of the light diffusely, which
appears whitish.
Figure 3.72 Surface influences brightness impression
Gloss is the property of a surface to reflect light completely or partially (Fig-

ure 3.73). The gloss depends on:
the direction and polarization of the incident light,
the direction and polarization of the reflected light,
the wavelength of the incident light,
the surface structure of the object, and
the angle of observation.
intensity distribution
intensity distribution
α β α β
glossy matte
Figure 3.73 Intensity distribution determines gloss and mattness; according to [4]
3.2.2.4 Acoustic Properties

Sound is a kind of mechanical oscillation of a medium. The medium can be solid,
liquid, or gaseous. In acoustics, a distinction is made between infrasound (below
approx. 16 Hz), audible sound (between 16 and 20,000 Hz), and, above this, ultra-
sound.
Sound waves can appear in solids as longitudinal waves or transverse waves. Lon-
gitudinal waves are pressure waves that propagate in a medium due to short-term
pressure fluctuations. The pressure fluctuation corresponds to a contraction of
molecules that cause a density fluctuation in the medium. With longitudinal waves,
the deflection of the molecules is equal to the direction of propagation of the sound
wave. The molecules are only slightly stretched and compressed.
In transverse waves, the molecules are deflected by the sound perpendicular to the
direction of propagation. Figure 3.74 schematically shows the waveform for longi-
tudinal and transverse waves.
pure longitudinal wave Figure 3.74

pure transverse wave
(pressure waves) Two types of acoustic waves
For sound waves, the simplified calculation of the sound velocity of the longitudi-
nal wave vL and the transverse wave vT in a plastic rod is as follows:
vT2 = G r and vL 2 = E r (3.35)
G corresponds to the shear modulus of the material, E to the modulus of elasticity,

and ρ to the density.
Equation 3.35 shows the relationship between the mechanical properties of shear
modulus and modulus of elasticity and the formation of longitudinal and trans-
verse waves. In addition to sound propagation, technical acoustics also distin-
guish between sound reflection (insulation) and sound absorption (damping; Fig-
ure 3.75).
sound insulation: sound damping:

predominantly absorption
heat
quiet
noisy side calm side
Figure 3.75 Sound insulation and damping

In order to insulate sound, we need stiff, heavy materials that reflect sound away
from the insulated room. If sound propagation through a solid body is to be re-
duced, damping layers in the solid body are required.
In order to dampen sound, materials are required which convert the mechanical
energy of the sound waves into heat and thus reduce it (Figure 3.75, right). So-
called sound absorbers are open-pored foams that cannot be regarded as rigid. The
wave penetrates into the pores and reduces its mechanical energy by friction be-
tween the molecules of the air and by the deformation of the walls. The sound is
reduced.
The acoustic behavior of plastics is closely related to their dynamic elastic behav-
ior. However, there are characteristic differences between compact and foamed
plastics. The most commonly used parameters to characterize the acoustic behav-
ior of a plastic are:
modulus of elasticity E (pitch)
loss factor tan δ (volume reduction)
The suitability of a polymer or plastic as an acoustic insulator can be estimated
from the curve of the loss factor tan δ over the temperature. The molecular struc-
ture of a polymer and the additives it contains determine the damping properties
of a plastic (Figure 3.76).
At low temperatures, the polymers are rigid and the damping factor is low. With
increasing temperature and Brownian molecular motion, they pass through differ-
ent states (see Section 2.2), which change the damping. At the glass transition
temperature Tg the change is at its maximum; above Tg the damping increases only
linearly until close to the melting temperature Tm.
0.40
10 9 polyamide 6
storage modulus 0.35
tan δ
10 8 0.30
storage modulus G' in Pa
0.25
10 7
0.20
tan δ
10 6 0.15
0.10
10 5
0.05
4
10
0 50 100 150 200 250
temperature ϑ in °C
Figure 3.76 Elastic shear modulus G' and loss factor tan δ above the temperature
3.2.3 Values for Thermal and Mass Exchange
For the design of molds, for the processing process, and also for the design of plas-
tic products, thermodynamic values as well as characteristic values of thermal
transfer and mass transfer are important.
3.2.3.1 Specific Enthalpy h

The specific enthalpy h of polymers is strongly dependent on their temperature.
Figure 3.77, top, shows how the specific enthalpy of common amorphous thermo-
plastics varies with temperature. For common semi-crystalline thermoplastics, the
enthalpy is plotted against the temperature in Figure 3.77, bottom.
700 semi-crystalline
thermoplastics PE-HD
PE-LD
600
PP
h in kJ/kg
500
PA6
POM
400
300
200
100
0| | | | | |
0 50 100 150 200 250
500 amorphous
thermoplastics
ABS PS
400
h in kJ/kg
PMMA
300
PC
200
100
0| | | | | |
0 50 100 150 200 250 Figure 3.77
Enthalpy of different
temperature ϑ in °C polymers
The value range of the ordinate shows that semi-crystalline plastics have a much
higher heat content in the melt range, since this heat is required to overcome the
secondary bonding forces in the crystal structure. This means that, versus amor-
phous plastics, melting for semi-crystalline plastics requires about twice the heat
input, and cooling about twice the cooling power.
3.2.3.2 Specific Heat Capacity cp

The specific heat capacity cp corresponds to the derivative of the enthalpy function
with respect to temperature. It describes the mass specific heat demand in kJ to
increase the temperature by one Kelvin. The heat capacity of plastics is higher
than that of many metallic materials and lies in the range 0.4 to 2.7 kJ/kgK (see
Figure 3.78). The high values for ethanol and water are also shown. The low heat
capacity of air of 0.001 kJ/kgK cannot be represented here.
4.5
cP in kJ/kg K
4
= 23 °C
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
steel
PMMA
PE-HD
PE-LD
PP
PA6
POM
PLA
PS
ABS
PC
aluminum
ethanol
water
Figure 3.78 Specific heat capacities of different materials
Figure 3.79 shows how the specific heat capacity varies with the temperature.
Whereas amorphous thermoplastics show a change at the glass transition tem-
perature, semi-crystalline thermoplastics show a discontinuity at the crystallite
melting point (bridged by a dotted line in the figure). Here the heat supply is not
used for heating, but for crystal melting. Therefore, the specific heat capacity de-
pends on the state of crystallization of the plastic.
3 semi-crystalline PE-LD
thermoplastics
PA6
2.5
cP in kJ/kg K
PE-HD PP PLA
2
POM
1.5
0.5
0| | | | | |
0 50 100 150 200 250
3 amorphous
thermoplastics
ABS
2.5 PMMA
cP in kJ/kg K
PS
2 PC
1.5
0.5
0| | | | | |
0 50 100 150 200 250
Figure 3.79 Specific heat capacity of amorphous and semi-crystalline thermoplastics
The specific heat capacity is determined by differential scanning calorimetry

(DSC). In a heated constantan block, two little pans are simultaneously exposed to
the same amount of heat and heated (Figure 3.80). The sample to be measured is
placed in one pan and the reference substance, whose properties are known, is
placed in the other pan. Often an empty pan is sufficient for comparison. The sam-
ple to be tested only needs to weigh a few mg, but it is important that it is represen-
tative of the material or component.
By measuring the temperature difference between the two pans, the heat flow into
the unknown sample is measured as a function of temperature and/or time. Chem-
ical or physical transformations of a substance to be investigated lead to higher or
lower heat demand. DSC allows the determination of pure transition temperatures
(melt/crystallization/cross-linking) as well as transition heat quantities, reaction
heat quantities, and the heat capacity cp.
sample comparative sample

Tsample Treference
constantan block
Tconstantan block
heating unit
Figure 3.80 Principle of a DSC measuring unit
Since DSC is an important analytical method, a typical DSC curve from the IKT test
laboratory for a semi-crystalline thermoplastic will be explained here (Figure 3.81).
The red line shows the change in the weight-related heat quantity when the sam-
ple is heated. A typical unit is mW/mg.
crystallite melt
heating
0
cooling
crystallization
Tg Tc Tm
temperature
Figure 3.81 Typical DSC curve with characteristic course
If the glass transition temperature Tg is exceeded, the curve shows a step and a
change in the slope. At a certain temperature level, small crystalline structures
begin to melt, then larger crystals, and then, at even higher temperatures, the larg-
est crystals. This can be seen in a higher thermal demand for heating. After the
crystallites melt, the heat demand returns to the previous level.
Since the crystal structures are not all the same, the crystalline melt smears over
a few Kelvin, possibly up to 30 Kelvin, which is called the “crystalline melt” area.
The maximum is defined as the crystalline melting temperature Tm. During cooling
(blue curve), energy is released during crystallization, which is why an exothermic
peak is visible at the crystallization temperature Tc.
The crystallite melting range and crystallization are shifted along the temperature
axis. The extent of this shift depends on the speed at which heating or cooling
takes place. The heating rate must always be specified for correct interpretation of
the measurement results.
3.2.3.3 Density ρ
Density is an important material value, which changes with Brownian molecular
motion as well. Figure 3.82 shows the specific volume v (reciprocal of the den-
sity ρ) of amorphous and semi-crystalline thermoplastics. A typical unit is m3/kg.
In amorphous thermoplastics, the density decreases linearly with increasing tem-
perature. From the glass transition temperature onwards, the polymer chains can
oscillate more freely and the density decreases further linearly with increasing
temperature – but with a higher gradient.
semi-crystalline amorphous
thermoplastics thermoplastics
melt melt
solid thermoplastic solid thermoelastic
Tg Tm Tg
temperature temperature
Figure 3.82 Specific volume of amorphous and semi-crystalline thermoplastics
In semi-crystalline thermoplastics, there is also a linear behavior below the glass

transition temperature, while between the glass transition temperature Tg and the
melting temperature Tm the density does not decrease linearly, because the density
of amorphous and semi-crystalline regions changes differently here. At even higher
temperatures in the melt, all polymer chains are amorphous and the density again
behaves linearly to the temperature increase.
3.2.3.4 Thermal Conductivity λ

Figure 3.83 shows how the thermal conductivity λ for various amorphous (e. g. PC,
PS) and semi-crystalline (e. g. PE, PA6, PP) thermoplastics varies with tempera-
ture. Polymers generally have a low thermal conductivity λ, which can be signifi-
cantly changed only by few additives (see Section 3.3.2.7). Due to their low thermal
conductivity, polymers are particularly good heat insulators. One disadvantage, for
example, is that the heat required to melt plastics during processing can only be
introduced relatively slowly and takes time to be removed again.
0.45 semi-crystalline
thermoplastics
PE-HD
0.4
0.35
thermal conductivity a in W/mK
PE-LD
0.3
PA6
0.25
0.2
PLA
0.15 PP
0.1
0.05
0| | | | | | |
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0.35 amorphous
thermoplastics
0.3
PC
thermal conductivity a in W/mK
0.25
PMMA
0.2
PS
ABS
0.15
0.1
0.05
0| | | | | | |
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Figure 3.83 Thermal conductivities of different polymers

When semi-crystalline thermoplastics (PA, PE, PP) are cooled down, an increase in
thermal conductivity can be seen after the formation of crystals. Crystallites are
more densely packed polymer chains and can conduct heat more strongly than
amorphous polymer chains.
While Brownian molecular movement is propagated quite well along the covalent
bonds of the polymer chains, the secondary valence forces between the chains are
not as good heat conductors. Thus, the thermal conductivity of thermosets and
elastomers is usually somewhat higher than that of thermoplastics due to the
many covalent bonds. (However, it is far lower than that of e. g. metals at approx.
50 W/mK.)
The thermal conductivity can be determined by direct and indirect measuring
methods. In the case of direct methods (e. g. plate methods: Figure 3.84, left; heat-
ing wire method: Figure 3.84, center), a certain amount of heat is introduced and
the temperature is measured on the opposite side.
λ ~ Q̇ ∆T = f (t) Pel ~ Q̇
Q̇
∆T = const.
sensor
T = f (t)
Figure 3.84 Methods for determining thermal conductivity
With indirect methods (pulse method using IR, laser, or xenon flash; Figure 3.84,
right), however, the thermal diffusivity a (see below) is determined first to allow
calculation of the thermal conductivity λ according to Equation 3.36 for a known
thermal capacity cp and a known density ρ.
λ = a ⋅ ρ ⋅ c p (3.36)
The advantage is that the measurement can be direction- and temperature-depen-

dent. Figure 3.85 shows the Nano-Flash measuring device of the IKT test labora-
tory.
QR-Code 3-8
In this video a Nano-Flash measurement is demonstrated.

http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Nano-Flash

Figure 3.85
Nano-Flash measuring device at the IKT
3.2.3.5 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion α

Thermal expansion and thermal contraction (not “shrinkage”!) are important for
the intended use of plastic products. On the one hand, the thermal expansion of
the product can be calculated in the service temperature range in advance to pre-
vent it from losing its function or touching and applying loads on neighboring
products. In addition, thermal contraction is an important factor in the design of
the mold. The products are smaller than the mold after cooling due to thermal con-
traction of the melt.
The thermal linear expansion is characterized by the coefficient α, which is used
for the design of the mold. By means of a thermal-mechanical analysis (TMA), the
expansion of a sample during heating is measured via a displacement transducer,
which is placed on the sample and loaded with a small weight to ensure good con-
tact (Figure 3.86).
load
displacement
transducer
piston
oven
sample
Figure 3.86
Measurement of the thermal expansion α
In the case of plastic-metal hybrids (Figure 3.87) in particular, knowledge of ther-

mal expansion is important in order to be able to estimate the residual stresses
generated by the different expansions of the hybrid partners. These residual

stresses reduce the additional loading capacity.
Fiber-reinforced plastics (Section 3.3.1) have a lower thermal expansion in the
fiber direction than perpendicular to it. For example, the coefficient of thermal ex-
pansion α of unreinforced PA6 is about 70 to 100 · 10−6 K−1 and that of glass-fiber
reinforced polyamide 6 (PA6GF30) only about 30 · 10−6 K−1.
Figure 3.87 Example of the technical relevance of thermal expansion [Image source: Volks
wagen AG]
3.2.3.6 Thermal Diffusivity a

The thermal diffusivity a is a measure of the speed at which the temperature
changes over time and space in a body. It is also used to calculate heat conduction
processes. The thermal diffusivity a is defined as the ratio of the thermal conduc-
tivity λ to the heat storage capacity ρ · cp
λ
a= (3.37)
ρ ⋅ cp
Figure 3.88 compares the thermal diffusivity of amorphous and semi-crystalline

thermoplastics. The thermal diffusivity of semi-crystalline thermoplastics has a
discontinuity at the melting point, which occurs due to the heat of fusion of
the crystallites (see also “heat capacity” above). It has been smoothed here in the
figure.
0.25 semi-crystalline
thermoplastics
PE-HD
0.2
mm²/s
0.15
PE-LD
0.1
PLA
PA6
PP
0.05
0| | | | | | |
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
0.16 amorphous
thermoplastics
0.14
PC
0.12
mm²/s
0.1
0.08 PS
ABS
PMMA
0.06
0.04
0.02
0| | | | | | |
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Figure 3.88 Measurement curves of the thermal diffusivity of different thermoplastics

3.2.3.7 Heat Penetration Coefficient b

If two bodies with different temperatures touch each other, the contact tempera-
ture Tk can be determined by means of the heat penetration coefficient b. Thus, the
heat penetration coefficient is a characteristic value of rather practical use. It re-
sults in:
b = λ ⋅ ρ ⋅ c p (3.38)
If the contact temperature between two bodies A and B is to be determined, the

following formula can be used:
bA ⋅ TA + bB ⋅ TB
Tk = (3.39)
bA + bB
When touching objects of daily use, such as plastic handles or drinking cups (Fig-
ure 3.89), knowledge of the contact temperature is of great advantage. As a rule,
plastics have a low heat penetration coefficient. Thus, the contact temperature is
usually determined by the contact partner.
Figure 3.89
The contact temperature determines whether drinking cups can
be touched
3.2.3.8 Mass Transport

Gases, liquids, and even substances < 1000 g/mol can migrate in dissolved form
through plastics. On the one hand, this can make packaged food inedible after a
while or – depending on the medium – even pose a health hazard (see Section 6.2).
In addition, dissolved media might influence the properties of plastics, so their
dissolving behavior in plastics must be examined more closely.
The basic processes of mass transfer will be refreshed here (Figure 3.90).
Sorption is the dissolution of a substance in another substance. The molecules of
one substance are incorporated into the free volume of the other substance until an
equilibrium is reached. Desorption describes the reverse process and is triggered,
for example, by an increase in temperature.
1. sorption
substance is
absorbed by
sorption
the plastic
2.
substance
migrates through
the plastic
3. desorption
substance is
emitted by desorption
the plastic
Figure 3.90 Phases of permeation of substances through plastics
The dissolving of one in another substance is described by Henry’s law. It ex-

presses the direct proportionality of the concentration of the dissolved substance
to its partial pressure, where S is the Henry constant.
p = S ⋅ c (3.40)
with:
c: concentration of the dissolved substance
S: Henry constant or solubility
p: Partial pressure of the dissolved substance
The law is valid when an equilibrium has been established between the sorption
and desorption processes and the solubility S is independent of pressure and con-
centration.
A plastic component not only absorbs a medium up to saturation (sorption), but
may release it again at another point (desorption) at the same time. The stationary
mass transport caused by the concentration gradient is called diffusion and can be
described by Fick’s laws.
In the following, the equations are simplified for one-dimensional transport pro-
cesses. They are similar to the equations of heat conduction and heat transfer.
∂c
I = −D ⋅ (3.41)
∂x
The particle stream density I is proportional to the concentration gradient. The

diffusion coefficient D represents the proportionality constant. Fick’s second law
describes the temporal and spatial change of the concentration. Fick’s laws are
used, for example, to pre-calculate the diffusion of physical blowing agents into
plastic melt. They are also used in medical or food contact approvals to predict the
migration of substances (see above and Section 6.2).
∂c ∂ 2c
= D⋅ 2 (3.42)
∂t ∂x
Permeation (permeare – Latin: penetrate, wander through) is a material flow and,

according to ISO 472, describes the “ability of a material to transmit gases and
liquids by passage through one surface and out at another surface by diffusion and
sorption processes”. It is usually driven by differences in concentration and/or
pressure. The term combines sorption, diffusion, and desorption. With some media
the spatial expansion is used instead of the weight.
Figure 3.91 shows some values for the permeation of oxygen and water vapor
through different plastics. Some plastics such as polypropylene and polyethylene
have an excellent water vapor barrier, while others are particularly permeable to
water vapor (e. g. polyamide 6 and cellulose acetate). Polyamide 6 is relatively im-
permeable to oxygen, while polypropylene (PP), for example, allows oxygen to pass
through easily.
50 — polypropylene polycarbonate
low-density polyethylene polystyrene cellulose acetate

40 —
oxygen in cm³/m² d
polypropylene, stretched
30 —
PVC-U (soft)
high-density polyethylene
20 —
10 — PVC-U (hard)
polyamide 11 polyamide 6
0—
| | | | | | |
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
water vapor in g/m² d
Figure 3.91 Permeation of oxygen and water vapor through different polymers
Measures to Reduce Permeation

In order to reduce penetration and diffusion, the chosen plastic should have as
little “free volume” (free space between the molecule chains) as possible. Once the
material has been defined, the “free volume” can still be influenced by additives or
by processing. The higher the degree of crystallinity or filler content a thermoplas-
tic has, the lower is the permeation. A higher degree of crosslinking in thermosets
or elastomers also reduces the “free volume”.
Here we anticipate Section 3.5: the properties of thermoplastics can also be influ-
enced by processing. The structural properties that occur during processing, such
as crystallization and orientation, change the free volume as well. Furthermore,
added material layers (see Section 4.1.7 “Co-Extrusion” and 4.5.6 “Coating”) can
also reduce permeation through a plastics partʼs wall.
Here in Figure 3.92, a plastic fuel tank is taken as an example. For several decades
now, fuel tanks have been manufactured almost exclusively from plastic. The first
plastic fuel tank was developed for a Porsche 911 S in 1968 and was installed in
the Porsche 911 RS as late as 1972. It was made of a polyethylene monolayer sev-
eral millimeters thick. Only later did it become clear how much fuel evaporated as
a result of permeation through the uncoated polyethylene.
Figure 3.92
One of the first plastic fuel tanks, not yet barrier-
coated [Image source: Deutsches Kunststoff
museum (German Plastics Museum)]
ECE R34 is the relevant European directive which regulates the investigation of
total emissions from plastic fuel tanks. It requires a weight loss of no more than
20 g/d for a fuel-saturated, upstream tank at 40 °C storage temperature. Further
targets of 0.25 g/d for the entire vehicle and 0.08 g/d for the fuel system are cur-
rently being discussed for reducing emissions from entire vehicles. Today, all poly-
ethylene fuel tanks are multi-layered and comply with this directive.
Figure 3.93 shows some pictures from the IKT failure analysis laboratory: the de-
tail at the pinch seam of a modern co-extruded fuel tank made of high-density
polyethylene (PE-HD), the layer structure of PE-HD, the regranulate, as well as the
coupling agent and ethylene vinyl alcohol (EVOH) becomes visible. EVOH is con-
3.3 Influence of Additives on Properties 137
sidered to be very impermeable to media. Due to its incompatibility with poly

ethylene, expensive coupling agents are necessary.
PE
PE
regranulate
coupling agent
EVOH
coupling agent PE
schema of the structure
0.1 µm
Figure 3.93 Microscopic images of a barrier layer
3.3 Influence of Additives on Properties

Hardly any polymer is ready for use just after synthesis. Required is at least a pro-
tection against heat and oxygen attack and a protection against other environmen-
tal conditions, e. g. during storage. In most cases, the particular later use requires,
beyond this “basic package”, a greater or lesser proportion of further additives.
Actually, the word additive is defined as “added substance”, but the usage is differ-
entiated as follows:
Reinforcing materials (“active” additives),
Functional additives (called additives here),
Fillers (“inactive” additives).
Because of their special importance, the influence of fibrous materials is dealt with
separately before the other additives are discussed.
3.3.1 Reinforcing Materials – Active Additives
Fibers are usually referred to as active additives or reinforcing materials. A charac-

teristic feature of oriented reinforcing materials is the resulting anisotropy (direc-
tion dependency) of various properties. Wood-based materials represent an exam-
ple of naturally occurring fiber matrix composites.
Fibers are usually used specifically to improve mechanical properties. For exam-
ple, fibers greatly increase the strength and stiffness in the direction of the fibers,
while their strain is reduced. At the same time, the heat deflection temperature is
increased and contraction and creep tendency are reduced. The electrical resis-
tance can be reduced by electrically conductive fibers. (However, this will not be in
the focus here.)
Fiber-reinforced plastic composites have the highest weight-related mechanical
properties and are known for their lightweight construction potential. For exam-
ple, sophisticated fiber plastic components are used in the aerospace industry in
relatively small series of a few pieces per month.
The composite is selected for each component according to highly specific require-
ments. More than 22 wt.-% of the Airbus A380 is already made of fiber-reinforced
plastic composites, and more than 50 wt.-% of the Airbus A350 (Figure 3.94).
Metal/plastic composites are also used. One example is GLARE (glass-fiber rein-
forced aluminum; series application in the Airbus A380), a layered material made
of aluminum and glass-fiber reinforced plastic.
Figure 3.94 Parts of the outer skin of the A350 are made of fiber-reinforced plastic
composites (gray); [Image source: Airbus AG]
Fiber plastic composites with glass fibers (GRP) are used in sustainable energy
generation. Figure 3.95 shows the dimensions of modern wind turbines. The up to
60 m long rotor blades are made of continuous glass fiber reinforced plastics. The
fibers and thermosets used are quite inexpensive, but processing is very complex
and expensive compared with other typical plastic processing methods (see Sec-
tion 4.4).
Figure 3.95
Rotor blades made of fiber-reinforced
plastic composites
In the course of the electrification of automobiles and the currently unchangeable

fact that electric storage batteries are very heavy, investments are increasingly
being made in research into automobiles and their lightweight construction.
Fiber-reinforced plastic composites will play an even greater role here in the fu-
ture. The examples shown in Figure 3.96 of the body of a Mercedes SLR and the
roof module of a BMW M clearly show that fiber-reinforced plastic composites have
been used in automobiles in expensive small series.
Figure 3.96
Applications of fiber-reinforced plastic
composites in automotive engineering
[Image sources: BMW AG, Daimler AG]
This is changing right now. In 2009, BMW and carbon fiber specialist SGL Carbon
(formerly Hoechst AG) founded the joint venture SGL Automotive Carbon Fibers.
This ensures that BMW and its subsidiaries have an exclusive supply of carbon
fiber-based materials and technologies. At the IAA 2013, BMW launched the i3, the
world’s first mass-produced vehicle with a passenger cell made of carbon fiber-
reinforced plastics (CFRP). The chassis is still made of aluminum, and the electric
motor has 125 kW (170 hp).
Figure 3.97
Leisure applications made of fiber-
reinforced plastic composites
[Image source: IKT, IFB, Löhmann]
Fiber-reinforced plastic composites are also used in leisure applications. Fig-

ure 3.97 shows a boat hull made of glass fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) (top), a
bicycle frame made of carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP) (middle), and the elec-
tric aircraft “e-Genius” (bottom), which is made entirely of carbon fiber reinforced
plastic and manufactured by the Institute of Aircraft Construction (IFB) of the Uni-
versity of Stuttgart. These components, including the bicycle frame, are manu
factured in small series.
3.3.1.1 Fibers and the Principle of Reinforcement

A small insight into textile technology is helpful: mostly glass fibers, carbon fibers
(inorganic), or aramid and natural fibers (organic) are used. The individual threads
are called filaments and have a diameter d of 5 to 50 μm. The fiber bundles used
can be divided into the following groups depending on their length:
0.1 to 1 mm (short fibers) l/d > 10
1 to 50 mm (long fibers) l/d > 1000
> 50 mm (continuous fibers) l/d = ∞
Figure 3.98 schematically illustrates how the stiffness, strength, and impact
strength of plastics can be influenced as a function of fiber length. While the stiff-
ness of even short fibers is strongly influenced, only long fibers and continuous
fibers show a sharp increase in strength and impact strength.
1.0
0.9
0.8
strength
0.7
standardized properties
0.6
0.5 impact strength
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0 | | | |
0.1 1 10 100
IF in mm
Figure 3.98 Fiber lengths influencing the mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced plastic
composites [5]]
Fibers are never processed individually as this is not practicable due to their small
diameter (see comparison with a hair in Figure 3.99). Instead, fibers are always
processed in fiber bundles, called rovings. These range from bundles of 1000 single
filaments (very expensive; aerospace industry) to bundles of 24,000 or more fila-
ments (relatively inexpensive; used in the automotive industry).
Figure 3.99
Comparison of a carbon filament
(thinner) and a human hair (thicker)
Rovings are often used in textile technology to produce flat (rarely even three-
dimensional) structures such as nonwovens, mats, fabrics (Figure 3.100) and
scrims (so-called semi-finished fiber products). For faster processing, manufactur-
ers also offer stacked, lightly sewn textiles. These so-called multi-axial fabrics (Fig-
ure 3.101) are usually made of individual layers of different fiber orientation.
Figure 3.100
Carbon fiber fabric
The mechanical properties of fibers are more effective the less frequently they are
interrupted in a matrix. Endless fibers, for example, allow the greatest trans
mission of forces, long fibers, medium fibers and short fibers comparatively less.
Table 3.5 shows a few fibers with different physical and mechanical properties.
-45° 90° +45° 90° 0°
Figure 3.101 Schematic of a multi-axial fabric
The particular advantage of glass fibers is their high availability at a low price. On
the other hand, carbon fibers are still expensive, but much lighter and sometimes
have better mechanical properties. Natural fibers such as hemp also offer interest-
ing properties at a low price. However, tensile strength and processing tempera-
tures are limited and their properties change from harvest to harvest.
There are many variations of carbon fibers, each of which are used according to the
application. A rough distinction is made between the following fibers:
HM: high modulus,
IM: intermediate,
HT: high tensile strength.
Table 3.5 Mechanical Characteristics of Typical Fiber Materials

Material Density Modulus of Specific Tensile Strain at ϑ max
in g/cm3 Elasticity Modulus of Strength Break in % in °C
in GPa Elasticity in in GPa
GPa/g/cm3
e-glass (2–3 €/kg) 2.55 70 27 3.4 4 300–350
aramid 1.44 125 87 4.5 1–4 250–300
carbon 1.75 275–400 157–230 3–5.7 0.5–3 600
(25–1000 €/kg)
natural fibers
(0.5 €/kg)
hemp 1.45 70 48 0.6 200
flax 1.48 30 20 0.75 200
jute 1.3–1.5 55 36–42 0.55 200
sisal 1.45 20 14 0.6 200
In recent years, more and more tests have been carried out with natural fibers.
Natural fibers are not only an inexpensive fiber material, but also serve the sus-
tainable use of resources thanks to renewable raw materials. In addition, they are
thermally safe to use and have advantages over glass fibers and carbon fibers in
terms of occupational health during processing and disposal. Due to their mechan-
ical properties, however, they have so far been used very little.
The principle of fiber reinforcement is illustrated in Figure 3.102. In their main
orientation, fibers have very good strength and stiffness, but low extensibility.
Therefore, the properties are direction-dependent (anisotropic). Like ropes, fibers
can only be subjected to tensile loads.
matrix
+ =
Figure 3.102 The principle of fiber reinforcement
3.3.1.2 The Tasks of the Matrix

The plastic surrounding the fibers forms the so-called matrix. Whether thermo-
plastic or thermoset, the plastic chosen has far less strength and stiffness than the
fibers. However, its properties are direction-independent (isotropic), while the
fibersʼ are directed (anisotropic). The matrix has more of a holding and protective
function. In total, the fiber plastic composite has quite good mechanical properties,
but these are dominated by the fiber orientation and so they are anisotropic.
The matrix materials used are often thermosets. Epoxy resins are the most widely
used and have quite good mechanical properties. Phenolic resins have been
known for about 100 years (“Bakelite®”) and unsaturated polyester and vinyl ester
resins are particularly cost-effective. Special applications at high temperatures
occasionally require bismaleimide resins and polyimide resins. A special feature
is that the monomers of the thermosets are very thin liquids and can therefore
impregnate the fiber bundles well down to the individual fiber. The reaction to
form the thermosets takes place during processing, when the fibers are already
wet/impregnated.
Until today, thermoplastics have been rarely chosen as a matrix, but actually this is
changing. Usually, engineering thermoplastics such as polyamide (PA), polybutylene
terephthalate (PBT), rarely high-temperature thermoplastics such as polyether ether
ketone (PEEK), but for cost reasons also the standard thermoplastic polypropylene
(PP) are the matrix materials of choice. Thermoplastics have lower strength and
stiffness than thermosets, but their ductility allows for a higher energy absorption.
The fact that thermoplastics are present as viscous polymers during processing,
and not as thin monomers like thermosets, is very detrimental to fiber wetting and
fiber bundle impregnation. The automotive industry nevertheless wants thermo-

plastic matrix systems for series production in order to achieve shorter cycle times
as well as the possibility of welding and better recyclability.
At the IKT, work is currently underway on the in situ polymerization of PA6 during
the processing of continuous fibers. The monomer ε-caprolactam, which has a con-
siderably lower viscosity than the thermoplastic melt and even a lower viscosity
than the monomers of the thermosets mentioned above, is introduced into the pro-
cess in order to impregnate the fibers well. The monomer reacts directly in the
semi-finished product to the desired thermoplastic matrix under the influence of
pressure and temperature. This combines good impregnation with the advantages
of a thermoplastic matrix (see also Section 4.4.3).
3.3.1.3 Force Transmission of Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Composites

By means of the mixing rule and perfect adhesion between fiber and matrix (see
also Section 3.3.2.6 “Coupling Agents”), the Youngʼs modulus of a fiber plastic
composite (Figure 3.103, left) with continuous fibers can be calculated as follows:
E = j E F + (1− j ) E M (3.43)
with:
E = Youngʼs modulus of the composite in fiber orientation,
EF  = Youngʼs modulus of the fibers along the fiber orientation,
EM = Youngʼs modulus of the matrix (isotropic), and
Vfiber
ϕ = fiber volume content = (typical value 30–60 vol.-%)
Vmatrix
x Figure 3.103
Loading in and perpendicular
to the fiber orientation
Perpendicular to the fiber direction we have a daisy chain connection of fiber and
matrix properties (Figure 3.103, right):
1 1 1
=j + (1− j ) (3.44)
E⊥ E F⊥ EM
with:
E^ = Youngʼs modulus of the composite perpendicular to the fiber orientation and
EF ^ = Youngʼs modulus of the fibers perpendicular to the fiber orientation
It is not advisable to load a fiber plastic composite perpendicular to the fiber orien-
tation, as the “weak” matrix dominates the mechanical properties. In the fiber
direction, however, the fibers dominate the mechanical properties. Figure 3.104
shows very impressively the dependence of modulus of elasticity and strength on
the deviation α from the main orientation. The fiber volume content ϕ here is 60%.
With deviation α = 10° from the main orientation, the strength and modulus of
elasticity already drop to below 30% of the initial value. With a deviation of only 5°,
the strength has dropped to a value of only 50% of the initial strength.
x
1.0 α
γ
relative modulus / strength
0.8
φ = 0.6
0.6
0.4
0.2 tensile load

compressive load
0| | | | | | | Figure 3.104
0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Directional dependence of compos-
α in degrees ite properties [Source: IFB Stuttgart]
Since reality is multi-axial, accordingly the fibers must also be aligned multi-axi-
ally. The solution is a layered composite with differently directed fibers in each of
the layers (Figure 3.105).
load direction
α Figure 3.105
Multilayer composite
With the simplified formula:
Ei = E cos4 (ai ) + E⊥ sin 4 (ai ) (3.45)
the part of the Youngʼs modulus of elasticity of the i-th layer acting in the 0° direc-
tion can be estimated with fiber orientation αi. Equation 3.45 is a conservative es-
timate, since the obstruction of the transversal contraction by the other layers is
neglected.
First, the Youngʼs moduli in and perpendicular to the fiber direction (Equation 3.43
und Equation 3.44) are calculated for a single layer. Subsequently, the actual effec-
tive proportions for each layer are estimated using Equation 3.45. Then, the overall
composite is considered as a daisy chain connection of the individual moduli of
elasticity with their respective layer thickness di and calculated with:
Etotal =
∑ Ei di (3.46)
dtotal
Laminate structures are usually described by means of square brackets. Similar to

chemistry, recurring units are provided with a square bracket and a number. Thus
[0, 90]5 0 means that five times a 0° and 90° position follow one another and then
(to the right of the square bracket) a 0° position to maintain symmetry. As a fur-
ther example with an index S for symmetry, [0, 45, −45, 90]S means a layer struc-
ture of 0/45/−45/90/90/−45/45/0, i. e. a mirror symmetric structure for S. This
laminate is quasi-isotropic and is therefore also referred to as a “scaredy-cat lami-
nate”, since the advantages of fibers in the direction of loading remain unused.
A concrete example is calculated here:
Table 3.6 Calculation Example for the Classical Laminate Theory

Ultra-high modulus carbon fiber EFII =700 GPa, EF=16 GPa
Epoxy resin matrix EM = 4 GPa
Fiber volume content ϕ = 0.6
Laminate structure [0, 30, −30, 90]S
Layer thickness di = 0.125 mm
The laminate stiffness in the 0° direction needs to be calculated. First, the 0° posi-
tion and the 90° position are calculated according to the mixing rule.
E = j E F + (1− j ) E M = 421.6 GPa

−1
 1
 1  (3.47)
E⊥ = j + (1− j )  = 7.3 GPa
 E F E M 
⊥
The stiffness of a single layer in the fiber direction is 421.6 GPa, less than the fi-
bers themselves. Impressively low is the value of 7.3 GPa for the direction perpen-
dicular to the fiber direction, which is hardly higher than that of the pure matrix
material. Thus, the cross-section of the carbon fibers also contributes a little to the
stiffness perpendicular to the fiber orientation.
The +/−30° oriented layers still have to be examined for their active component in
the 0° direction:
E ≈ E cos4 (30°) + E⊥ sin 4 (30°) = 237.6 GPa (3.48)
For reasons of symmetry, the active component for +30° and −30° is identical.
Finally, the overall composite is determined by the thickness-specific contribution
of the individual stiffnesses:
Etotal =
∑ Ei di = 2 E0°d + 4 E30°d + 2 E90°d = 226 GPa (3.49)
dtotal 8d
This lies in the order of magnitude of steel (210 GPa), but the areal density (unit:
mass per square meter) is more than five times lower:
m kg kg
= r ⋅ d = 1500 3 ⋅ 8 ⋅ 0.125 mm = 1.5 2 (3.50)
A m m
In comparison, steel has an areal density of 7.85 kg/m2. The potential for light-
weight construction can already be seen in this simple calculation example.
3.3.1.4 Defects in Fiber-Reinforced Plastic Composites

In this introduction to fiber composites, special defects of the structures and
their non-destructive detection will be discussed. The special, direction-dependent
structure of continuous fiber-reinforced composites leads to special defect types
(Figure 3.106).
On the one hand, defects can occur during production, such as misalignments and
resin accumulations (“resin nests”), foreign inclusions, porosities, and undulations
(wave formation of the fiber). On the other hand, failures in the composite can also
occur during use. These include fiber breakage, intermediate fiber breakage (ma-
trix breakage), and delamination, i. e. separation of layers.
Figure 3.107, left, from the X-ray CT of the IKT shows an unacceptable undulation
of the fibers in the lower part of a stringer (stringer “foot”; a stringer is a stiffening
rib in a composite part). If one compares this defect with a good component (Fig-
ure 3.107, right), it is easy to see that the undulating fibers transmit forces less
effectively than those of the good component.
A delamination, i. e. separation of layers in the fiber plastic composite component,

often – like an undulation – cannot be seen from the outside. A delamination
hardly leads to a reduction of the tensile strength, but to a total loss of shear
strength between the two detached layers. In most cases, excessive bending or
impact stress is the cause of such delaminations.
manufacturing defects failures during use
porosity
intermediate
foreign inclusion
undulation delamination
resin nest
misalignment
Figure 3.106 Defects in fiber-reinforced plastic composites
Figure 3.107 Undulations in a stringer foot
By means of thermography in the IKT laboratory, such externally invisible failures

can be made visible in depth. The image in Figure 3.108, left, shows the small in-
fluence of an impact on a near-surface layer and Figure 3.108, right, the much
larger influence on the deeper layers. It becomes clear that the failure extent in-
creases with depth.
higher layer lower layer
Figure 3.108 Thermography distinguishes between delaminations at different depths
Non-destructive testing by thermography is based on the observation of the sur-

face temperature after thermal excitation. The flow behavior of the applied heat
allows conclusions to be drawn about the internal structures. For example, the
heat cannot flow off at all or only to a limited extent at a delamination and will form
a “hot spot” on the component surface. Figure 3.109 shows the thermographic
measurement setup in the laboratory of the IKT using optical excitation as an ex-
ample. Here, the surface of a component is heated by means of strong illumination
and then observed with an infrared camera.
Figure 3.109
Measurement setup of thermo
graphy at the IKT with optical
excitation [6]
Figure 3.110 shows a measurement setup for the non-destructive testing methods
of the IKT, which are based on interferometry. Electronic speckle interferometry
(ESPI) and shearography are to be mentioned here above all. These methods re-
spond to mechanical properties by comparing interference patterns on the sample
surface at different points in time. If the sample is under load at one point in time,
a visible contrast to the unloaded state of the sample is created. Here, too, exci-
tation by light is preferred, since heating results in thermal expansion. Fig-
ure 3.110 additionally shows the laser diodes which produce a speckle pattern on
an optically rough surface.
Figure 3.110
Measurement setup of shearography at the IKT
with optical excitation [6]
Procedures that are also known from medicine have long been established in mate-
rials testing: X-ray computed tomography (CT), conventional X-ray, and ultrasound.
At the IKT the latter is coupled in directly via the air and does not require a
coupling agent. Air ultrasound scans can be used to accurately reproduce the local
mechanical properties of a component. Figure 3.111 shows a schematic scan setup
and Figure 3.112 the measurement result of a delamination in CFRP.
emitter
xy scan
receiver
line scan
al n
a nu sca
m gle Figure 3.111
an Air ultrasound scan in
transmission arrangement
(top) (schematic) and
reflector arrangement
(bottom)
Figure 3.112
Measurement result of an air ultrasound scan of
a CFRP sample at the IKT with delamination inside
the sample
3.3.1.5 Nanoparticles as Active Additives

So far, we have learned in detail about the effects of the “active additives” fibers. A
special group of active additives, nanoparticles, will be briefly introduced here.
Nanoparticles are additives with at least one characteristic dimension in the size
range from 1 to approx. 100 nm. In addition to the type of starting material, the
size and shape of nanostructures in particular lead to novel (mechanical, optical,
magnetic, electrical, and chemical) properties. The replacement of microscale by
nanoscale particles (Figure 3.113) leads to a significant increase in the role of sur-
face and interface interactions.
spherical corresponds to
microparticle Ø = 1 µm 10 nanoparticles
with Ø = 1 nm
Figure 3.113 Comparison of the order of magnitude of spherical nanofillers and microparticles
For maximum effectiveness of nanoparticles, a finely distributed, so-called dis-

persed distribution of the particles is necessary (Figure 3.114, right). This is a
technically very demanding preparation step (Section 3.4). Table 3.7 shows an
overview of the various nanofillers already used today and their effects.
agglomeration nanoparticle network dispersed nanoparticles
Figure 3.114 Nanofillers unfold their full effect only in the finely distributed state (right)
Table 3.7 Influence of Nanoparticles

Phyllosilicates Improvement of flame retardancy, mechanical properties, barrier
properties
Carbon nanotubes Improvement of electrical, thermal, and mechanical properties
Titanium dioxide particles Absorption of UV radiation
Silver particles Antibacterial and fungicidal effect
Silicon Increase of surface hardness
Especially phyllosilicates are used to improve mechanical properties. Phyllosili-

cates are naturally occurring clay minerals (montmorillonites) with a nanoscale
layer structure:
layer thickness: approx. 1 nm
layer extent: approx. 50 to 500 nm
aspect ratio (width to thickness): approx. 50 to 500
The individual layers are chemically bonded by means of cations. During incorpo-
ration into the melt (e. g. using a twin-screw extruder, see Section 3.4), the layer
spacing is widened by diffusing polymer chains (so-called intercalation, Fig-
ure 3.115) and ultimately a spatial arrangement of the layers that is as uniform as
possible (exfoliation) is sought. Only this separation leads to the disperse nano-
structure, which unfolds its inner effect.
Using the stress-strain curves in Figure 3.116 of an IKT research project as an ex-
ample, the mechanical property changes of a polyamide 6 (PA6) using phyllosili-
cates becomes obvious. In small quantities, stiffness and tensile strength already
increase, but the ductility and at the same time toughness are greatly reduced at
filler contents above 10 wt.-%. Effects such as glass fiber reinforcement of approx.
30 wt.-% can be achieved by just 3 wt.-% of nanoparticles.
intercalation
exfoliation
Figure 3.115
Phyllosilicates [Image source: Dissertation
S. Geier, IKT, 2011]
120
+ 14 wt.-% nanoparticles
100 + 11 wt.-% nanoparticles
stress σ in MPa
80
60
polyamide 6
40
+ 5 wt.-% nanoparticles
20 + 8 wt.-% nanoparticles
0| | | | | | | | | | |
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
strain ε in %
Figure 3.116 Modification of the mechanical properties of PA6 with finely distributed
phyllosilicate
3.3.2 Functional Additives
All functional additives have in common that their effect depends on their solubil-
ity and distribution in the polymer. Some examples are shown more in detail be-
low.
3.3.2.1 Viscosity-Changing Additives – Flowing Agents

Flow aids reduce viscosity and thus reduce the pressure requirement of the ma-
chine or the temperature requirement of the melt. A lower pressure and tempera-
ture requirement allows a gentler processing, which also reduces polymer chain
damage during processing. Often, flow aids are low-molecular components which
can accumulate between the polymer chains, thereby reducing the secondary va-
lence forces between the chains, and making it easier for them to slide against
each other.
It should not be forgotten that viscosity-increasing additives are sometimes also
required to support the flow. Figure 3.117 shows two parts of thick-walled pipes
extruded from polyamide. Although a highly viscous polyamide has been used for
the pipe in the picture on the left, the cross-section of the pipe shows the so-called
sagging effect.
Figure 3.117
Use of viscosity-increasing additives
During calibration and simultaneous cooling, the melt is still able to flow, so it con-
centrates at the bottom of the pipe due to gravity. By increasing the viscosity by
means of a chemical reaction during extrusion (so-called reactive extrusion), con-
centric, thick-walled pipes made of polyamide can be manufactured (Figure 3.117,
right). The viscosity-increasing additives are reactive additives which cause molec-
ular chain growth during the extrusion process and increase the molar mass.
3.3.2.2 Plasticizers
Plasticizers increase the ductility and at the same time reduce the stiffness of the
solid material. A distinction is made between “internal softening” and “external
softening”. During internal softening, block copolymers with “spacer” side chains
are already generated during polymer synthesis, which increase the mobility of
the polymer chain and reduce the secondary valence bonds of the main chain.
Thermoplastic elastomers based on block copolymers are an extreme example of
internal softening.
So-called external softening uses physical effects, not chemical ones. For example,
a physical mixture is formed with mostly low-molecular substances that are as
little miscible as possible with the polymer (e. g. due to different polarities). There-
fore, they often act as flow aids during processing as well. Since no chemical bond-
ing is formed with the low-molecular substance, it can migrate to the surface and
evaporate over time.
There are people who believe that all plastics are plasticized, but this is not the
case. In fact, plasticizers are used in only very few plastics, in large quantities, es-
pecially in polyvinyl chloride (PVC), which used to be more widespread than it is
today. Figure 3.118 shows the relationship of Youngʼs modulus and the elastic
shear modulus G' to the temperature of PVC at various plasticizer proportions.
Depending on the Youngʼs modulus, a distinction is made between soft PVC and
rigid PVC.
G‘
5000 E‘
1000
500
modulus E‘, G‘ in MPa
100 rigid PVC

50
0%
5 % DOP
10 30 % 10 %
5
50 % 35 %
1 65 % DOP
Figure 3.118
-50 T 0 50 Tg 100
g Influence of external plasticizers
temperature ϑ in °C on PVC [2]
The reduction in stiffness (softening) can be clearly seen with increasing propor-
tion of dioctyl phthalate (DOP). This makes PVC “adjustable” over a wide range.
Dioctyl phthalates are suspected of being toxic to reproduction and are no longer
permitted for use in toys and food packaging in the European Union (see Section
6.2). The somewhat more expensive plasticizers DINP and DIDP have so far been
considered harmless, but may also not be used in these applications as a pre
cautionary measure.
Another plasticizer – which is completely undisputed from a health point of view –
is water for polyamide. The extremely polar carbonamides (CONH groups of the
polyamide chains) are separated by water molecules and the hydrogen bonds be-
tween the chains are weakened. Figure 3.119 shows a polyamide 6 (PA6), which
was measured as dry (0.2% by weight), under air humidity (3.0% by weight), and
wet (8% by weight). It can be seen that the absorbed water reduces stiffness and
strength and increases ductility. In addition, the glass transition is shifted towards
lower temperatures (not visible here).
30 –
PA6
25 –
stress σ in MPa wet
20 –
dry humid
15 –
10 –
5–
0 –| | | | | | |
0 10 20 0 50 100 150
strain ε in %
Figure 3.119 The influence of moisture on the softening of polyamide
3.3.2.3 Blending of Polymers

Polymer blends are mixtures of at least two thermoplastics. Many polymer blends
are used for the cost-effective new development of tailor-made materials and are –
without always being labeled as such – included in the portfolio of the major plas-
tics producers. Examples of commercial blends are PC/ABS and PA/ASA. Multi-
phase polymer blends make it possible to combine the properties of the blend
partners in a cost-effective way and even to obtain synergetic properties.
Blends can be self-made in twin-screw extruders (Section 3.4), less often in pro-
cessing machines (Sections 4.1 and 4.2), and are thus tailor-made for the applica-
tion. The interactions in the boundary layer of the two phases are of extraordinary
importance.
3.3.2.4 Impact Modifiers

To improve energy absorption, e. g. measured by the impact strength, impact mod-
ifiers are added, particularly to materials with low ductility. These are additives
made of very ductile materials which “catch” cracks that run through the brittle
material. Other properties also change according to the mixing ratio (flow proper-
ties as well).
As a rule, these ductile particles are brought into the polymer by means of com-
pounding (see Section 3.4), i. e. a heterogeneous polymer blend is formed from a
rather brittle matrix polymer and ductile polymer particles. If both are not compat-
ible, coupling agents (see below) are added.
Figure 3.120 shows the increase in elongation at break and notched impact
strength of a brittle polylactide (PLA), by adding a urethane-based thermoplastic
elastomer (TPE-U) as an impact modifier in the IKT compounding plant. The ob-
served particle distribution is also shown by atomic force microscopy (AFM).
400 80
elongation at break
350 notched impact strength 70
notched impact strength acA in kJ/m²

300 60
elongation at break ε in %
250 50
200 40
150 30
100 20
50 10
0| | | | | | |0
100/0 90/10 80/20 75/25 70/30 60/40 50/50
PLA/Bio-TPE-U-ratio
Figure 3.120 Impact modification of the biopolymer PLA
Figure 3.121 shows the influence of the copolymerization of polyamide 6 (PA6)

with a soft polyether triol, which has been grafted on by means of reactive extru-
sion in the IKT compounding plant. It is observed that the higher the amount of
block polymer, the lower the strength and the higher the ductility. The original
stiffness is only slightly influenced.
80
PA6
70 PA6 + 8.3 wt.-% polyether triol
PA6 + 16.7 wt.-% polyether triol
stress σ in MPa
60
PA6 + 33.3 wt.-% polyether triol
50 PA6 + 50 wt.-% polyether
triol
40 no further necking
30 polyether triol
20
10
0| | | | | | |
0 20 40 60 80 100 200
strain ε in %
Figure 3.121 Impact strength modification of polyamide 6

3.3.2.5 Nucleating Agents

As an example, structures of the same polyamide 6 (PA6), in one case non-nucle-
ated, in the other nucleated, are shown in Figure 3.122. The different spherulite
structures that were produced by a few nuclei (left) and many (right) can clearly be
seen. Finer spherulites lead to higher elongation at break and toughness of the
material (see Section 2.1.7: tie molecules).
20 µm 20 µm
Figure 3.122 Spherulite sizes of PA6 without (left) and with nucleating agents (right)
Nucleating agents can also lead to faster crystallization, which shortens the cycle
time during processing. A more homogeneous microstructure also thermally con-
tracts less than a less homogeneous microstructure.
3.3.2.6 Coupling Agents

Coupling agents are substances which produce a physical or, in most cases, a
chemical bond at the interface of immiscible substances. In spite of the chemical
bond, the partners can still be processed like a thermoplastic.
Figure 3.123 shows the mechanism of adhesion between an ethylene-propylene-
diene rubber grafted with maleic anhydride (EPDM g-MAH) and polyamide 6. The
maleic anhydride reacts with the amino group of the polyamide through a ring
opening. A chemical bond is formed between EPDM-g-MAH and PA6 when water is
split off. Since the reaction is reversible, the water must be continuously removed
during the process to prevent a back reaction.
Figure 3.124, from failure analyses at the IKT, shows successful (right) and less
successful (left) adhesion of glass fibers to a thermoplastic matrix. The composite
material shown on the right absorbs more energy and is tough. The coupling agent
is called “sizing” in textile technology.
O H
CH C N
compounding
CH2 C OH
O
O
CH C
O + H2N
CH2 C polyamide 6 O
O - H2O
CH C
N
CH2 C
O
Figure 3.123 Coupling agent; according to [7]
Figure 3.124 From the failure analysis of the IKT: left: fibers without coupling agent,
right: fibers with coupling agent (so-called fiber sizing)
3.3.2.7 Conductive Additives

The processability of plastics to plastic components at low cost entices product de-
velopers increasingly to choose plastics, even when properties are required that
are not intrinsic to polymers. Polymers, for example, are regarded as non-conduc-
tors for electrical current and as very poor heat conductors. Although there are
so-called intrinsically conductive polymers, they are only used for coatings and not
as a raw material for plastics. Such conductivities are increasingly required in
microelectronics and the application of LED technology, so conductive additives
are compounded into conventional polymers to produce a conductive plastic.
In order to increase electrical conductivity, e. g. if the plastic component must not
become statically charged, the additives used must form a conductive network in
the material. The resulting conduction paths transport the electrons through the
non-conductive polymer matrix. In principle, any electrically conductive additive
can be used, such as metals, graphites, etc. in fibrous or powdery form. Car-
bon-based additives, such as graphite or carbon black, are highly electrical conduc-
tive, inexpensive, and can form conductive paths well at the same time.
Not only the choice of additive, but the geometry of the additive has a decisive in-
fluence on the formation of the conductive network and thus on the desired prop-
erties as well. The better a network is formed, the less additive has to be added to
the plastic to achieve the desired property change. Additives with a large aspect
ratio (length/thickness ratio) are particularly suitable for this purpose. Another
special feature of electrically conductive plastics is their percolation threshold, as
shown in Figure 3.125 for electrical conductivity. When the percolation threshold
is reached, the electrical conductivity rises sharply by several orders of magni-
tude, which is due to the formation of strong conductive paths.
electrical conductivity
strength
material costs
property
thermal conductivity
processability and
elongation at break
Figure 3.125 Changes in various properties as a function of the additive quantities
In addition to conventional additives, such as graphite and carbon black, nanoscale

additives, such as carbon nanotubes (CNT), are now also being used. These have an
extremely large potential to form a conductive network even with very small quan-
tities. Unfortunately, nanoscale additives are very difficult to process because they
have a strong tendency to agglomerate (“clump”). With unsuitable processing, the
potential of these additives cannot be exploited. Nanoscale additives are also sig-
nificantly more expensive than conventional additives. When using thermally con-
ductive plastics, a distinction is often made between two types of additives: those
that are additionally electrically conductive, such as metals or graphite, and those
that are electrical insulators, such as ceramic or mineral additives. Again, the bet-
ter a network is formed, the better the thermal conductivity will be. It is also the
case here that the thermal conductivity of the additive, the size of the additive
particles, their shape (spherical, platelet or fibrous), and their arrangement in
relation to each other have a decisive influence on the thermal conductivity in the
plastic component. In contrast to electrically conductive plastics, however, ther-
mally conductive plastics do not have a pronounced percolation threshold (see Fig-
ure 3.125).
It should be noted that adding appropriate functional additives influences not only
the electrical and thermal properties of the plastic, but also its mechanical proper-
ties and processability (see Figure 3.125). As a general rule, the higher the amount
of additive, the lower the ductility and the poorer the processability, i. e. flowability.
In addition, the material price rises with a higher amount of such functional addi-
tives, as these are usually more expensive than the polymer matrix. In most cases,
a compromise must be found between the increase in electrical or thermal conduc-
tivity and the deterioration of other properties.
3.3.3 Fillers – Inactive Additives
“Inactive” additives are usually low-cost fillers such as chalk or talc, which – above
all – increase the volume and reduce the material price. Properties such as density,
modulus of elasticity, hardness, and heat deflection temperature are often increased
at the same time and the lower ductility and toughness are accepted. Furthermore,
a lower thermal contraction can be expected since the filler itself hardly contracts.
Examples of organic fillers are wood flour, coal, graphite, cellulose powder, shell,
and core flour. Examples of inorganic fillers are calcium carbonate (CaCO3; “chalk”),
talc, and feldspar. The inorganic fillers remain as ash after combustion.
3.4 From Polymer to Plastic – Introduction

to Plastic Compounding
The three important synthesis methods, polymerization, polycondensation, and
polyaddition, are already described in the introduction (Section 2.1 “From Mono-
mer to Polymer”). These processes are implemented on an industrial scale using
chemical process engineering, not in plastics technology.
On the other hand, the mechanical process engineering step “from polymer to plas-
tic” (Figure 3.126) is called compounding. In plastics technology, we summarize all
the process steps that are necessary to produce plastic molding compounds with
defined properties under the term “compounding”. These properties are often spe-
cially adapted to the final applications and are achieved, for example, by selecting,
distributing, and adding the additives described in the previous section.
The generic term compounding covers the various steps that may be necessary:
the blending (mixing) of different blend partners,
the distribution of other additives such as UV or heat stabilizers,
reinforcing (e. g. with fibers), and
the filling of the polymer (e. g. with chalk).
3.4 From Polymer to Plastic – Introduction to Plastic Compounding 163
resource raw material material component
monomers polymers plastics plastic parts

polymerization mixing (blending) injection molding
polycondensation dispersing additives extrusion
polyaddition blow molding
reinforcing thermoforming
also: degassing pressing
biosynthesis foaming
Figure 3.126 Polymers are compounded into plastics
Furthermore, volatile components are degassed and, if necessary, melts (e. g. recy-
cled materials) are filtered. These are all mechanical and physical processes. A
compounder can also be used for reactive extrusion, but this is a special type of
synthesis that should not be taken into closer consideration here. Figure 3.126
also shows that the process step from a plastic compound to a plastic product is
called “processing” or “converting”. These processes are discussed in Chapter 4.
In the case of compounds that build crosslinks in order to form elastomers or ther-
mosets, compounding and processing inevitably take place in a single step. Here,
twin-screw extruders are not the right machinery. However, for compounding ther-
moplastics almost exclusively twin-screw extruders are used.
3.4.1 The Twin-Screw Extruder
Extruders with twin-screws are generally used for compounding (extruder: Latin
for pushing out, pressing out). The extruder is a continuously operating conveying
machine which generates melt under the influence of heat and pressure and
presses it through a shaping tool (extrusion die). The processing unit of an ex-
truder essentially consists of a cylinder in which one or two screws rotate. The
material is conveyed, melted, and homogenized by the rotation.
In twin-screw extruders, the two adjacent screws can rotate in the same direction
(co-rotating), or rotate in the opposite direction (counter-rotating). For compound-
ing, often co-rotating twin-screw extruders are used. The single-screw extruder is
explained in detail later in Section 4.1 “Extrusion”.
A twin-screw extruder has a drive section, a processing section, and discharge
sections (Figure 3.127). While in the drive section the motor, coupling, and gear-
ing, especially the screws, are driven via a shaft coupling, in the process section
pellets are drawn in, and melt is produced and homogeneously mixed with addi-
tives.
Figure 3.127 Twin-screw extruder – general structure [Image source: Coperion/Germany]
In the end, sufficient pressure must be built up to overcome the flow resistance of
the discharge parts. Often these are nozzles which produce a simple, round melt
strand with a diameter of a few mm. These strands are cut off in the hot stage and
then cooled down to a round pellet or first cooled to a strand and then cut into
cylindrical granulate (see Section 3.4.4).
3.4.2 Process Technology
First, the difference between distributive and dispersive mixing is to be refreshed

(Figure 3.128). While dispersive mixing stands for comminution or deagglomera-
tion, distributive mixing is the distribution and homogenization of particles.
distributive dispersive
(spreading) (dividing)
Figure 3.128
Distributive and dispersive mixing
QR-Code 3-9
This film clip shows in particular the processing section of a twin-

screw extruder.
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Doppelschneckenextruder

Within the process section, the two screws (Figure 3.129) mix the melt with the
additives or the blending partner. The screws are modular, i. e. can be dismantled,
and are assembled by experts according to the requirements of the mixing process.
Figure 3.129 Screw elements with different tasks [Image source: Coperion/Germany]
There are conveying elements (see Figure 3.130), which feed metered materials
such as granulates, powder, ground material, etc. into the extruder, compact them
and transport them to the first process zone. They can also be used to build up
pressure at the end of the extruder by reducing the pitch. So-called kneading ele-
ments (Figure 3.131) are mainly used for plasticizing polymers and dispersing
(dividing) fillers and reinforcing materials. However, they also have a certain dis-
tributive (mixing) effect.
Figure 3.130
Conveying element
The barrier elements are partly return-conveying and allow low-pressure areas
along the screw. Thus, for example, they allow the addition of additives laterally
and allow for an only partially filled degassing zone. Mixing elements essentially
have the task of distributive mixing. The dispersive (dividing) mixing portion of
these elements, however, is small. Mixing elements are only partially or not self-
cleaning at all.
Figure 3.131 Kneading elements
Figure 3.132 shows the sequence of the kneading process in six positions in the
cross-section. In positions 3 and 6 the melt is divided and brought together again.
In the other positions, more mixing occurs. It can also be seen that the channel is
only partially filled with melt.
1 2 3
4 5 6
Figure 3.132 Kneading process in the co-rotating twin-screw
QR-Code 3-10
Mixing process in a co-rotating twin-screw extruder

http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Knetvorgang

There are several process zones (Figure 3.133) of a twin-screw extruder with dif-
ferent tasks. The main task of the feed zone is to convey and compress the solids
quickly so that as little air as possible from the pellet or powder spaces enters
the process zone. The plasticizing zone is designed to melt the solids and slightly
break up fillers that have already been introduced. Here, the main part of the
energy is introduced via kneading blocks, i. e. dissipatively. The energy input into
a twin-screw extruder is more affected by the drive power, hardly by the cylinder
heating.
build-up
pressure
zone
degassing
degassing
vacuum
zone
left-turning
genization
homo-
zone
degassing
atmospheric
zone
degassing
mixing
zone
(twin screw side feeder)
conveying zone
left-turning
plasticizing
zone
feed zone
product feed
Figure 3.133 Process zones of a twin-screw extruder; according to [8]

The conveying zone mainly conveys further into the distributive mixing zone,
where the additives are distributed as homogeneously as possible in the melt.
Then, in the dispersive mixing zone, solids or liquids that have not been separated
up to this point are separated at the latest. A low-pressure degassing zone, gener-
ated by barrier elements (left-hand rotating), allows for degassing.
Degassing of the melt is necessary to remove residual monomers, residual
solvents, and catalysts from the synthesis and any moisture from the plastic melt.
Remaining moisture can lead to streaking or bubble formation, in the worst case to
the hydrolysis (depolymerization) of polycondensates (polymers that have been
synthesized by polycondensation). The degassing of remaining monomers, cata-
lysts, or solvents is indispensable not only because of the possible odor, but also
because of the possible migration from the plastic product in its use phase (see
Section 6.2).
The subsequent pressure build-up zone is required to overcome the pressure loss
of the discharging tools and any filters.
3.4.3 Characteristic Values
Specific Energy PSpec

The specific energy PSpec_mech is an important process characteristic value for each
material to be compounded. Equation 3.51 determines how much energy was used
in kWh per kg of compounded material. The less this is, the more energy-efficient.
The specific energy is independent of the extruder size used.
2⋅ p ⋅ n ⋅ Md  kWh 
PSpec _ mech =   (3.51)
m  kg 
Here n represents the speed of the screw shaft, Md the torque at the screw shafts,
and m the mass throughput.
The two diagrams in Figure 3.134 show that at a constant speed the specific en-
ergy is smaller the more mass is compounded per time unit. On the other hand, it
is also useful to keep the speed as low as possible when the desired throughput is
achieved in order to save energy.
speed = constant throughput = constant
Figure 3.134
Process parameters for
throughput speed compounding
Average Dwell Time

The average dwell time of plastic in an extruder is also a decisive influencing fac-
tor. On the one hand, with superimposed chemical reactions (so-called reactive
compounding), the course of the reaction can be influenced. On the other hand, a
too-high dwell time can also lead to pre-aging of the material.
Important characteristics of the machine are the screw configuration, the tempera-
ture profile along the line and the L/D ratio. The L/D ratio describes the length of
the compounding screw in relation to its diameter. This ratio makes twin-screw
extruders of different sizes comparable.
3.4.4 Additional Units
In compounding, granulates and powders are often used, less often liquid addi-
tives. Figure 3.135 shows the variety of shapes of the incorporated additives that
have to be incorporated into the compounding extruder.
Figure 3.135 Variety of additive forms

Above the twin-screw extruder, volumetric (cost-effective) or gravimetric (expen-

sive, but more precise) dosing systems (Figure 3.136) convey a defined volume
flow or mass flow into the hopper. There are recipes which require the highest ac-
curacy of feeding.
Figure 3.136
Dosing unit [Image source: Brabender/Germany]
Before the melt comes out of the die, it can be filtered. This is particularly neces-
sary for plastics recycling if contamination has been introduced by the recycled
material. However, contamination can also be residual catalyst residues from poly-
mer synthesis, wear residues from the screw, and decomposed parts of the mate-
rial. Especially the production of films (see Sections 4.1.4 and 4.1.5) requires high-
est melt quality.
Figure 3.137 shows a melt filter with screen changer that allows extrusion with a
low pressure loss. It is made of a screen wheel made up of several chambers. By
varying the mesh fineness of the sieve inserts, the size of the particles that can
just pass through the filter is determined. The pressure sensor mounted in front of
the melt filter measures the pressure in front of the sieve wheel and causes the
sieve wheel to continue rotating when a pre-selected pressure is reached. The
screen wheel is only rotated when it becomes increasingly dirty and the pressure
loss increases.
The processed melt is usually extruded in the form of strands, cooled, and granu-
lated by rotating knives. These granulates are packed into transportable bags or
so-called octabins in order to be transported to the customer, the plastic processor
(Chapter 4).
Figure 3.137
Melt filter with screen changer [Image
source: Gneuss Kunststofftechnik/
Germany]
There are several types of granulation. On the one hand, a distinction is made be-
tween cold pelletizing after solidification of the plastic strand and hot pelletizing
before solidification of the plastic strand. On the other hand, a distinction is made
between dry and wet pelletizing. The most common process is certainly strand
pelletizing after a water bath. Figure 3.138 shows how the viscous melt strands (1)
pass through a water bath (2), then – in solid form – pass an air dryer, and (3) get
granulated by rotating knives (4). The granulate form is cylindrical.
1 4
3
2
Figure 3.138 Pelletizing process
Another type of granulation is underwater granulation. Here the melt strands are
extruded directly into the cooling water after the die plate of the extruder, cut off,
and carried away by the water flow (Figure 3.139). Before the melt is cut off, it is
cooled by the turbulent water. After being cut off, the grains float with the laminar
water stream and cool down further. It also shows an open water box of an under-
water pelletizer in the compounding plant of the IKT with cutter shaft and six-fold
cutter head (inclined cutter). The granulate form is rather round to oval and even
more free-flowing than cylindrical granulate.
extruder
water box
melt valve granulate separator
die cutter water

plate head treatment
Figure 3.139 Water box of an underwater pelletizer in the IKT compounding plant
3.5 Process, Structure, Properties – Influ-

ences due to the Converting Process
In the case of plastics, the properties of the finished product are finally determined
by the converting process (processing). In this process step (Chapter 4), the struc-
ture is determined, e. g. by the orientation of the molecules, the frozen residual
stresses, and the crystallization state. All three are strongly influenced by time and
temperature. In addition, the polymer and/or the additives suffer from a certain
aging during processing (Section 3.6). In addition to these microscopic structures,
a macroscopic foam structure can also be created during the converting process,
which has a massive influence on the component properties.
If these influences on the properties are known, they can be used or – if unde-
sired – reduced as far as possible. It is always important for the engineer to make
the product quality predictable and controllable by knowing such influences.
3.5 Process, Structure, Properties – Influences due to the Converting Process 173
3.5.1 Residual Stresses
In general, the term residual stress is used when a component has an internal me-
chanical stress state even without external stresses. Such residual stresses act like
an external stress and preload the material.
Residual stresses are caused by adjacent areas within the component which are
expanded/contracted differently and then stretched or compressed in combination.
This locally different expansion or contraction of adjacent areas can be caused by
locally different
thermal contraction,
reaction contraction, or
media uptake (or release)
of the material. While thermal contraction is particularly pronounced in semi-crys-
talline thermoplastics, reaction contraction is only critical in thermosets.
Using the example of locally different thermal contraction during the cooling of a
thermoplastic melt between two mold walls, residual cooling stresses can be ex-
plained. Figure 3.140, top, shows a melt that has just stopped between two cooled
mold walls. This was cut into layers for better explanation. The temperature profile
in the melt is inhomogeneous, as the surface layers are cooled much better than
the middle layers.
T mold wall
wall
thickness
mold wall
Tsurroundings
-
thermal Figure 3.140
compressive contraction
+ Scheme for the explanation of cooling residual
stresses tensile stresses [according to Dissertation Hoven-
- stresses Nievelstein]
Figure 3.140, middle, shows the state of the layers after cooling. Now, the tempera-
ture across the cross-section is the same. Since the boundary layers were cooled
very quickly, they were not able to contract as strongly as the core layers, which
are shown shorter. If we look at the cross-section in the lower part of the picture as
a continuum again, it becomes clear that the slowly and strongly contracting core
area pulls on the outer, more rapidly cooled edge areas. This causes tensile stresses
in the middle and compressive stresses in the boundary layers. A medium thermal
contraction is the result.
If the melt is cooled down very slowly, all layers will contract in a more similar
way, resulting in less internal stress. For economic reasons, however, cooling
should normally be carried out as quickly as possible in order to keep production
time and costs low. The risk of high residual stresses and premature failure in use
must be balanced.
3.5.2 Orientation of Macromolecules
Molecular orientations in melt and solids are, as already briefly mentioned in Sec-
tions 3.1.5 and 3.3.1, main orientations of polymer chains, which lead to higher
strength and stiffness along the main direction of chain orientation (main valence
forces) and to correspondingly lower strength and stiffness perpendicular to it
(secondary valence forces) (Figure 3.141). This behavior is called “anisotropic”,
i. e. not the same in all spatial directions.
oriented macromolecules
shearing secondary
valence forces
low strength
in transverse
main direction
valence forces
main and secondary high strength in

valence forces longitudinal direction:
isotropically aligned “anisotropic“
Figure 3.141 Influence of molecular orientations on force transmission
Figure 3.142 shows the orientation of polymer chains by shear in a flow channel in
several time steps t0 to t4. The polymer chain entangled at t0 is stretched at t4, be-
cause the melt flows faster towards the middle of the channel than at the edge. The
same figure on the right shows that the velocity profile of a melt deviates from the
ideal form due to solidified boundary layers and that there is also a source flow at
the flow front which stretches and orientates the melt there.
layers
plastic
core
t t t t t
velocity of the
of the melt
Figure 3.142 Development of orientations in the melt flow
An extreme form of orientation produces the confluence of two melt fronts (Fig-
ure 3.143). At the respective melt front, the molecules are stretched perpendicular
to the flow direction and then lie parallel at the interface. This forms a weak point
and is called a “weld line”. We will take that up again in Section 5.3.5 “Process
Related Design”.
weld line
Figure 3.143 Confluence of flow fronts creates a weld line
Orientations are usually undesirable. If the melt is still warm enough, molecular
orientations can be dissipated by Brownian molecular movement. With sufficient
time and temperature, the macromolecules become undirected again, resulting in
the same properties in all spatial directions. The same applies to weld lines: If
there is sufficient chain mobility, the oriented molecules can entangle across the
interface and reduce the weak point.
Orientations also have an effect on the thermal contraction of components. The
oriented and closer arranged areas of a melt can be packed closer after cooling
(even without inevitably crystallizing). This also influences thermal contraction in
oriented areas: lower contraction along the orientation, higher contraction across
the orientation.
As mentioned above, sufficient Brownian molecular motion can reduce such molec-
ular orientations and also strengthen weld lines.
With lower cooling rates, molecular orientations can be reduced right in the
injection mold. The component might not be deformed, but the production time is
extended (expensive!). Annealing a highly oriented component (Figure 3.144) out-
side its expensive mold at higher temperatures may lead to undesired deformation
(right).
Figure 3.144 Orientations in polarized light; the shrunken component has fewer orientations,
but is deformed
If orientations and also residual stresses outside the mold are to be reduced, an-
nealing under forced forming with e. g. suitable clamps or clamping frames is re-
quired. The suitable annealing temperature for amorphous plastics is above the
glass transition temperature, for semi-crystalline thermoplastics just below the
crystallite melting temperature.
3.5.3 Orientation of Fibers
With the additives in Section 3.3 we have learned that reinforcing materials such
as fibers or nanoparticles – depending on their orientation – strongly influence the
mechanical properties. While the orientation dependence of nanoparticles has al-
ready been recognized, but not yet thoroughly researched, much is known about
the process influence of the properties by the orientation of fibers.
Figure 3.145 illustrates the influence of processing short glass fibers more in de-
tail. These short glass fibers are aligned by the flow of the melt very similarly to
the molecular orientations. If the melt flows through a cooled gap, a source flow
occurs at the front, which redirects and transfers the short glass fibers from the
core layers into the outer layers.
melt front
longitudinal orientation
in edge layers
transverse orientation
in core layers
Figure 3.145 Fiber orientation in the melt flow through a gap [according to image source:
BASF/Germany]
The layer-like structure in the core and edge is also illustrated. The result is a
structure of at least three layers with edge fibers in the direction of flow and core
fibers oriented in the perpendicular direction. The thicker the component, the
greater the proportion of core fibers. This must be taken into account when design-
ing components.
In contrast to molecular orientations, these fiber orientations cannot relax, i. e.
they cannot entangle over the boundary surface. Here, too, weld lines represent an
extreme case of orientations: Even by in with sufficient Brownian molecular mo-
tion, the fibers remain parallel to the weld line, therefore resulting in a particular
weak point.
3.5.4 Crystallization
Crystallization is considered the third internal structure. This has already been
explained in detail in Section 2.1.7. Although there are only secondary valence
forces, crystal lamellae allow a very high force transmission thanks to the very
dense packing. Crystallization can also be influenced by the converting process

and thus affects the properties of the manufactured component.
Figure 3.122 shows the influence of nucleating agents. It is also true that the de-
gree of crystallization is higher the more time the macromolecules have to find
each other and to attach themselves to each other. This time can be strongly influ-
enced by the temperature of the melt and the cooling rate. Here, too, it becomes
clear that a compromise must be found between economic efficiency (high cooling
rate) and quality (high degree of crystallization).
3.5.5 Formation of a Macrostructure: Foaming of Plastics
Up to now, several influences on properties by changing microscopic internal

states (orientations, crystallization, residual stresses) have been explained. An-
other way of changing properties is building a macroscopic structure by foaming
plastics.
According to ISO 472 a plastic foam is “plastic the density of which is reduced by
the presence of numerous small cavities (cells), interconnecting or not, dispersed
throughout the mass”. The density ranges from particularly light foams < 0.1 g/
cm3 to “heavy” foams close to the polymer density.
Foamed plastics can be divided into open-cell and closed-cell foam structures. Fig-
ure 3.146 shows an open-cell and a closed-cell structure in the scanning electron
microscope. While open-cell structures are permeable to air, closed-cell structures
form small, separate cavities. Open-cell structures can, for example, dampen sound
waves, while closed-cell foam structures can, for example, serve as thermal
insulation.
open-celled: closed-celled:
good sound insulation good thermal insulation
Figure 3.146 Open-cell and closed-cell foam structures

3.6 Changes over Time – Overview into the Aging of Plastics 179
Many plastics can be foamed as long as they fulfill certain rheological and mechan-
ical basic conditions. In terms of quantity, foams made of the thermoplastic poly-
styrene (PS), called expanded polystyrene (EPS, trade names e. g. “Styropor® or
Styrofoam®”) and foams made of the elastomer polyurethane (PUR) are most widely
used. The latter is discussed in more detail in Section 4.3.4.
There are physical and chemical foaming processes. In the physical foam impact
process, air or another gas is mechanically brought into the melt, similar to the
foaming of milk. However, this is rarely used. When the melt solidifies, the foam
bubbles remain. In the so-called expansion process, the physical effect is used
when a liquid expands into a gaseous phase. If this is cleverly controlled in terms
of time, the plastic solidifies with bubbles. Special foam nozzles are also used in
extrusion or injection molding.
Some plastics can be converted into so-called particle foams: The granules are sat-
urated with a blowing agent, which evaporates at higher temperatures and blows
up the softened granules. With sufficient process control, the granule solidifies in
an inflated state. If several such granules loaded with blowing agent are poured
into an open cavity, and the cavity is closed and heated uniformly, the granules are
inflated relatively uniformly and are welded together to form a solid, foamed com-
ponent.
In chemical mixing processes, two liquid, reactive components are mixed with a
blowing agent, which forms bubbles during the crosslinking reaction. After reac-
tion to form the thermoset or elastomer, the foam structure remains.
QR-Code 3-11
Here we present special foam made of a stiff thermoset, which is

nevertheless flexible thanks to its extremely thin cell structure.
(Source: BASF/Germany)
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Basotect

3.6 Changes over Time – Overview into

the Aging of Plastics
In the previous sections, we dealt with the specific influence of additives on mate-
rial properties and the influences of the converting process. This section deals
with the influence over time on properties in use; however, this is rarely intended.
Plastics do not corrode superficially like metallic materials. Over time, their prop-
erties change in a similar way to those of living organisms or other organic sub-
stances. This is why the process is called “aging”.
According to the German standard DIN 50035, which has no international pen-
dant, “aging of a material” is defined as “all chemical and physical processes irre-
versibly occurring in a material over time”. Through aging processes, plastics
change their properties over time. This means that aging begins directly after poly-
mer synthesis, takes place especially at the high temperatures of plastics process-
ing, and continues throughout use until the end of the product’s life.
Information about aging is important for engineers when they intend to predict or
estimate the lifetime of a product. If the planned service life of a product is short,
the lifetime prediction may not be necessary or can be easily estimated based on
the short-term properties. To predict the lifetime (see Section 5.3.6.3), a compo-
nent (part) is often aged artificially and as quickly as possible under the expected
operating conditions in order to estimate its actual service life under normal use.
plastic
carrier bags
packaging
PET bottles
cell phones
household appliances
automotive components
CDs
pipes
window frames
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50
service life in years
Figure 3.147 Examples of different service lives of various plastic products [according to
Fraunhofer IVV]
Figure 3.147 shows examples of lifetimes of typical plastic products. Products such
as packaging only have a short service life and aging effects are often negligible.
Reusable bottles made of polyethylene terephthalate (PET), for example, are an
exception as they are aggressively cleaned, refilled at high pressure, and often re-
used. Household appliances and automotive components, on the other hand, have
a service life of a decade or more, so that aging effects have a strong influence on
the lifetime. Manufacturers of safety-relevant components must guarantee their
intended use for the specified period of use despite the effects of aging. The prod-
uct developer’s approach to estimating lifetime is explained in more detail in Sec-

tion 5.3.7.
Based on the above-mentioned standard, the consideration of aging is divided as
follows:
causes of aging,
processes of aging, and
appearances of aging.
3.6.1 Causes of Aging
The causes of aging are manifold. First we have to distinguish the aging of the poly-
mer from the aging of the additive. The mechanical and thermal stress of the melt
due to strong shearing can break polymer chains during processing and thus form
radicals. Residual stresses caused by uneven shrinkage or temperature changes
also stress the material. Long-term mechanical stress during use can cause creep,
which results in at least a change in the shape of the component over time. Media
influence is also a cause of aging, regardless of whether the medium has a chemi-
cal (chemical attack by chemicals, oxygen, or ozone) or physical effect (diffusion of
media, stress cracking by surfactants).
High-energy radiation also influences the plastic over time: X-rays, electrons, pro-
tons, and alpha particles as well as UV radiation influence or break chemical bonds
and thus change the average molar mass of the polymer chains. IR radiation, i. e.
heat radiation, and heat as a whole do not break any chemical bonds in the first
step, but lead to an acceleration of chemical processes and to the reduction of the
secondary valence forces by increased Brownian molecular motion.
The term “weathering influence” describes a superimposed influence on plastics
as it can occur outdoors: The presence of UV radiation, elevated temperature (and
possible temperature changes), media (water, chemicals, oxygen), and possibly at
the same time mechanical stress (not only external, but also internal stresses, im-
peded thermal expansion, etc.) can strongly affect the plastic.
Another influence outside, but also in buildings, can occur due to biological pro-
cesses. The attack of microorganisms (fungi, bacteria) on conventional polymers is
hardly known, but additives such as starch, some oils, and low-molecular plasticiz-
ers can form culture media and be metabolized. The characteristics of the plastic
are changed thus, because on the one hand the metabolism reduces the additive
and on the other hand developing metabolic products can attack the plastic after-
wards chemically.
Exceptions are biodegradable polymers and compounded plastics based on them.
They are intentionally molecularly structured in such a way that they can be com-
pletely metabolized by special bacteria and fungi to biomass, CO2, and water (see
also Section 6.3.1).
3.6.2 Aging Processes
Let us now move on to the aging processes. These are divided into mechanical,
physical, and chemical mechanisms.
3.6.2.1 Mechanical Aging Mechanisms

The creep of the material alone is a temporal change in the dimension and leads to
deformation (Figure 3.148), which can be measured. A dynamic load over time can
lead to “fatigue” and decrease in strength. Friction partners can lead to abrasion
and deformation of the surface.
static dynamic wear

mechanism creep fatigue abrasion
F
ε F
t
t
kg
F
measured elongation change of load dimension
quantities failure time strength surface
Figure 3.148 Mechanical mechanisms of aging
3.6.2.2 Physical Aging Mechanisms

Physical mechanisms are those that take place on a secondary level, i. e. do not
primarily attack the molecular chains (Figure 3.149). Some of them are reversible.
Thus, heat can influence the dimension of the component over time, but it can also
reduce the secondary valence forces. This changes mechanical properties and
post-crystallization processes can be promoted. However, this post-crystallization
itself is not reversible; it has a retarded effect on the tertiary structure and thus on
the component properties.
Similarly, physical media influence by swelling can change the dimensions of the
component and at the same time reduce the secondary valence forces. Here, too,
mechanical properties are changed and post-crystallization processes are facili-
tated.
heat medium
mechanism molecular mobility post-crystallization swelling stress cracking

expansion dissolving
F
F
measured crystallinity creep strength
quantities dimension (morphology) hardness
Figure 3.149 Physical mechanisms of aging
A special aging phenomenon is the so-called stress cracking (Figure 3.150). Here,
only the simultaneous superposition of media action and applied stress leads to
permanent cracking. If the medium is not present, the stress alone does not lead to
crack formation. In the same way, the medium alone does not lead to crack forma-
tion without applied stress.
Figure 3.150 depicts the assumed model. Contamination leads to local penetration
of the medium and local weakening. If stress (including residual stresses!) is ap-
plied at the same time, this weakening leads to small crazes and finally to macro-
scopic crack formation.
penetrating medium
widens craze to a crack
stress stress
defect or craze crack

contamination formation
stress stress
time
Figure 3.150 Stress crack formation

QR-Code 3-12
Several specimens of a methyl acrylate butadiene styrene (MABS) are

clamped onto a bending template. The lower two sample bodies are a
quality product resistant to stress cracking, the upper two a low-cost
competitive material. The forced deformation generates a stress, par-
ticularly strong in the outer fiber of the specimen facing the camera.
After isopropanol, a medium that triggers stress cracking in this plas-
tic, has been instilled, the different resistance of the various plastics
becomes apparent. Compared to the quality product, the competitor
material shows a much earlier craze formation, which ultimately leads
to component failure. The original movie is over a minute long, but
has been shortened in an area that is not important for drawing a
conclusion.
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Alterung_und_Spannungsrissbildung

3.6.2.3 Chemical Aging Mechanisms

Chemical aging mechanisms occur on a covalent level: Here, polymer chains are
chemically altered (Figure 3.151). On the one hand, excessive heating can lead to
chain scission and stepwise depolymerization. This is expressed both in altered
mechanical properties and/or altered molar mass. Oxygen attack (oxidation) can
also lead to chain scission, but also to chain propagation or altered branching.
oxidation heat
mechanism chain propagation chain scission depolymerization

chain branching
measured molar mass weight

quantities toughness, OIT toughness/strength toughness/strength
radiation / light medium
mechanism crosslinking chain scission chain scission crosslinking

(e.g. hydrolysis)
measured molar mass molar mass molar mass

quantities strength, toughness, appearance toughness/strength
Figure 3.151 Chemical mechanisms of aging

High-energy radiation usually leads to degradation of the molecular chains (molar

mass reduction), but occasionally also to additional crosslinking (molar mass in-
crease). A chemical media attack can also cause subsequent crosslinking, but usu-
ally leads to chain degradation, e. g. by hydrolysis (see below).
Oxidation
Let’s take a closer look at oxygen attack, i. e. oxidation. Oxygen is a very reactive
element, which drives the metabolism of almost all living beings. At the same time,
oxygen attacks not only organic compounds in living organisms but also in plas-
tics. This reactivity leads to problems in technical applications:
If a reaction with oxygen, favored by catalytically active impurities, occurs “by
itself”, it is referred to as autoxidation. If macromolecules are oxidized in the
presence of oxygen and UV radiation, this is referred to as photo-oxidation. The
resulting reaction products are, for example, alkyl radicals, alkoxy radicals, and
hydroperoxides. These react, for example, to form carbonyl compounds (in polyole-
fins, aliphatic plastics), resulting at the same time in a molar mass reduction.
Also critical is the combined effect of heat and oxygen, so-called thermal oxidation.
This changes chemical bonds and even the composition of the polymer. The reac-
tions that take place accelerate as the temperature increases. Some additives even
accelerate thermo-oxidative degradation by their own decomposition products.
Well-chosen stabilizers as additives improve the resistance (see 3.6.2.4 “Mode of
Action of Aging Stabilizers”).
The reactivity of the polymer to oxygen depends on its chemical structure, the sol-
ubility and diffusion of oxygen in the polymer, and the state of crystallization. In
semi-crystalline polymers, diffusion and attack take place almost exclusively in
amorphous regions.
The sensitivity to oxygen changes according to:
molecular structure,
concentration of double bonds (e. g. styrene butadiene rubber (SBR), nitrile buta-
diene rubber (NBR)), and
presence of tertiary C atoms (e. g. with increasing degree of branching) and so-
called “activated C—H bonds” (e. g. PA, PET, polyethers).
Table 3.8 shows the aging phenomena of important polymers due to oxidative ag-
ing.
Table 3.8 Effects of Oxidative Aging [9]

Criterion PE, PP PS PMMA PVC POM PA PET PC
Embrittlement XX X
Yellowing X XX X XX X X XX
Tensile strength, X X X X X XX XX
Strain at break
Impact strength X XX XX X X X X X
Bending strength X X
Solution viscosity X X
Weight loss XX
XX = primary criterion, X = secondary criterion
Hydrolysis
Hydrolytic chain degradation is a particularly common aging mechanism. Polycon-
densation reactions (see Section 2.1.2.3) are chemical equilibrium reactions in
which, for example, water is split off as a typical by-product. At elevated tempera-
tures, the equilibrium reaction can shift again in the direction of the monomers,
depolymerizing the polycondensate. Typical polycondensates are polyamide (PA),
polycarbonate (PC), and many biopolymers.
In order to avoid hydrolysis, it is important to process the granulate in a dry state
(residual moisture < 0.1%!). The use of polycondensates at high temperatures and
in the presence of water or humidity is also usually not permitted or must be tested
beforehand.
3.6.2.4 Mode of Action of Aging Stabilizers

Ageing stabilizers are used for the temporary or permanent protection of plastics
against chemical reactions and consequently also against aging. The main purpose
of stabilization is always to prevent chain degradation, build-up, and branching.
The number of applicable stabilizer types and their modes of action are enormous.
Furthermore, they must also be adapted to the respective type of polymer and can
influence each other positively as well as negatively.
They are incorporated in low concentrations with the twin-screw extruder and
should cause as few direct property changes as possible. The possible degradation
products of the stabilizers must also be taken into account. Stabilizers can, for ex-
ample, lead to optical changes (clouding, yellowing, . . .) or a change in the viscosity
of the melt, evaporate during processing, or migrate out of the component after-
wards.
Antioxidants
Antioxidants sacrifice themselves to the attacking oxygen and are supposed to re-
tard its attack on the molecular chain. Metal deactivators are complexing agents
that react with catalytically active metal compounds (e. g. catalyst residues) that
would otherwise accelerate hydroperoxide decomposition and thereby the forma-
tion of new radicals even at room temperature. The catalytic activity is thus re-
duced or prevented.
Light Stabilizers
Light stabilizers have the task of preventing or retarding the photo-oxidation of
plastics caused by absorbed UV radiation in combination with oxygen. The UV rays
are partially converted into harmless IR heat radiation, for example.
Biostabilizers
Biostabilizers are antimicrobial stabilizers. They are used to counteract the attack
of microorganisms (e. g. bacteria, fungi) on susceptible polymers such as polyure-
thane (PUR) or to retard the attack on additives contained in the plastic (e. g. plas-
ticizers in PVC).
3.6.3 Aging Phenomena
The most noticeable signs of aging are those that are clearly visible, such as color
or surface changes (Figure 3.152). The change in dimension due to creep, swelling,
or post-shrinkage is also partly visible to the naked eye or easy to measure.
On the other hand, most changes in the properties in use are hardly visible. The
material may exhibit lower strength (visible cracking) and lower ductility (“embrit-
tlement”). This is usually accompanied by perceptible stiffening and hardening.
Thermodynamic and physical properties as well as properties of heat and mass
exchange can also be changed, but are also not apparent at first glance.
The chemical and physical processes of aging affect primary, secondary, and ter-
tiary structures, and cause changes which might affect the usability. These inter-
nal changes cannot usually be detected externally, but can be measured using var-
ious analytical methods.
Figure 3.152 Externally visible signs of aging
3.6.4 Characterization of the Aging Progress
To estimate the remaining service life of a component (Section 5.3.7), it is essential

to assess the aging progress. In the following, some typical “tools” for characteriz-
ing the aging progress are described.
The changes in molar mass and molar mass distribution are recorded e. g. by size
exclusion chromatography (SEC; Figure 2.12 in Section 2.1). Chemical reactions of
polymer chains and additives can be detected by infrared spectroscopy using char-
acteristic bands (Figure 3.68).
In addition to the non-destructive visual inspection, also microscopically, differen-

tial scanning calorimetry (DSC) and infrared (IR) spectroscopy provide two ways of
estimating the thermal oxidative aging state. These methods have already been
discussed in Section 3.2.2. They only require a small amount of sample, which
hardly damages the investigated component.
Figure 3.153 shows the surface of a component made of glass fiber reinforced poly-
amide 6.6 (PA66GF30) in the scanning electron microscope (SEM), first unaged
and then in two aged states (200 °C; 3.5 and 10 days). The glass fibers become
more and more visible. It seems that the surface is worn away over time.
100 µm
unaged sample aged sample aged sample

(200 °C/3.5 days) (200 °C/10 days)
increasing aging
Figure 3.153 Surface change of differently aged PA66GF30 samples
Figure 3.154 shows the influence of the storage temperature and duration on the
basis of the position and size of a heat flow peak in the DSC measurement record.
With increasing storage time and increasing storage temperature, this flat peak
shifts to higher temperatures and becomes more pronounced.
In the infrared spectrum (Figure 3.155) an increasing intensity of the carbonyl
band at 1708 cm–1 can be seen. This carbonyl band is a proof of formed carbonyl
compounds, which is an indication for an increasing oxidation (see Section 3.6.2
“Aging Processess”). At the same time, molar mass degradation occurs.
125 °C/48 h
150 °C/24 h
175 °C/96 h
| | | | | | | | | |
-80 -40 0 40 80 120 160 200 240 280
temperature in °C
Figure 3.154 DSC measurement of differently aged PA66GF30 samples
1.5
freshly molded
intensity
after water bath

0.5
after exposure to higher temperature

0
| | | | | | |
4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000
wave number in cm
Figure 3.155 FT-IR measurement of differently aged PA66GF30 samples
If more test material is available, mechanical tests are the ideal solution. This al-
lows the critical mechanical property of the component to be observed over time
under thermo-oxidative attack (Figure 3.156). Only if this observed property (e. g.
change in elongation at break) falls below a critical value can the lifetime be well
predicted (Section 5.3.7).
3.7 Brief Description of Some Important Plastics 191
tensile test according to ISO 527

% material: PA66GF30
30 –
10 –
125 °C
-10 –
150 °C
-30 –
175 °C 165 °C
200 °C
-50 –| | |
0 50 100
time in days
Figure 3.156 Elongation at break of differently aged specimens
3.7 Brief Description of Some

Important Plastics
According to their possible applications, prices, and use, plastics can be roughly
divided into three more-or-less overlapping groups according to [3] (Figure 3.157):
Standard thermoplastics (commodity plastics) comprise thermoplastics produced
in large quantities, which are often used for packaging, housings, or similar ap-
plications.
Engineering thermoplastics have better mechanical, thermal, and usually electrical
properties than standard plastics. They can be used for more complex applica-
tions.
High-performance thermoplastics are engineering plastics with particularly out-
standing properties, often also with regard to thermal application limits. The
processing of high-performance plastics is often demanding.
The higher a material is represented in the pyramid, the higher its heat resistance
is as a rule. It tends to be the case that a higher heat resistance is associated with
a higher price. The polymer blends shown with a slash are often commercial prod-
ucts, in a raw material manufacturerʼs portfolio.
LCP
high-performance PEEK PTFE
thermoplastics
PEI
PSU PES
PPS PA12 PA11

PBT/PC PA/ABS PC
engineering POM PA/PP
thermoplastics PPO/PA PC/ABS
PBT
ASA PBT/PET PPO/PS
TPU
PMMA PA ABS
SAN
PET
PUR
PE-LLD
standard
thermoplastics PS PE-LD
PP
PVC
PE-HD
Figure 3.157 Materials pyramid; according to [3]
In this section, the most important plastics in terms of quantity and their areas of
application are briefly presented. The quantity of a plastic sold (Figure 3.158) says
something about its versatility, but nothing about its value. Engineering thermo-
plastics and high-performance thermoplastics have a greater benefit/value and thus
also a higher market price, despite much lower sales volumes. As shown in Figure
1.7, plastics are most widely used for packaging and construction in Europe.
PUR (7.3 %)
PET (6.5 %) others

(19.8 %)
PS, EPS
(7.4 %)
PVC PE-LD, PE-LLD

(10.7 %) (17.5 %)
PP (18.8 %) PE-HD (12 %) Figure 3.158

Most important plastics by
volume in Europe in 2013
total: 45.9 million t [Image source: Plastics Europe]
3.7 Brief Description of Some Important Plastics 193
Polyethylene (PE) and polypropylene (PP) (generic term: polyolefins) are the most
widely used materials throughout Europe and the world. Typical large-scale appli-
cations include packaging films, but polypropylene with long glass fibers is also
increasingly used for engineering applications. Today, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) is
hardly found in packaging, but is much used in construction, e. g. as a durable pipe
material or window profile. Polystyrene is mostly used unfoamed for the packaging
of dairy products, while expanded polystyrene (EPS) is used for thermal insulation
in construction and contributes greatly to the saving of resources (see also Section
6.4.2).
Polyethylene terephthalate (PET) is an engineering plastic, but thanks to its per-
meation barrier against water vapor, carbon dioxide, and oxygen it has become
very important for beverage bottles. Polyurethane (PUR) is used particularly in the
construction industry, but also in numerous other applications of daily use.
All major engineering plastics such as acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), poly-
amide (PA), polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA; e. g. “Plexiglas®”), polytetrafluoro-
ethylene (PTFE; e. g. “Teflon®”), and polycarbonate (PC) are subsumed under
“Others”. They are not that important in terms of quantity, but – as already men-
tioned above – usually have a higher value. Engineering plastics are used, for ex-
ample, more often in automotive or electrical applications as well as in medicine,
furniture, and sports (see “Others” in Figure 1.7).
The following pages present the most important plastics from the author’s point of
view. The chemical structure is briefly described and important characteristic val-
ues are mentioned. The data are taken from [2, 10]. Comprehensive data can be
found in the CAMPUS database (see Section 3.1.6 and QR-Code 3-2).
Abbreviation Name Section
Standard thermoplastics
PE polyethylene 3.8
PP polypropylene 3.9
PVC polyvinyl chloride 3.11
PS polystyrene 3.12
SB/SBS styrene-butadiene-styrene copolymer 3.13
SAN styrene-acrylonitrile copolymer 3.14
ABS acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymer 3.15
ASA acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate copolymer 3.16
Engineering thermoplastics
PA polyamide 3.17
PBT polybutylene terephthalate 3.18
PET polyethylene terephthalate 3.19
PC polycarbonate 3.20
PMMA polymethyl methacrylate 3.21
POM polyoxymethylene 3.22
Abbreviation Name Section

High-performance thermoplastics
PTFE polytetrafluoroethylene 3.23
PEEK polyether ether ketone 3.24
PES, PSU polyethersulfone, polysulfone 3.25
PPS polyphenylene sulfide 3.26
Thermoplastic biopolymers and bioplastics
CA, CAB, CP cellulose derivatives 3.27
PHA polyhydroxyalkanoates 3.28
PLA polylactide 3.29
Thermoplastic elastomers and other elastomers
TPE-U/TPU thermoplastic polyurethane 3.30
PUR polyurethane 3.31
EPDM ethylene-propylene-(diene) copolymer 3.10
Thermosets
EP epoxy resin 3.32
MF melamine formaldehyde resin 3.33
PF phenol-formaldehyde/phenol resin 3.34
UF urea-formaldehyde resin 3.35
UP unsaturated polyester resin 3.36
3.8 Polyethylene (PE)

Semi-crystalline standard thermoplastic
Brief Description
Polyethylene can be produced in various polymerization processes that lead to a
less or more branched chain structure.
Processing
Polyethylenes can be converted in all processing methods usual for thermoplastics.
All welding processes, except high-frequency welding, can also be used. Due to the
non-polar structure, gluing and coating are only applicable after pre-treatment of
the surfaces.
3.8 Polyethylene (PE) 195
Properties during Use

Polyethylene crystallizes to different degrees due to the different types of produc-
tion. The mechanical properties increase with crystallinity. Low density polyeth-
ylene (PE-LD) is not very stiff and very ductile. Therefore, it is rarely used as a
construction material, mostly as a film.
High density polyethylene (PE-HD) can be used as a construction material despite
the still low level of mechanical properties versus engineering plastics. It is quite
strong, stiff, and very tough, shows low creep, and is moderately heat resistant. Its
sliding wear and electrical properties are good, and its water absorption is low. Its
chemical properties are excellent: it is resistant to salt solutions, acids, alkalis,
alcohols, and gasoline (petrol). Below 60 °C it is insoluble in all organic solvents,
but swells in aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons. Strong oxidizing agents such as
fuming sulfuric acid, concentrated nitric acid, and chromium sulfuric acid attack
polyethylene. Polyethylene is unstabilized, not UV-resistant, and burns like wax.
Fields of Application (Selection)

Structural components: toys, medical applications, gas and gasoline tanks, chemi-
cal containers (welded from semi-finished products), canisters, garbage cans, suit-
cases, simple garden seating, household cans, and bottle crates.
Other components: packaging, closures, piping.
Trade Names (Selection)

Alathon, Dowlex, Eltex, Eraclene, Escorene, Finathene, Fortiflex, Formolene, Hos-
talen, Lacqtene, Lupolen, marlex, Microthene, NeoZex, Novapol, Perothene, Polisul,
Rigidex, Sclair, Sholex, Samylan, Samylex, Sumikathene, Unipol, Vestolen
Good Advice
Polyethylene is inexpensive and versatile. If the requirements for mechanical prop-
erties, especially those at higher temperatures, are not too high (low stiffness!),
polyethylene can also be used for complex shaped parts.
Properties of Polyethylene
See Table 3.9.
3.9 Polypropylene (PP)

Semi-crystalline standard thermoplastic
Brief Description
Polypropylene is synthesized by polymerization of propylene (propene gas).
Processing
All common processing methods for thermoplastics can be applied. Injection mold-
ing of components, extrusion blown films, flat films and extrusion blow molded
parts as well as container-like components can be made. Glass mat reinforced PP
packages are processed in the GMT process. All welding processes, except high-
frequency welding, can be applied.

Polypropylene is more scratch-resistant than polyethylene, and has higher
strength, stiffness, and melting temperature with even lower density. It is tough
and impact resistant (especially as block-co-polymer PP-B). At low temperatures
the homopolymer (PP-H) becomes brittle.

Structural components: pump housings, filter housings, automotive applications,
rear lamp housings, seat frames, and covers; tool, transport and stacking boxes,
housings with film hinges, hot water containers, air ducting systems in cars, sim-
ple tool cases (with film hinges).
Other components: soap dispensers, bulk items such as drinking cups and food
packaging, bottles for cosmetic and medical products, surfboards, piping, profiles,
plates, cable sheaths, packaging tapes.

Accpro, Appryl, Bicor, Catolloy, Daplen, Eltex, Eperan, Escorene, Fromolene, Forti-
lene, Hicor, Higlas, Nepol, Novolen, Petrothene, Profax, Propilven, Rexene, Stamy-
lan, Tatren, Tenite, Caltec, Vestolen P
3.10 Ethylene-Propylene-(Diene) Copolymers (EPDM) 197
Good Advice
Polypropylene is the “better” polyethylene. Reinforced with short glass fibers, it
can even compete with many engineering plastics at not too elevated temperatures.
Long glass fiber reinforced polypropylene competes even more with engineering
plastics, but also costs about the same.
Properties of Polypropylene
See Table 3.9.
3.10 Ethylene-Propylene-(Diene) Copolymers
(EPDM)
Thermoplastic elastomer
Brief Description
EP(D)M is a type of atactic co-polymers of ethylene and propylene. Due to their
complexity, the chemical formula is not displayed here.
Processing
The usual PP processing methods can also be used for PP-EPDM blends, whereby
injection molding predominates. All welding methods except high frequency weld-
ing can be used, but the low stiffness is sometimes an inconvenience.

Sequential co-polymers (semi-crystalline EPDM) are “physically” cross-linked.
This crosslinking is based on the stronger bonding of the wide-meshed crystalline
parts of the polymer chain. This requires an ethylene content of at least 70%. Such
elastomer-like EPDMs can be processed thermoplastically, but lose their strength,
albeit low, when the crystalline melt temperature is exceeded. A blend of PP with
EPDM becomes stiff and has a relatively high softening temperature. Depending on
the proportion of the mixture, a wide variety of properties are produced.

Structural components: bumpers, spoilers, wheel arches, trunk linings, consoles,
steering wheel linings, shoe and sports applications, toys.

EPDM: Esprene, Intolan.
EPDM/PP: Dutral, Kelburon, Keltan, Larflex, Nordel, Norsorex, Santoprene,
Vistalon
Good Advice
EPDM itself is not a construction material. Rather, it is used as a PP blend or as a
soft component in two-component injection molding, usually with the hard compo-
nent PP.
Table 3.9 Properties of Polyethylene, Polypropylene, and Blends Thereof

Property Unit PE-LD PE-HD PP-H PP-R PP-B PP-GF30 PP +
homo random block glass-fiber EPDM
polymer polymer copolymer reinforced
Density g/cm3 0.915– 0.94– 0.90– 0.895– 0.895– 1.21–1.14 0.89–
0.92 0.96 0.915 0.90 0.905 0.92
Modulus MPa 200– 600– 1300– 600– 800–1300 5200– 500–
of 400 1400 1800 1200 6000 1200
elasticity
Yield MPa 8–10 18–30 25–40 18–30 20–30 – 10–25
stress
Yield % ca. 20 8–12 8–18 10–18 10–20 – 10–35
strain
Nominal % >50 >50 >50 >50 >50 – >50
strain at
break
Stress at MPa – – – – – – –
50%
strain
Breaking MPa – – – – – 40–45 –
stress
Strain at % – – – – – 3–5 –
break
Melting °C 105– 126– 162–168 135–155 160–168 162–168 160–
tempera- 118 135 168
ture
Dimen- °C – 38–50 55–65 45–55 45–55 90–115 40–55
sional
stability
tempera-
ture HDT/
A 1.8 MPa
3.10 Ethylene-Propylene-(Diene) Copolymers (EPDM) 199
Property Unit PE-LD PE-HD PP-H PP-R PP-B PP-GF30 PP +

homo random block glass-fiber EPDM
polymer polymer copolymer reinforced
Therm. 10−5/K 23–25 14–18 12–15 12–15 12–15 6 15–18
coefficient
of
expansion,
longitudi-
nal (23–
55 °C)
Therm. 10−5/K – – – – – 7 –
coefficient
of
expansion,
transverse
(23–
55 °C)
Flamma- class HB* HB* HB HB HB HB HB*
bility UL
94 at
1.6 mm
thickness
Dielectric – 2.3 ca. 2.4 2.3 2.3 2.3 2.4–3 2.3
constant
at 100 Hz
Dielectric · 10−4 2–2.4 1–2 2.5 2.5 2.5 10–15 2.5
loss
factor at
100 Hz
Spec. Ω·m >1015 >1015 >1014 >1014 >1014 >1013 >1014
contact
resistance
Spec. Ω >1013 >1013 >1013 >1013 >1013 >1013 >1013
surface
resistance
Dielectric kV/mm 30–40 30–40 35–40 35–40 35–40 45 35–40
strength
Compara- 600 600 600 600 600 600 600
tive track-
ing index
CTI/A
Water % <0.05 <0.05 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2
absorp-
tion at
23 °C,
saturation
Moisture % <0.05 <0.05 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 <0.1
absorption
at 23 °C/
50% hum.,
saturation
3.11 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)

Amorphous standard thermoplastic
Brief Description
Polyvinyl chloride is produced by emulsion, suspension, or mass polymerization
of the monomer. Hard molding compounds without plasticizers are called PVC-U
(unplasticized) or rigid PVC; soft molding compounds with plasticizers are called
PVC-P (plasticized) or soft PVC.
Processing
The most important processing methods are extrusion, calendering of films and
sheets, and pressing of sheets. Injection molding is occasionally used, and blow
molding even more rarely. Rigid PVC is more difficult to process than soft PVC (the
melt is low viscous). Both products can be welded with all common processes. Also
solvent welding is very well applicable.

PVC is available in a wide range of properties. Rigid PVC is strong, stiff, hard, and
tough, and has excellent weather stability, good electrical properties, moisture, and
chemical resistance. The flame is self-extinguishing. It has poor sliding wear prop-
erties, low impact strength at low temperatures, and a low continuous service tem-
perature.
The high stiffness and low ductility of rigid PVC can be further varied by means of
plasticizers. Soft PVC is transparent, and less heat and weather resistant than rigid
PVC; its chemical resistance is temperature dependent.

Rigid PVC structural components: fittings, toys, sports applications, electrical ap-
plications in household appliances and televisions. Soft PVC: intravenous medical
applications (especially hoses), automotive armrests and headrests. Protective
caps, electrical plugs molded to cables.
Other rigid PVC components: pipes, window profiles, furniture and building pro-
files, panels and flat films, credit cards. Made of soft PVC: rain capes, shower cur-
tains, sealing rings, suction cups, bicycle and motorcycle handles, “rubber” boots,
shoe soles.
3.11 Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) 201

Benvic, Corvic, Dorlyl, Etinox, Evipol, Fiberloc, Geon, Norvinyl, Oltvil, Ongrovil,
Pevikon, Rosevil, Solvin, Vestolit, Voclon, Vinnolit, Vynaloy
Good Advice
The problems associated with the “cold” incineration of PVC waste have been solved
and critical plasticizers are banned in Europe in sensitive applications. However, it
is hardly used for housings, flat and technical molded parts, but rather in the con-
struction sector, e. g. for window frames, floor coverings, and sewage pipes.
Properties of Polyvinyl Chloride

Property Unit PVC-U PVC-P with DOP
75/25 60/40
Density g/cm 3
1.38–1.4 1.24–1.28 1.15–1.20
Modulus of elasticity MPa 2700–3000 – –
Yield stress MPa 50–60 – –
Yield strain % 4–6 – –
Nominal strain at break % 10–50 >50 >50
Stress at 50% strain MPa – – –
Breaking stress MPa – – –
Strain at break % – – –
Melting temperature °C – – –
Dimensional stability temperature HDT/ °C 65–75 – –
A 1.8 MPa
Therm. coefficient of expansion, 10−5/K 7–8 18–22 23–25
longitudinal (23–55 °C)
Therm. coefficient of expansion, trans- 10−5/K – –
verse (23–55 °C)
Flammability UL 94 at 1.6 mm thickness class V-0 – –
Dielectric constant at 100 Hz – 3.5 4–5 6–7
Dielectric loss factor at 100 Hz · 10−4 110–140 0.05–0.07 0.08–0.1
Spec. contact resistance Ω·m >1013 1012 1011
Spec. surface resistance Ω 10 14
10 11
1010
Dielectric strength kV/mm 20–40 30–35 ca. 25
Comparative tracking index CTI/A 600 – –
Water absorption at 23 °C, saturation % 0.1 – –
Moisture absorption at 23 °C/50% hum., % 0.01 – –
saturation
3.12 Polystyrene (PS)

Brief Description
Polystyrene is produced from styrene by suspension, pearl, or mass polymeriza-
tion. For high-impact polystyrene (HI-PS), butadiene rubber is graft copolymerized
to increase impact strength. PS is also the starting material for PS foams (EPS)
such as Styropor® (trade name of BASF).
Processing
PS – like all styrene polymers – is predominantly processed by injection molding,
but also by extrusion (films). The films are often thermoformed. All essential weld-
ing processes as well as solvent welding are applicable.

Polystyrene is stiff and hard, but brittle without modification. Advantages are high
dimensional stability, low water absorption, glossy surface, high transparency, and
good electrical properties. It is insensitive to moisture, salt solutions, alkalis, and
non-oxidizing acids. PS is soluble in esters, ketones, aromatic and chlorinated
hydrocarbons; gasoline, essential oils, and flavorings also trigger stress cracking.
Processing has a major influence on the susceptibility to stress cracking. Poly
styrene continues to burn if unmodified, and the sliding wear properties are low. It
is not UV-resistant without carbon black, i. e. after weathering not only the color
but also the mechanical properties may change. It is available in a more heat-resis-
tant, UV-resistant, and flame-retardant modification. High-impact (HI)-PS is less
stiff, strong, and hard, but far more impact resistant and less sensitive to stress
cracking. The modification makes HI-PS opaque.

Structural components: simple toy model kits, “Kinder Surprise” toys, short-lived
toys.
Other parts: simple mirror and picture frames. Housewares such as containers for
cosmetics, flower pots, bottles, combs, disposable crockery. Disposable food pack-
aging (e. g. yogurt pots).
3.13 Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene Copolymers (SBS) 203

Polystyrol, Dylene, Edistir, Esbrite, Extir, Kanelite, Kardel, Krasten, Polidux, Poly-
rex, Pyro-Chek, Styron, Vestyron
Good Advice
Polystyrene is the most important and probably most cost-effective material for
simple consumer goods that are mass-produced. These usually have a flat, hous-
ing-like, or container-like shape.
Properties of Styrene Polymers

See Table 3.10.
3.13 Styrene-Butadiene-Styrene Copolymers
(SBS)
Brief Description
Styrene-butadiene-styrene copolymers are formed by copolymerizing styrene and
butadiene in the form of coherent blocks. The phases of polystyrene and poly
butadiene, which join together separately, form a lamellar structure. In their
dimensions, these phases are so small and at the same time so systematically
ordered that light can pass through them without noticeable scattering.
Processing
Like all styrene polymers, SBS is mainly processed by injection molding, but also
by extrusion (sheets) and thermoforming. All essential welding processes are ap-
plicable. Solvent welding, decorating, and printing are also applicable. Toughness
and stiffness can be “adjusted” by slightly blending with polystyrene on the injec-
tion molding machine.

Compared to polystyrene, styrene-butadiene-styrene copolymers are somewhat less
hard and stiff, but more impact-resistant, even in the cold. They are opaque and can
only be opaquely dyed. Due to the butadiene rubber particles, they are less weath-
er-resistant, but better resistant to stress cracking. Water absorption is higher than
with PS.

Structural components: toys, medical technology, sanitary, cosmetics, and office
equipment.
Other components: thermoformed, dimensionally stable food packaging, e. g.
drinking cups, salad and delicatessen bowls.

Diarex, Dokipel, K-Resin, Rhodopas, Styrolux
Good Advice
SBS is much tougher than polystyrene and more resistant to stress cracking.
Properties of Styrene Polymers

See Table 3.10.
3.14 Styrene-Acrylonitrile Copolymers (SAN)

Brief Description
SAN is produced by copolymerizing styrene with acrylonitrile.
3.14 Styrene-Acrylonitrile Copolymers (SAN) 205
Processing
Like all styrene polymers, SAN is predominantly processed by injection molding,
but also by extrusion (films). Heating element and rotary friction welding are ap-
plicable, but ultrasonic and high-frequency welding are less applicable.

In this co-polymer, acrylonitrile not only provides higher chemical resistance, but
also higher strength, hardness, toughness, and stiffness. Therefore, SAN is chemi-
cally far more resistant than polystyrene. Saturated hydrocarbons, low-aromatic
carburetor fuels and mineral oils, vegetable and animal fats and oils, water, aque-
ous salt solutions, diluted acids, and alkalis have no effect on SAN. It is also more
resistant to stress cracking than PS and to UV radiation than ABS. The electrical
properties are worse and the water absorption somewhat higher compared with
PS. The undyed material is transparent.

Structural components: medical products (distributors and splitters for hose sys-
tems, droplet chambers), covers, counters, eyeglasses, water meters, housings,
ballpoint pen sleeves, cigarette lighters and covers, ceiling fan blades, shower
heads, insulated can housings, storage boxes, bathroom fittings, toothbrushes,
scales, battery housings, winding cores, writing and drawing instruments.
Other components: packaging for food and cosmetics; crockery, cutlery, coffee fil-
ters, cans.

Adrylux, Cebian, Geloy, Kibisan, Kostil, Luran, Lustran, Restil, Tyril, Toyolac
Good Advice
SAN is the chemical resistant polystyrene. It is mostly used for housing parts sub-
ject to higher loads and also for flat parts. It impresses with its extraordinary trans-
parency and color brilliance combined with high chemical resistance, but is also
somewhat more expensive than polystyrene.
206
Table 3.10 Properties of Styrene Polymers and Styrene-Acrylonitrile Copolymers

Property Unit PS (PS-R) SBS impact- SBS-HI high SAN SAN-GF35
resistant impact-resistant
Density g/cm3 1.04–1.05 1.03–1.05 1.03–1.04 1.07–1.08 1.35–1.36
Modulus of elasticity MPa 3100–3300 2000–2800 1400–2100 3500–3900 10,000–12,000
Yield stress MPa – 25–45 15–30 – –
Yield strain % 1.5 1.1–2.5 1.5–3 – –
Nominal strain at break % – 10–45 40–>50 – –
Stress at 50% strain MPa – – – – –
3 Plastics Materials Engineering
Breaking stress MPa 30–55 – – 65–85 110–120

Strain at break % 1.5–3 – – 2.5–5 2–3
Melting temperature °C – – – – –
Dimensional stability temperature HDT/A 1.8 MPa °C 65–85 72–87 60–80 95–100 100–105
Therm. coefficient of expansion, longitudinal (23–55 °C) 10−5/K 6–8 8–10 8–11 7–8 2.5–3
Therm. coefficient of expansion, transverse (23–55 °C) 10−5/K – – – 2
Flammability UL 94 at 1.6 mm thickness class HB* HB* HB* HB* HB*
Dielectric constant at 100 Hz 2.4–2.5 2.4–2.6 2.4–2.6 2.8–3 3.5
−4
Dielectric loss factor at 100 Hz · 10 12 1–3 1–3 40–50 70–80
Spec. contact resistance Ω·m >1014 >1014 >1014 1014 1014
Spec. surface resistance Ω· >1014 >1013 >1013 1014 1014
Dielectric strength kV/mm 55–65 45–65 45–65 30 40
Comparative tracking index CTI/A 350–500 350–550 350–550 400–550 600
Water absorption at 23 °C, saturation % <0.1 <0.2 <0.2 0.2–0.4 0.2–0.3
Moisture absorption at 23 °C/50% hum., saturation % <0.1 <0.1 <0.1 0.1–0.2 0.1
3.15 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene Copolymers (ABS) 207
3.15 Acrylonitrile-Butadiene-Styrene
Copolymers (ABS)
Amorphous engineering thermoplastic
Brief Description
ABS is produced by graft polymerization of styrene and acrylonitrile on butadiene
latex. This is mixed with styrene-copolymerized acrylonitrile (SAN), coagulated,
and dried.
Processing
Like all styrene polymers, ABS is predominantly processed by injection molding,
but also by extrusion (sheets and films for deep drawing). Extrusion blow molding
of some types is also applicable. After pre-treatment, it is ideally suited for electro-
plating, coating, and printing. Hot gas welding, hot plate welding, rotary friction
welding, as well as ultrasonic and high frequency welding are applicable.

ABS is probably the most widely used engineering thermoplastic. Acrylonitrile
provides higher strength, toughness and rigidity, resistance to oils and greases,
and temperature resistance compared to standard styrene-based plastics (PS, SAN,
and SBS). ABS is flame retardant, and shows medium temperature resistance and
chemical resistance. However, ABS is soluble in esters, ketones, and some chlori-
nated hydrocarbons. The resistance to weathering and aging (changes in mechani-
cal properties and color) is much lower with ABS than with ASA. Due to the higher
water absorption, the electrical properties and the dimensional stability are some-
what reduced. The undyed material is opaque due to the blended SAN.

Structural components: housings for telephones, vacuum cleaners, kitchen appli-
ances, headphones, shavers, hair dryer hoods, transport containers, safety hel-
mets, toys, vehicle front light housings, safety belt lock housings, exterior mirrors,
wheel covers, spoilers, loudspeaker covers, hose couplings, sprinklers, lawn trim-
mers.
Other components: control knobs, door and case handles, case shells, sports appli-
cations, portion plates, spectacle frames, model trains, toy figures, musical instru-
ments, punches, tape rollers, staplers, ballpoint pen sleeves.

Blendex, Cycolac, Diarex, Kane Ace, Lastiflex, Novodur, Polylac, Sternite, Stylac,
Terluran, Urtal (and many more)
Good Advice
ABS is very suitable for flat components and housing components which have to
meet higher optical requirements. Due to its mechanical properties even at higher
temperatures, ABS is actually one of the engineering plastics. Due to the large
number of suppliers and world market capacities, however, it is now quite inexpen-
sive and is considered to be one of the standard thermoplastics. If UV resistance
and long-term color stability are required, ASA is the better choice.
Properties of Acrylonitrile-Styrene Copolymers and Their Blends

See Table 3.11.
3.16 Acrylonitrile-Styrene-Acrylate
Copolymers (ASA)
Brief Description
ASA is produced by copolymerizing styrene with acrylonitrile (SAN) and adding a
grafted acrylic ester-based elastomer component.
Processing
Like all styrene polymers, ASA is predominantly processed by injection molding,
but also by extrusion (films). Heating element and rotary friction welding are ap-
plicable, but ultrasonic and high-frequency welding less so.
3.16 Acrylonitrile-Styrene-Acrylate Copolymers (ASA) 209

Acrylonitrile provides higher strength, toughness and stiffness, resistance to oils
and greases, and temperature resistance compared to standard styrene-based plas-
tics (PS, SAN, SBS). The resistance to weathering, aging and yellowing is far better
with ASA than with ABS, for example. Due to the slightly higher water absorption,
the electrical properties and dimensional stability are somewhat reduced. The
non-colored material is milky and cloudy. Glass fiber reinforced types are also
available.

Structural components: car body exterior applications (mirrors, radiator grilles, air
intake grilles, lamp housings), toilet flush buttons, warning lights, vending ma-
chine housings, garden furniture, water hose connector systems, boats, washing
machine covers, waterpick housings, sewing machines, kitchen machines, micro-
wave ovens.
Other components: outdoor construction applications, letter and flower boxes, traf-
fic and information signs, suitcases, motorcycle covers, window frame surfaces,
parabolic mirror covers, mobile phone antennas, cable connection housings, hous-
ings for area switches or reinforced parts, refrigerator handles.

Centrex, Geloy, Luran S
Good Advice
ASA is the ABS for outdoor use. It is well suited for flat and housing components
that are often exposed to the sun and/or heat. ASA is also very suitable if you need
high color consistency over many years.
Table 3.11 Properties of Acrylonitrile-Styrene Copolymers and Their Blends

Property Unit ABS ABS-HI ABS-GF20 ABS+PA** ASA ASA+PC
impact glass-fiber
modified reinforced
Stress at MPa – – – – –
50% strain
Breaking MPa – – 65–80 – –
stress
Strain at % – – 2 – –
break
Melting °C – – – – –
tempera-
ture
Table 3.11 Properties of Acrylonitrile-Styrene Copolymers and Their Blends (continued)

Property Unit ABS ABS-HI ABS-GF20 ABS+PA** ASA ASA+PC
impact glass-fiber
modified reinforced
Dimensional °C 95–105 90–100 100–110 75–80 95–105 105–115
stability
temperature
HDT/
A 1.8 MPa
Therm. co 10−5/K 8.5–10 8–11 3–5 9 9.5 7–9
efficient of
expansion,
longitudinal
(23–55 °C)
Therm. co 10−5/K – – –
efficient of
expansion,
transverse
(23–55 °C)
Flammabil- class HB* HB* HB* HB HB* HB*
ity UL 94 at
1.6 mm
thickness
Dielectric – 2.8–3.1 2.8–3.1 2.9–3.6 3.4–4 3–3.5
constant at
100 Hz
Dielectric · 10−4 90–160 90–160 50–90 90–100 20–160
loss factor
at 100 Hz
Spec. Ω·m 1012–1013 1012–1013 1012–1013 2 · 1012 1012–1014 1011–1013
contact
resistance
Spec. Ω >1013 >1013 >1013 3 · 1014 >1013 1013–1014
surface
resistance
Dielectric kV/mm 30–40 30–40 35–45 30
strength
Compara- 550–600 550–600 600 600 200–225
tive track-
ing index
CTI/A
Water % 0.8–1.6 0.8–1.6 0.6 1.65 1
absorption
at 23 °C,
saturation
Moisture % 0.3–0.5 0.3–0.5 0.3 1.3–1.4 0.35 0.3
absorption
at 23 °C/
50% hum.,
saturation
* Also available as V-2 to V-0; ** conditioned
3.17 Polyamide (PA) 211
3.17 Polyamide (PA)

Semi-crystalline engineering thermoplastic
Brief Description
Polyamides are produced, for example, by polycondensation of ω-amino acids, or by
polycondensation of dicarboxylic acids with diamines. A distinction is made be-
tween the two groups: If the molecular chains are composed of one basic building
block, polyamides such as PA6, PA11, or PA12 are obtained (number indicates the
number of carbon atoms of the repeating units). If the chains are made of two dif-
ferent basic building blocks, polyamides such as PA66, PA69, or PA610 (first num-
ber = number of carbon atoms of the diamine building block, second number =
number of carbon atoms of the dicarboxylic acid building block) are obtained.
There are amorphous special polyamides and the partially aromatic polyamide
PPA, which combines the polyamide characteristics with the temperature resis-
tance of a polyphenylene sulfide (PPS).
The amide group [C(=O)N-H] is characteristic for polyamides.
Processing
Polyamides can be converted using all processes commonly used for thermoplas-
tics. They form a very thin melt. Thus, special types are required for extrusion,
thermoforming, or blow molding, where higher melt stiffness is required. A high
processing contraction (approx. 3%) increases the risk of voids in thick-walled
components. Welding is generally very well applicable, but due to the low melt
stiffness, hot plate welding can only be used to a limited extent.

The individual PA types differ rather little in their properties. They are generally
strong, hard, stiff, and show high heat resistance. They all show an excellent slid-
ing friction behavior due to the low abrasion and the low coefficient of friction.
Furthermore, they have are good electrical properties and an excellent chemical
resistance to solvents, oils, greases, fuels, weak alkaline solutions, boiling water,
and ketones. PA is not resistant to strong alkaline solutions and strong acids.
Due to high water absorption, the ductility and toughness are increased, but
strength and stiffness are decreased. Dimensional stability is low due to water
absorption.

PA6: bobbins, molded parts with long flow paths, gears, pinions, screws, nuts,
bearings, seals, coupling parts, guide parts, pump parts, fittings, housings, car
lock parts, carburetor parts, cranks, fans, flashlights, reflectors, door stoppers,
handle elements.
PA66: preferred for mechanically and thermally stressed components, such as bob-
bins, ball bearing cages, tension rollers, plain bearings, gear wheels, guide and
coupling components, drill housings, circuit breakers, cable drag chains, car oil
pans, cylinder housings, pedal modules, suction systems.
PA69, PA610 and PA612 (lower water absorption than PA6 and PA66): technical
molded parts with higher demands on dimensional accuracy under the influence
of moisture, e. g. precision parts in precision mechanics.
PA11 and PA12 (very low water absorption, good impact strength): water fittings,
underwater bearings, seals, housings, fans, insulating parts, parts for pumps and
household appliances, gear wheels, sliding pieces, guides, ski boots.
PA/ABS blends: automotive interior, automotive grille and exterior mirrors, motor-
cycle fairings, design-embossed household appliances.

PA6 and PA66: Akulon, Capron, Durethan, Grilon, Technyl, Ultramid, Zytel
PA11 and PA12: Rilsan, Grilamid, Vestamid
PA46: Stanyl
PPA: Amodel ASS
PA/ABS blend: Terblend N (see also Table 3.11)
Good Advice
Polyamide is probably the most widely used semi-crystalline engineering thermo-
plastic. The combination of high toughness with strength (with appropriate condi-
tioning) makes PA (usually with glass fibers) the material of choice for demanding
technical components with complex shapes, as long as the lower dimensional sta-
bility does not interfere. PBT offers higher dimensional stability with lower impact
strength. PA/ABS blend offers PA properties with high molding accuracy of sur-
face structures and low water absorption.
Properties of Aliphatic, Filled, and Modified Polyamides
Property Unit PA6 PA66 PA610 PA46 PA6GF30 PA66GF30 PA6HI PA66HI
impact impact
modified modified
dry cond.* dry cond.* dry cond.* dry cond.* dry cond.* dry cond.* dry cond.* dry cond.*
3
Density g/cm 1.12–1.14 1.13–1.15 1.06–1.09 1.18 1.35–1.37 1.36 1.01–1.13 1.04–1.13
Modulus of MPa 2600– 750– 2700– 1300– 2000– 1300– 3300 1000 9000– 5600– 9100– 6500– 1100– 450– 1800– 900–
elasticity 3200 1500 3300 2000 2400 1600 10,800 8200 10,000 7500 2800 1200 3000 2000
Yield stress MPa 70–90 30–60 75– 50–70 60–70 45–50 100 55 – – – – 25–80 20–45 50–80 40–55
100
Yield strain % 4–5 20–30 4.5–5 15–25 4 15 – – – – 4–5 15–30 5–7 15–30
Nominal % 20– >50 10–40 >50 30– >50 – – – – >50 >50 20– >50
strain at >50 >50 >50
break
Stress at MPa – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
50% strain
Breaking MPa – – – – – – 170– 100– 175– 115– – – – –
stress 200 135 190 140
Strain at % – – – – – – 3–3.5 4.5–6 2.5–3 3.5–5 – – – –
break
Melting °C 220–225 255–260 210–220 295 220–225 255–260 220 255
tempera-
ture
Dimen- °C 55–80 70– 60 160 190– 235– 45–70 60–75
sional 100 215 250
stability
tempera-
ture HDT/
A 1.8 MPa
3.17 Polyamide (PA)
213
214
Properties of Aliphatic, Filled, and Modified Polyamides (continued)

impact impact
modified modified
Therm. 10−5 7–10 7–10 8 –10 0.8 2–3 2–3 8.5 –15 7– 8.5
coefficient /K
of expan-
sion,
longitudinal
3 Plastics Materials Engineering
(23–55 °C)
Therm. co- 10−5 – – – 1.0 6–8 6–8 – –
efficient of /K
expansion,
transverse
(23–55 °C)
Flammabil- class HB-V-2 V-2 V-2 V-2 HB HB HB HB
ity UL 94 at (0.75
1.6 mm mm)
thickness
Dielectric – 3.5– 12–20 3.2–4 5 –11 3.5 4 3.8– 7–15 4 8 3–4 5 –14 3.5–4 7– 9
constant at 4.2 4.4
100 Hz
Dielectric · 10−4 60– 2100– 50– 1000– 70– 1000– 100– 2000– 140 1300– 100– 500– 70– 900–
loss factor 150 3500 150 2400 150 1800 150 3000 2300 140 3000 240 1800
at 100 Hz
Spec. Ω·m >1013 >1010 >1012 1010 >1013 1010 1013 106– 1013 1011 1013 1011 >1013 >1010 >1012 1010–
contact 109 1012
resistance
impact impact
modified modified
12 10 10 12 12 10 15 13 13 11 13 11 10 8 13
Spec. Ω >10 >10 >10 >10 >10 >10 >10 10 – >10 >10 >10 >10 10 – 10 – >10 >1013
surface 1014 1012 1010
resistance
Dielectric kV/ 30 25–30 25– 25–35 >25 15–20 35– 25–35 40 35 30– 25–30 30– 30–35
strength mm 35 40 35 35
Compara- 600 600 600 600 600 600 600 400– 400– 400– 400– 600 600 600 600
tive track- 600 600 600 600
ing index
CTI/A
Water % 9–10 8–9 2.9–3.5 6.0–6.7 5.0–5.5 6.5–9.0 6.5–8.0
absorption
at 23 °C,
saturation
Moisture % 2.5–3.4 2.6–3 1.2–1.6 3.7 1.4–2.0 1.0–1.7 1.8–2.7 2.2–2.5
absorption
at 23 °C/
50% hum.,
saturation
* Conditioned
3.17 Polyamide (PA)
215
3.18 Polybutylene Terephthalate (PBT)

Brief Description
PBT has a very similar chemical structure and similar properties to PET. It is pro-
duced by condensation of terephthalic acid and 1,4-butanediol.
Processing
PBT crystallizes faster than PET and is more suitable for injection molding. It is
processed by injection molding. Because of the risk of hydrolytic degradation, it
must be dried before processing. PBT can be welded using a heating element, ultra-
sound, or hot gas. Vibration or rotational friction welding as well as bonding are
also applicable.

PBT offers a combination of good strength and stiffness, but these are slightly
lower than those of PET. The impact strength does not come close to that of PA, but
the sliding friction behavior is very good. PBT is a very good insulator, whose prop-
erties are only slightly influenced by temperature, humidity, or frequency. It is
chemically resistant to weak acids and alkaline solutions, oils, fats, aliphatic and
aromatic hydrocarbons, and carbon tetrachloride. However, it is not resistant to
strong acids and alkalis and phenol, and is not suitable for long use in hot water
(but better than PET). Stress cracking is not a problem. It is characterized by good
weathering stability.

Structural components: plain bearings, roller bearings, valve parts, screws, plug
strips, pump housings, gas bellows meter housings, wheels, parts for household
appliances such as coffee machines, egg cookers, deep fryers, toasters, hair dryers,
irons, binoculars, stove buttons, toothbrush bristles, electrical connectors and
plugs, housings for electronic controls, lamp bases, sunroof frames, headlight
frames.

Arnite, Celanex, Crastin, Pibiter, Pocan, Ultradur, Valox, Vandar, Vestodur
3.19 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 217
Good Advice
PBT is a good engineering thermoplastic for housing-like parts and complex tech-
nical components. It is usually used when polyamide cannot be used due to its
lower dimensional stability or due to its chemical resistance.
Properties of Polybutylene Terephthalates

See Table 3.12.
3.19 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET)

Brief Description
Polyethylene terephthalate is produced by condensation of terephthalic acid and
ethylene glycol. Initially, it was only used for fibers (polyester fibers). High molar
mass types allow injection molding, injection stretch blow molding, and blow mold-
ing.
Processing
The main processing method is injection molding. Because of the danger of hydro-
lytic degradation, it must be dried before processing. A processing contraction of
1.2 to 2.5% must be taken into account. PET can be welded using heating elements,
ultrasound, and hot gas. Vibration or rotational friction welding as well as bonding
are also applicable.

The mechanical properties depend strongly on the degree of crystallinity. This can
be strongly influenced by parameter variation in the injection molding process.
With suitable crystallization, PET offers a combination of good hardness, strength,
and stiffness (but not impact strength) up to approx. 80 °C with a low creep ten-
dency. The sliding friction properties and the electrical properties are good. It is
chemically resistant to weak acids and alkaline solutions, oils, fats, aliphatic and
aromatic hydrocarbons, and carbon tetrachloride. It is, however, not resistant to
strong acids and alkalis, phenol, nor, if applied for a long time, to hot water. Stress
cracking is not a problem; it has good weathering stability.
Amorphous molded parts (suppressed crystallization) are desired if, in addition to
high transparency, higher toughness, low processing contraction, and high dimen-
sional stability are required.

Structural components: bearings, gear wheels, shafts, guides, couplings, lock ele-
ments, door handles, motor housings, switches, relays, sensors.
Other components: beverage bottles.

Anrite, Crastin, Eastar, Selar, Tenite, Valux
Good Advice
PET is an underestimated material that is not only suitable for beverage bottles,
but can also compete with polyamide and PBT in many respects. The main dis
advantage is the slow crystallization.
Table 3.12 Properties of Polyethylene and Polybutylene terephthalates and a blend

Property Unit PET PBT PBT +
ASA
amor- semi- -GF30 unrein- elastomer -GF30
phous crystalline forced modified
PET-A PET-C
Density g/cm3 1.33– 1.38–1.40 1.56– 1.30– 1.2–1.28 1.52– 1.21–
1.35 1.59 1.32 1.55 1.22
Modulus of MPa 2100– 2800– 9000– 2500– 1100– 9500– 2500
elasticity 2400 3100 11,000 2800 2000 11,000
Yield stress MPa 55 60–80 – 50–60 30–45 – 53
Yield strain % 4 5–7 – 3.57 6–20 – 3.6
Nominal % >50 >50 – 20–>50 >50 – >50
strain at
break
Stress at 50% MPa – – – – – – –
strain
Breaking MPa – – 160– – – 130– –
stress 175 150
Strain at % – – 2–3 – – 2.53 –
break
Melting °C – 250–260 250– 220–225 200–225 220– 225
temperature 260 225
3.19 Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) 219
Property Unit PET PBT PBT +

ASA
Dimensional °C 60–65 65–75 220– 50–65 50–60 200– 80
stability 230 210
temperature
HDT/
A 1.8 MPa
Therm. co 10−5/K 8 7 2–3 8–10 10–15 3–4.5 10
efficient of
expansion,
longitudinal
(23–55 °C)
Therm. co 10−5/K – – 7–9 – – 7–9 –
efficient of
expansion,
transverse
(23–55 °C)
Flammability class HB1) HB1) HB1) HB1) HB1) HB1) HB1)
UL 94 at
1.6 mm thick-
ness
Dielectric 3.4– 3.4–3.6 3.8– 3.3–4.0 3.2–4.4 3.5–4.0 3.3
constant at 3.6 4.8
100 Hz
Dielectric loss ·10–4 20 20 30–60 15–20 20–130 20–30 10
factor at
100 Hz
Spec. contact Ω·m >1013 >1013 >1013 >1013 >1013 >1013 >1014
resistance
Spec. surface Ω >1014 >1014 >1014 >1014 >1014 >1014 >1015
resistance
Dielectric kV/ 250 30 30–35 25–30 25 30–35 30
strength mm
Comparative 300– 300–400 250– 600 600 350– 600
tracking index 400 275 525
CTI/A
Water absorp- % 0.6– 0.4–0.5 0.4– 0.5 0.4–0.7 0.35– 0.5
tion at 23 °C, 0.7 0.5 0.4
saturation
Moisture % 0.3– 0.2–0.3 0.2 0.25 0.15–0.2 0.1– 0.2
absorption at 0.35 0.15
23 °C/
50% hum.,
saturation
1)
Also available as V-0
3.20 Polycarbonate (PC)

Brief Description
Polycarbonate is produced by polycondensation of bisphenol A with phosgene.
Processing
PC can be processed with all standard methods for thermoplastics. The high melt
viscosity requires high processing temperatures, high injection pressures, and low
flow path/wall thickness ratios. Any residual moisture in the granulate must be
removed in order to avoid degradation by hydrolysis during processing. PC can be
bonded and welded using ultrasound or high frequency methods.

PC is an impact-resistant, highly transparent material with a low creep tendency
that is strong over a wide temperature range. It has good electrical properties and
can be stabilized against UV radiation. Application limits are set by the quite high
notch sensitivity, the limited chemical resistance, and poor resistance to stress
cracking as well as poor sliding friction properties.
Polycarbonate with high heat distortion temperature, mixed with less heat distor-
tion resistant ABS or ASA, leads to opaque material blends with medium heat dis-
tortion temperature, but better stress cracking resistance and higher impact strength.

Structural components: transparent applications such as automotive lights, instru-
ment panels, optical lenses, signal lenses, medical applications, “white goods” en-
closures, molded parts and electrical housings, large mounting plates and cable
distribution cabinets, mobile phones, and other enclosures (PC/ABS blend).
Other components: milk containers, microwave dishes, food containers, double-
webbed plates for terrace roofs and greenhouses, large drinking water containers,
data storage devices (CDs and DVDs).

Calibre, Lexan, Makrolon, Novarex, Panlite, Xantar, as well as for PC/ABS or PC/
ASA e. g. Bayblend, Bayblend A, Cycoloy, Luran SC, Pulse, Ryulex, Triax
3.20 Polycarbonate (PC) 221
Good Advice
Polycarbonate is excellently suited for large-area, container-like and housing-like
components, but also for complex components. In many ways it is a leading trans-
parent material, which also outshines some semi-crystalline thermoplastics.
Properties of Polycarbonates and Their Blends

Property Unit PC PCGF30 PC/ABS PC/ABS PC/PBT PC/PBT
GF20 GF30
Density g/cm3 1.20 1.42–1.44 1.08–1.17 1.25 1.2–1.26 1.43–1.45
Modulus of MPa 2300– 5500– 2000– 6000 2300 7000
elasticity 2400 5800 2600
Yield stress MPa 55–65 – 40–60 – 50–60 –
Yield strain % 6–7 – 3–3.5 – 4–5 –
Nominal % >50 – >50 – 25–>50 –
strain at
break
Stress at MPa – – – – – –
50% strain
Breaking MPa – 70 – 75 – 90
stress
Strain at % – 3.5 – 2 – 3
break
Melting °C – – – – – –
temperature
Dimensional °C 125–135 135–140 90–110 115 70–95 150
stability
temperature
HDT/
A 1.8 MPa
Therm. co 10−5/K 6.5–7 2.5–3 7–8.5 3–3.5 8–9 3
efficient of
expansion,
longitudinal
(23–55 °C)
Therm. co 10−5/K – 5–6 –
efficient of
expansion,
transverse
(23–55 °C)
Flammability class V-2 V-1 HB HB HB HB
UL 94 at
1.6 mm
thickness
Dielectric – 2.8–3.2 3.3 3 3.2 3.3 4
constant at
100 Hz
Properties of Polycarbonates and Their Blends (continued)

Property Unit PC PCGF30 PC/ABS PC/ABS PC/PBT PC/PBT
GF20 GF30
Dielectric · 10−4 7–20 9–10 30–60 20–30 20–40 30–40
loss factor at
100 Hz
Spec. Ω·m >1014 >1014 >1014 >1014 >1014 >1014
contact
resistance
Spec. Ω >1014 >1014 >1014 >1014 >1014 >1014
surface
resistance
Dielectric kV/mm 30–75 30–75 24 30 35 35
strength
Comparative 250–300 150–175 250–600 200–300 250–500 300–500
tracking
index CTI/A
Water % 0.35 0.28–0.30 0.6–0.7 0.4–0.5 0.35 0.25
absorption at
23 °C,
saturation
Moisture % 0.2 0.11–0.15 0.2 0.15–0.2 0.15 0.1
absorption at
23 °C/
50% hum.,
saturation
3.21 Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA)

Brief Description
PMMA is produced by block, emulsion, or suspension polymerization of methyl
methacrylate.
3.21 Polymethyl Methacrylate (PMMA) 223
Processing
PMMA molding compounds can be injection-molded or extruded. Printing or coat-
ing is basically applicable, but due to the poor stress cracking resistance only after
careful surface pre-treatment without problems. Metallization is applicable without
pre-treatment. Welding is applicable with hot gas, high frequency, and ultrasound.
Epoxy resin, polyurethane, and cyanoacrylate adhesives are available for bonding.

PMMA is a low-stretch material with high strength, stiffness, heat deflection tem-
perature, and surface hardness (scratch resistance!), and good insulation proper-
ties. It shows high optical transparency and gloss with good weathering resistance
and is resistant to weak acids and alkalis, non-polar solvents, fats, oils, and water.
However, the poor media resistance that causes stress cracking (e. g. with surfac-
tants) must be taken into account. The not very high impact strength can be im-
proved by modification, but the transparency gets lost.

Structural components: sanitary equipment, glasses, lenses, lighting and instru-
ment panels, telephone keys.
Other components: double-webbed panels, stadium glazing, light domes, buttons;
also used in casting resins and adhesives.

Acrylite, Altuglas, Corian, Degadur, Lucite, Modar, Oroglas, Perspex, Plexiglas,
Silacron
Good Advice
Thanks to its high transparency over a wide wavelength range, PMMA offers an
excellent substitute for glass. It is therefore ideally suited for flat and housing-like
components, especially with optical functions, as long as neither high impact
strength nor chemical resistance are required.
Properties of Polymethyl Methacrylate

Property Unit PMMA molding PMMA semi- PMMA-HI
compounds finished p
roducts elastomer
high mol. modified
Density g/cm3 1.17–1.19 1.18–1.19 1.12–1.17
Modulus of elasticity MPa 3100–3300 3300 600–2400
Yield stress MPa – – 20–60
Yield strain % – – 4.5–5
Properties of Polymethyl Methacrylate (continued)

Property Unit PMMA molding PMMA semi- PMMA-HI
compounds finished p
roducts elastomer
high mol. modified
Nominal strain at break % – – 20–>50
Breaking stress MPa 60–75 70–80 –
Strain at break % 2–6 4.5–5.5 –
Dimensional stability temperature °C 75–105 90–105 65–95
HDT/A 1.8 MPa
Therm. coefficient of expansion, 10−5/K 7–8 7 8–11
longitudinal (23–55 °C)
Therm. coefficient of expansion, 10−5/K – – –
transverse (23–55 °C)
Flammability UL 94 at 1.6 mm class HB HB HB
thickness
Dielectric constant at 100 Hz – 3.5–3.8 3.5–3.8 3.6–4.0
Dielectric loss factor at 100 Hz · 10 −4
500–600 600 400–600
Spec. contact resistance Ω·m >1013 >1013 >1013
Spec. surface resistance Ω >1013 >1013 >1013
Dielectric strength kV/mm 30 ca. 30 30
Comparative tracking index CTI/A 600 600 600
Water absorption at 23 °C, % 1.7–2.0 1.7–2.0 1.9–2.0
saturation
Moisture absorption at 23 °C/ % 0.6 0.6 0.5–0.6
50% hum., saturation
3.22 Polyoxymethylene (POM)

Brief Description
POM (polyoxymethylene, also polyformaldehyde, polyacetal) is produced by homo
polymerization (POM-H) or copolymerization (POM-C) of formaldehyde.
3.22 Polyoxymethylene (POM) 225
Processing
All common processing methods for thermoplastics are feasible. Higher molecular
types can be extruded, weakly cross-linked even blow-molded. Processing tem-
peratures of > 220 °C should be strictly avoided, as they lead to molecular degrada-
tion and the formation of gaseous formaldehyde. More degradation resistant spe-
cial types are available. Due to its low internal damping, POM cannot be welded
using high frequency.

Unreinforced POM has quite high tensile strength, stiffness, and, for a semi-crys-
talline material, high dimensional stability. Good chemical resistance, rather low
creep tendency, and late failure under alternating dynamic load are to be particu-
larly emphasized. High surface hardness and a low coefficient of friction are rea-
sons for good sliding and wear behavior even with the sliding partner polyamide. It
is low-temperature impact resistant and can be used for short periods up to 150 °C
(long term approx. 110 °C). The permeability for gases and vapors is low. No com-
mon solvent, not even fuels, can swell or dissolve POM.
Homopolymer POM (POM-H) is the stronger, stiffer, low-temperature impact- and
abrasion-resistant POM. Copolymer POM (POM-C), however, dominates the market
volumewise due to its better heat and processing properties.

Structural components: precision parts for precision mechanics such as gear
wheels, levers, bearings, ball shells; pump components carrying hot water and
fuel, transport chains, fan wheels, snap locks, ski bindings, zippers, disposable
lighters, parts in automotive safety systems such as belt deflectors and belt
retractors, automotive loudspeaker covers, windscreen washer nozzles, washing
armatures, door handles, valves for cisterns, spring elements in e. g. sweetener
dispensers.

Homopolymer POM: Delrin, Tenac; copolymer POM: Celcon, Duracon, Hostaform,
Kepital, Tenac, Ultraform
Good Advice
The mixture of mechanical properties, precision, and chemical resistance makes
POM very suitable for complex technical components. POM (or PA) should be se-
lected for sliding friction partners subject to higher loads. POM feels “greasy” in
the hand.
Properties of Polyoxymethylene
Property Unit POM-H POM-H-HI POM- POM- POM-
impact copoly Cop.-HI Cop.-GF30
modified merizate elastomer
modified
Density g/cm3 1.40–1.42 1.34–1.39 1.39–1.41 1.27–1.39 1.59–1.61
Modulus of MPa 3000– 1400– 2600–3000 1000–2200 9000–10,000
elasticity 3200 2500
Yield stress MPa 60–75 35–55 65–73 20–55 –
Yield strain % 8–25 20–25 8–12 8–15 –
Nominal strain at % 20–>50 >50 15–40 >50 –
break
Stress at 50% MPa – – – – –
strain
Breaking stress MPa – – – – 125–130
Strain at break % – – – – 3
Melting °C 175 175 164–172 164–172 164–172
temperature
Dimensional °C 105–115 65–85 95–110 50–90 155–160
stability
temperature
HDT/A 1.8 MPa
Therm. coeffi- 10−5/K 11–12 12–13 10–11 13–14 2.5–4
cient of expan-
sion, longitudinal
(23–55 °C)
Therm. coeffi- 10−5/K – – – – 6
cient of expan-
sion, transverse
(23–55 °C)
Flammability class HB HB HB HB HB
UL 94 at 1.6 mm
thickness
Dielectric con- – 3.5–3.8 3.8–4.7 3.6–4 3.7–4.5 4.0–4.8
stant at 100 Hz
Dielectric loss · 10−4 30–50 70–160 30–50 50–200 40–100
factor at 100 Hz
Spec. contact Ω·m >1013 >1012–1013 >1013 >1011 >1013
resistance
Spec. surface Ω >1014 >1014 >1013 >1011–1012 >1013
resistance
Dielectric kV/mm 25–35 30–40 35 30–35 40
strength
Comparative 600 600 600 600 600
tracking index
CTI/A
3.23 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) 227
Property Unit POM-H POM-H-HI POM- POM- POM-

impact copoly Cop.-HI Cop.-GF30
modified merizate elastomer
modified
Water absorption % 0.9–1.4 1.6–2.0 0.7–0.8 0.8–1.2 0.8–0.9
at 23 °C,
saturation
Moisture absorp- % 0.2–0.3 0.9 0.2–0.3 0.2–0.3 0.15
tion at 23 °C/
50% hum.,
saturation
3.23 Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE)

Semi-crystalline high-performance thermoplastic
Brief Description
Polytetrafluoroethylene belongs to the fluoropolymers, i. e. the hydrogen of poly-
ethylene is partially or completely replaced by fluorine. PTFE is basically a high-
molecular polyethylene in which all hydrogen atoms have been replaced by fluo-
rine atoms.
The fluorine atoms are larger and heavier and form a protective “shell” around the
carbon chain. In addition, the chemical bond to the carbon is so strong that they
are unable to form new compounds. These are the reasons why all fluoropolymers
have a very high chemical resistance even at high temperatures (e. g. insoluble up
to 300 °C).
Processing
The melt viscosity of PTFE is too high for injection molding. Semi-finished prod-
ucts and molded parts are produced using various sintering processes. RAM extru-
sion (powder extrusion) or paste extrusion is used to produce rods and tubes that
can later be machined. PTFE can also be applied to metallic or ceramic surfaces as
a sliding layer of dispersions.

PTFE is weatherproof even without stabilization, non-flammable, and impact resis-
tant even at low temperatures. It has the highest heat resistance of all engineering
plastics as well as good sliding and wear properties. Despite its high density versus
other plastics (∼ 2.2 g/cm3), PTFE is neither very stiff nor very strong and can
hardly be used for technical parts. The processing contraction is quite high due to
the high crystallinity.

Structural components: seals, bellows, pistons and other machine components.
Other components: crucibles, coatings (e. g. for frying pans!); in electrical engi-
neering also substrates for printed circuits; sheets and other semi-finished prod-
ucts for further processing (e. g. slide rails).

Algoflon, Dyneon, Polyflon, Teflon
Good Advice
In many applications, the poor mechanical properties and poor processability are
not compensated by the advantages in temperature and chemical resistance. Thus,
PTFE is more of a niche material for the designer who focuses on coatings or
semi-finished products.
Properties of Fluoropolymers
See Table 3.13.
3.24 Polyether Ether Ketone (PEEK)

Brief Description
PEEK is a derivative of aromatic poly(aryl)ether ketones (PAEK). These are semi-
crystalline polymers whose melt temperature depends on the proportion of ketone
groups (CO groups). They are determined by the number and arrangement of the
different groups, e. g. two ether groups and one ketone group form the polyether
ether ketone PEEK, which, despite its high price, has gained importance for techni-
cal components.
3.24 Polyether Ether Ketone (PEEK) 229
Processing
Despite the high melt viscosity, injection molding and extrusion are applicable at
high melt temperatures (> 350 °C) and mold temperatures (> 150 °C). Rapid cool-
ing can result in amorphous surface layers, which often crystallize after annealing.

PEEK has high strength and stiffness in an extremely wide temperature range ver-
sus other plastics. The sliding wear properties and impact strength are also good.
Even at high temperatures, it is chemically resistant to many substances (except
oxidizing acids), self-extinguishing, and hot steam sterilizable, but only slightly
UV-resistant. Unreinforced types are notch-sensitive.

Structural components: injection molded parts in the automotive, aviation, and
electronics industries; chemical pumps, valves, volumetric flow meters.

Ketaspire, Gatone, Vestakeep, Victrex
Good Advice
This expensive material is only produced by a few manufacturers. However, this is
not a comfortable competitive situation because it constantly competes with other
high-performance or engineering thermoplastics. As with all high-performance
plastics, the requirement profile of the planned application must always be com-
pared with the range of properties of PEEK.
Table 3.13 Properties of Polytetrafluoroethylene and Polyether Ether Ketones

Property Unit PTFE PEEK
Density g/cm3 2.13–2.23 1.32
Modulus of elasticity MPa 400–750 3500
Yield stress MPa –
Yield strain % – 5
Nominal strain at break % >50 >60
Stress at 50% strain MPa 20–40
Breaking stress MPa – 100
Strain at break % –
Table 3.13 Properties of Polytetrafluoroethylene and Polyether Ether Ketones (continued)

Property Unit PTFE PEEK
Melting temperature °C 325–335 343
Dimensional stability temperature HDT/A 1.8 MPa °C 50–60 155
Therm. coefficient of expansion, longitudinal (23–55 °C) 10−5/K 15–20 4.7
Therm. coefficient of expansion, transverse (23–55 °C) 10−5/K –
Flammability UL 94 at 1.6 mm thickness class V-0 V-0
Dielectric constant at 100 Hz – 2.1 3.2
Dielectric loss factor at 100 Hz · 10−4 0.5–0.7
Spec. contact resistance Ω·m >1016 5 · 1014
Spec. surface resistance Ω >10 16
Dielectric strength kV/mm 40

Comparative tracking index CTI/A 600
Water absorption at 23 °C, saturation % <0.05 0.8
Moisture absorption at 23 °C/50% hum., saturation % <0.05 0.25
3.25 Polyethersulfone (PES) und Polysulfone

(PSU)
Amorphous high-performance thermoplastics
Brief Description
Polyether sulfones are produced by polysulfonylation or by polyether synthesis.
Polysulfones are polycondensates whose diarylsulfone group is characteristic.
Processing
PES and PSU can be processed with all standard thermoplastic processes (mostly
injection molding). Due to the high melt viscosity, high processing temperatures
must be set. In order to reduce orientation and stress cracking resistance,
mold temperatures > 100 °C must be used, which often makes oil temperature
3.25 Polyethersulfone (PES) und Polysulfone (PSU) 231
control of the tools necessary. PSU can be welded using a heating element or
ultrasound.

Polyethersulfone and polysulfone have high strength, stiffness, and hardness even
at high temperatures. They show high heat resistance, good sliding friction behav-
ior, good electrical properties, and high chemical resistance. Nevertheless, there is
a risk of stress cracking and notch cracking. Despite good resistance to high-energy
radiation, they must also be protected against UV radiation. Without additives,
they are flame-retardant and smoke-emitting. Polysulfone is somewhat more trans-
parent and more resistant to chemicals than polyethersulfone. Both are yellowish
transparent (amber), even if uncolored.

Structural components: high temperature aerospace and automotive applications,
including heating pumps and valves, medical applications.
Other components: printed circuits, baby bottles, dairy equipment, filtration equip-
ment (dialysis), optical lenses, spotlights, reflectors, chip trays and carriers, oil
control pistons, oil gear plugs, convection oven housings, printer cartridges, con-
trol valves, automotive fuses.

PES: Radel A, Sumikaexcel, Ultrason E
PSU: Udel, Ultrason S
Good Advice
PES and PSU are high-performance thermoplastics with excellent high tempera-
ture resistance and a price that is not too high for this group. They are particularly
suitable for housing and complex engineering components.
Properties of Polyphenylene Sulfide, Polyethersulfone, Polysulfone,

and Their Blends
See Table 3.14.
3.26 Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS)

Brief Description
Polyphenylene sulfides are semi-crystalline thermoplastics in which aromatic
monomer units are coupled via sulfur atoms.
Processing
The most important processing method is injection molding. The melt viscosity is
quite high and only small wall thicknesses of flow path ratios can be realized. At
mold temperatures of > 120 °C, glossy molded part surfaces are produced. During
injection molding, PPS can be crosslinked to form a thermoset. Heating element
welding and ultrasonic welding are applicable, and high-frequency welding is less
often applied.

Polyphenylene sulfide is hard, solid, stiff, and impact resistant even at high tem-
peratures, but has only low extensibility. It has good electrical properties com-
bined with good chemical resistance to alkalis and non-oxidizing acids (except
hydrochloric acid). PPS hardly absorbs water and is dimensionally stable. It is in-
herently flame-retardant and is usually only used glass-fiber reinforced. This re-
sults in enormous stiffness values.

Structural components: motor vehicle engine compartment, micro-precision injec-
tion molded parts, encapsulation of computer chips and other sensitive electronic
components, lamp and headlight bases, pump housings.

Fortron, Larton, Primef, Ryton, Supec, Tedur, Thoprene
Good Advice
PPS can be regarded as the “more temperature-resistant PA or PBT”, which unfor-
tunately is also reflected in the price.
3.26 Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS) 233
Table 3.14 Properties of Polyphenylene Sulfide, Polyethersulfone, Polysulfone, and Their

Blends
Property Unit PPS-GF40 PES PSU PSU/
ABS
unrein- GF30 unrein- GF30
forced forced
Density g/cm3 1.60–1.67 1.36– 1.58– 1.24– 1.44– 1.13
1.37 1.6 1.25 1.45
Modulus of elasticity MPa 13,000– 2600– 9000– 2500– 7500– 2100
19,000 2800 11,000 2700 9500
Yield stress MPa – 75–80 – 90 – 50
Yield strain % – 5–6 – 6–7 – 4
Nominal strain at % – 20–50 – 20–>50 – >50
break
Stress at 50% strain MPa – – – – – –
Breaking stress MPa 165–200 – 125– – 110– –
150 125
Strain at break % 0.9–1.8 – 1.9–3 – 2–3 –
Melting temperature °C 275–290 – – – – –
Dimensional stability °C ca. 260 200– 210– 170– 185 150
temperature HDT/ 205 225 175
A 1.8 MPa
Therm. coefficient of 10−5/K 1.5–2.5 5–5.5 2–3 5.5–6 2 6.5
expansion, longitudi-
nal (23–55 °C)
Therm. coefficient of 10−5/K 3.5–5 – 4–4.5 – –
expansion, trans-
verse (23–55 °C)
Flammability UL 94 class V-0 V-0 V-0 V-2/HB1) V-0/V-1 HB1)
at 1.6 mm thickness
Dielectric constant – 3.9–4.8 3.5–3.7 3.9–4.2 3.2 3.5–3.7 3.1–3.3
at 100 Hz
Dielectric loss factor · 10−4 10–20 10–20 20–30 8–10 10–20 40–50
at 100 Hz
Spec. contact Ω·m >1013 >1013 >1013 >1013 >1013 >1013
resistance
Spec. surface Ω >1014 >1013 >1013 >1015 >1015 >1014
resistance
Dielectric strength kV/mm 20–30 20–30 20–30 20–30 30–35 20–30
Comparative track- 125–150 100– 125– 125– 150– 175
ing index CTI/A 150 175 150 175
Water absorption at % <0.1 1.9–2.3 1.5 0.6–0.8 0.4–0.5 0.3
23 °C, saturation
Moisture absorption % <0.05 0.6–0.8 0.6 0.25– 0.15– 0.1
at 23 °C/50% hum., 0.3 0.2
saturation
1)
Also available as V-0
3.27 Cellulose Derivatives

Partially bio-based thermoplastic
Brief Description
Cellulose is the main component of plant cell walls. It is often obtained from wood
or cotton. Its derivatives are formed by etherification (with alcohols) or esterifica-
tion (with acids) of cellulose. In the structural formula, R represents a glucose
residue. A different residue leads to different cellulose derivatives. They are par-
tially bio-based and are considered biodegradable with an average degree of substi-
tution of less than 3.
Processing
All processing methods commonly used for thermoplastics are suitable for cellu-
lose derivatives. Due to their good flowability, even pinpoint gates are possible.
Any residual moisture in the granulate must be removed in order to avoid degrada-
tion by hydrolysis. Cellulose derivative molding compounds are characterized by
high strength combined with acceptable toughness.

Cellulose derivatives are transparent and reduce mechanical stresses by creeping
even at ambient temperatures. The properties and thus also the application possi-
bilities are determined by the degree of esterification. With the exception of
ultrasonic welding, all common welding processes are applicable for cellulose de-
rivatives. Cellulose derivatives are generally quite scratch resistant and have a
“self-polishing” effect.

Cellulose esters: films, filters, consumer goods (spectacle frames, toys, buttons,
etc.), handles, packaging.

Biograde, Cellidor
3.27 Cellulose Derivatives 235
Good Advice
Cellulose acetate (CA) is a well-known material that is experiencing a renaissance
due to its bio content. The engineer selecting the material should not disregard CA
and CAB.
Properties of Cellulose Derivatives

Property Unit Cellulose acetate Cellulose acetobu- Cellulose propio-
(CA) tyrate (CAB) nate (CP)
Density g/cm3 1.26–1.32 1.16–1.22 1.17–1.24
Modulus of elasticity MPa 1000–3000 800–2300 1000–2400
Yield stress MPa 25–55 20–55 20–50
Yield strain % 2.54 3.5–5 3.5–4.5
Nominal strain at % – – –
break
Breaking stress MPa – – –
Strain at break % – – –
Dimensional stability °C 45–80 45–95 45–95
temperature HDT/
A 1.8 MPa
Therm. coefficient of 10−5/K 10–12 10–15 11–15
expansion, longitudi-
nal (23–55 °C)
Therm. coefficient of 10−5/K – – –
expansion, trans-
verse (23–55 °C)
Flammability UL 94 class HB HB HB
at 1.6 mm thickness
Dielectric constant at – 5–6 3.7–4.2 4.0–4.2
100 Hz
Dielectric loss factor · 10−4 70–100 50–70 50
at 100 Hz
Spec. contact Ω Ù · m 10 –10 *
10 14
1010–1014* 1010–1014*
resistance
Spec. surface ΩÙ 1010–1014* 1010–1014* 1010–1014*
resistance
Dielectric strength kV/mm 25–35 32–35 30–35
Comparative tracking 600 600 600
index CTI/A
Water absorption at % 3.5–4.5 2.0–2.3 1.9–2.8
23 °C, saturation
Moisture absorption % ca. 1.2 0.6–0.8 0.6–0.9
at 23 °C/50% hum.,
saturation
3.28 Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA)

Semi-crystalline thermoplastics
Brief Description
Polyhydroxyalkanoates are bio-based and at the same time biodegradable. They
are mainly formed by bacterial fermentation of sugars or lipids (even from waste
water). In addition, production using genetically modified plants is theoretically
possible. Different alkyl groups (residue R) lead to polyhydroxyalkanoates with
different properties (so-called polyhydroxybutyrates or their co-valerates). Unfor-
tunately, only a few characteristic property values are available.
Processing
PHA can be thermoplastically processed by injection molding and extrusion. Any
residual moisture must be removed in order to avoid degradation by hydrolysis.
PHA and their derivatives suffer from a significant post-crystallization, which has
not yet been able to be reduced by nucleating agents.

Polyhydroxyalkanoates are waterproof and largely resistant to fats and oils. They
are also impermeable to oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. They are some-
what more brittle and stiffer than polypropylene, but otherwise have similar prop-
erties, which can even be greatly varied by modifying the polymer. PHA have low
melt viscosity and good demolding properties.

Packaging technology: food, bottles, cans, disposable articles.
Medical technology: implants, suture material (controlled drug release).

Biomer P, Enmat, “Biodegradable Polymer PHBH”™
3.29 Polylactide (PLA) 237
Good Advice
As a blend, PHA has great potential for bio-based mass plastics in packaging and
technical applications: PHA and it derivatives represent a sleeping giant. Post-
crystallization has to be reduced and the ductility as well as the toughness has to
be increased to gain a larger market acceptance.
Properties of Polyhydroxyalkanoates
Property Unit Polyhydroxy Polyhydroxy Polyhydroxybutyrate
alkanoate (PHA) butyrate (PHB) covalerate (PHBV)
Density g/cm3 1.25 1.4 1.24
Modulus of elasticity MPa 855 3000 1480
Yield stress MPa – 26 20
Yield strain % – 3 –
Nominal strain at break % – – –
Breaking stress MPa 13 26 –
Strain at break % 146 4 17.4
Melting temperature °C 150 160 –165 –
3.29 Polylactide (PLA)

Semi-crystalline thermoplastic
Brief Description
Polylactide is an aliphatic polyester that can be produced by a multi-stage synthe-
sis from sugar, corn, starch, or other raw materials. PLA is both bio-based and bio-
degradable.
Processing
Pure PLA is not easy to process. However, by means of processing aids, even better
by means of ductile blending partners, all the usual processing methods for ther-
moplastics are applicable. Pre-drying is necessary to avoid hydrolytic degradation.
PLA can be welded with the usual methods. For this purpose, PLA blends should
have a dominant phase.

PLA is characterized by its high resistance to oils, moisture, and alcohol. Applica-
tion limits are set by the low ductility of the material. As a result, PLA often can
only be used as a blend with other, more ductile biopolymers.

As a blend: disposable cutlery, packaging materials in any form, mulch films, com-
ponents for consumer electronics.
As pure polymer: surgical suture material, biodegrading implants.

Pure PLA: Ingeo, ECOPLAN, Futerro PLA, Styrex BioFoam
Examples of blends: Bio-Flex, Ecovio
Good Advice
PLA blended with compliant components is an excellent alternative to conven-
tional packaging materials not only in the packaging sector, but also in many other
plastic applications. The low price allows a tailored blend with more ductile blend-
ing partners.
Properties of Polylactides and Blends

Property Unit Polylactide PLA/PBAT blend PLA/PBS blend
(PLA) (approx. 45/55%); (approx. 80/20%)
measured on film
Density g/cm3 1.25 1.25 1.25
Modulus of elasticity MPa 3610 750/transverse 520 2800
Yield stress MPa 70.1 35 31
Yield strain % 3.21 – –
Nominal strain at break % – – –
Breaking stress MPa 59.8 – 28
Strain at break % 5.15 320/transverse 250 7
Melting temperature °C – – 130
3.30 Thermoplastic Polyurethane (TPE-U, also TPU) 239
3.30 Thermoplastic Polyurethane
(TPE-U, also TPU)
Thermoplastic elastomer
Brief Description
Thermoplastic polyurethanes are block copolymers formed by polyaddition of long-
chain diols with aliphatic diisocyanates. Including some limitations, they combine
the properties of an elastomer with the processability and recyclability of a ther-
moplastic.
Processing
The processing of this thermoplastic elastomer, including welding, is basically ap-
plicable with all the usual thermoplastic processes.

TPE-U is characterized by high tensile strength and elongation at break, high slid-
ing wear resistance, and ductility even at low temperatures. It has excellent adhe-
sive properties, which recommend it for two-component injection molding. It is
transparent, resistant to oils and solvents as well as UV and other high-energy
radiation, and exhibits high damping and continuous service temperature.

Structural components: gears subject to low stress, components that change the
haptics of consumer products (toothbrushes, garden hose connectors, shavers,
etc.), medical engineering: heart valves, peristaltic pumps.
Other components (substitute for conventional elastomer insert): hoses, joint seals,
damping elements, toothed belts, and hammer heads; shoe applications: cleats,
shoe soles, heels, ski boots; medical technology: bypasses, dialysis membranes,
infusion tubes.

Desmopan, Esthane, Elastollan, Pellethane
Good Advice
Excellent elastomer replacement, when no higher continuous service temperatures
are required. In addition, it is a very popular material for the soft components of
parts produced by multi-component injection molding.
3.31 Polyurethane (PUR)

Thermoset
Brief Description
Polyurethane is formed, for example, by the reaction of polyisocyanate with polyols
(alcohols). The urethane group is characteristic of these polymers. The schematic
formula shows the general formation and structure.
Processing
The raw materials, which are usually liquid, are often mixed at room temperature
according to the manufacturer’s recommendations and then cured by crosslinking
in the mold. The properties can be rigorously varied by the processor due to the
mixing ratios and the type of additives. Since elastomer polyurethane cannot be
melted again after the reaction, it cannot be welded either. Applicable processing
methods are casting, foaming, and injection molding.

Polyurethane is very ductile, very tough, has good sliding wear properties, and
shows high resistance to ozone, oxidation, fungal attack, and moisture. Polyure-
thane can be used as soft foam, rigid foam, unfoamed elastomer, and – even more
strongly crosslinked – even as casting resin.

Structural components are mostly made of non-foamed PUR: solid tires, rotor bear-
ings, couplings, roller coatings, rollers, seals, rollers of inline skates.
Other soft foam components: mattresses, seat and furniture upholstery, carpet un-
derlay, transport protection, dashboard coating.
Other rigid foam components: building insulation, refrigerator and room insula-
tion, packaging, transport protection, insulation boards; or unfoamed: acoustic
mats, shoe soles.

Isocyanates: Desmodur, Isonate, Lupranate, Mondur, Papi, Sumidur, Suprasec,
Systanate, Tekenate, Tedimon, Voranate, Tedimonate, Tedimone
3.32 Epoxy Resins (EP) 241
Polyols or systems: Arcol, Bay . . ., Desmophen, Elasto . . ., Lupranol, Multranol,

Sumiphen, Systol
Good Advice
As a construction material, polyurethane is usually only used in its non-foamed
form. Here, the good damping and low abrasion properties are used. Elastomer-PUR
cannot normally be processed by a normally equipped injection molding company.
3.32 Epoxy Resins (EP)

Thermoset
Brief Description
Epoxy resins are formed by the reaction of an epoxy group with a hydroxy group of
alcohols or carboxylic acids. An amine or amide with an epoxy group can also cure
to an epoxy resin.
Processing
Typical processing methods are pressing, injection molding, extrusion, or injec-
tion molding. Crosslinking only takes place after forming. If epoxy resin is not
processed by hand (curing at room temperature with hardener), but by machine,
no hardener is required due to the higher temperatures. Since it is necessary to
wait for crosslinking to achieve dimensional stability, thermoset components usu-
ally require a higher cycle time than thermoplastic injection molding components.
Due to the low flow viscosity, low wall thicknesses and simple embedding of metal
components without deformation are possible. Epoxy resins show extremely low
reaction contraction during processing.

Epoxy resins have high tensile and vibrational strength, good damping properties
at higher temperatures, high dimensional stability under heat, good aging behav-
ior, are odorless and tasteless – when well cured – and exhibit low flammability.
They also have excellent electrical and adhesion/adhesive properties. They are re-
sistant to fuels and hydraulic oils and have superior dimensional stability in many
media and low susceptibility to stress cracking.

Structural components: technically high-quality precision parts down to the small-
est dimensions, especially with metal inserts, encapsulation of winding capacitors,
anchors, and collectors; ignition coils, heavy current insulators, gear shifters, and
for printed circuit boards; prepregs are used for larger components such as tail
units, sandwich components, pressure vessels, high-performance sports equip-
ment.
Other components: prototype molds and as binders in coatings and adhesives.

Acme, Aerolam, Conapoxy, Corlar, DER, Dularit, Durapox, Epikote, Epilox, Epocast,
Exatron, Grilonit, Lekutherm, Paraplex, Quatrex, Revepox, Rütapox, Trolitax, as
molding compounds, e. g. Araldite, Bakelite
3.33 Melamine Formaldehyde Resin (MF)

Thermoset
Brief Description
Since the chemical representation is difficult to comprehend due to the three-
dimensional structure, it is not presented here.
Processing
In principle, melamine formaldehyde resins can be processed in the same way as
epoxy resins (see epoxy resins, Section 3.32).

MF parts, filled with 60% a-cellulose, are white and in all bright colors resistant to
UV radiation, hot water, boiling water, and detergents. The scratch resistance is
higher than that of urea-formaldehyde resin. Depending on the type, melamine
formaldehyde resin is a creep resistant, moisture resistant, and mechanically
highly resilient insulation material. The inorganic types are arc- and glow-resistant
and practically non-flammable. Although MF is attacked by acids and strong
alkalis, it is largely resistant to fuels, oils, solvents, and alcohol. Due to the high
post-contraction and internal stresses, MF components might suffer from stress
cracking.
3.34 Phenol-Formaldehyde or Phenol Resin (PF) 243

Structural components: The main areas of application are highly stressed, even
complex designed components in electrical engineering and electronics. In the
past also screw connections, fittings, household and kitchen appliances, housings,
crockery.

Bakelite, Beetle, Melaform, Melaicar, Melmex, Melochem, Melopas, Melsprea
3.34 Phenol-Formaldehyde or
Phenol Resin (PF)
Thermoset
Brief Description
Formaldehyde molding compounds undergo polycondensation in a two-stage reac-
tion. As the chemical representation is difficult to comprehend due to the three-
dimensional structure, this is not presented here.
Processing
In principle, phenolic resins can be processed like epoxy resins (see epoxy resins,
Section 3.32).

Phenolic resins are solid, stiff, and hard. They have a low creep tendency and – de-
pending on the reinforcing material – a very good impact strength and toughness,
even at low temperature. The dimensional stability in heat is high. Phenolic resins
have low thermal expansion. With prolonged exposure to heat and/or UV, PF mold-
ing materials darken and turn yellowish brown. Therefore, they are usually avail-
able in dark colors only. Phenolic resin is glow-resistant and flame retardant, and
resistant to organic solvents, fuels, fats, and oils even at high temperatures. Pheno-
lic resin is less resistant against strong acids and alkalis. Due to the slow absorp-
tion of moisture, phenolic resin molding compounds can only be used modified for
insulation purposes. Contact with foodstuffs is not permitted due to the inherent
odor.

Structural components: The fuel resistance is used in the car engine compartment,
e. g. for ignition electronics, carburetor heads, cylinder head covers, and others.
Glass fiber-reinforced prepregs are used in train and aircraft equipment, for tun-
nels or mine linings.
Other components: Accessories in electrical engineering such as cable connectors,
housings, and sockets. Mineral-filled phenolic resins are used for heat- and dish-
washer-safe handles and fittings on household appliances, pots and pans, and heat-
ing fittings.

Bakelite, Durez, Fenlac, Moldesite, Plenco, Resinol
3.35 Urea-Formaldehyde Resin (UF)

Thermoset
Brief Description
Urea-formaldehyde molding compounds react in a two-stage reaction of urea and
aldehydes. First there is a polyaddition of formaldehyde to urea to methylol plas-
tics, then there is a polycondensation with urea or among each other with chain
extensions.
H C
C C
N N
R1 R2
Processing
In principle, urea-formaldehyde resins can be processed like epoxy resins (see
epoxy resins, Section 3.32).

UF molded parts have high mechanical strength, stiffness, and hardness. In addi-
tion to the high surface gloss, the very good electrical properties, the light fast-
ness, and the low flammability are to be emphasized. They are tasteless and odor-
less, resistant to solvents, oils, fats, weak acids, and alkalis, but resistant neither to
3.36 Unsaturated Polyester Resin (UP) 245
strong acids nor alkalis, nor to boiling water. UF is also prone to stress cracking
and is less dimensionally stable than phenolic resins.

Structural components: The main areas of application are highly stressed and even
complex designed components in electrical engineering and electronics. UF is
preferably used in white for screw connections, as a container in cosmetics, for
sanitary parts, household appliances, and for electrical installation material.

Bakelite, Beetle, Caraicar, Urochem, Uroform, Uroplas
3.36 Unsaturated Polyester Resin (UP)

Thermoset
Brief Description
Unsaturated polyesters are soluble and meltable polyesters containing at least one
unsaturated component. They are copolymerized to thermosets by adding peroxide
compounds.
Processing
In principle, unsaturated polyester resins can be processed in the same way as
epoxy resins (see epoxy resins, Section 3.32).

Components made of unsaturated polyester resins can be produced crystal clear,
only slightly yellow, and are quite inexpensive. The cured components hardly con-
tract, remain true to size, and are not susceptible to stress cracking. They are resis-
tant to alcohol, ether, petrol, lubricants, and greases, but only partially resistant to
benzene, esters, weak acids, and boiling water. They are not at all resistant to alka-
lis and strong acids.

Structural components: glass fiber reinforced molded parts and semi-finished
products.
Other components: resin concrete, adhesive mortars, sealants, coating compounds
for corrosion protection of pipes, containers, and buildings; casting, impregnating,
and embedding resins for electrical engineering; embedding materials for all kinds
of collector’s items; coatings and adhesives.

Aropol, Bakelite, Crystic, Esteform, Keripol
3.37 References
[1] P. de Gennes, “Dynamics of Entangled Polymer Solutions,” Macromolecules, No. 9, 4, 1976.
[2] H. Domininghaus, Kunststoffe: Eigenschaften und Anwendungen, P. Elsner, Ed., Berlin: Springer,
2008.
[3] G. W. Ehrenstein, Polymer Werkstoffe: Struktur – Eigenschaften – Anwendung, 3rd. ed., Munich:
Carl Hanser Verlag, 2011; English edition: Polymeric Materials: Structure, Properties, Applica-
tions, Carl Hanser Verlag, 2001.
[4] G. Menges, Werkstoffkunde Kunststoffe, 6th ed., Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2011; English editi-
on: T. A. Osswald and G. Menges, Materials Science of Polymers for Engineers, 3rd. ed., Munich:
[5] J. L. Thomason und M. A. Vlug, The influence of fibre length and concentration on the properties
of glass fibre reinforced polypropylene: 1. Tensile and flexural modulus, Composites Part A:
Applied Science and Manufacturing, Vol. 27, No. 6, pp. 477–484, November 1996.
[6] P. Menner, Zerstörungsfreie Prüfung von modernen Werkstoffen mit dynamischen Shearografie-
Verfahren, Stuttgart, 2013.
[7] M. I. Kohan, Nylon Plastics Handbook, Munich: Hanser/Gardner Publications, 1995.
[8] Kohlgrüber, Der gleichläufige Doppelschneckenextruder: Grundlagen, Technologie, A
nwendungen,
Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2008; English edition: Co-Rotating Twin-Screw Extruders, Munich:
[9] D. Blaese, Methodische Ansätze zur Abschätzung der Lebensdauer von Kunststoffbauteilen bei
komplexen Beanspruchungen. Dissertation, Univ. Essen, 1999.
[10] E. Baur, S. Brinkmann, T. A. Osswald, and E. Schmachtenberg, Saechtling Kunststoff Taschenbuch,
30th ed., Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2007; English edition: E. Baur, T. A. Osswald, and N. Rudolph,
Plastics Handbook: The Resource for Plastics Engineers, 5th ed., Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag,
2019.
PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT
Processing Technology
4 Plastics Processing
Technology
The German standard DIN 8580 divides manufacturing technology into six main
groups (Table 4.1). In the production of plastic components, however, we rarely use
the term manufacturing technology. The term “processing technology” rather de-
scribes a process engineering character that is used to convert plastic granulate
into the finished component.
Table 4.1 Classification of the Manufacturing Processes According to the Standard DIN 8580
Creating the Changing the Form Modification
Form of the
Material
Properties
Create Maintain Reduce Increase cohesion
cohesion cohesion cohesion
Main group Main group Main group Main group Main group Main group
1 2 3 4 5 6
Primary Forming Separation Joining Coating Change
shaping material
c haracteristics
Plastics are usually converted by primary shaping processes (main group 1) from
a plastic melt, which solidifies in different ways depending on its molecular struc-
ture. At this point it is again emphasized that plastic processing influences the
properties until they become “fixed” in the finished component. The main groups 2
to 5 are dealt with in Section 4.5. Despite the progress made in additive manufac-
turing, it cannot yet be used for mass production like other processes. It is mostly
used for prototypes and is therefore only dealt with in Section 5.4.
Original forming processes always require a so-called tool for shaping in large-
scale production. The term “tool” does not mean an instrument for manual process-
ing, such as a hammer or wrench, but a die or mold by which the melt is specifi-
cally brought into the desired shape. Together with the plastic processing machines,
these are decisive production tools in the manufacture of plastic series parts.
Due to the often considerable pressures and temperatures that occur during melt
250 4 Plastics Processing Technology
processing, special mold steels and locking mechanisms are required. These mold
steels and their high precision make the mold very robust, but also quite expen-
sive, so that plastic processing is usually only worthwhile if many products are
manufactured.
The various plastics converting processes differ considerably in terms of their
thermodynamic and flow-dynamic conditions such as heating, flow velocity, pres-
sure build-up, and cooling rate. Knowledge of the influences of these thermody-
namic and fluid dynamic conditions on the process and the component properties
is the key to suitable plastics processing and the suitable plastics product.
4.1 Extrusion
Where twin-screw extruders are mainly used for compounding plastics (Section
3.4), single-screw extruders are used to produce semi-finished parts such as pipes,
profiles, hoses, sheets, and films (see Figure 4.1) using a molding die. These semi-
finished products usually have a two-dimensional profile and are endlessly ex-
truded into the third dimension, at least as long as the extruder is running.
Figure 4.1 Extruded products
The single-screw extruder has a driving part and a processing part. The processing
part has a granulate hopper, electric heaters, cooling fan, housing, and screw. At
the end of the screw is a mixing section in case the homogenization of the melt by
the screw is not sufficient (Figure 4.2).
In contrast to twin-screw extruders, single-screw extruders are characterized by a
considerably higher pressure build-up capacity.
4.1 Extrusion 251
pellet hopper
housing
electric heaters
screw
driving part
cooling fan
mixing section processing part
Figure 4.2 Schematic of a single-screw extruder [Image source: Reifenhäuser]
4.1.1 Extruder Screw and Barrel
Figure 4.3 shows a conventional, so-called three-zone screw with the process areas
feed zone, transition zone, and metering zone. In the feed zone, the granulate is
picked up from the hopper and, above all, conveyed. During this process it gets
preheated and compacted. Care must be taken that it does not already melt here.
t e
s h2
h1
b φ dD
L
L1 L2 L3
feed zone transion zone metering zone
Figure 4.3 Three-zone extruder screw
In the transition zone, the granulate is converted from a solid into a melt. It is often
referred to as the compression zone because the granules take up more space at
the beginning than the melt at the end. In the metering zone (also called the pump-
ing or discharge zone), the formed melt is mainly thermally homogenized, but also
materially homogenized. In this zone in a three-zone screw the pressure is built up
in order to overcome the resistance of the forming die.
The characteristic distinguishing feature of an extruder is always the ratio of

length L to diameter D of the screw. For example, the designation might be 90-25D
or 90/25D, which simply means that the screw diameter D = 90 mm and the screw
length is 25 times as long (i. e. 2250 mm).
The characteristic geometric values are therefore screw diameter D and length L,
but also core diameter d, channel depth h, perpendicular flight width b, and flight
width e. The distance between flight and cylinder is the flight clearance s. The he-
lix angle is called j and the distance between two flights is called the pitch t.
Figure 4.4 shows two different helix angles j. If j is smaller, the distance between
the screw flights is smaller as well. The higher the channel depth h, the more
material can be conveyed.
pitch t1 pitch t2
channel depth h
helix angle φ2
helix angle φ1 screw core
Figure 4.4 Characteristic geometric values
Two important basic forms of single-screw extruders have established themselves:

the smooth-bore extruder and the grooved barrel extruder. Figure 4.5 (left) shows
the feed zone of the smooth-bore extruder. Here (and throughout) the barrel has a
smooth surface and a conventional three-zone screw (see above) is usually used.
In the grooved barrel extruder (Figure 4.5, right), the barrel has a bush in the feed
zone. This bushing was designed with straight or helical grooves in the extrusion
direction. The plastic granulate, which wedges in the grooves, significantly in-
creases the coefficient of friction towards the cylinder (plastic/plastic friction al-
ways greater than plastic/steel). High friction on the cylinder wall and low friction
on the screw are important for good conveying behavior in the feed zone.
In extruders with a grooved feed zone, the granulate is conveyed in wide areas
independently of the applied die back pressure. If there is melt in the grooves, the
principle no longer works, which is why the grooved bushings are equipped with
cooling channels and are actively cooled so that the granulate does not melt there.
4.1 Extrusion 253
smooth-bore tube (conventional) grooved barrel extruder
hopper cooled
heated
cylinder
temperature control cylinder
cooling
channel
extruder cylinder
(smooth-bore) bush with extrusion direction
groove
Figure 4.5 Feed zone of smooth-bore extruder and grooved barrel extruder
QR-Code 4-1
The conveying of solids in the smooth feed zone is shown here.

http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/PE_Druck_Skala

QR-Code 4-2
Nut-screw conveying in the helically grooved feed zone is shown.

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
Figure 4.6 shows the pressure and temperature curves over the process areas of a
smooth-bore extruder. In the feed zone, the solid granules are conveyed and the
porosity decreases. In the transition zone, temperature and pressure gradually in-
crease. The temperature must rise for the compacted granules to melt; the pres-
sure must rise for the viscous melt to overcome the flow resistance of the down-
stream die.
Pressure and temperature reach their maximum in the metering zone. All material
is (viscous) liquid and is conveyed to the die. The die is the pressure consumer that
shapes the material. The pressure resistance of the die determines the volume flow
(throughput) and the mixing effect, since the pressure drop from the metering
zone to the feed zone causes a pressure-driven backflow of the melt. Although a
backflow reduces the throughput, it ensures better mixing.
temperature
pressure
porosity
solid
conveying melting/plasticizing homogenizing forming
drive
feed zone transition zone metering zone die
pressure generator pressure consumer
Figure 4.6 Pressure and temperature profile of a smooth-bore extruder
Whether the granulate grain remains in the feed zone instead of being conveyed
can be explained by considering the velocity vectors in Figure 4.7. The angle be-
tween the circumferential direction and the actual direction is called the conveying
angle ω.
A vs D
φω
screw axis C
= cylinder axis vf A'
vk
vu
B
Figure 4.7 Feed zone – solids conveying
If the screw is ideally smooth, i. e. the friction between the screw and the granules
is much smaller than the friction between the cylinder and the granules, the gran-
ules move perpendicularly to the screw flight flanks (from A to C). This would
mean a very high output is to be expected, but this does not occur with conven-
tional screws.
4.1 Extrusion 255
If, in an extreme case, the screw/granulate friction is far greater than that of the
cylinder/granulate, the granulate adheres to the screw and moves at a peripheral
speed of vu. The granulate runs from A to B and “stops” without conveying (ω = 0°).
If the screw/granulate friction is not significantly lower than the cylinder/granu-
late friction, the granulate grain moves from starting point A to A’.
If the granulate is completely prevented from turning with the screw, it moves
from A to D (like a nut on a thread). This extreme case succeeds with granulate
particles in the feed zone of grooved barrel extruders (ω = 90°), which also results
in quite high conveying.
Figure 4.8 shows the pressure and temperature curves over the process areas of a
grooved barrel extruder. In the feed zone, the solid granulate grains are conveyed
and their porosity decreases. Due to the forced conveying, a high pressure is already
built up here, which is consumed by all subsequent zones. In the transition zone,
the temperature is mainly increased in order to melt the granulate. The pressure
flow here points in the conveying direction and not, as in the case of smooth bores,
against it; therefore, there is hardly any backflow that reduces the throughput.
In the metering zone, everything is the same as with a conventional extruder. The
temperature rises even further, the material is (viscous) liquid and is conveyed
to the die. The die placed behind it is also a pressure consumer, which gives the
material its shape.
temperature
porosity
solid liquid/solid liquid or plastic

conveying melting/plasticizing homogenizing forming
drive
feed zone transition zone metering zone die
with groove
pressure generator pressure consumer
Figure 4.8 Pressure and temperature profile of a grooved barrel extruder

The so-called characteristic curves of the two extruder types are insightful (Fig-
ure 4.9). The abscissa (x-axis) shows the pressure required to overcome the die,
while the ordinate shows the mass flow (throughput). At speed n1, a pressure level
p and a mass flow are set for the conventional smooth-bore extruder, depending on
the die resistance w. The pressure level p and the mass flow rate are determined by
the die resistance w. If the die resistance is greater (w2), a higher die pressure
must be overcome at the same speed, which reduces the throughput. If we increase
the speed (higher energy input), a higher tool pressure p is generated for the same
tool resistance and a higher mass flow m (throughput) is possible.
The situation is somewhat different with the grooved barrel extruder: A mass
throughput m is set at the speed n. If the die resistance is increased, the die pres-
sure also increases, but without the throughput decreasing. This makes it clear
why we can speak of “forced” conveying. Only when a certain die resistance is ex-
ceeded does a sudden drop in throughput occur. At this point, melt has formed in
the feed zone and the conveying principle collapses. With grooved barrel extrud-
ers, the geometry of the feed zone determines the throughput; with smooth-bore
extruders it is the metering zone and the die.
smooth-bore extruder grooved barrel extruder
n n w w w w w n >n >n >n n

w w w >w >w >w w
n
w
n
ṁ
ṁ
w n
n n
n
pp
n n
pressure p pressure p
Figure 4.9 Screw characteristic curves of an extruder
It is important to consider the transition zone. In the cross-section (Figure 4.10) we

see the section of the cylinder wall and the screw with its flanks. Heat is intro-
duced via cylinder and screw. It becomes clear how granulate is gradually con-
verted into melt in the conveying direction.
On the so-called active (“pushing”) flank, melt increasingly accumulates, while the
granulate area becomes smaller and smaller. The so-called leakage current over-
flows the flanks and flows around the granulate as well. The granulate accumula-
tion is therefore always surrounded by melt and sealed off from the heat flows. As
the melt cushion increases, the heat flow into the solid bed becomes less efficient.
4.1 Extrusion 257
leakage current
cylinder melt Q̇ cylinder
solid
screw
Q̇ screw
Figure 4.10 Melting process in a conventional extruder
The discharge zone, also known as the homogenizing or metering zone, homoge-
nizes the melt and builds up even more pressure in the conventional extruder.
Homogenization here means in particular thermal uniformity including melting of
residual particles. If additives were mixed into the granulate, they must be evenly
distributed here at the latest.
In conventional extruders, the pressure p built up to the end depends on the die
resistance w, the screw speed n, and the flow resistance of the melt (viscosity) (see
Figure 4.11). Usual pressure ranges are 100 to 300 bar and thus an order of mag-
nitude below the pressure requirement of medium to large injection molded parts
(see Section 4.2).
w
p
pressure p
p w <w w
Figure 4.11
n n n Pressure build-up in the ejection or
speed n metering zone
If the homogenization of this zone is not sufficient, the residence time and the
mixing effect can be increased by higher die resistance w in conventional smooth-
bore extruders. If this is not enough, additional mixing elements must be installed
behind the metering zone. With grooved barrel extruders, the mixing effect of
ixing elements cannot be dispensed with, since the die resistance has no influ-
m
ence on the residence time and the mixing.
Two factors play an important role with mixing elements: they should mix the melt
well and consume as little pressure as possible. Some mixing elements and their
properties are described below. The mixing principle is an important distinguish-
ing feature between the mixers. In distributive mixing, particles are spread,
whereas in dispersive mixing particles are split (divided) (see Figure 3.128; Sec-
tion 3.4.2). In the standard mixing section in Table 4.2, a predominantly distribu-
tive mixing area adjoins a predominantly dispersive mixing area. This combina-
tion has often proven itself in practice.
Studies at the IKT have shown that, overall, especially with regard to homogeniza-
tion, the mixers that predominantly mix dispersively perform best. The CTM mixer
is best suited for melt homogenization, but also leads to a stronger dissipative heat-
ing of the melt. The purely distributive mixers of the Saxton type often achieve
poorer results (see Table 4.2).
Table 4.2 Mixing Elements

Standard MBK
CTM S-disks
Saxton S-Maddock
Pin cylinder SMX
4.1.2 The Helibar® High-Performance Extruder
Figure 4.7 shows that it would be ideal if a granulate grain were to follow the path
A to D or at least to C. Eberhard Grünschloß at the IKT developed a high-perfor-
mance extruder with the trade name Helibar® (Figure 4.12), which forces the gran-
ulate into a helical groove almost perpendicular to the screw flight flank. The cylin-
der is grooved throughout. Unlike grooved barrel extruders, the grooves are not
only located in the feed zone, but run to the end of the melting zone. In this way,
4.1 Extrusion 259
the pressure can be built up over a longer distance and there is less friction and
heat in the feed zone. Now it no longer has to be thermally separated and
water-cooled; passive air cooling is usually sufficient.
In addition, the Helibar® extruder has a so-called barrier screw, which will be ex-
plained in more detail later. At the end of this screw there is a shear and mixing
element for homogenization according to the results shown above. Due to the
grooves, the extruder also has a high pressure level right from the start.
cooling temperature control die

(air or water)
helical grooves cooling ribs barrier screw shearing mixing

section section
Figure 4.12 Structure of the Helibar® extruder
This extruder concept achieves a high melting performance, which means a high
volume throughput with low energy consumption and low costs. The result is low
mechanical wear and a lower cooling capacity in the feed zone (e. g. air cooling).
The mixers ensure good melt homogeneity and low thermal damage to the plastic.
Apart from the more expensive cylinder (continuous helical grooves are very diffi-
cult to produce), the extruder has only advantages and is gradually gaining wide
acceptance in the industry.
Figure 4.13 shows the unwinding of a screw and a screw channel. On the one hand,
the helical groove has its advantage in the feed area: the holding of the granulate
in the groove generates high shear forces on the solids and thus a high pressure
build-up in the solids channel. The so-called barrier screw allows a second chan-
nel, the melt channel, to grow in parallel, which takes up the melt from the solids
channel via the helical grooves due to the pressure difference. Occasionally, it is
not possible to prevent solid particles from entering the melt channel. Similar to
ice cubes in a beverage, these solid particles cool the melt with their melting en-
thalpy.
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An animation of the Helibar® melting principle.

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
unwinding of the screw unwound barrier screw

to the plane
melt channel
grooves
solid channel
screw axis
Figure 4.13 Schematic representation of the Helibar® plasticizing principle
If the melt is continuously separated from the solid bed by the barrier principle
with two channels, the melt film formed on the cylinder wall remains very thin.
Thus, the melting capacity due to heat conduction is very high and the energy is
used more efficiently (Figure 4.14).
Q̇ Q̇
Figure 4.14
Better heat conduction by separating the melt
into the second channel
4.1.3 Pipe and Profile Extrusion
Let us now turn to the pressure consumers, the extrusion dies. They all have in
common that they shape the melt according to rheological and fluidic require-
ments before it solidifies through cooling. Essentially, a distinction is made be-
tween dies for pipes and profiles, dies for plates and flat films, and dies for blown
films (see Figure 4.15 and Figure 4.16).
Figure 4.15
Sheet die for plates and flat films
4.1 Extrusion 261
Figure 4.16
Blown film die
An extrusion die for pipes (Figure 4.17) radially separates the melt and lets it run
around a mandrel. The mandrel and external shape of the die taper the melt chan-
nel until the melt is given its exit shape in the area of the so-called mouthpiece.
The mandrel is designed to be as temperature adjustable and mechanically ro-
bustly designed as possible. If the mandrel is not stiff enough and deforms due to
uneven pressure distribution, the tube will also be unevenly shaped.
mandrel holder strut mandrel mandrel holder die outlet
mandrel
heater bands
Figure 4.17 Die with spider leg mandrel holder
Despite all the stiffness requirements placed on the mandrel, the melt must pass
through the so-called mandrel holder as unhindered as possible and flow back to-
gether again behind it. The detailed picture of the mandrel holder shows that the
annular melt is divided several times by the spider legs. This can lead to flow
marks and mechanically weak points on this pipe.
In terms of flow dynamics, the spider legs should offer as little flow resistance as
possible, i. e. be slim. However, it must be ensured that they keep the mandrel
holder and the mandrel rigid in the tool. A solution is offered by somewhat more
expensive double mandrel holders (Figure 4.18). They divide the melt several
times, slightly offset, and lead to lower flow markings and better mechanical prop-
erties of the pipes.
Figure 4.18
Double mandrel holder
Figure 4.19 shows other common profile types that are manufactured in a very
similar way. A distinction is made between the full profile and the pipe profile, the
hollow profile, the open profile, and the chamber profile. Figure 4.20 shows typical
examples of chamber profiles with window profiles.
Figure 4.19 Profile cross-sections
QR-Code 4-4
The video shows the extrusion of a PVC window profile: die exit,
calibration, cooling, pull-off unit and assembly (Aluplast GmbH,
Karlsruhe).
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Profilextrusion

4.1 Extrusion 263
Figure 4.20 Window profiles
The die exit usually does not have exactly the same shape and dimensions as the
later profile (Figure 4.21). The shape and dimensions of the extrudate strand are
influenced by several factors after leaving the die:
the pull-off force,
the die swell (see Section 3.1.6),
the relaxation processes in the melt, and
the cooling rate.
Figure 4.21 Profile extrusion [Image source: Technoform Kunststoffprofile GmbH]

Looking at different pull-off speeds of the profile (Figure 4.22): If a melt strand is
extruded from the die, the melt strand usually expands (swells) slightly. The mole-
cules are compressed in the flow gap and oriented by shear. After the nozzle gap,
the remaining elastic part can immediately reset itself (see Section 3.1.6) and the
melt strand expands. If the pull-off speed is increased, the expanded melt strand
can be lengthened again to the nozzle dimension. If it is increased even more, even
a small nozzle outlet dimension can be achieved. Usually, the die exit is followed by
calibration devices in which the profile is cooled down under pressure to ensure
dimensional accuracy. (See also QR-Code 4-4.)
die
expanded vpull 1 < vpull 2 < vpull 3
melt strand
vpull 1
strand stretched on nozzle dimension
vpull 2
strand stretched
below nozzle dimension
vpull 3
direction of extrusion
Figure 4.22 Influence of the haul-off speed on the die swell

4.1 Extrusion 265
As already discussed in Section 3.2.3, semi-crystalline thermoplastics contract

more than amorphous thermoplastics due to the denser molecular packing. In the
case of solid profiles, voids can be expected to form inside (Figure 4.23, top), since
only the outside can be cooled. This solidifies first and forms a stiff outer layer. The
inner, later-solidifying areas can hardly pull this stiff outer layer inwards. This
creates high internal residual stresses, which may only be reduced by building
voids.
In the case of square hollow profiles or chamber profiles, residual stresses are also
generated and warpage occurs due to the uneven cooling. There are, for example,
sink marks on the opposite side of the chamber struts (see also design of ribs, Sec-
tion 5.3.3) and possibly corner warpage.
voids due to uneven

cooling of edge and core
T > T
sink marks due to

uneven cooling
T > T
Figure 4.23
Contraction leads to voids or sink marks
4.1.4 Flat Film and Sheet Extrusion
Extrusion dies for flat films or sheets are generally so-called wide-slit dies which
have a coat hanger-shaped distribution channel (see Figure 4.24). The distribution
channel ensures an even distribution of the melt across the width before it passes
over the so-called island as evenly as possible via an adjustable restriction bar and
a flexible tool lip. Depending on the thickness of the outlet and the haul-off speed,
plates of several millimeters (less often several centimeters, due to very slow cool-
ing) or films of approx. 100 μm thickness can be produced.
top view side view
restriction bar
distribution distribution channel restriction bar
channel tool lip
island tool lip plug assist

die inlet
Figure 4.24 Sheet die (schematic); also called a “coat hanger die”
Although the sheet die produces a film, it is usually still stretched in the extrusion
direction. This makes it oriented and thinner. Figure 4.25 shows a flat film extru-
sion line; the single-screw extruder is only the beginning of this line. After exiting
the die, the film is smoothed over three temperature-controlled rolls (“chill rolls”)
and stretched lengthwise. In the next station, sensors for thickness and e. g. trans-
parency measurement move over the film, so that the process control can inter-
vene automatically.
After edge trimming (this is usually regranulated and fed back into the extruder),
a station follows which winds the film onto cores as evenly as possible. Afterwards,
these reels can be stored or sent to the customer.
film storage
quality assurance
winder metering
edge trimming
3 roll calender
extruder
Figure 4.25 Production line for flat films [Image source: Breyer GmbH]
4.1 Extrusion 267
QR-Code 4-5
The flat film extrusion with a coat hanger die is shown.

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
4.1.5 Tube and Blown Film Extrusion
Let us now turn to the blown film process (occasionally also called the tubular film
process). With this method, much thinner films with a thickness of up to 10 μm
can be produced. A die with a ring-shaped outlet (similar to a pipe die; so-called
spiral mandrel die, see also Section 4.1.7) is used to convey a melt hose vertically
upwards, which exits in the thermoplastic state and is inflated with supporting air
(Figure 4.26).
thermoelastic state
blowers
frost line (for
semi-crystalline
plastics)
thermoplastic state
die with ring-shaped

outlet (similar to pipe die)
extruder
Figure 4.26 Cross-section of a blow head with exiting blown film
After expansion by inflation, the melt cools further and changes to the thermoelas-
tic state. For this purpose, the bubble is cooled from the outside by air (rarely wa-
ter) and from the inside – if possible – by cooled supporting air. The transition
from thermoplastic to thermoelastic can be detected at the so-called frost line,
where changes in transparency and/or gloss are apparent.
Figure 4.27 shows a complete blown film line. Below right, three extruders can be
seen which produce a multi-layer film via a blow head with a so-called spiral dis-
tributor. Somewhat above the extruder, a bubble with continuous calibration and
sensor scanning can be seen.
take-off unit
edge control
flattening
calibration
extruder
blow head
winders
Figure 4.27 Production line for three-layer blown film
Even higher is the so-called roller mill, comprising many rollers with small diame-
ters, which gently flatten the film. The take-off unit ensures uniform force, which
acts on the film bubble from above. In addition, the film is lowered and positioned
centrally for the winder with the edge control. The film rolls then are made of flat-
tened tubular films, which are converted into plastic carrier bags, garbage bags,
mattress covers, and much more in another process step.
QR-Code 4-6
This film shows the blown film extrusion.

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
4.1.6 Extrusion Blow Molding
Extrusion blow molding is a direct process, i. e. the extrudate is further processed

directly after the extrusion process. As a result, hollow bodies are produced from
thermoplastics. These are mostly bottles, canisters, and barrels, but also technical
parts such as ventilation ducts, fuel tanks, as well as surfboards, Bobby Cars, case
half shells (Figure 4.28), etc.
4.1 Extrusion 269
Figure 4.28
Extrusion blow molded components
In extrusion blow molding, a die with a ring-shaped outlet is used again (it is simi-
lar to the pipe die), which now points downwards in the vertical direction. Fig-
ure 4.29 shows the nozzle and the mandrel of the die at the top. The melt is
stretched a little by gravity and is lowered onto a calibration mandrel.
extruder
nozzle mold mandrel
preform
blow mold half 1 blow mold half 2 seam
neck edge cooling channels

slug chamber
calibration mandrel
Figure 4.29 Extrusion blow molding (schematic)
The cooled tool halves are ready and gripping – as soon as the tube is long enough –
the melt strand and squeezing it off at the top and bottom of the calibration man-
drel. The upper pinch-off seam is called the bottom pinch-off seam because it is
usually located in the later bottom of the component.
The calibration mandrel not only has the task of giving the opening area of the
container a particular contour, but above all of inflating the melt tube (parison)
with compressed air. As it expands, the melt tube is placed against the mold wall
and quickly cools down. The protruding melt parts, which are squeezed off, are
called slugs.
QR-Code 4-7
This film shows the extrusion blow molding process.

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
4.1.7 Co-extrusion
Figure 4.27 already showed three extruders producing a multi-layer film. Fig-
ure 4.30 shows in detail the rather complex so-called spiral mandrel die that is
required in order to merge melt flows of different materials rheologically and
thermally uniformly.
coextrusion
of different
materials
outer layer
core layer
tool
supporting air
Figure 4.30 Co-extrusion process with a spiral mandrel die
A multi-layer structure is always useful when properties are to be combined. So-

called barrier layers inside a film composite can slow down the passage of oxygen,
water vapor, or CO2. This can be very important for food packaging or fuel contain-
ers.
On the outside, it can be useful to create a film layer with special chemical resis-
tance. Also aesthetic reasons (high-quality surface, printability) can justify a sepa-
rate outer layer. Often the important property of price is also the reason for a multi-
layer composite, for example having an expensive, as thin as possible functional
layer on the inside and a cost-effective, load-bearing layer on the outside.
4.1 Extrusion 271
The image depicted in Figure 4.30 (left), from an IKT failure analysis investigation,
shows the cross-section of a three-layer film under the scanning electron micro-
scope. The total film thickness is almost 200 μm. The two outer layers are approx.
37 μm thick, the middle layer a good 112 μm.
The principle of co-extrusion can be applied to profile extrusion (Figure 4.31). Sev-
eral layers can be combined to either combine important properties or reduce
costs. Figure 4.31 shows the structure of a co-extruded pipe.
Figure 4.31 Co-extrusion for combination of properties
Cables are also sheathed in a similar way (Figure 4.32). Copper cables are guided
through an extrusion die in such a way that the melt flows around them “tubu-
larly” in the extrusion die. The melt then solidifies on the copper line and forms
the insulation layer.
Figure 4.32
Multi-layer coaxial cable
4.2 Injection Molding

Although the most plastic by volume is produced on extruders, most individual
plastic products worldwide are manufactured by injection molding. In injection
molding, molded parts can be produced with complex, three-dimensional geo
metry, while the complexity of extrusion products is limited to two dimensions.
Figure 4.33 shows typical injection molded parts.
Figure 4.33 Examples of injection molded plastic products [Image source: Arburg GmbH +
Co KG]
J. W. Hyatt, the inventor of celluloid in 1867, was already mentioned in the intro-
duction. A few years later, he and his brother succeeded in developing a vertical
tamping machine for processing the new material. It consisted of a hydraulically
controlled piston and a steam-heated cylinder. Under pressure and temperature,
the plastic material could be pushed into the mold via a piston [1].
About 50 years later, in 1921, the first mention of an injection molding machine by
name took place. This was the first time that a piston pressed on the melt. Only a
few years later, in 1926, Eckert and Ziegler launched the first series-produced in-
jection molding machine in Germany with pneumatic injection and manual mold
4.2 Injection Molding 273
movement via toggle lever (Figure 4.34). It is regarded as the ancestor of modern
injection molding machines.
As already mentioned at the beginning of this chapter, series production processes
for the manufacture of plastic products basically require a tool for shaping the
tough molding compound. These usually only pay off if large series or large quan-
tities are produced.
Figure 4.34
Hand lever machine from Eckert and Ziegler [2]
Figure 4.35 shows the design and components of today’s injection molding ma-
chines. The machine bed provides the necessary basis and ensures force transmis-
sion between the injection unit and the clamping unit. In most cases, the control
system and the drive are installed here.
clamping unit mold

injection unit
machine bed
control and
drive unit
Figure 4.35 Structure of an injection molding machine [Image source: Arburg GmbH + Co KG]
The injection unit is the process unit which converts the plastic in granular form
from a solid to a molten state and can inject it into the mold under high pressure.
This behavior is similar to extrusion through a screw in a cylinder. For injection,
the screw is used as a piston.
The clamping unit serves to open/close and above all to hold the mold shut. De-
pending on the machine and produced component’s size, a much higher pressure
of up to 3000 bar is created in the injection mold compared to an extrusion die (ca.
100–300 bar). Injection molds are therefore designed in such a way that several
hundred thousand products can be manufactured on them with low wear.
The mold is placed between the movable and stationary clamping plates. It is a
hollow form and is used for complex forming. Thermosets, elastomers, and thermo-
plastics can be processed in the injection molding process. While thermosets and
elastomers are injected into the hot mold to harden by crosslinking, thermoplastics
solidify by cooling in the cold mold.
4.2.1 The Injection Molding Process
Section 4.3 is intended to highlight the special features of thermoset and elastomer
injection molding. In this section, the injection molding process is explained using
thermoplastic injection molding, which is much more widely used. Thermoplastics
are usually processed in a temperature range from approx. 200 to approx. 300 °C.
QR-Code 4-8
Animation of injection molding

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
start: close the mold
move injection unit forward

end: open mold, inject (push screw forward)
(eject the component)
component
hold pressure
(push screw slowly forward)
pull injection unit back and plasticize
(residual cooling time)
Figure 4.36 Injection molding process sequence

The injection molding process (Figure 4.36) is repeated over and over again, which
is why it is called the injection molding cycle (Figure 4.37). At the beginning, the
mold is closed and forms a cavity. The screw now serves as a piston and presses
the melt into this cavity. As soon as injection begins, the melt on the mold wall is
cooled and the cooling time begins.
end start
open mold close the mold
eject the component
push injection unit forward
inject
residual cooling time
co ol in g t i m e
hold pressure
plasticizing
pull injection unit back
Figure 4.37 Injection molding cycle
The low thermal conductivity of plastics allows the hot melt to flow in the cold
mold before it solidifies in the final position. The melt solidifies on the mold wall
and quickly contracts there, thus decreasing in volume.
In the holding pressure phase, this reduction in volume is compensated by subse-
quent melt feeding. This continues until the sprue – the connection between the
screw vestibule and the mold cavity – has solidified. If the sprue is frozen (“sealing
time”), the holding pressure no longer acts and the heated screw can be moved
away from the cooled tool in order to thermally decouple it.
While waiting until the part solidifies and can be demolded, the screw can rotate to
prepare the melt for the next shot. Now the melt is dosed into the closed screw
vestibule, while the screw slowly moves back during plasticizing in order to en-
large the screw vestibule and prepare the quantity for the next shot.
When the part is sufficiently cooled and dimensionally stable, the mold is opened,
the part is ejected, and the mold is closed. The cycle can begin again.
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An animation of the injection molding process is shown.

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Figure 4.38 shows the idealized internal pressure curve of a mold when processing
a semi-crystalline thermoplastic. In the injection phase (points 1 to 3), the cavity
pressure increases slightly. When the volumetric filling of the cavity is reached,
the pressure rises sharply. This phase is called the compression phase (3 to 4);
switching from the injection pressure to the lower holding pressure should take
place exactly here. In the holding pressure phase (4 to 6), the pressure remains
relatively constant during cooling until the start of recrystallization (5), until it
finally drops relatively steeply to ambient pressure due to the sudden progressive
volume contraction (6).
4
pressure p
2
1 6 time t
1 start of the injection 4 switchover point: start of

process the holding pressure phase
2 melt hits pressure sensor 5 sealing point in the range
3 start of the compression of the sensor
phase 6 end of the holding pressure
phase
Figure 4.38 Idealized internal pressure curve of an injection mold during processing of
semi-crystalline thermoplastics
The course of the cavity pressure (Figure 4.39) depends on the position of the pres-
sure sensor in the mold, but above all also on the type of thermoplastic (amor-
phous, semi-crystalline) and its cooling and contraction behavior.
near gate
pressure p
Figure 4.39
far from gate Cavity pressure curve
at various locations in
time t
the mold
4.2.2 The Plasticizing Unit
The components of the machine are now examined more closely. The plasticizing
and injection unit (Figure 4.40) has several tasks: On the one hand, the granulate
is usually conveyed, melted, and homogenized with a rotating three-zone screw; on
the other hand, the melt provided is temporarily stored in the screw vestibule. For
injection and holding pressure, the rotary motion is stopped and the screw, acting
as a piston, is usually moved forward in a controlled manner.
Figure 4.40
Process unit for injection molding
Figure 4.41 shows the pellet hopper through which the granulate is fed into the
three-zone screw. A screw rotation drive and a hydraulic piston for axial movement
are also shown. The screw has a so-called non-return valve at its tip, which prevents
the melt provided from being pushed back into the screw flights during injection.
non-return screw pellet hopper

valve piston feed
nozzle
rear position
front
position screw
cylinder with rotational drive
heating
Figure 4.41 Cross-section of a process unit
However, during the preparation of the melt, the so-called dosing process, the melt
must enter the screw vestibule as undisturbed as possible. The non-return valve
must then open and has the function of a check valve. Figure 4.42 shows the annu-
lar non-return valve. It is automatically displaced and closed by the fast forward
movement and the high pressure in the screw vestibule.
screw forward, screw back,

closed non-return valve open non-return valve
Figure 4.42 Open nozzle with non-return valve
Figure 4.43 shows a spring-loaded valve gate nozzle in cross-section. The screw tip
can still be seen on the right-hand side. With this device, the nozzle can be closed
after injection and holding pressure, so that the entire plasticizing unit can be re-
tracted for thermal decoupling. At the same time, the melt can already be dosed
from the inside against the shut-off nozzle, i. e. the next “shot” of melt can be pro-
vided.
Figure 4.43 Shut-off nozzle (left open, right closed)
The cross-sectional drawing of the shut-off nozzle shows that during injection the
melt flows through smaller channels through the nozzle part and then pushes
back the springs. If the injection pressure is high enough, the spring assembly is
compressed, and the needle retracts and opens the nozzle. The use of a shut-off
nozzle is particularly advisable for low-viscosity melts such as polyamide (PA).
By comparison, so-called open injection nozzles are used for shear-sensitive, highly
viscous melts of e. g. polycarbonate (PC) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) as well as for
long fiber reinforcement. These materials should not be thermally decomposed,
which is why the nozzle bore is designed with particular rheological care. The wall
is very smooth, making it easy to clean and rinse.
The major disadvantage of the open injection nozzle is that dosing (= providing
melt) for the next injection process can only take place when the whole cavity in-
cluding the sprue has also solidified. This means that the thermal decoupling of
the plasticizing unit and the mold can only take place after the metering operation,
which additionally heats up the mold. The heating of the mold is not only energy
inefficient, but also extends the cycle time and thus increases the process costs.
4.2.3 The Clamping Unit with Injection Mold
The clamping unit picks up the separable mold and keeps it closed against filling
pressure and holding pressure of the melt. As already described above, the pres-
sure can reach up to 3000 bar in special cases. The clamping unit can therefore be
compared to a vertical press.
It must be possible to open and close the clamping unit so that the molded parts
can be removed from the mold. A distinction is made between a fully hydraulic
clamping unit and a toggle clamping unit (Figure 4.44, top: fully hydraulic; bottom:
toggle lever). The latter can also be operated hydraulically but also electrically.
Figure 4.44
Examples of different clamping units
[Image Source: Arburg GmbH +
Co KG]
The purpose of the whole process and the whole machine is focused on the form-
ing injection mold. Its main function is to create a negative mold of the workpiece
to be produced with the so-called mold cavity. However, it still has very important
secondary functions to perform (see also Figure 4.45).
On the one hand, the tool contains the sprue system in order to guide the melt
suitably into the mold cavity. The temperature-control system removes the heat
from thermoplastics (thermosets and elastomers are heated). The so-called demold-
ing system must ensure that the solidified workpieces can be removed from the
mold cavity without damage after opening the mold. This requires a separate
movement device which is independent of the opening stroke of the tool.
demolding system and

motion transmission
guiding and
parting plane centering
temperature
control system
sprue system
mold cavity
machine and
force absorption
Figure 4.45 Insight into an injection mold (schematic); various cutting planes
The mold must be mechanically designed in such a way that it does not itself de-
form unacceptably under the high internal pressure, but also transfers the pres-
sures and forces to the clamping unit via the outer mold platen. At the same time,
it must be guided and centered in order for the traversing movements to be carried
out reliably and precisely.
A suitable mold concept must be selected depending on the shape of the molded
part. These differ above all in the type of demolding system, i. e. the way in which
the components are demolded without damage. Very simple, inexpensive stan-
dard tools can be used for comparatively simple shapes without undercuts up to
highly complex, expensive tool systems from a combination of demolding mecha-
nisms. A list of tool demolding mechanisms with typical application examples is

shown in Figure 4.46.
normal mold stripper plate mold
slide mold split mold
Figure 4.46
Classification of injection molds
It becomes clear that injection molds (as well as other tools) have to meet various
requirements. They must be designed (dimensioned) mechanically, rheologically,
and thermally (Figure 4.47). Here, we will only go into the mechanical design to
the extent that on the one hand deformations of the mold cavity must be kept to a
minimum, but on the other hand deformation of the mold must not cause any
movement restrictions (“seizing”).
requirements for injection molds
mechanical rheological thermal

design design design
p Q rad Qconv
•
Q cond
•
f Q melt
•
Q temperature-control medium
Figure 4.47 Design of injection molds

4.2.3.1 Rheological Design

The rheological design of a tool refers not only to the choice of the sprue system,
but also to the consideration of the flow behavior within the mold cavity. In Fig-
ure 4.48, four W-shaped components are injected via a sprue cone (sometimes also
known as a sprue pin), a main runner, and four side runners with subsequent gate
lands. The cross-sections are designed in such a way that laminar flow passes
through them and fills the four cavities at the same time.
gate land
side runner
sprue cone main runner

Figure 4.48
(or sprue pin)
Cold runner sprue system
In order to ensure that the filling is as uniform as possible, different gate/sprue

variants are available for different component shapes. Figure 4.49 shows rotation-
ally symmetrical components with an umbrella or funnel gate (A), a disk gate (C),
and a ring gate (B). The disadvantage of the ring gate is that the c omponent is not
evenly filled. The gate systems are evaluated according to their waste volume,
according to the possible visibility of weld lines or the injection point itself as well
as according to filler and fiber orientation.
Figure 4.49
Different gate/sprue shapes;
A B C according to [3]
One of the most frequently used gate/sprue variants is the tunnel gate (Figure 4.50).
The tunnel sprue shears off completely when the molded part is demolded. In order
to be demoldable even after the component, it is also located in the mold parting
plane.
sprue
injection point
ejector pin Figure 4.50

Tunnel sprue
4.2.3.2 Thermal Design

The thermal design of injection molds ensures suitable temperature control. With
thermoplastics, the melt must be cooled evenly and as quickly as possible in order
to eject the part and start a new cycle. Figure 4.51, left, shows a simple plate-
shaped molded part in cross-section. A physically ideal temperature control would
run over the entire surface of the part contour. However, the heat absorbed must
also be dissipated and there is no heat sink yet that does not require any mass
transfer.
Therefore, it is technically only possible to pass cooling channels at a certain dis-
tance from the molding wall, which dissipate the heat by means of a cooling me-
dium. Figure 4.51, middle, shows a technically optimal cooling circuit guide. This
would require flat channels to be worked into an extra molding plate with an
end mill and the plates to be specially sealed against each other. Figure 4.51, right,
shows the cooling channels that are technically easier to implement. Round holes
through a mold plate are much cheaper and tighter than end-milled rectangular
channels.
physically ideal technically optimal technically easy to

temperature control temperature control implement
temperature control
molded part temperature
control
Figure 4.51 Various temperature control channel shapes

Several temperature control channels lead to more uniform heat dissipation than a
few temperature control channels (Figure 4.52). Nevertheless, too many tempera-
ture control channels are usually not possible for space reasons and in addition
weaken the mold half mechanically.
Ejectors, hot or cold runners, injection point or bushing, as well as sliders and
clamps are designed first. Cooling is usually one of the last steps. A compromise
has to be found.
dTC dTC
B
B
few temperature control channels many temperature control channels
uneven mainly uniform

heat dissipation heat dissipation
Figure 4.52 Comparison of many and fewer temperature control channels
A relatively new technique comprises a rapid tooling process in which metal pow-
der is laser-sintered and complex 3D cooling channels can be realized, allowing a
perfect temperature control close to the contours. However, this is considerably
more expensive and is therefore usually only partially used in critical areas (see
Figure 4.53). Rapid tooling is discussed in Section 5.4.2.
The temperature-control medium is usually water. Water is inexpensive and allows
temperatures from 150 °C to 180 °C with additional pressurization. This is com-
pletely sufficient for most processes. However, if thermosets or elastomers are
heated or high-temperature thermoplastics cooled (it may not be tolerated to cool
too fast here), temperatures above 180 °C are required and temperature control is
mediated, for example, with oil or electrically.
high hotspot-risk solution:
e.g. ejector bore
Figure 4.53
Close-contour temperature control
[Image source: LBC Engineering]
The thermal design also ensures that the flow of the temperature control medium
is as turbulent as possible to improve heat transfer. In laminar flow, the heat trans-
fer is mainly based on heat conduction, since there is no cross mixing of wall and
core layers of the flow (Figure 4.54, left). This is usually the case with oil tempera-
ture control. In turbulent flow, there are additional vortices perpendicular to the
direction of flow. This causes the medium to be mixed transversely and there is
thus a much better heat transfer. This is the case with water temperature control.
e.g. in case of oil e.g. in case of water
Figure 4.54 Temperature control fluid flow
The two thermal images shown in Figure 4.55 exemplify the uneven cooling of a
complex injection molded part. Approximately 30 seconds after demolding, differ-
ences in part temperature of several tens of Kelvins can still be observed. The pic-
ture on the right shows a temperature level just below 100 °C even 140 seconds
after demolding. This uneven cooling can strongly influence the properties of the
component.
Figure 4.55 Consequences of inadequate temperature control; thermal image of part (left)
ca. 30 s after demolding and (right) 140 s after demolding [Image Source: IKM GmbH]
This is certainly a relatively complex component with uneven wall thicknesses, i. e.

mass accumulations. Nevertheless, heat accumulation can be predicted by injec-
tion molding simulations and improved by suitable temperature control (see also
Section 5.3.5).
Insufficient heat dissipation can lead to uneconomically higher cycle times. Un-
even cooling leads to residual stresses and warpage, which is detrimental to com-
ponent quality. This will also be discussed more in detail in Section 5.3.4.
4.2.4 Influence of the Injection Molding Process on the Properties

of the Component
As already mentioned in Section 3.5, the influence of processing on the resulting

material properties in primary forming, such as injection molding and extrusion,
is very high. In injection molding, the injection and packing phases (Figure 4.56)
in particular have a large influence.
injection unit forward

inject (push screw forward)
hold pressure
(push screw slowly forward)
Figure 4.56 Injection and holding pressure phases

During injection, we want to achieve a flow behavior of the melt that is as uniform
as possible. However, the melt is immediately cooled in the mold, where it touches
the cold mold wall, and remains “stuck” (solidified). The melt is then pressed
through the resulting tapered melt channel at an even higher speed and with even
more shear deformation and deformed towards the edge at the front of the melt.
Heat dissipation via the mold wall and heat supply through shear heating are
superimposed on each other.
At the beginning of the flow through the melt channel, the melt suffers only a
slight pressure loss, which increases as the flow path increases. The decreasing
channel thickness due to already solidified skin layers further increases the pres-
sure loss (Figure 4.57).
skin layer generated

of the major flow/core layer by fountain
wall thickness
solidified skin layer
Figure 4.57 Laminar flow behavior
The high injection speed generates a shear rate in the melt, which makes the melt
flow more easily (structurally viscous viscosity range). However, fast injection is
not always desirable because the high shear rate also increases molecular degrada-
tion.
The surface, appearance, and state of orientation are also influenced by the injec-
tion phase. Although residual stresses and degree of crystallization are particu-
larly influenced by the cooling conditions, it was also mentioned in Section 3.5 that
more strongly oriented polymer chains crystallize better.
In the packing phase, when only a small amount of melt is slowly fed, the compo-
nent quality is also strongly influenced. The volume contraction during cooling is
counteracted so that as few as possible or no sink marks can be detected.
If the packing pressure is too high, however, the contraction can also be overcom-
pensated. If the melt is thin enough, flashes can form on the component due to
melt flow into the parting plane between the mold halves, which must be removed
at high cost. At an even higher packing pressure, the molded part presses itself
into the mold cavity to such an extent that it cannot be demolded. The mold can
even open slightly, which can damage it.
By means of the illustration in Figure 4.58, the various contraction values of com-
ponents will be explained, although the standard illustrated has since been with-
drawn.
2
0 1
molded part dimension
PRC
warm storage
TC
3
8 9
4 5 6
7
10
PC
time Figure 4.58

processing 16 h 168 h Contraction according to the
time DIN 16901 standard
The contraction is defined as the ratio of the difference between the dimensions of
the cold mold and the subsequent molded part dimension to the cold mold dimen-
sion itself:
lt − lmp
S= (4.1)
lt
With:
lt = tool dimension
lmp = molded part dimension
In Figure 4.58, the time is plotted on the abscissa and the molded part dimension
is plotted on the ordinate. At (0) the dimension of the tool is plotted at room tem-
perature lt. This is slightly increased to dimension (1) in the steady-state, heated
state. It is further expanded (2) by the enormous injection pressure.
The melt is injected into the mold with condition (2) and then continuously cools
down (3). Here the component is demoldable, but not yet at room temperature. Ac-
cording to DIN 16901 (unfortunately, there is no ISO standard detailed enough),
the part dimension lmp should be taken 16 hours at (4) (in some cases 168 hours at
(5)) after injection. If there is a difference to (0), the processing contraction (PRC)
is calculated. If you wait a very long time, the component may contract further and
have an even smaller dimension (6). Processing contraction and post-contraction
(PC) combine to form total contraction (TC).
Not all materials contract strongly, so that the post-contraction (PC) may be small.
Components made of materials that exhibit even greater post-contraction can be
brought to the final dimension (10) relatively quickly by short warm storage (7, 8, 9) –
possibly with the use of clamping tools to force the shape of the component.
4.2.5 Special Processes
Injection molding is now many decades old and has proven to be the suitable serial
process for a wide range of applications in a wide variety of industries. With in-
creasing process constancy and precision, it became possible 20 to 30 years ago to
integrate more and more process steps into injection molding. Intelligent design
has also enabled more and more functions to be integrated into the component (see
also Section 5.3.2). What is desired is a one-shot process so that at the end of a
process cycle a fully functional, mountable component is created.
This process and function integration was driven on the one hand by increasing
demands on the component, and on the other hand by an increasing desire for
automation. If the process steps of reworking or assembly can be successfully inte-
grated into the process in special processes, it is possible to manufacture in high-
wage countries in a personnel-saving and competitive manner. We subdivide these
special processes into:
Single-component/step processes,
Multi-component/step processes, and
Processes with inserts (see Figure 4.59).
single-component multi-component processes with

processes processes inserts
additive sequential
(several gates) (one gate)
variothermal mold back injection
temperature control technology
injection compression assembly injection sandwich injection injection molding with

molding molding molding organic sheets
thermoplastic foam composite injection

injection molding molding niques (GIT/WIT)
cascade injection
molding
direct
processing method
Figure 4.59 Examples of special injection molding processes

4.2.5.1 Injection-Compression Molding

Injection-compression molding is a process variant in which the melt is not injected
to the end of the flow channel, but the mold, which is not yet completely closed, is
only closed after filling. The melt is distributed by this compression stroke and the
holding pressure is applied gently and the residual stress level is reduced. This
means that thicker-walled components can also be produced without warpage.
The compression also changes the flow conditions so that far fewer orientations
remain in the material and the molding accuracy increases. Precision components
also show lower residual stress/lower warpage and the lower orientations allow
optical components with higher quality (Figure 4.60). Sub-microstructures such as
DVD pits can also be reproducibly created.
Figure 4.60 Example of injection-compression molded component
The injection-compression process (Figure 4.61) is illustrated on the basis of the

dipping edge principle. In injection-compression, a specially manufactured mold is
closed up to the width of the stamping gap and then a well-dosed amount of melt is
injected into the partially opened cavity. After closing the gate, the mold is com-
pletely closed and the melt is evenly distributed in the cavity. This is followed by
cooling and demolding.
stamping gap
injection nozzle gate valve
mold Figure 4.61

Process sequence of
injection-compression
injection phase closing stamping phase molding
4.2.5.2 Thermoplastic Foam Injection Molding

In thermoplastic foam injection molding, usually a supercritical fluid, such as CO2,
is injected into the highly compressed melt, which expands upon relaxation and
produces a closed-cell foam structure in the melt that is currently cooling, for ex-
ample as is applied in sports articles (Figure 4.62). The foam counteracts the melt
contraction, so that no additional holding pressure is required and sink marks are
avoided.
Foamed parts offer stiffness at low weight. They are ideal for structural and light-
weight requirements. They save weight and material, insulate heat and vibration,
and are shock absorbing (see Section 3.5.4).
Figure 4.62
Example for the application of thermo-
plastic foam injection molding
4.2.5.3 Cascade Injection Molding

Cascade injection molding helps to realize long flow paths. If components are rela-
tively long in relation to their wall thickness (so-called high flow path/wall thick-
ness ratio), it is possible that the melt freezes before the end of the flow path and
the component cannot be filled. Alternatively, the available pressure of the ma-
chine may not be sufficient to completely fill the mold.
Of course, one would try, via the choice of material and the process parameters
injection speed and temperature, to fill the component, but there are wall thick-
ness/flow length ratios which make cascade injection molding indispensable.
Several gates are opened and closed one after the other along the flow path of a
long part (Figure 4.63). Once the melt has passed the second gate in the direction
of flow, it can be opened and the first gate closed again. This creates uniform skin
layers and avoids weld lines, but requires a complex, expensive hot runner system
with several gates and a complex control system. Typical applications are car bum-
pers or instrument panels.
t0: all gates closed t1>t0 gate released t2>t1: next gate released etc.
Figure 4.63 Cascade injection molding (schematic)
4.2.5.4 Injection Molding Compounding

Injection molding compounding is a direct processing that combines the process
steps of material compounding and injection molding. Whereas conventionally the
new material is prepared (compounded) by means of a twin-screw extruder, and
then granulated, cooled, and stored before it is melted again in the injection mold-
ing process, both process steps are united in this combined process (Figure 4.64).
component 2 pellet hopper

(e.g.
melt
twin-screw extruder
buffer
injection cylinder
mold
Figure 4.64 Injection molding compounding (schematic)
This combination of a continuously operating compounder with a discontinuous

(cyclic) injection molding machine is difficult from a process engineering point of
view (Figure 4.65). The KraussMaffei 200-1400 C2 IMC injection-molding com-
pounder uses a melt buffer developed at the IKT, in which the first compounded
melt first enters the injection unit (first-in/first-out principle).
The advantage of this direct processing method is that the processor is free to
choose the starting materials (polymers, additives), which can also generate cost
advantages. In addition, energy is saved by working from “first heat”. Far longer
fiber lengths can also be achieved in the component because the granulating
step is not required. Disadvantages are certainly the higher acquisition costs and
the high demands placed on the development engineer, but also on the machine
operator.
Figure 4.65 Injection molding and compounding in a single process [Image Source:
KraussMaffei]
4.2.5.5 Multi-component Processes

Let us turn to multi-component processes. Here, either several components in suc-
cession (sequentially) are introduced into a mold via a gate, or via several gates
(additively). Composite injection molding and assembly injection molding (both
additive) are very similar, but in composite injection molding more importance is
attached to the fact that the combined materials or geometries bond with each
other, whereas this is undesirable in assembly injection molding.
In order to combine components of several different colors or materials (Fig-
ure 4.67), cavity 1 is filled via a gate system 1 (see Figure 4.66), then – after cool-
ing and intermediate opening of the mold – the component created is placed in
cavity 2, which together with component 1 forms a cavity. With gate system 2, in-
jection is then carried out into this cavity above or around component 1.
There are several ways to place the first molded part in the second cavity. Either
the clamping-side mold half is further rotated using a turntable or similar mold
concept, or a handling system places component 1 in cavity 2.
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The different variants of composite injection molding are presented.

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composite component
turntable
gate 2
gate 1
Figure 4.66
Assembly and composite injection
cavity 2 cavity 1 molding (schematic)
Figure 4.67 Composite injection molded components
Using the example of a toy animal figure (Figure 4.68), assembly injection molding
can be explained. It is important for these figures that the components are not rig-
idly connected, but can be moved relative to each other. Integrated components are
manufactured in just one step.
Figure 4.68
Assembly of an injection molded toy
animal figure
First, the head is injected from the technical plastic polybutylene terephthalate
(PBT) with a ball joint. After being transferred into a larger cavity, the ball of the
head is encapsulated with a torso made of polyamide 6 with 15% glass fibers
(PA6GF15). This material is incompatible with PBT and therefore the connection
can be moved after cooling. The torso already has ball heads for the limbs.
After cooling, the torso and head are transferred into a third cavity into which the
limbs around the ball heads of the torso are injected with polyoxymethylene (dyed
the same as the PA6GF15). Here, too, there is no material closure as the materials
are not compatible with each other. The necessary clearance results from different
contraction values.
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The assembly injection molding of a play figure is shown.

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A special type of multi-component injection molding is flooding with a PUR mold

skin system as the second component, which chemically crosslinks in the mold.
Here, too, the surface properties of thermoplastic components are changed during
the process. On the one hand, a surface with a transparent PUR coating can obtain
an optical depth effect, improve its scratch resistance and UV resistance, and on
the other hand, flooding with softer PUR formulations creates a leather-like sur-
face.
4.2.5.6 Sandwich Injection Molding

Let us now turn briefly to the two sequential multi-component processes. Sand-
wich injection molding is quite old. Two compatible materials are bonded together
in a layered composite. The materials are injected one after the other via a single
gate. Since the first injected component usually first reaches the surface and solid-
ifies, it forms the skin component.
Figure 4.69 (left) shows a tray with pure polybutylene terephthalate (PBT) as the
skin component and glass fiber-reinforced PBT as the core component. The main
component is not colored for better presentation. While the skin component with-
out glass fibers has a more aesthetic surface, the colored core component with
fibers is stiffer and stronger.
This is very similar with the seat shell (Figure 4.69 right). Here, a high-contrast
inner component was injected into a translucent outer component for illustration
purposes only. This also makes it possible to achieve an aesthetic surface by using
a skin material and an e. g. inexpensive core component.
Figure 4.69 Sandwich injection molding [Image source: OWI GmbH]
The schematic pictures in Figure 4.70 clearly show the principle of the process.
After partial filling by the higher-quality skin material, a melt flow from a second
injection unit is switched over in the nozzle. Since the core material already
touches and solidifies the inner wall of the mold, the second material will flow
through the molten center and press the skin material still present there further
forward. Towards the end of the volumetric filling, the switch is made back to the
skin material and then to holding pressure.
2. injection of the core material
4. holding pressure phase with skin material
Figure 4.70 Schematic of sandwich injection molding

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Procedure for sandwich injection molding

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4.2.5.7 Fluid Injection Techniques

The process flow in fluid injection technology is very similar. Instead of a second
material core component, inert gas (usually nitrogen) or water is fed into the cav-
ity. This also displaces the melt and creates a cavity after the fluid is released,
whereby the first material component is cooled not only on the mold wall but also
from the inside by the gas or water. Figure 4.71 shows a demonstrator for fluid in-
jection technology.
Figure 4.71
Fluid injection technology component
In this way, components with internal cavities can be created in very short cycle
times. The inner contour is not optimized in terms of flow technology, so no de-
manding fluid transport processes can take place.
The schematic drawings (Figure 4.72) show to what extent fluid injection technol-
ogy is similar to sandwich injection molding. Depending on the fluid, a distinction
is made between gas injection technology (GIT) and water injection technology
(WIT). If a hollow space to the end of the cavity is desired, a secondary cavity must
be planned in the mold into which the extruded melt overflows. In gas injection
technology, the gas (usually nitrogen) is subsequently released into the atmo-
sphere. In the water injection technique, the water is recirculated, filtered, and
cooled.
1. injection process
overspill in secondary cavity
Figure 4.72 Fluid injection technology – process
An alternative, waste-saving approach is fluid injection at the end of the flow path.
After the injection process has been completed, a valve is opened at the end of the
flow path, and the melt inside the sprue channel, which is still liquid, is returned
to the melt antechamber. The incorporation of the secondary cavity into the mold
is not necessary and there is no waste.
4.2.5.8 Back Injection Technology

Let us now move on to the process with inserts. With the so-called back injection
technique, high-quality surfaces (decorative film or decorative textile) can be com-
bined with inexpensive carrier materials (Figure 4.73). In a first step, the decora-
tive surface (film or textile) is inserted into the mold and deformed when it is
closed. The decorative film may have to be preheated or preformed for deformation.
inserting the closing the mold, back injection demolding,

decorative film deformation of the film cooling,
in the mold at the same time trimming
Figure 4.73 Back injection technology

In the next step, the decorative surface is back-injected with a mostly inexpensive
carrier material. When selecting the material and the process, care must be taken
to ensure that the decorative surface does not suffer any damage, e. g. due to melt-
ing (film) or melt penetration (textile). After cooling and demolding, the final trim
can take place.
Figure 4.74 shows printed mobile phone shells. In all cases, a decorative, tempera-
ture-resistant film was back-injected with a carrier material.
Figure 4.74 Examples of back injection technology
Injection molding with organic sheets is also an injection molding process with
inserts. Since organic sheets are highly filled semi-finished fiber plastic products,
this topic will be dealt with in Section 4.4 “Technology of Fiber-Reinforced Plas-
tics”.
4.2.5.9 Injection Stretch Blow Molding

Now, a special process will be presented which does not belong to the special injec-
tion molding processes. In Section 4.1.6 we already learned about the extrusion
blow molding process. In a direct process, an extruded, still molten tube was sur-
rounded by a tool and blown from the inside against the cooled mold wall. The
injection stretch blow molding process shown here (Figure 4.75) is also used to
manufacture containers, but with different properties.
In injection stretch blow molding, preforms are first produced in an injection mold-
ing process. Depending on requirements, this can be done in a conventional
one-component injection molding process, or alternatively in multi-component in-
jection molding in order to produce a barrier layer, for example.
stretch rod
Figure 4.75 Sequence of injection stretch blow molding
In a second step, the preforms are either inflated immediately after injection mold-
ing (from first heat) or reheated and inflated only after cooling, storage, and trans-
port to another production location. Inflating usually takes place with the aid of an
extensor, which at the same time blows in the air.
Extrusion blow molding is the more inexpensive process, but injection stretch
blow molding allows a much higher compressive strength of the container as the
bottom is not a weak point. (The slug of the extrusion blow molded product is basi-
cally a weld line.) This is particularly important for CO2-containing beverages,
which are therefore never filled into extrusion-blown containers. In addition, the
preform can produce a more precise contour in the thread and hollow body area,
and these containers can also be thinner walled.
Figure 4.76 allows a glimpse into a large injection mold for the production of pre-
forms and illustrates the mass production character. In this case, 144 preforms are
filled, cooled, and subsequently demolded in a single shot in a rheologically, ther-
mally, and mechanically balanced process.
Figure 4.76 View into a multi-cavity mold for the production of preforms [Image Source:
Otto Hofstetter AG]
4.2.5.10 Variothermal Mold Temperature Control

Finally, a special mold temperature control process (i. e. not a special injection
molding process) is presented. With so-called variothermal or dynamic mold tem-
perature control, the mold is additionally heated immediately before the injection
process and, once the mold filling process has been completed, rapidly cooled. This
improves the surface quality and makes any weld lines less visible (Figure 4.77).
Figure 4.77
Examples of components
manufactured with variother-
mal mold temperature control
When material combinations are injected (see multi-component injection mold-

ing), they adhere better to each other. Overall, the cross-section of the component
is cooled more gently, has fewer residual stresses, and tends to warp less. Fig-
ure 4.78 explains one process variant. Two temperature control circuits and
temperature control channels as close to the surface as possible enable the mold
surface to be heated and cooled quickly. Alternatives are the counter-heating of
the cooled mold with radiant heaters or via induction. At another Institute of the
University of Stuttgart (IKFF) induction heating of tools is being researched.
mold valve station temperature-control unit
heating
mold valve station temperature-control unit
cooling
Figure 4.78 Process variants of variothermal mold temperature control
4.3 Processing of Crosslinking Plastics

Thermoplastics are the world’s largest group of plastics in terms of volume. Never-
theless, crosslinking plastics (elastomers and thermosets) perform extremely im-
portant tasks. They have (mainly correlating with the degree of crosslinking):
good electrical insulation properties,
high dimensional stability (e. g. low thermal expansion α),
high temperature application limits,
high media resistance,
a favorable fire behavior, and
safety reserves at temperature peaks.
Thermosets are characterized by excellent strength and stiffness for plastics
(which correlates with surface hardness), and elastomers have exceptional extensi-
bility with immediate resettability.
4.3 Processing of Crosslinking Plastics 303
When we process crosslinking plastics, we do not process thermosets or elasto-

mers, but rather their precursors. In the process, specifically even in the forming
mold, they become dimensionally stable through crosslinking and react to form
elastomers or thermosets.
The crosslinking reaction can be controlled by various influences. In most cases, how-
ever, it is heat that causes an initiator to decompose, which initiates the chain reac-
tion and crosslinking. These so-called “hardeners” are often added to the precur-
sors, which only start a crosslinking reaction at elevated temperatures in the mold.
So, while a thermoplastic needs heat to melt and needs cooling to resolidify, cross-
linkable molding compounds melt through heat and the crosslinking reaction is
started at the same time (Figure 4.79). The ongoing crosslinking reaction restricts
the flowability again. In order to allow the molded part to harden/cure, further
heat must be added.
thermo- cross-linking
plastics plastics
+heat +heat
melt melt
- heat +heat
solid molded part solid molded part
+heat +heat
Figure 4.79
renewed risk of Temperature starts crosslinking reaction and
melt decomposition thus curing
Figure 4.80 shows a typical temporal course of an exothermic hardening reaction

of a thermoset. With tool contact, the temperature of the uncrosslinked resin mass
rises. After a certain amount of time and energy transfer, the exothermic curing
reaction starts and additionally accelerates the temperature rise.
mold temperature
temperature
reaction time
t0 t1 t2 Figure 4.80
time Hardening process of a thermoset
The increase in temperature reduces the viscosity on the one hand and increases
the chain length on the other due to the increasing chemical reaction. After a cer-
tain time, the reaction is complete and the now crosslinked molding compound
reaches mold temperature.
The course of viscosity over time is illustrated in Figure 4.81 in a different way.
The precursor is first heated so that it becomes more flowable and the material can
be shaped. At the same time, however, the crosslinking process is started, which
reduces the flowability again. For the processing of the thermosetting molding
compound, there is therefore only a limited processing time (approx. 60 seconds)
in which the molding must have reached its final shape. The storage of the precur-
sors is also not trivial, as they must usually not come into contact with moisture
and heat.
superposition
processing time
(approx. 60 s)
viscosity
cross-linking
heating
time
cross-linking/ Figure 4.81
curing phase Flow/hardening behavior of thermosets
4.3.1 Compression Molding
The compression molding of curing compounds is explained here using compres-

sion molding of rubber (Figure 4.82). As soon as the uncured rubber (mixture with
sulfur and catalysts) touches the heated mold, it heats up and the vulcanization
process starts. Once the vulcanization is complete, the mold can be reopened and
the part removed from the cavity. The overflowing rubber, which forms flash, is
deliberately used. It ensures holding pressure and prevents sink marks. However,
it must be removed. The cycle time is regarded as long and the crosslinking in the
component as less uniform.
Overflow molds (Figure 4.83, right) or shear edge molds (left) are usually used for
pressing. Overflow molds use the overflowed material to compensate for the reac-
tion contraction. The overflowed material and the flash must be removed after-
wards. Shear edge molds, on the other hand, have a well sealing parting line that
prevents the excess from escaping. They require a more precise dosage, since un-
derdosing can lead to sink marks.
Figure 4.82 Compression molding
shear edge mold
Figure 4.83 Compression molding tools
QR-Code 4-13
Compression molding of thermosets.

http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Pressen_von_Duromeren
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4.3.2 Transfer Molding
Transfer molding is a process used to convert rubber into an elastomer. Figure 4.84
shows that during transfer molding the uncured rubber is placed in a transfer pot
and that after closing the press the actual cavities are filled.
Figure 4.84 Transfer molding

After waiting for the vulcanization and opening of the mold, not only the compo-
nents but also the so-called transfer skin must be removed, and the mold must be
cleaned. The cycle time here is shorter than with compression molding, curing is
relatively uniform and a high number of cavities are possible. However, the high
percentage of waste (transfer molding flash) is expensive.
4.3.3 Injection Molding
When curable molding compounds are injection-molded, mixing with additives,

polymer upgrading, and molding take place in a single processing step. The pre-
cursors, in the form of, for example, granular heaps or chippings of sticky consis-
tency, are fed in and heated in the screw. Then a race against time takes place: the
screw must be counter-cooled so that curing does not already take place in the
screw or in the screw vestibule.
Due to the low viscosity of the monomers, the injection mold is filled even faster
than with thermoplastic injection molding. There is a greater likelihood for over-
moldings/flashes, which have to be removed from the component at high cost.
Then, however, the chemical crosslinking reaction lasts up to several minutes at
temperatures of usually 180 to 300 °C. The mold must be heated for this by means
of oil temperature control, heating cartridges, or heating tapes. Residues (unpoly
merized or decomposed molding compounds, flashes) usually remain in the mold
and must be removed. Compared to thermoplastic processing, the molds and plas-
ticizing unit also suffer from stronger corrosion due to possibly aggressive mono-
mers and abrasion if fillers are used.
Although injection molding is one of the fastest processes for processing crosslink-
ing molding compounds, it is slower and more expensive than injection molding of
thermoplastics due to the crosslinking time involved.
In particular, the injection molding of liquid silicone rubber (LSR) will be pre-
sented here. For this purpose, conventional injection molding machines are used,
to which a dosing system for liquid silicone is provided.
Silicones, or to be more precise chemically, poly(organo)siloxanes, are elastomeric
plastics based on silicon (Si) atoms which are linked by oxygen atoms. They are the
only plastics that do not have carbon chains in the main chain and therefore have
very special properties. They have high operating temperatures, high weather re-
sistance, very good chemical resistance, and particularly good physical contact
properties (Figure 4.85).
Figure 4.85
Applications of liquid silicone
[Image source: Arburg GmbH +
CO KG]
4.3.4 Polyurethane Processing
We have already learned about the foaming of plastics in Section 3.5.5. Figure 4.86
shows the variety of applications for foams. The advantages of rigid foam forma-
tion are an increase in the surface moment of inertia and therefore structural
rigidity. The advantages of soft foam formation are energy absorption, material
savings, and a high insulating effect against heat and noise. Typical disadvantages
are the lower strength, surface defects, and not exactly predictable properties.
Foam plastics are characterized by a very low density (0.01 to ≈ 1 g/cm3) and a
cellular structure. The foam morphology is characterized by the cell geometry, the
cell size and its distribution, as well as the total density and the density d
istribution.
thermal insulation, seating furniture,

wet cell elements, cushions,
safety helmets mattresses,
rigid carpet backing
foam foam
integral compact
armrests, foam foam
steering wheels, sanitary parts,
motorcycle seats, housing components
gear knob
Figure 4.86 Application diversity of PUR foams
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Foaming of polyurethane.
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/PUR-Schaum

Depending on the choice of blowing agent and the physical boundary conditions,
foams can be produced which have a cellular core and largely cell-free boundary
areas, so that in the ideal case a parabolic density profile (integral foam) is pro-
duced. Figure 4.87, left, shows an open-cell foam without skin. It has a constant
low density of approx. 0.1 g/cm3 over the 10 mm cross-section.
density
density
density
density
thickness thickness thickness thickness
foam structural (integral) structural (integral) compact

without skin foam foam plastic
ρ ~ 0.1 g/cm³ ρ ~ 0.2 g/cm³ ρ ~ 0.6g/cm³ ρ ~ 1.0 - 1.4 g/cm³
Figure 4.87 Designs of foams
Two variants of structural foams (also called integral foams) are shown in the
middle pictures in Figure 4.87. The integral foam with compact outer skin but low
cell density across the cross-section has a lower overall density than the integral
foam with compact outer skin and integral transition between compact and foam
structure.
Polyurethane foams are the most important technical and economical application
area for foams. Polyurethane (PUR) is regarded as a tailor-made material, since the
range of properties can be varied widely by the plastics processor him-/herself
through the choice of raw materials, additives, and the type of foaming process
(Figure 4.88).
The elastomer or thermoset material, depending on the degree of crosslinking, is
only produced here during processing. Possible additives for polyurethanes are,
similar to injection molding compounds, fibers, mineral flour, dyes, and flame re-
tardants, among others.
The polyaddition of polyurethane has already been described in Section 2.1. Poly-
isocyanates and polyols react in a polyaddition reaction to form polyurethane. Tri-
functional groups form a three-dimensional network. In foamed form, polyure-
thane is known as a flexible foam (e. g. sports shoe soles) or as a rigid assembly
foam (e. g. in the construction sector). The production of foams requires the use of
a blowing agent that foams the mixture of polyfunctional alcohol and diisocyanate
during polyaddition. Water that reacts with the diisocyanate can be used as the
chemical blowing agent; it reacts to form gaseous carbon dioxide (CO2), which acts
as a co-blowing agent (Figure 4.89).
2000
1200
1000
800
integral
integral foams
500 foams for molded
for molded parts
parts
200
density ρ in kg/m³
200
160
100 mattress 100

and
upholstery
foams 55
50 insulating
foam
25 30
20
15 packaging
10 foams
10
soft rigid
Figure 4.88
foam type Variety of polyurethane foams
R NCO + H O H
isocyanate water
R N C OH
=
–
H O
carboxylic acid
R N H
Figure 4.89
+ CO Production of CO2 co-blowing agent in production of
–
H
amide carbon dioxide polyurethane (PUR)
The carbon dioxide escapes from the reaction mixture, which is becoming more
and more viscous, and foams it up until a three-dimensional foam structure is
formed as a result of progressive crosslinking. The disadvantage of using CO2 as a
co-blowing agent is that over time it leaves the foam by diffusion, which leads to
contraction of the foam. In addition, the foam becomes somewhat brittle. For this
reason, other blowing agents such as pentanes or soon new fluorocarbons, which
are less harmful to the atmosphere, are used. The example of the side cover of a
field chopper in Figure 4.90 shows a particularly large component made of foamed
polyurethane with a compact outer skin.
Figure 4.90
Application example [Image
source: Claas]
Reaction injection molding (RIM, Figure 4.91) is used to manufacture many poly-
urethane components. The mixture, which has not yet reacted, is injected into an
open or closed mold. With the open mold, there is time to close the mold before
foaming and then the curing reaction begins. The mixture is simply poured into
the mold. These are usually rather slow processes compared to injection molding
or pressing, but they allow the introduction of reinforcing agents.
open mold
F
mixture
closed mold
F
Figure 4.91
Process sequence of
mixing head reaction injection
F molding (RIM)
4.4 Technology of Fiber-Reinforced Plastics 311
If injection into a closed mold is intended, the flow path must be rheologically de-
signed. The closed molds allow faster reaction systems and the formation of inte-
gral foams or foams of higher density.
During the RIM process, the reaction partners are continuously homogenized and
conveyed in exact doses. They are intensively mixed before being fed into the tem-
perature-controlled mold. In the mold, the mixture reacts and – depending on the
application – forms a foamed or non-foamed component. After demolding, the com-
ponent is finished and/or further processed (Figure 4.92).
Figure 4.92 RIM component, manufactured in a closed mold (here a prototype mold)
[Image source: Schneider Prototyping]
4.4 Technology of Fiber-Reinforced Plastics

In Section 3.3.1 it was shown how strongly fibers and their orientation influence
the properties of a fiber-reinforced plastic composite (FRP). The technical advan-
tages of “strength per unit density” and “stiffness per unit density” alone are deci-
sive for the use of fiber-reinforced plastics. The key to even greater application will
be the cost-effectiveness of the production of these composites.
Figure 4.93 shows the breakdown of FRP production by application in Europe.
others
(1 %)
electro/electronic
(15 %)
transport (vehicles,
aircrafts etc.)
(35 %)
sports/leisure
(15 %)
Figure 4.93
Breakdown of FRP production
construction according to applications in
(34 %) Europe [AVK 2014]
In this section, the current techniques for the production of fiber reinforced plas-
tics are summarized. At present, we are working at full speed to make these even
faster, more efficient, and thus more cost-effective in order to become economically
competitive with metallic components in mass production.
It should be briefly repeated that a distinction is made between:
short fibers (between approx. 0.1 and 1–5 mm long),
long fibers (between approx. 1 mm and 5 cm), and
continuous fibers (above 5 cm)
The force transmission correlates with the length. Whereas short fibers, bound in
thermoplastic granules, are usually processed conventionally using processing
methods such as extrusion and injection molding (Section 4.1 and Section 4.2),
plastic composites with long and continuous fibers usually have to be produced
using other processing technologies, which are described more in detail below.
4.4.1 Hand Lay-up and Fiber Spraying
For the small series construction of e. g. boat hulls and water slide segments, hand
lamination and fiber spraying (Figure 4.94, A) are mostly used. In hand lay-up, not
only long fibers are used, but also continuous fibers, e. g. in glider construction, an
area in which Germany has been the world market leader since the beginning of
gliding in the 1960s. For hand lay-up and fiber spraying there is only a small
investment, so that these can also be used by small businesses and experienced
craftsmen.
Hand lay-up is a manual process. This requires a mold made of wood, for example,
which determines the subsequent component geometry. Uncured thermoset ma-
trix and long glass fibers or mats are applied to the polished form in layers, which
harden together over time. Rotor blades for wind turbines are also often manufac-
tured in a similar way.
Fiber spraying (Figure 4.94, B) is also suitable for components in small series,
such as boat hulls, water slide segments, bathtubs, and swimming pools. The work-
ing tool is a fiber spray gun, usually hand-guided, whose task is to provide resin,
accelerator, and hardener as well as the short or long glass fibers, to mix them in,
and apply them to a mold.
spray nozzles
(A) (B)
cutting unit
mo
ld
textile glass
UP resin with UP resin with
roving
catalyst accelerator
Figure 4.94 (A) Hand lay-up and (B) fiber spraying with unsaturated polyester resin (UP resin)
The supplied fibers are cut to the desired length by the cutting unit and discharged
by compressed air. As with hand lay-up, pressure rollers are often used to com-
press and vent the laminate. In most cases, an isotropic laminate without main
orientation is produced by fiber spraying. The mechanical properties are limited
compared to other fiber-reinforced plastics, also because continuous fibers cannot
be processed.
4.4.2 Pressing of SMC and GMT
SMC (Sheet Molding Compound)

The so-called SMC processing (sheet molding compound) is a pressing process
with short, long, and continuous fibers. Unsaturated polyester resins are used,
which have previously been mixed with reinforcing fibers (mostly glass fibers) and
fillers and finally stacked into so-called bundles.
In SMC processing (Figure 4.95), such non-crosslinked bundles are stacked, pre-
heated, and then placed in the heated press. The heated mold first makes the bun-
dle thinner and distributes it in the mold cavity, whereby the fibers reorient them-
selves. At the same time, heating starts the crosslinking process and the component
hardens in the press mold.
circulating
air, infrared,
contact
heating
heated component
pressing mold
Figure 4.95 Schematic of the SMC processing
The manufacture of such SMC mats, which are later stacked to form bundles, is
shown in Figure 4.96. A non-crosslinked resin mass is applied to a polyethylene
carrier film. Then, glass fiber rovings are cut up and sprinkled into it. This layer is
combined with another resin-coated PE carrier film and compacted. The PE carrier
film adheres only slightly to the resin mass and can be easily removed before the
actual SMC processing.
box with
resin
cutting unit
box with resin
compaction group
SMC molding compound
Figure 4.96 Continuous SMC semi-finished product production
QR-Code 4-15
The continuous processing of long glass fibers and a still uncured

thermoset into SMC semi-finished products.
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/SMC

An SMC bundle can be produced with non-directional long fibers, but also partly
with directional long fibers or even continuous fibers (Figure 4.97). Mixed forms
are also common, depending on the requirements for the mechanical properties of
the component.
Figure 4.97
SMC-R SMC-D SMC-C Designation of different-
with non-directional with directional with directional ly-prepared SMC semi-
finished products
The principle sequence of the pressing cycle with SMC is shown in Figure 4.98.
After the SMC semi-finished products have been cut to size, they are stacked as
described above and placed in the heated pressing mold. At the surface they be-
come liquid. When the tool is closed, the molding compounds are pressed and flow
into the entire mold.
completion of cutting of the SMC

the molded part,
delivery/storage stacking of
post-processing of the cuts
the molded part
(while still hot)
opening the pressing inserting the cuts

mold and demolding in the heated
the molded part pressing mold
closing the
pressing mold,
pressing of the
molded compounds
curing of the
molded compounds
Figure 4.98 Principle sequence of the SMC process

After the molding compounds have cured (several minutes), the press mold can be
opened and the component removed from the mold. If necessary, the still warm
molded part can be finished outside the mold. The mold usually has to be cleaned
and is available for the next pressing process. Typical SMC applications can be
found in automobiles as body parts (Figure 4.99).
Figure 4.99 Application examples in automotive construction [Image Source: Polytec]
GMT (Glass Mat Reinforced Thermoplastics)

The production of glass mat reinforced thermoplastics (GMT) is very similar. These
are not based on a thermoset matrix, but are thermoplastics reinforced with long
fibers. Glass mat reinforced thermoplastics are very similar to SMC as regards
processing in terms of process flow and application spectrum, except that the mold
must be cooled instead of heated. The GMT bundles are heated before pressing,
made fluid, and then placed in the cold die. Before the hot GMT bundle cools down
and loses flowability, the die is closed so that the GMT bundle flows into all areas
of the mold.
Compared to SMC, GMT allows somewhat lighter components, but higher material
costs, shorter process times, and more aesthetic surfaces. SMC pressed parts, on
the other hand, are considered stiffer, more temperature-resistant, inherently
flame-retardant, and easier to paint.
4.4.3 Pultrusion of Continuous Fibers
Continuous fibers or rovings are stored on spindles. From these spindles, the fibers
can be fed, for example, through a pultrusion line (Figure 4.100). In open pultru-
sion, the fibers are first drawn through a bath of monomers (“resins”) and then
through a shaping mold.
In the so-called closed process, the entire reinforcing fibers first come into contact
with the uncured monomer in the forming mold – but with increased pressure for
better impregnation. In the mold, the monomer reacts to form the polymer. The
cured semi-finished product is pulled through a caterpillar pull-off and thus also
pulls on the fibers together with the matrix.
forming and saw

guide plate curing die
preformer caterpillar
creel resin bath
Figure 4.100 Pultrusion (schematic)
The viscosity of a thermoplastic melt is too high for uniform wetting of the contin-
uous fibers and good impregnation and infiltration, and therefore thermosets
whose precursors are thin enough liquids have been used up to now. For some
time now the IKT has been working with the monomers of thermoplastics, which
are also liquid enough to impregnate the continuous fibers and then react to form
thermoplastics (instead of thermosets). (This technique is only called “in situ”
polymerization for thermoplastics, although this is nothing special for crosslink-
ing molding compounds.)
Thermoplastic pultrusion is shown schematically in Figure 4.101. The fiber rov-
ings are drawn through a preheating and sorting tool (not shown here) before be-
ing drawn into the mold. In the mold, the fibers are saturated with the monomeric
starting materials from a two-component dosing system, which react to form the
thermoplastic polyamide 6 in the following process. The first part of the mold is
heated, the second part is temperature controlled, since it can happen that reaction
heat must be removed from the process. The following devices, caterpillar pull-off
and saw, are also shown.
2 component system
mixer
die saw
unit
Figure 4.101
In situ pultrusion of a
thermoplastic with
continuous fibers
4.4.4 Working with Prepregs
Continuous fiber-reinforced plastic components are often manufactured from so-

called prepregs. They are made of continuous fibers using textile technology, e. g.
fiber mats, fabrics, or unidirectional scrims (see Section 3.3.1). These textile struc-
tures are now soaked well with non-crosslinked thermosets or molten thermo
plastics and suitably stored with non-adhesive films made of polyethylene before
being processed into a component in further process steps.
QR-Code 4-16
A continuous fiber tape made of unidirectional resin prepreg is placed

in a mold. This is subsequently cured with pressure and heat in an
autoclave.
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Thermoplastic impregnated prepregs are also called organic sheets. These are re-
moved from stock before actual processing, assembled, and formed after heating.
organic sheet
(fabric reinforced thermoplastic)
punched
back-injected
heated
thermoformed
Figure 4.102 From an organic sheet to a complex hybrid component [Image sources: Krauss-
Maffei GmbH]
A group of companies led by machine manufacturer KraussMaffei placed such or-

ganic sheets with carbon fiber fabric heated in an injection mold and back-molded
them directly with glass-fiber-filled polyamide melt (Figure 4.102). The injection
pressure was used to form the organic sheet in the mold and at the same time to
mold stiffening ribs. The result is a thermoplastic-based lightweight component
with continuous carbon fiber fabric on the one hand and short glass fibers on the
other. Further heavy-duty applications using this technology were presented later
on.
4.4.5 Resin Injection Molding
Another possibility to work with continuous fibers is resin injection molding. Here
no fabric is pre-impregnated (see above: “prepreg”), but “dry” laid into a mold
(“preform”). The thin, still-uncrosslinked thermoset matrix is injected into the
closed mold with negative pressure or high pressure.
RTM (Resin Transfer Molding)

Figure 4.103 shows the process flow of resin transfer molding (RTM). A textile
semi-finished product is inserted into a closable mold and compressed. In the next
step, the low-viscosity monomer is pressed from one side of the mold along the
component plane through the semi-finished product until it has saturated the fab-
ric. The tool is then heated and the fiber-reinforced plastic component is cured.
insert and pre-compress heating the removing the component

resin injection mold/curing and cooling the mold
Figure 4.103 Process sequence of resin transfer molding (RTM)
These resin injection processes are well suited for small to even medium series
(1000–10,000 pieces/year) and can realize high fiber volume contents of up to
65%. Due to the closed process, there are only minimal emissions at the workplace
compared to open processes and a more reproducible quality (dimensions, compo-
nent weight, fiber volume content) is ensured. In addition, good surface quality is
achieved on both sides. However, there is only limited design freedom and high
cycle times of approx. 20 minutes.
One variant of the RTM works with high pressure and is therefore often referred to
as HP-RTM (Figure 4.104). Two high-pressure pumps convey resin and hardener
into a mixing head which injects them into a closed mold into which the semi-fin-
ished fiber product has previously been inserted. The process is reminiscent of re-
action injection molding (“RIM”) of polyurethane (Section 4.3.4), but works with a
semi-finished fiber product. The system is more expensive than the low-pressure
RTM system, but the process is faster and even larger quantities can be produced.
high-pressure
pumps
mixing
head
hardener resin
ventilation male mold
cavity with inserted

reinforcing fabric
female mold
Figure 4.104 Schematic of the high-pressure RTM
VARI Procedure (Vacuum Assisted Resin Infusion)

The RTM methods are contrasted with the vacuum-based methods. The VARI
method (vacuum assisted resin infusion) is presented here as an example (Fig-
ure 4.105), which is used especially for large components such as the tailplane of
a glider (Figure 4.106). In this case, the production of a closed mold would be very
expensive.
separating layer
vacuum
film
resin inlet
resin front
breather
(fabric/scrim)
Figure 4.105 Principle of the VARI method

Figure 4.106
VARI process for large
components
The low-viscosity resin/hardener mixture is embedded laterally between the mold

and the separating layer. The negative pressure (vacuum) causes it to flow horizon-
tally by means of a flow aid, but then also in the direction of the thickness. When
all fiber layers are saturated, the crosslinking reaction is started by heat. VARI is
usually used for very large components produced in small numbers where molds
are not worthwhile. Here a high surface quality is only possible to a limited extent
or not at all, but even complex geometries can be infiltrated without much effort.
4.4.6 Three-Dimensional Fiber Reinforced Plastic Structures
The methods shown so far restricted the component shape to surface elements
with only limited design freedom. Their production is based on one-dimensional
reinforcing fibers and two-dimensional fiber semi-finished products, such as
scrims or fabrics. Structural elements such as cavities and undercuts are not pos-
sible in this way. Modern textile technology also enables more complex geometries
with fiber orientations in all three spatial directions. In the following, two example
processes are presented with which hollow bodies in particular, such as pressure
tanks or bending beams, can be produced.
The spoiler shown in Figure 4.107 was produced using the braiding process. Here,
a rigid foam or metal core is guided through a braided portal, while the machine
automatically places fiber bundles on the core and braids them together. The feed
speed indicates the fiber angle. Typical fiber orientations range from ± 20° to
± 85°, which is why this is referred to as biaxial braiding. If one additionally guides
unbraided standing threads through the portal, one obtains an additional 0° fiber
orientation and speaks of triaxial braids. The fibers and their orientations also de-
termine the layer thickness due to the geometric interweaving. In order to produce
thicker layer structures, components are braided several times.
Figure 4.107
Braided 3D body (automotive spoiler) [Image Source: IFB Stuttgart]
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A crash absorber for the Mercedes SLR is manufactured using a

braiding machine. A foam core is braided several times in a triaxial
fiber orientation.
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Once the braiding process is complete, the above-mentioned resin injection pro-
cesses are typically used. Thermoplastic braiding components are also possible by
replacing some reinforcing fibers with thermoplastic fibers, which build the ma-
trix after melting. The impregnation with the matrix thus takes place during the
manufacture of the semi-finished fiber product and then only heating and pressing
is necessary.
Further 3D processes are fiber winding and tape laying. In the former case, dry fi-
bers are drawn through a resin bath and deposited on a rotating core (Figure 4.108).
Here, the fiber orientation can be adjusted via the feed speed too. The process has
a high reproducibility and automation capability and thus also high quality. In tape
laying, pre-impregnated, continuous tapes made of prepreg material are used in-
stead of fiber bundles.
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Here a continuous tape of unidirectional resin prepreg is wound

around a rotating core.
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Both processes require the use of cores, which, depending on the application, must
be removed or remain in the component. With high-pressure tanks, the core is
often a thin metal tube that can remain in the component. If foam cores are used,
4.5 Further Processing 323
they usually remain in the component due to their low density, or are chemically
dissolved out.
headstock
movable
thread eye
resin bath
winding core
tailstock
Figure 4.108 Lathe winding process (top view)
4.5 Further Processing

If we look again at the classification of the production processes according to
DIN 8580 (Table 4.1), it can be seen that most processing methods in plastics tech-
nology can be assigned to main group 1 “primary shaping”. In this section we deal
with the main groups 2 to 5, because although plastic components are usually
“finished” from the processing machine (e. g. in injection molding), it is sometimes
necessary to create further functionality or complete components by means of
downstream production steps. We call these processes in plastics technology “fur-
ther processing”.
Let us first apply ourselves to forming, i. e. main group 2: according to DIN 8580,
“forming” is “manufacturing by visually (plastically) changing the shape of a solid
body; both the mass and the cohesion are maintained”.
4.5.1 Thermoforming
Thermoforming is the most important forming process in plastics processing. It is

also occasionally called hot forming, vacuum forming, or deep drawing. Deep draw-
ing is actually not the correct term, because the semi-finished product is not fed in
but stretched.
In the meantime, the production of a three-dimensional body from films or sheets

(flat plastic semi-finished products), under the influence of heat and pressure dif-
ferences between the outside and inside, has developed from a skilled manual task
at the beginning of the 1950s into a fully automatable, industrial process.
The range of products manufactured by thermoforming extends from large molded
parts such as swimming pools and refrigerator housings (Figure 4.109) in very
small quantities to packaging containers (Figure 4.110) in very large quantities. It
is also becoming increasingly important for automotive parts such as instrument
panels and door panels.
Figure 4.109
Refrigerator inner housing [Image Source: Kiefel]
Figure 4.110
Thermoformed food packages
Using the example of the so-called negative thermoforming process, the essential
process steps for the production of a cup are explained (Figure 4.111). A semi-fin-
ished product is heated and moved over the mold. It is pushed into the depth using
a pre-stretch plug plus forming air and solidifies on the cold mold wall. Then the
mold is opened, and the part is demolded and punched. The cup shows a character-
istic wall thickness distribution: the most stretched areas in the lower corner have
the lowest wall thickness. The challenge in shaping lies in the uniform wall thick-
ness distribution of the molded part.
forming air
forming steps
plug
semi-finished component
product mold
cavity
thin section
thick section
Figure 4.111 Thermoforming of a cup-shaped component
The semi-finished products can be divided into films and sheets (see Figure 4.112);
films are considered rollable, while sheets are no longer rollable. Frequently used
amorphous thermoplastics are polystyrene (PS), polyvinyl chloride (PVC), acrylo-
nitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), and polycarbonate (PC). Typical semi-crystalline
thermoplastics used are polypropylene (PP), polyethylene (PE), and polyethylene
terephthalate (PET). Thermoplastic elastomers (TPE) are also less commonly ther-
moformed.
Figure 4.112
Delivery forms of extruded semi-finished
products
The semi-finished products are heated up to the thermoelastic state by heat con-
duction, convection, and/or heat radiation. Figure 4.113 shows an example of a
ceramic radiator which is used for heating a semi-finished product with radiation.
Figure 4.113
Ceramic radiator for semi-finished product
heating
In contrast to injection molding, thermoforming uses an open mold for shaping.

Therefore, contouring is one-sided, which is why a distinction is made between
positive and negative molding (Figure 4.114). With negative forming (left), the
semi-finished product is stretched into a concave model, with positive forming
(right) into a convex model (a positive mold core). The side touching the mold is the
more dimensionally accurate side, while the opposite side is the “more aesthetic”
side.
negative forming positive forming
mold
dimensionally accurate outer dimensionally accurate inner
surface, aesthetic inner surface surface, aesthetic outer surface
Figure 4.114 Positive and negative forming
In negative molding processes, primarily thin-walled packaging articles are pro-

duced, such as fruit trays or cups for dairy products. The molds often have several
cavities to form as many articles as possible in a single cycle. Figure 4.115 shows
such a mold from which 96 cups can be produced at once. In the case of multi-
cavity molds, a punched grid is usually left over, which can be crushed and fed
back into the processing process as recyclate.
Figure 4.115
Example of a negative mold with 96 cavities
[Image source: Marbach Werkzeugbau]
On the other hand, design-oriented products with an optically sophisticated exte-

rior are usually manufactured using the positive molding process. Figure 4.116
shows a large component for commercial vehicles manufactured using the positive
molding process.
igure 4.116
F
Positive molding process [Image source:
Frimo]
The challenge in thermoforming is to achieve a uniform wall thickness distribution

of the molded part. Therefore, in the case of molded parts with high degrees of
stretching (e. g. deep cups), it is necessary to pre-stretch the semi-finished product
before forming. This can be done mechanically by means of a plug or pneumati-
cally by preblowing (Figure 4.117).
Figure 4.117
Pneumatic pre-stretching for high degrees of stretching
The quality of the semi-finished products has a major influence on the thermo-
forming process. Strongly different orientations along and across the extrusion
direction lead to uneven sag during heating and to uneven extensibility in the ther-
moelastic state. This can cause the semi-finished product to tear or cause wrink
ling in the component, as shown in Figure 4.118.
Semi-finished products are usually not produced by thermoforming companies
themselves, but purchased. Therefore, the thermoformer must know about the
quality of the semi-finished product before using it in the machine. For this pur-
pose, a method was developed at IKT that can be used as incoming goods inspec-
tion for the semi-finished products.
With this method, rectangular samples are taken from the semi-finished product,
heated to forming temperature in an oven, and formed against a semicircular plug.
During deformation, the force which the specimen opposes to the deformation is
measured, and recorded over the displacement path. From the determined force-
displacement curves, statements about the formability and thus the quality of the
semi-finished product can be made. The results are used for the material character-
ization in the commercial simulation software T-Sim.
Figure 4.118 Possible errors during thermoforming
With single-station machines, heating and shaping take place in the same process-
ing station. The individual process steps: insertion, heating, forming, etc. add up to
the total cycle time. Single-station machines are usually “plate machines”, i. e. ma-
chines that process plates. These are suitable for articles that are required in small
and medium series, require fast color changes, or are particularly large. Typical
molded parts are refrigerator inner housings (Figure 4.109), automotive interior
parts, automotive exterior parts, and bathtubs.
On multi-station machines (Figure 4.119), heating and forming take place in sepa-
rate processing stations. As in injection molding, the cycle time is determined by
the cooling time required for the component to be demolded with dimensional sta-
bility.
Multi-station machines are usually “roll machines”, because the semi-finished
product is fed from a film roll. They are used to produce articles that are required
in medium to very high quantities and are small in area. Typical molded parts
are yogurt cups, drinking cups, bowls, and chocolate candy trays, as shown in Fig-
ure 4.120.
molding station
heating station
films
Figure 4.119 Multi-station machine [Image source: Rudholzer]
Figure 4.120 Products from roll machines
For the production of very high quantities, it is possible to connect an extruder

upstream of the thermoforming system (inline production). In this case, it can run
more energy efficiently and the semi-finished product is still warm inside.
Distinction from Injection Molding

Thermoforming occasionally competes with injection molding. Thermoforming
can, for example, produce technical parts with high weight (up to 125 kg) and large
surface (up to 4 m2). Just through the choice of the semi-finished product the prod-
uct is influenced: colored semi-finished products, multi-layer composite panels, or
films can be used, and the wall thicknesses can also be adjusted via the semi-
finished product (0.05 mm to 16 mm). The low tooling costs make thermoforming
particularly cost-effective, even for small quantities. Mold changes are also corre-
spondingly cost-effective.
Disadvantages compared to injection molding are the lower design possibilities
(hardly any undercuts, limited drawing depth, no ribs, no screw bosses, etc.), the
wall thicknesses dependent on the drawing ratio, and the somewhat more difficult
temperature control via contact, convection, or radiation heating.
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Thermoforming process.
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
4.5.2 Mechanical Machining of Plastics
Let us now turn to the main group 3 according to DIN 8580: “separation”. If the
component is not separated from the sprue or flashes during or directly after the
processing step, it must be machined. However, this is very cost-intensive and
should be avoided.
The mechanical (machining) processing of plastic parts can be found, for example,
when cutting semi-finished products (e. g. for the thermoforming process). In gen-
eral, plastic components are usually machined for small quantities, e. g. for the
production of solid components (e. g. model making, gear wheels) or for the pro-
duction of test specimens for failure analysis. The mechanical machining methods
are known from woodworking: sawing, milling, grinding, polishing, drilling, and
turning.
Sawing
As in wood processing, circular saws and band saws are suitable for sawing plastic
parts. However, the saw blades of circular saws should be hollow-ground (Fig-
ure 4.121). They are made of high-speed steel or are carbide-tipped. A small tooth
pitch is required for thin plates and brittle materials. Band saws are particularly
suitable for pipes, blocks, and thicker panels, as well as for curved cuts.
hollow-ground
saw blade
plastic component
Figure 4.121
Hollow-ground saw blade of a circular saw
Milling
If plastic components are milled, the milling cutters (Figure 4.122) should prefera-
bly be made of high-speed steel or carbide. Milling cutters for plastics have a
smaller number of cutting edges than metal milling cutters, and usually a larger
number of cutting edges than wood milling cutters. The cutting speed for plastics
should be kept as high as possible and the feed rate relatively low (avoidance of
splinters in brittle materials).
Figure 4.122 Milling cutters for plastic components
Since thermoplastics “lubricate” through local melting, additional cooling is often

required for milling plastics (Figure 4.123). When milling the circumference and
shape of thermoplastics, tools should not have more than two cutting edges so that
the chip spaces are large enough.
Figure 4.123
Milling a plastic component
Grinding and Polishing

Grinding is also a machining process for achieving surface roughnesses of 50 to
5 μm. It is usually used for the after-treatment of saw cuts or laser sintered parts,
for example. Commercially available abrasive papers (coarse to dust-fine grains) or
abrasive belts (grinding speed approx. 10 m/s) are used. While hard thermosets
can be ground well, thermoplastics tend to “smear” due to local melting.
Polishing produces silk-matte to high-gloss surfaces and is carried out using lubri-
cating paste on felt or buffing wheels. A distinction is made between pre-polishing
(10 to 1 μm) and fine polishing (1 to 0.1 μm). If the geometry is simple, this can be
done mechanically (Figure 4.124). In the case of thermoplastics, it must also be
ensured here that the surfaces are not heated too much (friction heat).
Figure 4.124
Polishing machine in the failure analysis facility of the
IKT
Drilling
As in woodworking, manual or box column drills are used for drilling plastics, as
are twist drills known from metalworking (Figure 4.125). Twist drills with steep
twist are particularly advantageous as they ensure good chip removal. The point
angles for thermoplastics are generally up to 90°.
rake angle γ
clearance angle α
igure 4.125
F
point angle σ Twist drill with steep twist for chip removal
Due to the frictional heat generated during drilling, the plastic component expands
and contracts again after drilling. Therefore, after cooling, the holes are about 0.05
to 0.1 mm smaller than the drill diameter (drill undersize).
Turning
When turning plastic components (Figure 4.126), it is always necessary to reckon
with residual stresses in the component. The turning machine should run fast with
variable adjustability of the spindle speed, and allow air or better liquid cooling.
The cutting speeds are up to 500 m/min (depending on the material). The turning
tool is usually made of high-speed steel if low wear effects are expected.
For thermosets and plastics with glass fiber fillings, the turning tools should have
carbide cutting edges. To avoid grooves in the workpiece surface, a rounded cut-
ting edge profile should be used. For surfaces with particularly high quality, a so-
called large wiper edge is very helpful.
Figure 4.126 Turning of a plastic component
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4.5.3 Welding
Main group 4 according to DIN 8580 describes the joining of materials. In the case
of plastics, this initially means welding and adhesive bonding, but snapping,
screwing, and riveting are also joining processes.
Welding (according to ISO TR 25901-1) means the joining process in which two or
more parts are united producing a continuity in the nature of the workpiece mate-
rial(s) by means of heat or pressure or both, and with or without the use of filler
material. Thus, thermosets and elastomers cannot be welded.
The movable molecules in the joining area are brought together under pressure
and sheared (Figure 4.127). In this way, the macromolecules of the two joining
partners “entangle” and can solidify together after cooling below the glass transi-
tion temperature (for amorphous thermoplastics) or below the crystallization tem-
perature (for semi-crystalline thermoplastics).
In principle, different thermoplastics can be welded to each other, but a very differ-
ent coefficient of thermal expansion and a different compatibility of the polymers
are detrimental to force transmission. It is usually the case that semi-crystalline
thermoplastics cannot be welded well with amorphous thermoplastics, as the mac-
romolecules cannot entangle sufficiently. During welding, the fibers of reinforced
plastics do not cross the joining interface; thus the weld seams of fiber-reinforced
thermoplastics are a particular weak point.
Figure 4.127 Molecules entangled over the interface during welding
Different welding processes with their special features are available for technical
series products. Plastic welding processes are often subdivided according to the
heat transfer mechanisms used. Figure 4.128 shows that the mechanisms known
from heat transfer and frictional heat are used for welding. Selected welding pro-
cesses are briefly presented below.
At this point, it should also be remembered that the structure of the material is
changed not only during the manufacturing process, but also during the welding
process. This happens due to local melt generation, movement, and cooling. Partic-
ularly local residual stresses, which reduce force transmission, are generated in
the area of the weld seam, as well as orientations, which can be unfavorably
aligned. In addition, notches in the weld beads have a local stress-increasing effect
and can also be detrimental to further force transmission.
heat conduction convection
hot plate welding hot-gas welding
direct indirect – welding

by hand
– hot plate – thermal – pull welding
butt welding contact – extrusion
– hot plate welding welding
socket welding – thermal
– electro socket impulse
welding welding
– hot plate welding
friction radiation
internal external
– high-frequency – rotary friction – hot plate

welding welding radiation welding
– ultrasonic – vibration – laser welding
welding welding
Figure 4.128 Classification of welding methods according to their heat transfer
4.5.3.1 Hot Plate Welding

During hot plate welding in series production, molded parts are heated by a heat-
ing element adapted to the joining seam contour and joined after removal of the
heating element (Figure 4.129). It produces a relatively high weld seam quality.
The slow heating process, which is gentle compared to other processes, produces a
thicker melt layer. Therefore, the cycle time is quite high (rule of thumb: heating
time about 10 seconds per mm wall thickness, and cooling time about 5 seconds
per mm wall thickness). Hot plate welding is also known for its process reliability.
Complex joining surfaces can be realized and small as well as large components
can be welded.
The welding cycle (Figure 4.130) begins with the preparation of the joining sur-
faces and the insertion of the parts to be joined. After the tool halves have been
closed, the parts to be joined are aligned with the heating element by slight melt-
ing until they are completely in contact and can be heated well. Once a sufficient
melt layer thickness has been produced, the tool halves are quickly moved apart,
the heating element moves out, and the components are joined under pressure.
This is followed by the cooling time, a necessary waiting period before the parts
can be removed and reworked.
joining parts
p p
heating element
p p Figure 4.129
Welding with a heating element adapted to
the component contour (schematic)
post-processing preparation of the joining parts

end start
removal of the loading, inserting

joined parts the parts
8 1
closing the
tools/tables
2
pivoting in and adjusting

tK 3 the heating elements
tA
7
cooling 4
heating the
under pressure parts
5 tW
6
moving apart and closing
tF the tools/tables
joining
under pressure
process steps
influencing the structure
Figure 4.130 Process steps of hot plate welding

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Hot plate butt welding.

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4.5.3.2 Hot Gas Welding

For containment vessel construction, manual hot gas welding (Figure 4.131) shall
be briefly presented. With this method, e. g. tubular semi-finished products can be
joined together to form a complex product such as a chemical container.
welding unit
welding rod
welding rod
hot gas
hot gas
hand welding / fan welding pull welding
hot gas
weld seam
lap welding
Figure 4.131 Hot gas welding (schematic)
In hot gas welding, a hand-guided welding filler (round rod) is melted with hot gas,
which is applied in a fan-assisted manner. At the same time, the hot gas also melts
an area of the joining partners in which the filler material is deposited.
4.5.3.3 Extrusion Welding

The welding extruder (Figure 4.132) is also used in chemical vessel engineering. It
works like a large extruder and produces quite large amounts of melt, which are
extruded into a fillet weld of prepared parts. The parts to be joined are first brought
to the melt temperature on the surface by means of hot gas and thus bonded to the
extrudate. The extruder is usually fed with a coil of plastic filament instead of a
pellet funnel, which makes overhead work easier. Before being fed into the ex-
truder, the plastic strand is cut into pellets.
welding direction
plastic filament
small extruder hot-gas device
welding shoe
Figure 4.132
Hot gas extrusion welding (schematic)
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Extrusion welding.
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Extrusion welding is shown in Figure 4.133 using the example of welding pond
liners.
Figure 4.133 Examples for extrusion welding [Image sources: Leister and Schatzgarten
Landschaftsbau]
4.5.3.4 Ultrasonic Welding

In ultrasonic welding, joining partners are heated by means of acoustic energy.
Electrical oscillations are converted by an ultrasonic transducer into mechanical
sound oscillations, which are aligned with the component to be welded by means
of a transformation piece and a sonotrode (Figure 4.134). The sonotrode is used for
coupling to a joining partner. Ultrasonic transducer, transformation piece, and
sonotrode oscillate in resonance and are designed so that an oscillation with maxi-
mum amplitude occurs in the joining plane.
ultrasonic
generator
converter (ultrasonic transducer)
booster (transformation piece)
sonotrode
upper joining part
lower joining part
Figure 4.134 Ultrasonic welding (schematic)
Ultrasonic welding is a particularly cost-effective process for small part series with
a quantity of up to 50,000 parts (Figure 4.135). Joining surfaces can easily be
welded within less than 1 s if the material has sufficient internal damping to con-
vert sound into heat. The internal damping is characterized by the loss factor tan δ,
measured in a Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA).
If larger components are to be welded, several sonotrodes can be placed next to
each other (multi-head systems). The disadvantage is that no continuous, tight
weld seams can be produced. The strength of the weld seams is rather low (about
20% of the material strength), but they have the aesthetic advantage of a small melt
bead.
Figure 4.135 Examples of ultrasonic-welded applications in medical technology [Image

source: Branson]
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Ultrasonic welding.
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4.5.3.5 Vibration Friction Welding

In vibration friction welding, the joining partners are compressed and rubbed
against each other in their joining zone in one or two directions, so the heat is in-
troduced directly into the joining plane by friction (Figure 4.136). Vibration weld-
ing is a mature process that enables large, tight, and mechanically resilient joining
seams with cycle times of just a few seconds. For flat contact surfaces, vibration
welding is preferred to hot plate welding. Due to the sometimes high pressure to be
applied, the joining partners must be rigid.
A distinction is made between linear and biaxial vibration welding. Linear vibra-
tion welding allows the welding of 2½D-surfaces with a vibrational amplitude of up
to 2.5 mm, i. e. surfaces that may be curved but can still be moved in one direction
against each other. However, with this one direction of oscillation, there is a risk
that ribs that are arranged transversely to the direction of oscillation and are not
stiff enough will also oscillate and not be welded sufficiently.
linear
Figure 4.136
biaxial Vibration friction welding (schematic)
Depending on the material, “fluff” can appear along the weld seam, which is unde-
sirable especially in containers for hydraulic fluids. It is also an aesthetic problem.
4.5.3.6 Laser Welding

Benefiting from the price drop in laser technology, the idea of using laser light to
heat joining partners arose. Initially, attempts were made to use laser light for
heating during butt welding. Today, only laser transmission welding is used.
Figure 4.137 shows schematically how a material that is almost transparent to the
laser wavelength is joined with an absorbing material directly inside the later
component. The laser beam energy is converted into heat, which in turn melts the
laser-transparent material by heat conduction.
Figure 4.137
Laser transmission welding (schematic)
[Image source: Leister]
An important advantage of this process is the locally focused heat input. Laser
welding allows the welding of electronic components that can be damaged by the
vibrations of vibration or ultrasonic welding or by the heat radiation of a heating
element. An example is the solder tail in a welded battery block, which can become
detached during ultrasonic welding. If, however, the joining partners, which are
not exactly positioned, have a gap dimension of > 0.5 mm, the laser-transparent
joining partner cannot be melted at this point, the overall strength of the weld
seam decreases, or it becomes leaky. Examples of laser-welded components are
shown in Figure 4.138.
Figure 4.138 Laser-welded components [Image sources: Leister]
4.5.4 Adhesive Bonding
Adhesive bonds have been successfully used in many technical applications for
decades, if the specific requirements for a good adhesive bond were already taken
into account in the concept phase.
According to the Encyclopedia Britannica an adhesive is any substance that is capa-
ble of holding materials together in a functional manner by surface attachment
that resists separation. Almost all plastics can be adhesively bonded, i. e. in addi-
tion to thermoplastics, elastomers and thermosets can also be adhesively bonded
together (whereas only thermoplastics can be welded).
By the way, the term vulcanization used in the context of repairing a bicycle tube
describes the post-crosslinking of elastomers across a boundary surface. It is not
an adhesive bond in the standard sense, but a bonding process with a change in
the material properties (group 6 in Table 4.1).
Adhesives can fulfill additional tasks: They can seal, bridge irregularities, dampen
vibrations, and insulate electrically and thermally. They can also compensate for
the warpage of the adhesive partners to a limited extent.
For adhesive bonding (Figure 4.139), the joining surfaces must first be suitably
manufactured and cleaned. With some materials, the surface still has to be spe-
cially pre-treated in order to be activated. The next step is to apply the adhesive
and wait until it is bondable. Then the components are joined and fixed. The lon-
gest period of time is needed for the adhesive, which often cures over several min-
utes. The fixation can be removed only after curing is finished.
manufacturing of suitable
joining surfaces
cleaning of the
joining surfaces
pretreatment of the
joining surfaces
removal of the fixation application of the adhesive

and the component at least to one joining
partner
wait until adhesive

is bondable
curing of the
adhesive
joining and
fixing
Figure 4.139 Bonding process sequence
According to the guideline VDI 2229, adhesives can be divided into physically
bonding and chemically bonding (Table 4.3). While the physically bonding ones
solidify by evaporation of a solvent or by cooling, the chemically bonding ones start
a crosslinking reaction (so-called reactive adhesives). This reaction is started, for
example, by mixing reactive partners or triggered by heat, UV light (so-called
acrylic adhesives, dental fillings), or air humidity (so-called superglue).
Table 4.3 Classification of the Adhesive Bonding Mechanisms According to VDI Guideline
2229
Type Physical Setting Chemical Setting
Setting Solidification by cooling or evaporation of Solidification through formation of chemi-
a solvent cal bonds/network structure
Examples dispersion adhesive (e. g. UHU®) polymerization adhesive (1C and 2C)
melt adhesive polyaddition adhesive
contact adhesive (e. g. Pattex®) polycondensation adhesive (1C and 2C)
(1C: the reaction is subsequently initiated
e. g. by heat or moisture)
* C = component.
First, an adhesive must be very liquid to wet the largest possible area and then
become rigid to be able to transfer forces. From a microscopic point of view, a real
part surface has a rough surface (Figure 4.140). The adhesion between two joining
partners has a mechanical part (flow behind undercuts) and a specific part due to
secondary valence forces.
undercut
adhesive
Figure 4.140
joining part Schematic of the mechani-
cal adhesion of adhesives
The bonding of plastics is based on two different mechanisms of action, specific

adhesion and solubility (see below). With one mechanism of action, an adhesive
can transfer force between two joining partners through specific adhesion (second-
ary valence forces, see Figure 4.141). For this purpose, the joining partner must be
well wettable, i. e. as polar as possible (Figure 4.143).
With solidification, the cohesion must increase sufficiently in order to transmit
forces (Figure 4.141). Solidification takes place by evaporation of a solvent (as with
UHU® or Pattex®) or by a chemical reaction (“curing” instant adhesive, two-compo-
nent adhesive). The adhesion mechanism is also effective when bonding different
classes of materials, such as glass with metal.
If a joining part is dirty (Figure 4.141), this contaminated part of the surface does
not contribute to the force transmission. The adhesive may adhere well to the dirt,
but the dirt does not adhere well to the part to be joined. Therefore, careful clean-
ing is always necessary before bonding.
The adhesive acts only on the effective surface. Figure 4.142 compares the geomet-
ric surface with the true, rough surface. This clearly shows that a rough surface is
more effective than a polished surface, depending on its wettability. However, if the
true surface is too rough or the adhesive is not liquid enough to flow behind the
undercuts and into the pits, the effective surface may be much smaller than the
true and the geometric surface.
contamination
joining part, contaminated
adhesion
cohesion
adhesion
Figure 4.141
joining part, clean Specific adhesion
geometric surface
(red lines only)
true surface
(red and blue lines)
Figure 4.142
Surface definitions
The specific adhesion can only be effective if the adhesive can wet the part well. If
the polarity of the surface is high, the adhesive can spread widely on the surface
and wet it well. If the polarity is low, only a small wetting area is created (Fig-
ure 4.143).
joining part with high joining part with low

surface energy surface energy
large wetting area small

wetting area
Figure 4.143 Polarity is an important criterion for adhesion

The second mechanism is only effective when bonding identical thermoplastics

with each other. Some thermoplastics, particularly amorphous or semi-crystalline
with low degree of crystallization, can be dissolved. When dissolving, the molecule
chains are similarly mobile as in the melt, and can diffuse across the interface and
entangle there. After evaporation of the solvent the chains become less mobile
again and allow the desired force transmission. This mechanism is very similar to
that of melt generation and solidification. For that reason this bonding is also
called “solvent welding” (Figure 4.144).
t<0
heat supply solvent
t=0
chain mobility due chain mobility due

to increased Brownian to incorporation
molecular movement of solvents
t>0
Figure 4.144 Solvent welding (only possible for thermoplastics)
Against the background of these two mechanisms for adhesive bonding of plastics,
it becomes clear that plastics can only be bonded if they are either polar or soluble
(Table 4.4).
Table 4.4 Bondability of Different Plastics [4]

Plastic Wettability Polarity Solubility Bondability
Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) good polar soluble good
Polystyrene (PS) bad nonpolar soluble good
Polyethylene (PE) bad nonpolar insoluble bad
Polyamide 6.6 (PA66) good polar hardly soluble moderate
Polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) good polar soluble good
Phenol-formaldehyde resin compression good polar insoluble good
material (PF)
Unsaturated polyester resin molding good polar insoluble good
material (UP)
Adhesive bonds can transmit shear stresses very well, but they are not very resis-
tant to peeling stress (Figure 4.145).
very favorable: very unfavorable:

shear stress peel stress
Figure 4.145 Favorable and less favorable stress on adhesive bonds
4.5.5 Joining by Snap Connections, Screws, and Rivets
Snap Connections
Snap connections are functional elements for the detachable and non-detachable,
simple form-fit joining of components. They allow the joining of different materi-
als. There are different versions (Figure 4.146):
Snap hooks,
Ball joint connections (snap ball),
Ring snap connections (snap cylinders).
As a rule, they are integrated directly into the component by injection molding,
thus saving production and assembly costs.
snap hook snap ball snap cylinder
Figure 4.146 Typical types of snap connections

Figure 4.147 shows a smart everyday product. Such a packaging lid not only has a
ring snap connection that seals the container tightly, but also a film hinge (living
hinge) that allow the lid to fold over and prevents it getting lost.
Figure 4.147
Packaging lid with ring snap connection and film hinge
Screw Connections
Plastic components can also be joined with screws (Figure 4.148) in a form-fitting
and detachable manner. In contrast to metal components, however, no holes are
drilled into the component for this purpose. Instead, a mounting eye with through-
hole in one joining partner and a screw boss with a core hole in the other joining
partner are provided directly in the injection molding process. The screw cuts its
own thread while being screwed into the tube.
screw
mounting eye
through hole
relief hole
screw-in eye (tube)
core hole
cracks due to
notches
Figure 4.148
Screw connections
Often, standard self-tapping screws are used to screw plastic components, but
these are not suitable for plastics due to the notch effect of their flanks in the plas-
tic component. There are screws with rounded flanks that are particularly made
for joining plastics. If the screw connection is supposed to be undone more than
about five times, metric screws are necessary, and metal screws need metal inserts
(Figure 4.149). If no loosening processes are required, welding, gluing, and rivet-
ing always make more sense due to the low costs.
Figure 4.149
Metal inserts for hot insertion
Riveting
The riveting of plastics together or with other materials is a form-fitting process.
The riveting impulse of the machine must be adapted to the toughness of the plas-
tic. If one of the joining partners is a thermoplastic, the end of the thermoplastic
pin can be plastically formed into a rivet head with relatively little force by apply-
ing heat (e. g. by means of contact or ultrasound) before riveting (Figure 4.150,
above). If components are to be joined with rivets, one side of the joining partners
will always be aesthetically influenced. Figure 4.150 (below) shows various rivet
head shapes. It should be noted that the joint may become loose over time when
rivets are used.
riveting process
Figure 4.150
undeformed pin Rivets (schematic)
4.5.6 Coating of Plastics
Now we come to the main group 5 of DIN 8580: Coating Processes. This usually
means changing surface properties of plastic components. An example is shown in
Figure 4.151, which shows toy bunnies with a flocked surface of different colors.
Figure 4.151
Changing the surface properties
by coating
4.5.6.1 Coated Components

Coatings are applied so that the wetting of liquids is reduced (Figure 4.152), the
friction properties are changed, the conductivity is increased, or the barrier effect
is improved (Figure 4.155). Further possibilities are the improvement of appear-
ance and feel (haptics), including an increase in scratch resistance (Figure 4.153).
Figure 4.152 Different wetting of surfaces
The surface tension of components can be significantly influenced by hydrophilic

or hydrophobic coatings (Figure 4.152). For example, eyeglass lenses and motorcy-
cle helmets fog up less and water droplets can slide off more easily.
Figure 4.153 shows a polycarbonate disk that has partially been coated for
scratch-resistance and has been subjected to a wipe test. The scratch marks on the
uncoated side are clearly visible. The coated side does not show scratches after
wiping. Such a coating makes motorbike helmet visors, safety goggles, and auto-
mobile front lights scratch-resistant.
Figure 4.153 Different scratch resistance due to coating
Another typical series application is the free-standing side window of some small
vehicles. The window of a Smart car shown in Figure 4.154 is made of scratch-
resistant coated polycarbonate.
Figure 4.154 Application example of a scratch-resistant plastic surface [Image source:

Daimler]
The barrier effect of plastics is – depending on the plastic – good or bad. The prod-
uct can be protected either with a multi-layer composite or alternatively with a
barrier layer (Figure 4.155; see also Section 3.2.3). Food packaging must usually
be impermeable to oxygen in order to reduce microbial attack and oxidation. Fur-
thermore, the aroma should not get lost. Often, food packaging must be water va-
por tight in order to delay dehydration or moisture absorption. Since carbonated
beverages only retain their flavor if they do not lose their CO2, some packaging
must be as CO2-tight as possible.
Figure 4.155 Improvement of the permeation barrier through coating, here of a beverage
bottle and of a gasoline tank
When flocking plastic components, the component is thinly coated with adhesive
and then bombarded with electrostatically charged flock fibers in a chamber (see
Figure 4.156). These fibers follow the electric field lines existing in the chamber,
aligning themselves perpendicular to the component surface and producing a uni-
form textile surface (see also Figure 4.151). Subsequently, it is necessary to wait
until the adhesive has dried, and then the excess flock is cleaned off.
flock fiber
flock adhesive
substrate
Figure 4.156 Flocked surface
Due to the adhesives used today, flockings are very hard-wearing and abrasion-
resistant. Depending on the fiber thickness and length, a velvety to hard-abrasive
surface can be created according to the desired function, appearance, or haptics.
Flocking is used for coating rubber sealing profiles (Figure 4.157) or glove boxes as
well as for sportswear such as jerseys, model landscapes, or for the production of
carpets.
As shown in Figure 4.157, flocking can also be used to suppress the squeaking of
elastomer seals on painted metal.
“Printed electronics” also belongs to the field of surface coating. The film shown in
Figure 4.158 is given a surface conductivity by printing that allows the building of
complex electronic circuits.
glove box
(flocked inside)
flocked door seal
Figure 4.157 Changing the coefficient of friction by flocking
Figure 4.158
Increase of the conductivity of surfaces [Image
source: PolyIC GmbH & Co. KG]
Molded interconnect devices (MID) (Figure 4.159) are electronic components in

which conducting paths are applied to three-dimensional injection-molded ther-
moplastic substrates. The thermoplastic matrix increases recyclability and makes
welding possible. The injection molding of these circuit carriers allows the much
greater variety of shapes and a higher functional density through the integration
of further (mechanical or other) functions in the component as shown in Sec-
tion 4.2 compared to flat printed circuit boards.
Figure 4.159
Laser direct structured 3D-MID component [Image
source: Molex]
4.5.6.2 Coating Processes

There are various methods for changing the surface properties:
vapor deposition
varnishing
electroplating
printing
laminating
flocking
Vapor Deposition
The barrier effect of bottles and the scratch resistance of helmet visors are in-
creased by vapor deposition with silicon compounds. On the one hand, there is the
PVD process (physical vapor deposition), in which a coating substance is evaporated
in a vacuum chamber by supplying energy, e. g. with microwaves (Figure 4.160). In
the CVD process (chemical vapor deposition), the coating substance is precipitated
from the gas phase by means of a chemical reaction. Figure 4.160 shows the inter-
nal coating of a plastic bottle using CVD.
Figure 4.160
Internal coating of a plastic
bottle [Image source: IGVP
Stuttgart]
Varnishing
Varnishing injection-molded plastic components makes them about twice as ex-
pensive. Nevertheless, in addition to the color design, the increase in scratch resis-
tance of the surfaces and the function as a barrier layer are used in particular. In-
dustrial painting systems are divided into organic and inorganic systems. As a
rule, they are selected according to technical requirements and costs. If certain
temperature limits cannot be exceeded, UV-curing coatings are preferred to ther-
mally curing coatings.
Electroplating
In order to electroplate plastic components (Figure 4.161), the surface must be
made locally electrically conductive. The freshly molded component, usually made
of ABS or PC/ABS, but also PA or PE, is prepared (“conditioned”) by mechanical
particle beam blasting or chemical etching to rough and polarize the surface. The
surface prepared in this way can be nucleated with palladium compounds. These
are conductive and allow the deposition of conductive metals, usually copper or
nickel.
freshly molded component conditioning of the

surface
roughening of the surface and

polarization (wetting):
mechanical by particle beam
blasting or chemical
by etching
nucleating and activation

of the surface
e.g. copper or nickel adsorption of

palladium compounds
Figure 4.161 Electroplating
The electroplating of plastic components rarely serves to increase conductivity. In

most cases, the plastic component should simply look like a polished metal part.
The aim here is to combine the inexpensive and simple processing of plastics with
the appearance of a metal part. Of course, this is only a compromise.
Printing
Polar plastic surfaces can also be printed. The pad printing process (Figure 4.162)
is an indirect process in which the cliché (flat plate with recesses) is filled with ink
and an elastic, stretchable silicone stamp (so-called pad) picks up the ink and
prints it onto the plastic component. The silicone itself repels the ink.
In the screen printing process (Figure 4.163), ink is pressed through a finely wo-
ven fabric. The motif is created by the stencil on the fabric. The areas of the fabric
(screen) where no ink is to be printed are made impermeable to ink by this stencil.
pad
plastic
component
Figure 4.162 Pad printing process
squeegee
printing ink stencil frame

fabric
surface
Figure 4.163 Screen printing method

4.6 References 357
Since a high polarity of the surface is required for varnishing and printing, only
polar plastics with no surface impurities can actually be printed/varnished. In or-
der to remove the surface impurities and oxide layers, the surface is pre-treated.
However, more aggressive processes, such as flame or chemical treatments, can
polarize and roughen non-polar surfaces.
QR-Code 4-24
Here the painting and printing of plastic components is shown.

http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Lackieren_und_Bedrucken

Laminating
In laminating, surfaces are usually covered with films or foils. In interior laminat-
ing, a component is lined from the inside; in exterior lamination, a decorative film
is usually drawn over a less decorative molded part (Figure 4.164). The decorative
laminating film for automotive interiors can also be a multi-layer TPE foam film
with leather grain and a pleasant haptic.
Figure 4.164 Laminated component
4.6 References
[1] M. Laeis, Der Spritzguss thermoplastischer Massen, 2nd ed., Munich/Vienna: Carl Hanser Verlag,
1959.
[2] W. Glenz, Kunststoffe: ein Werkstoff macht Karriere, Munich/Vienna: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1985.
[3] G. Menges, W. Michaeli and P. Mohren, Spritzgießwerzeuge: Anleitung zum Bau von Spritzgieß-
werkzeugen, 5th ed., Munich/Vienna: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1999; English edition: How to Make In-
jection Molds, 3rd ed., Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2001.
PRODUCT
DEVELOPMENT
Product Development
5 Product Development
with Plastics
The goal of product development is always a component that, when used as in-
tended, fulfills its functions during the planned service life. This chapter provides
a brief introduction to the development of plastic products. Construction takes
place in the final phase of product development. Guideline 2222 of the Association
of German Engineers (VDI) divides product development into four phases (Fig-
ure 5.1).
planning conceiving designing elaboration
level of detail
Figure 5.1 Product development phases
In the planning phase, awareness of the functions and requirements of the product
to be developed is raised. In the concept phase, various solutions are considered
and concretized. Only at the design stage is the component given a more concrete
form and a rough calculation is made. In the elaboration phase, the design is im-
plemented three-dimensionally and constructively with all details. Prototypes can
serve parallel to these phases for the verification of the functions and require-
ments.
In a first step, the unique selling points of the material class “plastics” are summa-
rized, assistance is given in the preselection of the correct material, and plastic
products are geometrically subdivided. This subdivision can be used to provide
simple information on the selection of a processing method, on the design suitable
for plastics, and on the selection of the suitable prototype.
362 5 Product Development with Plastics
5.1 Plastics as Construction Materials

5.1.1 Plastic-Specific Unique Selling Points
Due to their special properties alone, plastics can meet many product require-
ments very well, but others only to a limited extent or not at all. The solid proper-
ties have already been dealt with in Section 3.2 and it has been repeatedly pointed
out that the final properties are influenced by the process and therefore have to be
characterized in the finished product.
In the following, the special material properties of plastics with correspondingly
useful and undesirable effects in use are highlighted.
Density
The density of plastics is very low compared to other construction materials. This
property permits products with low mass forces (weight force, inertia force) and
low energy content when they are moved. In cases where high mass forces are re-
quired (e. g. in energy storage), the low density is undesirable.
The density can be influenced by the molar mass and the degree of crystallization
of the material as well as by the temperature, additives, and foam structures.
Stiffness
The stiffness describes the resistance against deformation and the modulus of elas-
ticity (Young’s modulus) is an often-used characteristic value for the characteriza-
tion of the material stiffness. The modulus of elasticity of plastics is one to two or-
ders of magnitude lower than that of metals. This low deformation resistance of the
material itself is undesirable in many applications and can be counteracted by de-
sign measures (increase in component stiffness by increasing the moment of iner-
tia of the surface; see Section 5.3.3).
On the other hand, a higher flexibility (opposite of stiffness) enables the sealing
function and a better distributed and consequently lower surface pressure of plas-
tic products. In addition, this also allows for functional elements such as film
hinges and snap connections (see Section 5.3.2).
The material stiffness is strongly influenced by the molar mass, the degree of
crosslinking and crystallization, additives (especially fillers and fibers), tempera-
ture, humidity, other media, and load speed. The component stiffness is influenced
by the material stiffness, expressed e. g. by the modulus of elasticity, and the mo-
ment of inertia of the surface of the component geometry (see Section 5.3.3)
5.1 Plastics as Construction Materials 363
Strength
The property “strength” describes the resistance to cracking under load. The ten-
sile strength is a material characteristic which characterizes this property well for
comparison purposes. The tensile strength of plastics is about an order of magni-
tude lower than that of metals.
If plastic cannot be used as a construction material for an application, the rela-
tively low strength is usually the decisive reason. However, the low strength is
sometimes also very useful: predetermined breaking points for e. g. product seals
or for an integrated passenger airbag require a lower strength of the material.
Like stiffness, the strength of plastics is influenced by the molar mass, the degree
of crosslinking and crystallization, additives (especially reinforcing materials),
temperature, humidity, and other media, as well as the loading rate.
The processing operation and post-treatment (e. g. stretching or annealing) have an
influence on the strength, as this influences orientation (also fiber orientation) and
crystallization. Also weld lines and weld seams resulting from the process are re-
garded as weak points and can be locally less strong. This is true especially with
fiber-reinforced plastics, because the fibers do not cross the weld line.
Extensibility
The extensibility of plastics, including the resetting, elastic extensibilty, is higher
than that of metals. However, the high elongation at break is rarely exploited in
practice, as it is usually accompanied by plastic deformation. Due to this higher
dimensional instability, precise force transmission through plastic products can
only be achieved to a limited extent. The advantages, however, are lower notch
sensitivity and better absorption of impact energy even at low temperatures, i. e.
higher toughness. Due to the high extensibility, it is also permissible to work with
larger tolerances, since the material can more easily adapt to another contour.
The extensibility of plastics can be influenced by temperature, time, loading speed,
additives and media. The processing and post-treatment, and in particular the ori-
entation of the molecules or fibers achieved as a result, can also have a strong in-
fluence on the extensibility.
Internal Damping
The internal damping of plastics is higher than that of metals. It describes the ratio
of dissipated to stored energy under mechanical stress. A high value means that
mechanical interactions are more strongly converted into heat. Especially under
dynamic load, this can lead to a strong heat development, which is detrimental to
the product properties.
The same heat generation can be exploited in a targeted way, e. g. to weld with ul-
trasound. Additional advantages are a higher damping of mechanical impacts,
whether sound waves or vibrations. As a result, the service life of bearings and
gears is very long. It should be ensured that self-heating does not increase unac-
ceptably and thus cause failure.
The internal damping of plastics is strongly influenced by the molar mass, the
degree of crosslinking and crystallization, the temperature, additives, and the fre-
quency of mechanical impact/interaction.
Service Temperature Range

The properties of plastics are strongly dependent on the temperature, as described
in detail in Section 2.2.2. Therefore, the serviceability of plastic products is often
only given in a limited temperature range. At low ambient temperatures, for exam-
ple, the toughness, i. e. the toughness for energy absorption, decreases, and under
mechanical stress the products sometimes fail with dangerously brittle splinters.
High service temperatures, on the other hand, reduce strength and stiffness and
accelerate aging processes.
From the point of view of the manufacture of plastic products, however, the low
transition temperatures are a major advantage of this class of materials. These
allow the primary shaping and forming processes to be conducted with low energy
input. This alone usually makes plastic processing operations highly economical.
For many products, requirements regarding the product price can only be met by
using plastics.
The molecular structure, molar mass, and additives have an influence on the ser-
vice temperature range.
Thermal Expansion
The thermal expansion (α = 0.6 to 2.0 · 10−4 1/K) of plastics is about ten times
greater than that of metals. This means that high component tolerances are neces-
sary for a larger operating temperature range, especially for large-area products.
The different thermal expansions must also always be taken into account when
designing material composites, e. g. of plastic/metal.
The thermal expansion is influenced by the temperature range, the molecular
structure, orientations, as well as reinforcing or filling materials.
Thermal Conductivity and Heat Capacity

The thermal conductivity (λ = 1.0 to 0.5 W/mK) of unfilled plastics is approxi-
mately 100 to 2000 times lower than that of metals. At the same time, the storage
of heat is two to three times greater per unit mass. This allows very good thermal
insulation and heat shields to be produced. In cases where heat needs to be dissi-
pated, e. g. from plastic plain bearings or from the processed melt, these properties
are, however, a hindrance.
5.1 Plastics as Construction Materials 365
Thermal conductivity is influenced by temperature, degree of crystallization, ori-

entation, and the presence of reinforcing materials or fillers (see also Section
3.3.2.7). The heat capacity depends in particular on the temperature and the struc-
ture of the molecular compound.
Electrical Properties
The low electrical conductivity (Ωspec. = up to 1020 Ohm cm) of plastics enables
good electrical insulation. However, the disadvantage of inhibited charge carrier
mobility is also the risk of electrostatic charging of plastic products. In addition,
interfering electromagnetic waves cannot be inhibited by plastic housings without
additives. The intrinsically conductive polymers are an exception; up to now, how-
ever, it has only been possible to manufacture coatings from these, but not solid
plastic moldings.
The electrical properties of plastics can be influenced by temperature, moisture
content, and, above all, conductive additives (see also Section 3.3.2.7).
Further Material-Specific Unique Selling Points

Amorphous plastics are always transparent and often serve as glass substitutes, as
long as no colorants or additives with a different refraction angle are added. Some
plastics, especially semi-crystalline plastics, are very resistant to aggressive me-
dia. The permeability of gases or liquids is sometimes a desired property (e. g.
separation processes) and sometimes an undesirable property (e. g. food packag-
ing). Especially the permeation of fuels is undesirable. Plastics are non-magnetic
and do not corrode in the same way as metals. The sliding friction and non-stick
properties of many plastics often make the lubrication of the sliding partners un-
necessary.
5.1.2 Material Preselection
Within the product development process, material preselection is one of the most
important steps, as many of the subsequent decision processes depend directly on
the material to be used. In this way, the material determines the processing meth-
ods to be used as well as geometric aspects. The component properties are natu-
rally dependent on geometry and material. Careful selection is therefore indis-
pensable.
The choice is very difficult because there are so many different plastics with differ-
ent characteristics. In addition, the choice is extremely important, as up to 70% of
the manufacturing costs are influenced by the material used. A material perfor-
mance that is too high for the application leads to an unnecessarily high price,
whereas a material performance that is too low may lead to product failure before
the end of the planned service life. A dilemma! The reliable prognosis of the ser-
vice life of plastic products still has a high research potential. Proposals for the
systematic life prediction of plastic products are given in Section 5.3.6.3 [1–3].
It is often only the combination of a material with a processing or further process-
ing method that can decisively determine the right choice. There are always sev-
eral possible combinations of materials and processes to achieve a new product.
However, it is never possible to say with certainty which combination is the right
one or where is the maximum of the requirement/price ratio.
The materials with their respective spectrum of properties are constantly in com-
petition with each other. Due to the diversity of materials, there is a suitable mate-
rial for almost every requirement profile. The difficulty here is the exact definition
of the requirement profile and the exact translation into material properties. The
more comprehensive a property profile of a material is, the more expensive it usu-
ally is. It is unfavorable if an expensive material has to be selected just because of
a special property, but otherwise the properties of a low-priced mass plastic would
suffice. Here the creativity of the product developer is required to find a way to do
without the special property or to obtain it differently.
The filter model (Figure 5.2) illustrates a methodical procedure for material prese-
lection. Possible materials are each “filtered” according to a sequence of criteria.
For this purpose, the characteristic values of the competing materials relevant for
the filter stage are compared for evaluation. Only a small selection of materials re-
mains. If these are comparable in principle, only the price is decisive. Examples of
special requirements are good recyclability, combinability with other materials,
e. g. for multi-component injection molding, or food contact.
available thermoplastics
thermal
requirements
chemical
requirements
mechanical
requirements
special component requirements
Figure 5.2
suitable thermoplastics Filter model; according to [4]
The characteristic values of the materials required for this filter process are often
taken from the data sheets of the raw material manufacturers, which are usually
5.2 Geometric Subdivision of Products 367
available for free in the CAMPUS® database. Many companies add their own expe-
rience with these materials, i. e. their own know-how, within the framework of
knowledge management and make it available to everyone. A lack of knowledge
about a material usually prevents its preselection.
Outstanding literature which collectively reflects the properties of various plastics
are [5, 6]. They usually provides a good overview of the properties before deeper
discussions are held with the raw material manufacturer.
Alternatively, the properties of the materials and the corresponding characteristic
values can be determined directly. The measuring devices used for this purpose
have already been presented in Sections 3.1 and 3.2. A rough preselection is often
also possible on the basis of basic typification characteristics, e. g. on the basis of
the question whether an amorphous or a semi-crystalline thermoplastic should be
used. Table 5.1 shows an overview of their respective characteristics in differentia-
tion from each other.
Table 5.1 Characteristics of Amorphous and Semi-crystalline Thermoplastics

Amorphous Thermoplastics Semi-crystalline Thermoplastics
high dimensional accuracy and dimensional tolerance higher contraction
risk of dissolving and swelling more resistant to chemicals
usually lower density usually longer service life
lower elasticity often higher mechanical properties
5.2 Geometric Subdivision of Products

If you look at plastic products, what is impressive at first glance is the freedom of
design, but at second glance you can see that some components are geometrically
similar. Component designs can usefully be subdivided into:
large-area,
housing-like,
container-like,
complex, and
function-specific
products. This subdivision helps in the selection of the appropriate processing
method, in the design, and in the selection of the appropriate prototype method.
5.2.1 Large-Area Products
Large-area products are generally relatively thin-walled (i. e. the ratio of wall thick-
ness to the other dimensions). They are used, for example, for covers in rail and
aircraft interiors as well as in automotive interior and exterior applications (bum-
pers). They often have the function of covering and supporting themselves. The
outer geometry is often a free-form surface (Figure 5.3), whereas the inner geo
metry is usually quite complex due to undercuts, ribs, snap hooks, etc.
Figure 5.3
Large-area interior door trim of a
motor vehicle
The ribbing of the inside of large-area products serves to increase component stiff-
ness (Section 5.3.2). The large number of ribs requires precise process control and
careful material selection, since sink marks are highly undesirable, especially
with the high aesthetic demands on the outer surface of large-area products. In
addition, large-area components are usually intended to cover or protect, and must
also fend off shocks and absorb sound.
The plastic-specific high thermal expansion must be tolerated by undesirable high
gap dimensions of the flat products compared to the neighboring products. In prin-
ciple, the tendency to warp is high with large-area products and must also be taken
into account by suitable rib design and process control.
5.2.2 Housing-Like Products
Housing products are often found in household appliances, electrical tools, IT, tele-
communication and entertainment devices, and automotive interiors. Housings are
also often thin-walled and perform tasks such as covering, sound insulation, elec-
trical insulation, inside also joining with other parts, motors/gears, or positioning.
The external geometry is here also mostly a free-form surface, whereas the inter-
nal geometry is often more complex than that of large-area products due to under-
cuts, ribs, connecting elements, etc. (Figure 5.4).
Figure 5.4
Interior view of a hand planer
Requirements for the properties of housings are high stiffness, strength, and im-
pact strength. In order to be able to connect them to another housing part, they
must also be particularly dimensionally stable (media-resistant, low-contraction,
and low shrinkage). For electrical applications, the material-specific unique selling
point of electrical insulation is used, but this may lead to static charging. In order
to shield electromagnetic radiation through a plastic housing, some of these prod-
ucts must be electrically conductive. As far as the exterior is concerned, even
greater aesthetic demands are placed on them than on large-area products. For
example, the surface must usually be glossy and scratch-resistant at the same time.
5.2.3 Container-Like Products
Container-like products are generally used as liquid containers in the packaging

sector, but also in more complex household appliances and in motor vehicles. In
general, the tasks of container-like products are to hold, carry, and seal liquid. The
external and internal geometry is often rather simple, and the cavity to be created
is characteristic for this geometry group (Figure 5.5).
Figure 5.5
Milk bottle
The requirements for fulfilling functions beyond higher thermal and mechanical
stresses (pressures) are usually special requirements resulting from use, such as
food safety or media resistance. Aesthetic requirements exist e. g. for high-quality
packaging products (e. g. in the cosmetics industry).
5.2.4 Complex Products
Products with complex geometries are developed, for example, for use in vehicle
construction, and in the electrical and heating industries. A typical task is to con-
duct forces, but also to conduct fluids and to support themselves. In addition to the
complexity of the external geometry, complex cavities occasionally have to be cre-
ated (Figure 5.6).
Figure 5.6
Air supply for a turbocharger
The complex structure is usually necessary to withstand high mechanical stresses

even at high temperatures. The resulting requirements demand properties such as
high stiffness, strength, and impact strength.
Although the requirements for such products are varied and very demanding, they
are often subject to less stringent aesthetic requirements. In order to ensure high
efficiency of moving parts or fluids, high dimensional stability and low tolerances
are required. Weldable thermoplastics are often used to realize these extremely
complex geometries.
5.2.5 Function-Specific Products
Function-specific products are rarely technical products and have no geometric

commonality at all. They fulfill application-specific requirements in particular due
to their geometry or material properties. Examples include impact absorbers, an-
ti-slip feet or mats, cable ties, locking pins, etc. The requirements for product prop-
erties and product geometries cannot be classified but depend on the respective
product and its application.
5.2.6 Importance for the Choice of the Processing Method
In addition to choosing the right material, the choice of the processing method is
also an important task. Several factors play a role here: the choice of material alone
restricts the available processes. Economic and manufacturing factors also play a
role.
As can be seen in Figure 5.7, the factors influencing the choice of processing
method are manifold. In addition to the shape of the product and the preferred
material, further requirements of the specifications must be fulfilled. The manu-
facturing costs per product must not exceed a certain value, which is also strongly
dependent on the expected number of units. An additional boundary condition for
the choice of process may be the existing machinery and its capacity utilization, if
the product developer manufactures the product him-/herself.
shape of number of
material
molded part pieces
processing method
permissible
machinery loads
costs / piece
Figure 5.7 Parameters of the processing method selection [7]
Here, too, the shape of the product is decisive for a suitable choice of process. With
regard to their geometric similarities, the relationships between geometry and the
choice of a suitable processing method can also be identified. Due to the complex-
ity of the subject, the following explanations can never be a universal aid, but
should rather illustrate this complexity.
Table 5.2 gives an overview of which processing methods are usually suitable for
the different types of geometries. Of course, it is not always possible to define gen-
eral rules. Rather, the table should be understood as an orientation aid in order to
be able to draw conclusions about the group of processing methods in relation to
the geometric properties of the product to be manufactured.
Table 5.2 Suitability of Processing Methods for the Production of Various Types of Geometry
Large- Housing- Con- Complex Complex Com- Complex
Area like tainer- Products Products plex, Products
Products Products like without with Thick- with
Products Under- Under Walled Internal
cuts cuts Products Contours
Pipe and pro- + ++
file extrusion
Sheet and ++
film extrusion
Extrusion ++
blow molding
Thermo ++ + +
forming
Conventional ++ + ++ + +
injection
molding
Injection ++ + ++ + ++
molding with
sliders
Injection ++ +
compression
molding
Cascade ++ + ++
injection
molding
Assembly ++ ++ + ++
and compos-
ite injection
molding
Fluid injec- ++ ++
tion technol-
ogy
Injection ++
stretch blow
molding
Pressing ++
5.3 Designing with Plastics

If the design is to be suitable for plastics, various perspectives must be adopted. On
the one hand, the design freedom offered by the various processing methods
should be exploited as far as possible. On the other hand, the following design sub-
divisions should be considered:
5.3 Designing with Plastics 373
material-oriented design,
production-oriented design, and, of course,
stress-oriented design.
The material-specific design takes into account the strengths and weaknesses of
the plastics, while the production-specific design takes into account the specifics
of the chosen processing method.
Of course, it is particularly important to design in such a way that the stresses can
be carried by the component so that the function and other requirements are main-
tained until the end of the planned service life. This stress-oriented design is dealt
with extensively in separate literature [8–10].
5.3.1 Requirements for Products and Functions
The terms requirement and function of a product are often used confusingly. Ac-
cording to VDI Guideline 2221:
Requirements: “Qualitative or quantitative definitions of properties or conditions
for a product. (. . .)”
Functions: “Solution-neutral described relationships between input, output, and
state variables of a system. (. . .)”
Requirements, even for quite simple products, are usually manifold. A basic re-
quirement is of course the fulfillment of the main function of the product. One of
the main functions of a seal is, for example, sealing. It is therefore a necessary
requirement of the product to fulfill its main function.
In order to fulfill this main function, however, the product must fulfill further re-
quirements. For example, the seal must “fit” and the material must be flexible
enough to compensate for unevenness in the components to be sealed. In addition,
the material must not creep too much when subjected to temperature and pressure
stress in the installed state. If the basic requirement to fulfill a function is not ful-
filled by a product, the product is not viable at all. A product without a function is
worthless or a piece of art (and thus receives a completely different function).
Knowing the requirements of the product and its properties is an important step.
However, knowledge of the material with which this requirement can be met can
only be obtained by “translating” the requirements into the correct material prop-
erties. Examples of the main functions of plastic products are listed below. As a
rule, several functions are fulfilled simultaneously by a complex component.
Table 5.3 is intended to help assign material or product characteristics to functions
that plastic products must perform individually or in combination. All product re-
quirements have one thing in common: to ensure that the main and secondary
functions of the product are maintained throughout its service life.
Table 5.3 Functions of Plastic Components and the Material Properties Relevant for These
Functions
Function Material or Product Characteristic
Covering stiffness
Sealing, retaining, stiffness, permeation, long-term strength, media resistance, dimensional
guiding (from media) stability*
Mounting strength
Carrying long-term strength, stiffness
Guiding hardness, toughness, wear resistance, dimensional stability*
Changing and guiding long-term strength, stiffness, heat deflection temperature
forces/moments
Joining long-term strength, stiffness
Positioning stiffness, dimensional stability*, tolerances
Electrical insulation breakdown voltage, tracking resistance, contact resistance
Acoustic insulation stiffness, density
Thermal insulation thermal conductivity, density, heat deflection temperature
* Dimensional stability is the tendency not to undergo subsequent dimensional change through, e. g. swelling,
contraction, shrinkage.
Through creative and engineering-oriented action, functions can be combined in

one product without neglecting the sum of the requirements (functional integra-
tion; Section 5.3.2). The highly functionally integrated plastic products realized in
recent years through successful cooperation between product developers, custom-
ers, and material, machine, and tool developers can be viewed with great respect.
Although the price is also a requirement of a product, the customer’s request is
usually the inverse. This means that the customer wants higher requirements, but
usually the price is the same or even lower. Product optimization therefore always
takes place with the maximization of the requirements/price ratio.
Figure 5.8 is also intended to help distinguish between the terms function, de-
mands of stresses, and properties. A product is stressed (in a general sense) in its
product life in a variety of ways. In order to meet the requirements, the product
must have specific minimum properties that allow it to withstand the specific
stresses sufficiently.
The overall function that is to be fulfilled by the future product, is – if it is complex
enough – broken down abstractly into several subfunctions during the functional
analysis. If the subfunctions are sufficiently small, it is legitimate to compile solu-
tions for such subfunctions. Such subfunctions as for example “connect” are stored
in design catalogs.
media stress mechanical stress
- dissolving - static
- swelling - dynamic
- stress cracking - impact
- reactive - multiaxial
- punctiform
- tension, compression, shear, friction
product
time
properties
physical stress temperature stress
- electrical - static
- acoustic - alternating
- electromagnetic (radiation)
Figure 5.8 Product properties “resist” stresses on the product
There are various possibilities to implement partial and total functions as a combi-
nation of individual functions. After consideration of the different possible connec-
tions a possible product crystallizes for the fulfillment of the total function.
Due to their special properties, plastics offer great advantages over other materials
with regard to the implementation of such partial and overall functions. Produc-
tion, e. g. in the primary shaping process injection molding, allows a high degree of
design freedom and the direct integration of functional elements on the compo-
nent, without subsequent joining or assembly steps. The solid-state properties,
such as high extensibility, also permit partial functions that would not be possible
in this form with other materials. The following section presents the most import-
ant of these plastic-specific functional elements.
5.3.2 Benefits of Design Freedom – Integration of Functional Elements
The primary shaping processes of plastics processing with their variety of shapes
allow enormous freedom of design. These and the special material properties of
the plastics allow construction and functional elements such as stiffening ribs (see
Section 5.3.3), guide aids, snap hooks, film hinges, and screw bosses (see Fig-
ure 5.9 and Figure 5.10) to be inserted almost cost-free.
ribs
screw boss
snap hook
Figure 5.9 Functional integration [11]: cable routing, snap fit, ribs, screw bosses
screw boss
cable guide motor and gear positioning
Figure 5.10 Hand planer housing from the inside
Figure 4.146 already showed some examples of snap connections. They are re-
garded as functional elements that are very suitable for plastics. They are inte-
grated into the component through the primary shaping process and allow simple
joining and – if desired – releasing/separating of two components. In other mate-
rial classes, this is hardly feasible due to the low extensibility and high material
stiffness. Figure 5.11 shows further examples at this point.
Figure 5.11 Closing clips, backpack buckle, and airtight container with snap-fit connection
The clips shown in Figure 5.12 are products that exist only because of the flexibil-
ity of plastic. In particular, they make it possible to connect attachments such as
those used in automobiles in a cost-effective and easy-to-assemble manner. How-
ever, high forces are usually not transmitted in this way.
Figure 5.12
Clips of different types
Screw bosses have already been presented in Section 4.5.5. Production in the pri-
mary shaping process allows these functional elements to be incorporated at low
cost. The metal screws then form their own threads during the joining process (see
Figure 5.9, Figure 5.10, and Figure 5.13).
Figure 5.13
Screw bosses for housing connection
Furthermore, joints as shown in Figure 5.14 can also be “injected” directly with
the component. There is no assembly effort for a separate joint or hinge. The com-
ponents can easily be separated again and the recycling is much easier.
Figure 5.14
Injected hinge parts
The DVD and Blu-ray Disc cases illustrated in Figure 5.15 show the various con-
cepts suitable for plastics. At the top, a two-part polystyrene case with integrated
snap hinge is shown. A further assembly step is required here. On the other hand,
covers made of stretchable polypropylene (PP) with integrated film hinge are
shown. In addition, the DVD or Blu-ray disc is held in the middle by an integrated
ring snap lock.
The considerable design freedom allows amazing product solutions. Figure 5.16
shows a component with an injected blade. Through film hinges and ring snap
connections, it can be folded into a razor with a stiff handle on the one hand and
into a small package for the travel bag on the other.
The design freedom is also used in the outsert technique by injecting functional
elements onto a metallic carrier board. Figure 5.17 shows the outsert board of a
video recorder used to store television recordings in the 1980s and 1990s. This
was used to combine low-cost rigidity (metal sheet) with low-cost forming variety
(injection molding).
Figure 5.15 DVD cases with different hinges
Figure 5.16
Disposable razor [9]
Figure 5.17
Outserts [Image source: Ticona]
The overmolding of metal parts, so-called inserts, is also a use of the variety of
forming possibilities. The combination of plastic and metals is always helpful when
the properties of the two material classes complement each other. Figure 5.18
shows various components with inserts and a pinion. Chapter 3 already pointed
out the different thermal expansion of this pairing. Residual stresses can be in-
duced if the temperature fluctuates over several 10 K.
Figure 5.18
Inserts and pinions
5.3.3 Use of Design Freedom – Increasing the Surface Moment

of Inertia
In Sections 3.2.1 and 5.1.1, the stiffness of plastics, which is one to two orders of
magnitude lower than that of metals, was clarified. The low material stiffness, how-
ever, can lead to a high component stiffness in combination with a high surface
moment of inertia I of the structure. Figure 5.19 shows how a leaf stiffens a large,
light surface with ribs. The ribs in the human body also protect the internal organs
with a relatively stiff but light cage.
Figure 5.19
Ribs for stiffening a thin leaf
The product of the modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus) of the material (“mate-
rial stiffness”) and the geometrical moment of inertia results in the so-called com-
ponent stiffness. The geometrical moment of inertia I of an area A around axis y is
generally defined as a surface integral of z2:
I y = ∫ z 2 dA (5.1)
A
whereby z describes the perpendicular distance of a surface element to the y-axis.

Iy describes the resistance of the geometry to deformation by y along the z-axis.
Equation 5.1 applies if the origin of the axis is in the area’s center of gravity. How-
ever, if the surface moment of inertia is related to another point, the distance of
this point to the center of gravity must be taken into account in the calculation.
The following applies:
I y total = ∫ z 2 dA + z S2 ⋅ A (5.2)
A
The distance zS of the reference point to the center of gravity enters quadratically
(parallel axis theorem). The increase of the geometrical moment of inertia of a
complex structure is based exactly thereon. The resulting geometrical moment of
inertia is greater than the sum of the partial surfaces. This is shown in Figure 5.20
using the example of the cross-section of a T-beam in comparison to a rectangular
beam of the same area. With the same cross-sectional area and therefore the same
component volume, a higher geometrical moment of inertia results for T-beams.
B = 2a 4a
a zgc = / a
zgc = 2a z = /a
H = 4a
center of z = /a
gravity 4a
area A = BH = 8a A = 2 (4a a) = 8a A
geo- Iy = / · 2a · (4a)³ = 10 · / · a Iy = / · 4a · a³ + / a (4a) + z 4a² + z 4a²

metrical
moment = 18 · / · a Iy parallel axis theorem
of inertia contributions
Figure 5.20 Increase of the geometrical moment of inertia due to more complex structure
Complex structures can be realized virtually without extra costs with primary
shaped plastic components. Figure 5.21 illustrates the advantages of ribbed struc-
tures. A thick, unribbed and a thinner, ribbed structure are shown. The ribbed
structure has the same moment of inertia and consequently the same bending
stiffness. The advantage of the ribbed structure lies in the lower material input and
above all in the much shorter cooling time.
plate 400 400 10 plate 400 400 4

(with 4 ribs 30 2.7)
load 8 kg load 8 kg
1.6 mm 1.6 mm Figure 5.21
weight 1680 g weight 810 g Ribs for component
cooling time 200 s cooling time 50 s reinforcement
Figure 5.22 shows examples of ribbed structures with high stiffness, low weight,
and short cooling time.
Figure 5.22 Ribbed car pedals
Steel offers very cost-effective stiffness and strength, as long as the component
does not have to take on complex shapes. Figure 5.23 shows the so-called Erlanger
beam, named after a famous university chair in Erlangen/Germany. This is a com-
ponent made from a combination of low-cost, simply structured sheet steel to in-
crease stiffness and a low-cost, complex ribbed thermoplastic structure to increase
the surface moment of inertia. Such hybrid structures make consistent use of the
cost-effective advantages of the respective material class.
Figure 5.23
Plastic ribbed sheet steel profile [8]
In addition to ribs, other geometric stiffening options are also available. During
injection molding of large-area products, the heat cannot usually be dissipated
uniformly over the surface. Different forms of shrinkage occur and the molded part
can show warpage in the form of distortions. A curved shape (Figure 5.24), but
also stepped zones (Figure 5.25) increase the surface moment of inertia and cause
surface stiffening.
Figure 5.24
Surface stiffening by curved surfaces
Figure 5.25
Surface stiffening by stepped zones
5.3.4 Material-Specific Design
Section 3.5.1 already explained the development of residual stresses. The warpage
is explained by considering the cooling in the corner area of a component
(Figure 5.26). If a corner area cools down in the manufacturing process, the outer
corner has double-sided contact with the mold wall. As a result, the large contact
surface allows a high heat transfer and therefore rapid cooling.
double-sided contact
with the mold wall
distortion
ϑ in °C in mm
170 0.45
no contact with
the mold wall
105 0.35
one-sided contact
with the mold wall
40 0.25
Figure 5.26 Uneven corner cooling (geometric) leads to angular distortion

The inner contour of the component, on the other hand, has no direct contact with
the mold wall and can therefore only dissipate heat via adjacent areas. The amount
of heat dissipated is significantly lower due to the poor thermal conductivity of
plastic and the cooling process is slowed down.
In this area, the melt will contract last and the corner geometry will constrict, as
indicated by the bold black lines. The already-solidified areas, which can no longer
relieve the resulting stress by flow, are deformed to a greater or lesser extent, de-
pending on the stiffness.
This uneven cooling cannot only be explained by the geometry of the component.
Cooling an inner corner is also more difficult because the cooling channels must
not be drilled too close to the mold surface for reasons of strength. As a result,
fewer cooling channels per unit volume are usually arranged in the interior and
consequently less heat can be removed from the component inside (Figure 5.27).
cooling melt
demolding
warpage
q̇core < q̇cavity or
residual stress
core cavity
Figure 5.27 Uneven corner cooling (technological)
Figure 5.28 shows two examples of how the mass accumulation in the corner area
can be slightly reduced if the shape of the component permits. The corners of a
component can be reduced in mass to reduce corner warpage. This thinner area
provides more uniform cooling compared to the right angle.
H
r
r
s r
s
s s
Figure 5.28 Reduction of angular distortion

When designing, it should also be noted that flow-induced orientation effects can
lead to different shrinkage parallel and perpendicular to the direction of flow (Fig-
ure 5.29). In oriented molecules, for example, there is less shrinkage in the main
direction than at right angles to it.
different
contraction
main orientation cooling

gate
Figure 5.29 Influence of the orientation on the contraction
The influence of fibers is even stronger. For example, a centrally injected round
disk with short glass fiber reinforcement will contract more in the circumferential
direction than in the fiber direction, since the fibers themselves do not contract
and consequently also hinder contraction of the surrounding matrix (Figure 5.30).
This can result in spatial distortion out of the plane so the disk bulges.
uparching
0.5 % 0.3 %
transverse contraction in radial contraction
circumferential direction
Figure 5.30 Contraction and warpage due to fiber orientation [8]
Furthermore, uneven wall thicknesses may lead to increased warpage due to the
different cooling rates (Figure 5.31, top). Below this is a suggestion for improve-
ment with ribbing, which allows a more uniform wall thickness. In the case of
semi-crystalline plastics, the maintenance of uniform wall thicknesses is even
more important due to the higher contraction tendency.
demolding
component design with bending due to a higher

uneven wall thickness contraction of the thicker rear
side of the component
constructive solution:
improved component design

with a nearly uniform
wall thickness
Figure 5.31 Warpage towards the last-solidified volume element
Due to the low heat conduction and high heat capacity, it is also important gener-
ally to design wall thicknesses not only uniformly but also as low as possible in
order to keep the cooling time during processing as short as possible. However, the
risk of voids and sink marks due to contraction of material accumulations also
increases immensely with increasing wall thickness of the solid material (Fig-
ure 5.32; Figure 5.33).
sink marks
>4 mm
Figure 5.32
Possible component defects after cooling
voids of thick-walled areas
Further remedial measures against component warpage are listed here:

Mold temperature as uniform as possible
Cooling time as long as possible
(possibly expensive) Process engineer
Annealing under form constraint
(additional step: expensive)
Selection of a stiff material

Insertion of stiffening elements
Product developer/designer
(ribs, stepped zones, . . .)
uniform wall thicknesses
Figure 5.33
Broken door handle with void and brittle fracture
If an insert is to be overmolded, the mass accumulations associated with this can

also be reduced by rethinking the shape. The designer’s creativity is required here
(Figure 5.34)!
insert
mass accumulation avoid mass accumulation

through other shape
Figure 5.34 Avoidance of mass accumulations

Figure 5.35 gives suggestions for avoiding mass accumulations in the corner areas
of a component.
d d
d d d d
d d
mass accumulation avoid mass accumulation

in corner areas through other shape
Figure 5.35 Avoidance of mass accumulations in the corner area [12]
Ribs should also be relatively thin-walled in order to enable rapid heat dissipation
and thereby keep the cooling time to a minimum. If component stiffness is not
achieved, the number of ribs should be increased rather than their thickness. Fig-
ure 5.36 shows empirically determined design recommendations.
R 0.3-0.5
SR = 0.5 s
0.5-1° Figure 5.36
Hmax = 10 s
Dimensioning recommendation – empirically
sR
determined
As a reference value for the rib thickness SR and the rib height H is valid:
SR ≈ 0.5 ⋅ S (5.3)
H max ≤ 10 ⋅ S (5.4)
The rib base should be provided with a radius to reduce the notch effect. At the
same time, the radius must not be too large in order to avoid mass accumulations.
If the rib base is too thick, there is an increased risk of sink marks and a longer
cooling time is required. Figure 5.37 shows the magnification of the inradius of the
rib base with increasing rib thickness and larger fillet radius. The resulting mass
accumulation increases the risk of sink marks. The increasing average depth of
incidence due to a rib that is too thick is shown in Figure 5.38.
cooling time tc in s
d
x3
R
x2
x1
| | |
sR
2.24 2.7 3.5
s = 2.0 diameter d in mm
sR = 1.0
R = 0.3
d = 2.24 = 1.12 s
cooling = 11.1 s
time
2 3
s s
d d
R R
sR sR
s = 2.0 s = 2.0
sR = 2.0 sR = 2.0
R = 0.5 R = 2.0
d = 2.7 = 1.35 s d = 3.5 = 1.75 s
cooling = 15.9 s cooling = 26.1 s
time time
Figure 5.37 Influence of rib thickness and radius [8]

rib thickness in s 0.5 s 0.75 s 1.0 s 1.25 s 1.5 s
depth of sink 1.0 1.0 2.0 6.5 7.0

marks in µm
Figure 5.38 Correlation between rib thickness and sink mark depth [8]
The problem of sink marks on the back of ribs is not insignificant in design-
influenced applications. Since they can rarely be avoided, it is necessary to find
solutions where design and aesthetic aspects are important. In order to avoid or
conceal these sink marks, the suggestions shown in Figure 5.39 are proposed.
A real component is shown in Figure 5.40.
visible sink marks grooves
Figure 5.39
surface nodules in area Concealing of sink marks (principal
structuring of sink marks possibilities)
Figure 5.40 Concealing sink marks on an arm rest

Mass accumulations also occur at intersections between ribs. In general, these

should therefore be avoided or reduced (Figure 5.41). If this is not possible, e. g. for
reasons of load-bearing capacity, a suitable design must be selected that minimizes
mass accumulations. If rib intersections cannot be reduced, they can also be de-
signed in different ways (Figure 5.42).
unfavorable favorable
R
R
Figure 5.41 Avoidance of rib intersections
Figure 5.42 Design of rib intersections

For the design of screw bosses (see Section 4.5.5) similar guidelines apply as for
the design of ribs. The core hole should not be too short in order to avoid the mass
accumulation underneath. An annular groove around the screw boss also reduces
the amount of solidifying material and the mass accumulation. If the base radius
is too high, a rather high mass accumulation occurs despite the deep core hole.
Figure 5.43 shows examples of both suitable and unsuitable designs.
good shape shallow core hole

small increase of high wall thickness
local wall thickness contraction
sink marks and voids
long cooling time
alternative shape base radius too large

reduction of sink marks high wall thickness
on the back side due to contraction
a deeper core hole sink marks and voids
long cooling time
Figure 5.43 Design of screw bosses
Due to the accumulation of material on screw bosses, sink marks or hollow spaces
can form. Screw bosses are therefore normally free-standing, stiffened, or con-
nected to the edge of the component through thin ribs in order to increase bending
and torsional stiffness and facilitate screwing in (Figure 5.44). In the case of such
connection measures, mass accumulations must always be avoided as well.
ribs stiffen
free-standing tube
tube attached to
the edge with ribs
hollow out Figure 5.44

thicker areas Design of screw bosses
5.3.5 Production-Oriented Design
It is not always easy to separate the material and production perspectives. Produc-
tion-oriented design focuses on the producibility of the product shape. The exam-
ple of injection molding is used to illustrate this in more detail.
The producible product shape includes all aspects of the suitable flow of the melt
during mold filling, including pressure requirement, flow path length, and posi-
tion of the weld lines. In addition, there are also aspects of demolding in the solid-
ified state.
Perspective “Flow Path”

The mold should be flowed through by the melt with as constant a velocity as pos-
sible and should also be filled uniformly. Stopping melt fronts lead to local cooling
and consequently to surface markings or even component weaknesses.
The pressure drop Δp over the flow path correlates with 1/s3, so the wall thick-
ness s should be as large as possible for long flow paths. On the other hand, the
“expensive” cooling time tK correlates with s2, indicating that the wall thickness
should be kept as low as possible. This alone must lead to a compromise. By select-
ing suitable materials or process engineering solutions (e. g. cascades, see Section
4.2.5.4), smaller wall thicknesses can be achieved more and more effectively now-
adays, so that the cooling time is now the determining factor. In addition, the rule
to inject from “thick” to “thin” applies in order to achieve suitable pressure gradi-
ents, to allow the holding pressure to act for as long as possible, and to avoid sink
marks.
Unavoidable weld lines should only occur in areas that are less stressed or where
the melt still has a higher temperature and pressure (e. g. preferably not at the end
of the flow path). Regarding the internal properties, orientations and possibly fiber
orientations are influenced by the melt flow direction, among other things, and
residual stresses by the cooling process.
Mold filling simulations, as shown in Figure 5.45 do not replace the production-
oriented design, but help the engineer, providing certainty about the above-men-
tioned aspects of suitable flow. The engineerʼs goals are always the same:
few weld lines and if possible not at the end of the flow path,
suitable orientation of fiber and polymer chain,
the flow paths should be as equal as possible, and
a constant velocity at the flow front.
Figure 5.45
Example of a mold filling simulation
result [Image source: Optimized
Plastics]
Sharp edges not only produce a notch effect, but also place a thermal load on the
melt (Figure 5.46). There, the melt is sheared more strongly during the filling pro-
cess. In addition, the molding accuracy of sharp edges is not good.
R 0.5 d
R 1.5 d Figure 5.46

d d Avoiding sharp edges
Once the component has solidified, it should be removed from the mold as quickly
as possible. Undercuts should be avoided in order to be able to eject the molded
part with the opening motion of the mold and to avoid costly sliders. Figure 5.47
shows the same component, once manufactured with a slide, and then slightly
modified in order to be demoldable without a slide.
Figure 5.47 Undercuts, cleverly avoided
Some undercuts can be “overcome” by deforming the molded component also with-
out a slider. This is called “forced demolding”. It should be noted that a certain ex-
tension (see Table 5.4) must not be exceeded during deformation, depending on
the material.
Table 5.4 Guideline Values for One-Time Joining According to [9]

Material Group Permissible Edge Fiber Strain εper
Semi-crystalline thermoplastics ≈ 0.9 · εY
Amorphous thermoplastics ≈ 0.7 · εY
Reinforced thermoplastics ≈ 0.5 · εY
with εY = strain at yield
In addition, the molded parts must be provided with draft angles in order to reduce
the friction surface between the component and the mold and therefore achieve
lower draft forces and a lower draft stroke (Figure 5.48). Ribs must also be de-
signed with draft angles (see Figure 5.36).
FF1
frict. force FF
non-conical
time
FF2
frict. force FF
conical
Figure 5.48
Draft angles reduce frictional force during
time demolding
5.3.6 Stress-Oriented Design
If all the rules of material and production orientated design are taken into account,
it must still be ensured that the forces and deformations acting on the component
do not lead to premature failure.
Central to a product development is a focus on the mechanical design of the
component in order to reliably predict its deformation and fracture behavior. Both
the subsequent application and the material-specific behavior must be taken into
account.
An important principle that should already be taken into account in the first de-
sign drafts of a component is that of uniform load distribution. If the geometric
design is unfavorable, this will lead to uneven stress distribution in the compo-
nent, meaning local stresses increase, especially at corners and sharp edges. This
is referred to as the notch effect. An example is given in Figure 5.49.
F
stress
high
low Figure 5.49

Uneven load distribution due to the
F notch effect
The notch effect in plastic components is less critical with ductile plastics than
with brittle plastics or metal components. If the macromolecules are mobile
enough, they relieve the notch by partial rearrangement and “bridging” over the
resulting crack. Nevertheless, notches always lead to an increase in stress, so when
constructing with plastics, the corners should always be provided with radii.
As already mentioned, corners and edges of a plastic component should therefore
be provided with radii to allow good melt flow and good demoldability, but also to
reduce notch stresses. Figure 5.50 shows a snap hook with a sharp-edged opening.
By intelligently shifting the main bending area away from the breakthrough and
by introducing radii (Figure 5.51), the snap hook could be safely used.
Film hinges are usually associated with wall thickness jumps, but should also have
smooth transitions for melt flow and stress distribution (Figure 5.52).
possible
cracks
loaded on bending
Figure 5.50 Cracks due to notch stress
radii greater bending possible,

therefore lower bending stress
Figure 5.51
Improvement to the
design in the previous
figure
lid
hinge
insufficient radii
stress concentration
container
larger radii
more equally distributed Figure 5.52

deformation and stress Design of a film hinge in accordance
with load and production require-
ments
The sequence of the mechanical dimensioning (Figure 5.53) can be subdivided as

follows:
Apply forces and boundary conditions,
Calculate resulting deformations and stresses,
Compare with acceptance criteria.
consideration of
cause effect
chronological sequence
occuring/internal permissible
- static
load load loadability
- dynamic
- mechanical
- thermal
(stationary, unstationary)
component
! material
- medial
≤
calculation, e. g.
- deformations ε criteria (depending on test)
- iterative approximation - stresses σ - permissible stress
- analytical - critical strain
Figure 5.53 Procedure of a mechanical component design
First, the forces and boundary conditions to which the planned product will be ex-
posed are applied. The response of the component is deformation and (internal)
stress. These component responses are calculated with the aid of material models.
The deformations and stresses (loads) are then compared with criteria (of loadabil-
ity) in order to check whether they are permissible, i. e. whether they do not endan-
ger the function of the component.
In the engineering bachelor’s degree mechanics courses, usually the conventional
analytical dimensioning method, e. g. by calculating the deflection of a bending
beam under various load situations, is introduced. This can only be used for plastic
components as a rough calculation, since the real, complex geometries deviate greatly
from these simplifications. In addition, plastics do not behave linearly and even the
modulus of elasticity is not constant depending on the influence of time and load.
In order to ensure that the part design is suitable for a load case, empirically deter-
mined laws are also used for rough calculations. These are supplemented by the
application of iterative approximation methods such as the finite element method
(FEM).
5.3.6.1 Dimensioning against a Permissible Stress

The result of the calculations is usually an equivalent stress σr occurring in the
component, which is compared with a permissible stress σper (Figure 5.54). If the
equivalent stress occurring is smaller than the permissible stress, the component
is considered acceptable. However, if the reference stress is much smaller, the com-
ponent may be oversized and unnecessarily expensive. Characteristic values for
the permissible stress, for example σm, are usually obtained in tensile tests or alter-
nating load tests. The standardized test conditions, however, usually do not corre-
spond to the real load cases.
permissible stress
σm
σper =
S A
material parameter safety factor reduction factor

σm S A
Figure 5.54
consists of various Dimensioning
from databases,
against a per
from tests
type of danger etc. missible stress
With the help of the mechanics learnt in a bachelor’s course, load conditions can
be analytically considered and estimated. The shear stress occurring in the screw
boss shown in Figure 5.55 can be determined using the Equation 5.5:
τS = Fl dS ⋅ lE ⋅ π (5.5)
with:
Fl = axial bolt force
dS = outside diameter of screw
lE = screw-in length
d i ds da
Figure 5.55
IE Important parameters for the design of screw bosses
In addition, the tensile stress occurring in the screw boss must be calculated using
the following formula:
Fl
sl = (5.6)
Amin
with:
Amin = smallest tube cross-section
These stresses must be compared with the permissible stress for this material to
evaluate whether the thread will shear or break. As an alternative, it is possible to
use empirically determined values.
The following roughly applies:
0.7 dS < di < 0.95 dS
1.8 dS < da < 2.5 dS
2.0 dS < lE < 3.0 dS.
For plastics the comparison with a permissible stress is only partially suitable. The
stresses in a plastic component are – due to the viscoelastic deformation behav-
ior – not constant, but a function of the load level, load duration, load speed, and
operating temperature. The resulting stresses react very sensitively to these influ-
ences.
In order to consider the many influences on the stress, calculation factors are used
[10] which reduce the permissible stress. Such reduction factors A usually lie be-
tween 1.5 and 2, but can also assume values above 5 [8, 9]. Furthermore, it is to be
expected that non-linear deformations will also occur despite the dimensioning
according to the permissible stress.
These are hardly predictable, which is why safety factors S must be used in addi-
tion to reduction factors A in practice [8, 10, 13]. The usual safety factors are be-
tween 1.5 and 2 [9].
Both the high reduction factors and the high safety factors illustrate the uncer-
tainty in the stress-related design. Since safety and reduction factors are multi-
plied, the permissible stress becomes very small and the result of a stress-related
design is usually oversized. Oversizing conflicts with a lightweight and resource-
saving component design.
5.3.6.2 Dimensioning against Critical Strain

In recent years it has been shown that snap hooks (Figure 5.56) should only be
loaded in the linear-elastic range and it has become established that they should be
designed less by considering the force applied than by considering the maximum
strain that occurs.
snap length L
angle bracket
snap-in height f
Hakenhöhe h joining angle Figure 5.56
Important parameters for
the design of a compliant
bending hook
The outer-fiber strain resulting from the deflection during joining must not exceed
certain values (see Table 5.5):
eouter = f ⋅ 3h 2L2 (5.7)
with:
f = snap-in height
h = hook height
L = snap length
These values are determined on the basis of experience for various thermoplastics.
Since it is assumed that snap fits are exposed to a one-time, short-term load, com-
paratively high elongations can be permitted. For frequent joining and loosening,
smaller values should be used. A corresponding recommendation is provided by
[9]:
Table 5.5 Guideline Values for Permissible Short-Term Strains

Unfilled semi-crystal- Εper Unfilled Εper Glass fiber Εper
line thermoplastics amorphous reinforced
thermoplastics thermoplastics
PE 8.0% PC 4.0% PA GF30 2.0%
PP 6.0% PC + ABS 3.0% PA GF30 (dry) 1.5%
PA (moist) 6.0% ABS 2.5% PC GF30 1.8%
PA (dry) 4.0% CAB 2.5% PBTP GF30 1.5%
POM 6.0% PVC 2.0% ABS GF30 1.2%
PBT 5.0% PS 1.8% PPS GF45 1.0%
A similar situation also applies to the design of film hinges. It has also been shown
that, depending on the bending angle (Figure 5.57), an existing outer-fiber strain εb
can be calculated with the Equation 5.8. This outer-fiber strain must not exceed
certain values in order to be considered geometrically permissible. In the case of
film hinges, it is to be assumed that they are not only subjected to a one-time load,
but to regular loads. Therefore, a permissible elongation is sought which ensures
any number of load changes without any damage occurring.
starting position
L
end position
R
α+β
Mx
-β
α +β
Figure 5.57 Permissible limit strain of a film hinge [8]
εb = h 2 ⋅ (α L − (α ± β ) L) (5.8)
So if it has been shown that the snap-fits and film hinges can be suitably dimen-
sioned by means of a limit strain, it is questionable whether a strain-related design
is generally more suitable for plastics.
In the 1970s, Georg Menges proposed a strain-related approach [14, 15]. It could
be shown with transparent, amorphous and translucent, partially crystalline spec-
imens that with increasing tensile load duration the optically recognizable begin-
ning of damage – also called yield point – approaches asymptotically a yield point
strain εF∞ – also called critical limit strain [14, 16] (Figure 5.58).
fracture
σ εb
σ
σ
strain ε
crazing σ σ σ
εF∞ = εcrit
critical
limit strain
time t
Figure 5.58 Explanations of the critical limit strain according to [13]

As long as the strain in the specimen does not exceed the critical strain, it is as-
sumed that no damage occurs at the molecular level [17, 18]. In addition, it turned
out that the first micro-cracks occur exactly when the critical strain is exceeded,
even under short-term loading. However, these are still so small at short-term load-
ing that they first have to grow in order to be detected with the naked eye [19]. At
high stresses, the strain rate is higher, which is why crack formation is detected
too slowly. At lower stress/strain rates, however, optical detection approaches the
actual time of occurrence. This also explains the apparently asymptotic progres-
sion of the beginning of the damage. However, the critical limit strain εF∞ in itself
is independent of the load duration/velocity.
Further investigations on critical strain showed that it is largely independent of
the following parameters:
type of loading (static, dynamic, multi-axial) [15, 20]
loading time [14, 16]
operating temperature [14, 16]
influence of media (provided: no softening or dissolving effect) [21–23]
stress level [13]
Critical strain as a design criterion has several advantages over stress-related de-
sign. These are:
simple and safe design [13, 24]
use of lower reduction/safety factors [20]
wide range of validity of the critical strain [10, 25]
no failure of the component, even under long-term load [14, 16]
no distinction between static and dynamic load necessary [20]
good predictability of the deformation, since no non-linear deformation behavior
occurs [13]
Table 5.6 arranges the critical limit strain εcrit into different thermoplastic groups.
Table 5.6 Values for Critical Strain According to [25]

Plastic Critical Strain εcrit
Amorphous, unfilled thermoplastics 0.6 to 1.0%
Exception: polystyrene 0.2%
Semi-crystalline, unfilled, hard thermoplastics 2.0 to 4.0%
Semi-crystalline, unfilled, soft thermoplastics 3.0 to 6.0%
Filled thermoplastics 0.3 to 0.5%
The determination of the critical strain as the limit value of the strain with opti-
cally recognizable micro-crack formation is, however, very time-consuming due to
the long loading times and determination in the creep rupture test. For this reason,
new measuring methods are currently being researched at the author’s institute to
enable simple and rapid determination of the critical strain.
5.3.6.3 Dimensioning against the Influence of Time – Service Life Prediction

A completely different perspective is dimensioning against the influence of time.
Manufacturers of technical products must provide warranties, sometimes over
several years, and guarantee certain product properties for defined periods of time.
Since the component properties change over time (aging, see Section 3.6), it is im-
portant for the engineer to know and be able to predict these changes in order to
design a component accordingly.
This prediction of the service life can take place, for example, on test specimens or
similar components under real boundary conditions, but would mean long test
times for durable goods. For this reason, the components are aged artificially and
usually at an accelerated rate in order to shorten the test times and costs for a life-
time prediction. Information about the external conditions and the planned appli-
cation is necessary to carry out a service life prediction that is as precise as possi-
ble.
One must always be aware, however, that with very durable products and the re-
sulting long prediction periods, uncertainty occurs in every prediction. Periods
longer than a decade are considered particularly critical.
At the beginning of each prediction, the expected operating conditions must be
clarified:
Predefined operating time
Operating temperatures (min., max., cycles, . . .)
Mechanical loads (static, dynamic, . . .)
Media (coolant, fuel, cleaning agent, . . .)
Radiation exposure (UV, X-ray, . . .) etc.
If the operating conditions are clear, the main functions must be considered. Which
component properties can change over time during intended use and lead to a com-
ponent failure? This change in property must then be converted into a measurable
quantity (e. g. tensile strength, elongation at break, impact strength, molar mass, . . .).
In the next step, this measurable variable must be assigned a limit value (decrease
or increase by x% relative to the initial value), from which an exceedance or under-
shoot leads to a component failure.
The test time can be shortened in various ways. In the simplest case, the operating
conditions, such as test temperature, media concentration, or radiation rate (so-
called acceleration factors), are intensified depending on the planned component
application. The task of an experienced engineer is to find the right measure.
By using incorrectly selected acceleration factors, chemical reactions can be pre-

vented or even created, so that the components age differently than in use. Such
results cannot be used for life prediction. In the worst case, they lead to a serious
misjudgment of the actual service life.
The procedure for estimating the service life is as follows:
Define failure criterion,
Define limit value,
Select acceleration factors (temperature, media concentration, radiation dose,
rate, stress cycles, combined influences, etc.),
Inspect components/test specimens,
Estimation of the service life under intended use.
In ISO 2578, “Plastics – Determination of temperature-time limits for long-term
heat exposure” (10/1998), the basic procedure for a single temperature influence
is described. The calculation model is based on the Arrhenius equation (time-tem-
perature superposition principle).
Test specimens are stored at different temperatures, removed at defined times and
tested for the previously selected criterion. Figure 5.59 shows a principal drop in a
previously defined failure criterion (e. g. elongation at break) as a function of the
respective storage temperature. Temperature-time pairs (point in time at which the
property curve intersects the limit value) are then taken from this diagram and a
thermal endurance graph is generated (Figure 5.60).
T > T > T > T > Tapplication

100
property value
50 threshold
0
1 10 100 1,000 10,000
storage time t
Figure 5.59 Accelerated aging at increased temperatures
For this purpose, the temperature-time pairs for different storage temperatures Ti
and the resulting times ti (logarithmic) are displayed. If the individual measuring
points lie on a straight line, the Arrhenius equation is valid and by extrapolation
allows the estimation of the life expectancy to be estimated at lower temperatures
and long operating times by extrapolation. A typical value in industry for a con
tinuous service temperature is the temperature that can be read at an extrapolated

20,000 h (approx. 2.3 years). The higher the continuous service temperature, the
more possible applications are given for the product.
threshold is reached log t
time until selected
(Toperation/tlife expectancy)
(T t
e. g. 20,000 h (T t
(T t
continuous
service (T t
temperature Figure 5.60
Thermal endurance graph according to
temperature T ISO 2578
5.3.7 Brief Summary of Designing with Plastics
The design rules for products made of plastic are listed here again in abridged
form separately according to the main processing methods (injection molding,
pressing, blow molding). Only if such rules are taken into account can the materi-
al-specific unique selling propositions and the variety of shapes of the plastic pro-
cessing methods be used sensibly.
Design of Injection Molded Products

The injection molding process (see Section 4.2) can be used to manufacture flat
products, joining parts for container-type products, but above all housing types
and very complex products. The rules are as follows:
Keep the wall thickness as low as possible in order to achieve a short cycle time.
However, the load and limited flowability of the material to be used must always
be taken into account.
Provide identical wall thicknesses in order to achieve uniform cooling and con-
traction and thereby avoid distortion and residual stresses.
Avoid mass accumulations in order to enable rapid and uniform heat dissipation
and thereby avoid voids and sink marks.
If wall thickness changes cannot be avoided, inject from “thick” to “thin”.
Apply radii to corners and edges to ensure good melt flow and good demolding,
and to reduce notch stresses.
Use ribs and gradations as stiffening elements and make them suitable for injec-
tion molding so that no sink marks are visible on the reverse side.
Use screw bosses as connecting elements, connect via thin ribs, and design for
injection molding so that no sink marks occur.
Use film hinges as connecting elements, ensure melt flow through the thin part.
Provide sufficient draft angles in order to be able to demold the injection molded
product well.
Avoid undercuts in order to make the mold concept as simple as possible.
Pay attention to the positioning of the gate in order to achieve few weld lines,
suitable orientation, and short and even flow paths. Avoid placing the gate and
ejector systems on visible surfaces.
Design of Pressed Products

In the pressing process (see Section 4.3), flat products in particular can be pro-
duced. This process occasionally competes with injection molding and thermo-
forming for large-area components. General design rules are:
Keep the wall thickness as low as possible in order to achieve a short cycle time,
but always take the applied load into account.
Provide identical wall thicknesses in order to achieve uniform cooling and con-
traction and consequently avoid distortion and residual stresses.
Avoid mass accumulations in order to enable rapid and uniform heat dissipation
and thereby avoid voids and sink marks.
Apply radii to corners and edges to allow good melt flow and demolding and re-
duce notch stress.
Design ribs according to good melt flow.
Provide sufficient conicities to allow good demolding of the pressed product.
Avoid undercuts in order to make the tooling concept as simple as possible.
Pay attention to the positioning of the material package cut to ensure few weld
lines and short flow paths.
Design of Blow Molded Products

The extrusion blow molding process (see Section 4.1.6) is mostly used to produce
container-like products or other hollow products. General design rules are:
Apply radii to corners or edges to prevent wrinkling and to facilitate demolding.
Avoid large flat surfaces to reduce distortion.
Keep pinch-offs as small as possible to save material.
5.4 Benefits of Prototypes in
Product Development
Prototypes are used in the various phases of product development. Designers need
prototypes in order to see their idea of the outer shape directly in front of their own
eyes or to feel it with their own hands. Developers need prototypes during the con-
cept or elaboration phase, to show functionalities or already to prove that technical
demands are met.
A company that develops innovative products may lose its competitiveness without
the use of prototypes. There is excellent literature that can be consulted when in-
depth knowledge of the various types of prototyping techniques is needed. An out-
standing example is [26]. In order to be able to choose the right prototyping method
for your application with the help of this literature, however, it is usually necessary
to first understand all the techniques with their advantages and disadvantages and
to weigh them up against each other.
This section is intended to assist the product developer in choosing the right proto-
type. First, the various methods used today to produce prototypes are presented,
followed by assistance in selecting the appropriate method.
In order to be able to produce prototypes, various procedures are available. These
have the advantage over large-series processes such as injection molding or injec-
tion compression molding that a cost-intensive mold production can be dispensed
with. If only individual prototypes are required, they are produced using the so-
called rapid prototyping process. In rapid tooling, on the other hand, a prototype
tool is produced which enables the production of a limited number of parts in the
planned processing procedure.
5.4.1 Rapid Prototyping
Prototypes can be produced in various ways. For example, simple geometries can
be milled from solid material or produced from sheet material by folding or screw-
ing together. However, plastic products are usually more complex, so prototype
processes must also be able to produce more complex geometries.
If such more complex prototypes are required, it is worth using additive methods.
These methods do not require any mold. Additive manufacturing in most cases re-
fers to production processes in which products are built up in layers. This can be
done using different processes, which are commonly summarized as 3D printing.
However, 3D printing is only one of these additive processes, as will be presented
later.
5.4 Benefits of Prototypes in Product Development 409
In general, powdery or liquid materials are used in additive manufacturing. A layer

of the material is applied and bonded to the underlying layer. The principle of the
process of tool-less forming (additive manufacturing) is shown in Figure 5.61. The
3D CAD model is converted in the computer into a layer representation (STL for-
mat) and forwarded to the computer of the generative process. The prototype is
then constructed stepwise.
1 2
3 4
building
in layers
Figure 5.61 Principle of the additive manufacturing process
In the following, the most important methods Stereolithography (SLA), Selective

Laser Sintering (SLS), Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM or FFF), Laminated Object
Manufacturing (LOM), and 3D Printing (3-D-P) will be presented.
5.4.1.1 Stereolithography (SLA)

Stereolithography is the oldest laser-based generative prototype process. A photo-
polymer, i. e. a light-curing resin, is selectively exposed point by point or line by
line by, for example, a laser and thus locally cured to form a thermoset. After a
layer has cured, the carrier plate is lowered and the uppermost cured layer is again
wetted with photopolymer (Figure 5.62). The materials used are acrylic, epoxy, and
vinyl ether resins, which are yellowish translucent (amber) when cured (Fig-
ure 5.63). In addition to laser curing, other exposure concepts (UV light sources)
are now available.
UV source cured polymer

laser
supporting structure squeegee
light-curing
photopolymer
The laser cures After curing, the carrier

the liquid monomer plate lowers until the squeegee a consistent
point by point. uppermost layer is liquid level is
wetted with liquid again. guaranteed.
Figure 5.62 Principle of stereolithography
Figure 5.63
Holders produced by stereo
lithography [26]
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5.4.1.2 Selective Laser Sintering (SLS)

In selective laser sintering, thermoplastic powder is locally heated by a laser (usu-
ally a CO2 laser) point by point or line by line so the powder particles are locally
fused together. After the layer has cooled, the carrier plate lowers. With the aid of
a scraper or similar coating system (roller), a new coating of powder is laid down
and at the same time firmly pressed on (Figure 5.64).
In laser sintering, thermoplastics such as polyamide 12 and polycarbonate, but

also polystyrene, can be used, which are more ductile (also more impact resistant)
than most resins used in stereolithography or their cured thermosets. The finished
prototype must be taken out from the powder bed.
The laser fuses After cooling, the carrier The starting material is
the powdery starting plate lowers and the coated with the aid of
material point by point. reservoir provides new the scraper and
powdery starting material.
the same time.
Figure 5.64 Principle of selective laser sintering (SLS)
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
5.4.1.3 Laminated Object Manufacturing (LOM)

In laminated object manufacturing, an adhesive layer of plastic or paper is cut out
contour-wise by laser. After cutting, a new adhesive layer is pulled over the previ-
ous layer, pressed on, and bonded (Figure 5.65). The LOM process is more suitable
for large-volume components with a maximum of medium-level complexity, since
the separated adhesive layer still has to be separated from the actual prototype.
This is hardly possible with structures that are too complex.
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
The laser cuts out After cutting, a new The new adhesive
the component.
Figure 5.65 Principle of the LOM process
5.4.1.4 3D Printing (3-D-P)

In 3D printing, a powder layer is first applied to a platform (Figure 5.66). Using a
print head similar to inkjet technology, a binder is applied to the powder layer, thus
selectively bonding the powder layer. This process is repeated layer by layer until
the entire product contour is built up.
print head
binder
supporting structure
prototype building
made of powder layers
platform
Figure 5.66 Principle of 3D printing
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Figure 5.67 shows the product development process divided into different over
lapping phases. At the same time, different generating and conventional forming
processes are differentiated according to their weighting in the different product
creation phases.
prod
3D - idea uct d
evel
ste FDM printing plan draf
opm
ent
selec reoli / LOM conc ning t
tive thog
laser raph ept
sinte y desi pr
ring gn serei -produ
es ction
calcu tes
latio ting
n
met
or in al castin
vacu vestmen g in sand
um c t ,
prot
otyp astin casting plaster
NC t e g, RI
man ech t o o M F LEX
ual m niques, ls, Kelto mold
odel CN ol s for
mak C, HSC PU
ing
Figure 5.67 Prototype processes in different product development phases [Image source:
Kegelmann Technik]
5.4.1.5 Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM or FFF)

In the fused deposition modeling, also known as strand deposition or fused fila-
ment fabrication, a thermoplastic melt strand is extruded from a die and applied to
a building platform in a linear fashion. There it solidifies and the next line is placed
and welded on top of it (Figure 5.68). Filaments made of thermoplastics such as
polylactide, ABS, and thermoplastic elastomers can be used for the process. The
filaments must be very precise in diameter and roundness in order to be molten
during contact heating in the so-called “hot end”. The complexity of the prototypes
is limited (Figure 5.69). A machine is shown in Figure 5.70.
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process:
depositing of a melt strand
(plastic wire)
propulsion
contact heating hot end
prototype die
linear
application
supporting structure building platform
Figure 5.68 Principle of fused deposition modeling
Figure 5.69
FFF prototypes made of ABS [26]
[Image source: alphaCAM]
Figure 5.70
Example of a 3D printer for FFF
Injection molding machine producer Arburg presented a new process variant at

the globally largest plastics exhibition, the K trade fair, in 2013. Instead of strands,
melt droplets are generated and deposited point by point (Figure 5.71). What is
particularly attractive is that these are produced by means of a plasticizing screw

from conventional plastic granulate, which makes the user independent of the
machine manufacturer, who often earns a lot of money from selling the filament or
powder material.
mini extruder
piezo die
point shaped
application
prototype
building platform,
movable in
Figure 5.71 Principle of droplet layering
5.4.2 Rapid Tooling
In the primary forming process, plastic is brought into its complex shape in a vis-
cous state (usually melt) through a mold, the tool, until the plastic has solidified
again and retains its shape. The production of such molds is very expensive and
time-consuming, depending on the process used. Therefore, attempts are made to
produce such molds in a cheaper and faster way in order to be able to produce at
least a small number of the later product.
Molds made of various materials, such as polyurethane, epoxy resin, aluminum,
and wood, can be produced using classical model-making methods including ma-
chining, modeling, joining, and others. It is faster with NC milling techniques
(CNC, HSC), with which molds can be produced from different, even stronger ma-
terials, preferably aluminum.
If the geometries in classical model making are easy to mill, it is a good idea to
produce inexpensive aluminum tools or even tools from wood and to use them, for
example, to produce simple prototypes by rotational molding or reaction injection
molding (RIM) (see Section 4.3.4). In rotational molding, thermoplastics are in-
jected as granules or powder into a heated aluminum mold, which forms a cavity.
The particles get into the melt and are distributed evenly on the inner wall of the
mold as it rotates, where they form the contour after cooling. In the RIM process,
reactive polyurethane materials are filled into a classically manufactured model.
If the geometries of the products to be manufactured are too complex for these
classic model types, rapid tooling processes are available, which can usually pro-
duce a mold in a few hours or days instead of weeks:
5.4.2.1 Casting
Stereolithography can be used not only to produce prototypes but also to generate
mold inserts, which, however, can only withstand a few injection molding proce-
dures. More durable molds can be produced by resin molding. A master model is
embedded in a container in modeling clay and coated with hardening resin. Subse-
quently, one half is filled with casting resin. In the next step, the modeling clay is
removed and the second half of the mold is produced by coating and filling with
resin (Figure 5.72).
casting frame gel coat

parting plane
molding apply gel coat
modeling clay casting resin

embedding
pouring of the
master model 1st mold half
demolding of the
mold insert
embedding
1st mold half

2nd mold half
apply gel coat
1st mold half
pouring of the
2nd mold half
Figure 5.72 Production of a mold by resin casting
Rimflex® molds are reaction injection molding (RIM) molds characterized by the
flexible use of different types of mold inserts. Molding tools, which have been pro-
duced in classical model making, combined with molding inserts from additive
manufacturing processes (mostly stereolithography), are the hallmarks of this pro-
cess.
In vacuum casting, a model is hung in a mold box, which is filled with silicone.
After curing, the silicone mold is cut open with a knife and the model is removed.
Subsequently, the mold can be filled under vacuum with easy-flowing, crosslink-
ing polyurethane (Figure 5.73). Figure 5.74 shows examples of vacuum casting.
preparation of the model is inserted in

master model the casting frame
cutting of the parting recasting of the model

plane and removal of with silicone rubber
the model
Figure 5.73 Production of a silicone mold for vacuum casting
Figure 5.74
Headpieces of an office lamp: stereo
lithography model (left), vacuum casting
mold (center), vacuum casting (right)
[Image source: Thorn GmbH]
Investment casting allows the production of metal molds under ambient pressure.
A model is slip cast, i. e. dipped several times in investment casting ceramic and
sanded so that a thick crust forms around the model. At high temperatures the
crust is fired and at the same time the model is burnt out. Subsequently, the crust
can be filled with molten metal at ambient pressure (Figure 5.75).
In metal spraying, a master model is embedded in a casting frame in modeling
clay. In an electric arc, a metal wire is melted and sprayed onto the master model.
In this way, a metallic surface is created that can be back-cast with casting resin
(Figure 5.76).
wax model
dip
sand
dipped and sanded

component several times
melt out
cast
Figure 5.75 Principle of investment casting
master model positioning
compressed air
mold insert wire
- +
electric arc
metal spraying
casting resin
back-casting
metallic cavity
Figure 5.76 Principle of metal spraying

For the 3D Keltool® process, a master model of the mold is first molded in silicone.
Into this silicone mold is poured a tungsten carbide powder mixture with epoxy
resin, and the mold is vibrated. When vibrating, the small particles of the powder
mixture penetrate into the most complex structures, while the large particles fill
the remaining structure. In the next step, the epoxy resin is burnt out and the
tungsten carbide green compact is sintered. The remaining porous structure is
infiltrated with a thin copper alloy and the final metal prototype mold is ready (Fig-
ure 5.77).
master model of
the mold
molding of
silicone mold
metal
mold
pouring of a
tungsten
carbide powder
epoxy resin
mixture
copper alloy
~ 900 °C
debinding and
sintering
Figure 5.77 Principle of the 3D Keltool® process
5.4.2.2 Laser Sintering

If the laser power is high enough, the laser sintering process can be used directly
for sintering metal powder. For direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), the CAD model
is converted into a negative model in the computer, provided with draft angles, etc.,
and the data is made available directly to the laser sintering machine.
The laser beam creates a rough mold surface that has to be reworked manually.
The mold insert produced in this way is inserted into a specially designed main
mold (in which the cooling channels, etc., are inserted) and can be used for small
batches. Section 4.2.3.2 (Figure 4.51) explains the near-contour temperature con-
trol using a laser-sintered mold insert.
5.4.3 Selection of a Prototype Method
The choice as to which of the processes presented is suitable for the production of
a prototype depends essentially on the requirements placed on the prototype, e. g.
whether it is merely intended to represent the aesthetic design or also functional-
ities. In addition, the geometry of the component (see Section 5.2) is also extremely
important for the selection of the prototype process.
5.4.3.1 Requirements Placed on the Prototype

The prototype requirements alone should guide the product developer in choosing
the prototype process to be used. These are usually determined by the phase of the
product development process in which the developer is currently involved. A dis-
tinction is often made between:
concept model,
geometry prototype,
functional prototype, and
technical prototype.
Concept Model
A concept model allows the visualization of proportions and represents the basic
appearance. A concept model therefore does not fulfill many requirements for the
later product, but only the requirement of the product developer for the material
viewability of the form of the design. Such concept models are used in the early
phases of conception (e. g. to present the idea to the customer) and again during
the elaboration phase. With this model, gross design errors, the subsequent cor-
rection of which would become increasingly expensive, can be detected better than
with the virtual model on a computer display.
Geometry Prototypes
These serve to check handling and operability as well as to visualize the exact
shape of the developed product. The surface quality corresponds as closely as pos-
sible to the color and feel of the series component. With their detailed design and
surface properties, such prototypes already fulfill requirements that are also
placed on the later product. They are often used in the concept phase, e. g. for pre-
sentation to the company management.
Functional Prototypes
These must in particular fulfill the functions of the later product. With these proto-
types e. g. installation tests are carried out and they are exposed to mechanical
and/or thermal stress, so that some product properties can already be tested. The
verification of the properties usually takes place after the elaboration phase or the
design and simulation. Here it already becomes clear that a functional prototype
places higher demands on the prototype material, its mechanical properties, tem-
perature limit, and possibly media resistance.
Technical Prototypes
In addition to the requirements for a functional prototype, technical prototypes
also fulfill other requirements placed on the later series product. Technical proto-
types are often made of series or series-like material and are sometimes even used
as gap fillers for the first series products. The manufacturing process of the proto-
type is also often very similar to the series process in order to take into account the
influence of the manufacturing process on the product properties. Technical proto-
types are usually used in the development of very sophisticated products in order
to obtain a last opportunity for modification before the production of the expensive
series mold.
5.4.3.2 Prototypes for Large-Area Products and for Housing-Like Products

Figure 5.78 provides guidance for the selection of suitable prototypes in various
phases of the development process of a large-area or housing-like product. For a
simple concept model, for example, classical model making or simple additive pro-
totype processes such as Fused Deposition Modeling or droplet deposition should
be used.
Pr.pro.
from 3–10
technical
HSC aluminum, KelTool

1
Technischer
SLS: metal
an den Protoypen
functional pro.,
from 3–10
Funktionspr.
vacuum casting, RIM, HSC

prototype requirements
1 SLS
SLA, SLS
from 3–10
pro.,
Geom.prot.
vacuum casting, SLS

Anforderungen
1
model, geometry
fused deposition modeling

classical model making
NC techniques
Konzeptmod.,
from 3–10
vacuum casting
1
concept

NC techniques
Komplexität
shape complexity
der Geometrie
Figure 5.78 Schematic prototype selection for housing-type and flat products [27]
If the customer requires a geometric prototype for such products, it is the aesthetic
requirements for the visible side of the product that are mostly checked. In order to
make the purely aesthetic requirements possible with a prototype, the concept
models, including those from classical model making, can be used. In addition,
the other additive prototype processes stereolithography and laser sintering are
increasingly being used. If several such prototypes are required, they are cast in
silicone and “copied” using vacuum casting technology.
The great challenge for a functional prototype for flat products is to realize the
stiffness of the product as well as its connection to the basic body to be covered or
the adjacent component. These requirements are met by ribs, bars, eyelets, snap
connections, etc. on the invisible side. Possible manufacturing processes are also
laser sintering and partly stereolithography. If the installation space of the pro-
cesses is not sufficient, larger prototypes can also be adhesively bonded. When
several of these complex prototypes are needed, it makes sense to use a molding
process. Vacuum casting or RIM technology are suitable for these flat parts. For
example, ribs and snap-hooks can be realized using stereolithographically formed
inserts, which are inserted into a base body constructed by classical model mak-
ing.
Technical prototypes are even more complex, but these are also the closest to the
series products. In most cases, a prototype made of the series material is required
for a technical prototype of flat or housing-type products, which is manufactured
almost under series conditions. These flat products are usually produced by injec-
tion molding or pressing. In both processes, high forces are introduced into the
mold. In order to realize the complex geometries on the invisible side, aluminum
tools are usually produced using NC techniques. Where these reach their limits, it
is worth using the Keltool® process. If only low surface qualities of the prototypes
are required, metal sintered molding inserts (Figure 4.53) can also be used.
5.4.3.3 Prototypes for Container-Like Products

For concept models and geometric prototypes of container-like products, the same
recommendations apply as for flat products. Methods of classical model making as
well as fused deposition modeling and droplet methods are used (Figure 5.79). If
several such prototypes are required, they are also produced in classical model
making.
Functional prototypes of container-like products must leak-proof and have geomet-
rically exact shapes in order to be able to connect tubes, lids, etc. to them. They can
be produced with the generating processes stereolithography and laser sintering,
since the materials used can withstand many media and the weight of the liquid.
For the production of several functional prototypes, the RIM process is once again
a good choice. For the mostly simple outer shape, it is not even necessary to take
an impression of a surface-treated stereolithography prototype in silicone, because

cutting NC techniques for the mold halves are usually faster here.
Technical prototypes of containers are particularly needed when the requirements
for media resistance or food safety must also be met. Series materials often have to
be used for this purpose. If the container-like product is welded together from two
injection-molded parts, it makes sense, no matter how large the number of pieces,
to produce these two parts in an aluminum mold using the injection molding pro-
cess in series material.
Here, too, the following applies: if the geometries are very complex, Keltool® may
be used in combination with a CNC process. The mold halves for a blow-molded,
container-like prototype, on the other hand, can be produced quickly using CNC
cutting techniques in conjunction with rotational molding.
concept model, geometry pro., functional pro., technical pro.
1
from 3–10
rotational molding (hollow HSC aluminum, KelTool
1 parts) (multi-layered)
RIM
from 3–10
vacuum casting: 2 shells,
1 SLS
SLA, SLS
from 3–10
vacuum casting: 2 shells,
1
SLS
NC techniques
from 3–10
vacuum casting
1
NC techniques
shape complexity
Figure 5.79 Schematic prototype selection for container-like products [27]
5.4.3.4 Prototypes for Complex Products

In contrast to the geometry types mentioned above, the creation of a concept model
for complex products is only possible with additive methods such as the Fused
Deposition Modeling or droplet deposition methods (Figure 5.80). Due to the com-
plex geometry, however, the classical, metal-cutting design would be too complex.
If a geometric prototype is required, it is also no longer possible to fall back on

machining processes. However, the surface of the concept model can be revised to
meet the optical requirements of the geometry model. If several geometry proto-
types are needed, vacuum casting cannot be used because of the complex geo
metry. In most cases, it pays off to go straight into the primary forming process
with the help of an aluminum tool or, in very complicated cases, with the help of
Keltool® or Space Puzzle Molding.
Functional prototypes of complex products can be created with the help of the ad-
ditive processes stereolithography and laser sintering. In most cases, the thermo-
plastic material in laser sintering offers the advantage of being more similar to the
serial material and thus fulfills some functions quite well. If several functional
prototypes are required, the investment in a forming mold for the series process
pays off.
concept model, geometry pro., functional pro., technical pro.
from 3
HSC aluminum, KelTool
1
(SLS: metal)
from 3
HSC, LS: metal, KelTool,
1 SPM,
(SLS)
SLA, SLS
from 3
vacuum casting, (SLS)
1
NC techniques
from 3–10
vacuum casting
1
shape complexity
Figure 5.80 Schematic prototype selection for complex products [27]
Finally, with technical prototypes, there is no alternative to creating a forming

mold from aluminum or, in very complicated cases, using the Keltool® and Space
Puzzle Molding processes and filling it with the original material under series con-
ditions.
5.5 References 425
5.5 References
[1] D. Blaese, “Methodische Ansätze zur Abschätzung der Lebensdauer von Kunststoffbauteilen bei
komplexer Belastung,” University of Essen, 1999.
[2] D. Blaese and E. Schmachtenberg, “Bewertung von Zeit-Temperatur-Kollektiven zur Beschreibung
der Alterung von Polymerwerkstoffen,” in Internationale Konferenz über Schweißtechnik, Werk-
stoffe und Werkstoffprüfung, Bruchmechanik und Qualitätsmanagement, Vienna, 1997.
[3] D. Blaese and E. Schmachtenberg, “Beanspruchungskollektive und Anforderungen,” in Innova
tion durch Materialforschung, Vol. 2. Fortschrittsberichte VDI, Düsseldorf: VDI, 1999.
[4] W. Ihl and R. Bald, “Werkstoffauswahl bei Temperatur und Medienbeanspruchung im KFZ,” in
Technische Einsatzgrenzen von technischen Kunststoffbauteilen, Düsseldorf: Springer-VDI, 1998.
[5] H. Domininghaus, Die Kunststoffe und ihre Eigenschaften, Berlin: Springer, 1998.
[6] E. Baur, T. A. Osswald, and N. Rudolph, Plastics Handbook, 5th ed., Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag,
2019.
[7] K. Konejung, “Verfahrenswahl/Verfahrenstechnische Alternativen,” in Spritzgießen von Quali-
tätsformteilen, BAYER AG, 2001.
[8] G. W. Ehrenstein, Mit Kunststoffen konstruieren, 2nd ed., Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2002.
[9] G. Erhard, Konstruieren mit Kunststoffen, 4th ed., Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2008; English
edition: Designing with Plastics, Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2006.
[10] W. Michaeli, T. Brinkmann, and V. Lessenich-Henkys, Kunststoff-Bauteile werkstoffgerecht kons
truieren, Munich/Vienna: Carl Hanser Verlag, 1995.
[12] R. A. Malloy, Plastic Part Design for Injection Molding, 2nd ed., Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2010.
[13] G. Menges, E. Haberstroh, W. Michaeli, and E. Schmachtenberg, Werkstoffkunde Kunststoffe, 5th
ed., G. Menges, Ed., Munich/Vienna: Hanser, 2002.
[14] G. Menges and H. Schmidt, “Spannungsrisse bei Langzeit-Zugbeanspruchung von Kunststoffen,”
Kunststoffe, Vol. 57, pp. 885–890, 1967.
[15] G. Menges and H. Roskothen, “Deformation as a new criterion for dimensioning of plastic structu-
res,” Journal of Macromolecular Science, Vol. 6, No. 3, pp. 631–640, 1972.
[16] G. Menges and H. Schmidt, “Spannungsrissbildung und elastisch-plastisches Verformungsverhal-
ten bei Langzeitbeanspruchung,” Plastverarbeiter, Vol. 19, No. 7, pp. 547–551, 1968.
[17] G. Menges, “Das Verhalten von Kunststoffen unter Dehnung: Teil 1. Phänomenologie der Riss
erscheinung,” Kunststoffe, Vol. 63, No. 2, pp. 95–100, 1973.
[18] G. Menges, “Das Verhalten von Kunststoffen unter Dehnung: Teil 2. Deutung der kritischen Deh-
nung und Verhalten der Kunststoffe bei überkritischer Dehnung,” Kunststoffe, Vol. 63, pp. 173–177,
1973.
[19] J. Pohrt, “Vorgabe und Nachkontrolle kritischer Dehnungen in der Anwendung auf thermoplasti-
sche Bauteile. Teil 1: Theorie der kritischen Dehnung und experimentelle Darstellung.,” Kunststof-
fe, No. 24, pp. 594–606, 1971.
[20] G. Menges and E. Alf, “Das Verhalten thermoplastischer Kunststoffe unter schwingender Bean-
spruchung,” Plastverarbeiter, No. 21, pp. VIII-1–VIII-6, 1970.
[21] G. Menges and H. J. Roskothen, “Deformation as a new criterion for dimensioning of plastic struc-
tures,” Journal of Macromolecular Science: Part A – Chemistry: Pure and Applied Chemistry,
Vol. 6, pp. 631–640, 1972.
[22] G. Menges and R. Riess, “Verarbeitung- und Umgebungseinflüsse auf die kritische Dehnung von
Kunststoffen,” Kunststoffe, Vol. 64, pp. 87–92, 1974.
[23] G. Menges, R. Riess, and H.-J. Schanek, “Einfluss korrosiver Flüssigkeiten auf mechanisch be
anspruchte Thermoplaste,” Kunststoffe, Vol. 64, pp. 200–204, 1974.
[24] W. Michaeli, T. Brinkmann, and V. Lessenich-Henkys, Kunststoff-Bauteile werkstoffgerecht kons
truieren, Munich: Hanser, 1995.
[25] J. Kunz, “The Case for Strain-Based Design,” Kunststoffe International, Vol. 101, No. 4, pp. 28–31,
2011.
[26] A. Gebhardt, J. Kessler, and L. Thurn, 3D Printing: Understanding Additive Manufacturing, 2nd
ed., Munich: Carl Hanser Verlag, 2018.
[27] C. Bonten and T. Seul, “Only the Application Determines the Prototype,” Kunststoffe plast europe,
Vol. 91, No. 1, p. 17, 2001.
6 Plastics and the
Environment
Despite the increasing use of plastics worldwide, they are repeatedly branded in the
media as polluters and toxic. Due to frequent questions from students, it is import-
ant for the author to openly inform and engage in discussion about plastics and their
risks and benefits for the world around us. This chapter deals with plastic waste,
critical substances in plastics, bioplastics, and life cycle assessments. The reader is
asked to form his or her own judgement about the harm and benefits of plastics.
6.1 Plastic Waste

Not every country in the world has a well developed infrastructure for waste han-
dling. In the following chapter the legal framework for waste legislation in the Eu-
ropean member states is highlighted and the situation in Germany is used as a
“case study”, but framed also within a broader international context.
The EU Directive 2008/98/EG on waste sets the legal framework for waste legisla-
tion in the European Union member states. Each member state is free to decide
how to comply with this directive. In Germany, it is implemented by the “Law on
the Promotion of Closed-Cycle Waste Management and the Safeguarding of Envi-
ronmentally Sound Management of Waste” (Kreislaufwirtschaftsgesetz; KrWG),
which has been in force since 1996 and which has been adjusted several times. [1]
The German Closed-Cycle Waste Management Act deals with the avoidance, reuti-
lization, and disposal of waste. The purpose of the law is “to promote the circu-
lar-flow economy in order to conserve natural resources. (. . .)” and regulates,
among other things, the disposal of waste. Waste should be avoided as far as possi-
ble, if necessary materially or energetically exploited, and the few remainders are
specially treated and then deposited. Recyclable materials must first be separated,
then collected, and possibly sorted again. Non-recyclable sorting residues are usu-
ally incinerated (also to destroy pollutants/toxic substances) and only the residues
are landfilled.
428 6 Plastics and the Environment
Germany has had a population of about 82 million for many years, and the total
volume of waste from German households weighed 37.2 million metric tons in
2009 [2]. Of these, 43.6% was household waste and bulky waste, 24.4% organic
waste, 15.8% paper, cardboard, and cartons, and 6.8% plastics and mixed packag-
ing. The remaining waste is glass, metals, wood, and textiles (Figure 6.1).
waste from organic waste bins

11.6 % garden and park waste
biodegradable
other wastes: 0.5 % 12.8 % glass
bulky waste 5.1 %
6.4 %
paper, cardboard,
cardboard packaging
other separately
15.8 %
collected
wastes
mixed packaging,
31.4 %
plastics
domestic waste, household- 6.8 %
like industrial waste
collected together via public metals, wood, textiles
waste collection 3.7 %
37.2 %
Figure 6.1 Waste disposal – Composition of household waste in Germany in 2009

[Image source: German Federal Statistical Office (“Statistisches Bundesamt”)]
The German Closed-Cycle Waste Management Act uses the power of the free mar-
ket through the “polluter pays” principle. For the first time, producers were obliged
to dispose of waste instead of local authorities. The disposal costs reduce the profit
or have to be added to the product price. In competitive terms, this means that the
product that can be disposed of more cheaply promises more profit or can be of-
fered at a lower price.
Duales System Deutschland GmbH (DSD) was founded in 1990 as a second dis-
posal system in addition to the public-sector waste disposal service by a syndicate
of producers and waste disposal companies and today has several competitors such
as Eko-Punkt, Landbell, and Interseroh. In addition to the household collection and
recycling of sales packaging, its areas of responsibility include the recycling of
electrical and electronic equipment and transport packaging. The Green Dot, a
DSD brand, is protected worldwide and is currently used in 28 countries.
QR-Code 6-1
Here we take a look behind the scenes of a sorting plant and show
the steps for the production of recycled pellets, starting from used
plastic products. The recycled pellets can then be used to manu
facture new products.
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Production-of-Granulate

6.1 Plastic Waste 429
The tasks of collecting, sorting, and reutilization of used sales packaging are fi-
nanced by the participation fees of producers who place sales packaging on the
market and participate in a dual system. The fees are based on the material and
weight of the packaging. Roughly speaking: the lower the weight of the packaging,
the lower the fee to be paid.
This has already had an impact on the product and packaging development pro-
cess. Packaging has become lighter (Figure 6.2), unnecessary outer packaging has
often been omitted, and blister packs that are difficult to separate (film on card-
board carrier) have been used less since then.
2011
1970
30 g
300 g
Figure 6.2
packaging weight Reduction of the weight of an empty 4-liter
without content detergent bottle [3]
Material and Energy Recovery

At this point letʼs take a look at the plastic fraction in the garbage. A study commis-
sioned by the Plastics Europe association has shown that approx. 99% of plastic
waste in Germany is reutilized (this is a world record, together with Austria and
Switzerland), with 43% recycled (material and raw material) and 56% energetically
reutilized in Germany.
QR-Code 6-2
The recycling of polyethylene terephthalate (PET) beverage bottles is

shown here.
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Recycling-of-PET

In addition, plastic waste has become material that is now traded. This makes
recycling increasingly attractive. But it is also clear that there are plastic wastes
that cannot be recycled sensibly, such as multi-layer films with a barrier effect,
and painted, coated, and heavily dirty components. Incineration (energy recovery)
of plastic waste that cannot be sensibly separated (so-called secondary energy
sources) generates energy on the one hand and reduces the use of fossil resources
(primary energy sources) on the other.
Although waste disposal in Germany is regulated in an exemplary manner, it is
shocking how careless some people are with their waste.
Let’s look at India, a democratic state with little consistent environmental protec-
tion, where things look bad (Figure 6.3). In China, there is state-imposed environ-
mental protection, but there is still waste that is disposed of in the wild (Figure 6.4).
Figure 6.3
Roadside garbage in India
Figure 6.4
Wild garbage dump in China
(Qingdao, West City)
It took some weeks, but also in Stuttgart, Germany, where the author teaches, stu-
dents found a wild garbage dump (Figure 6.5). So there are people everywhere,
even in places with highly developed reutilization infrastructure, who probably
dispose of waste in the environment out of laziness and a lack of discipline.
6.1 Plastic Waste 431
Figure 6.5
Wild garbage dump in Stuttgart
Marine Pollution
Garbage in the sea is a serious and constantly growing problem, not new, but it is
currently receiving special media coverage. Marine pollution threatens marine
ecosystems, marine animals, and thereby humans themselves. Some plastics are
lighter than water, making them particularly visible and increasingly in focus.
Plastic film and foam floating in the sea are gradually decomposed by environmen-
tal influences into tiny fragments, into plastic “dust” (“microplastic”), and confused
with food by birds and fish. If the fragment is still too large, the digestive tract may
be blocked and the affected animals may die.
On the initiative of the German Nature Conservation Union (NABU), fishermen in
Norddeich in Lower Saxony, Germany have been collecting waste from the Baltic
Sea since August 2012 in order to subsequently dispose of it in an environmentally
friendly manner. The analysis of North Sea waste in 2013/14 showed a relatively
high proportion of plastics. In addition to films, carrier bags, and packaging, the
proportion of nets and ropes made of synthetic fibers was also high [4].
The garbage always comes – one way or another – from the mainland and usually
ends up in the sea as a result of wrong behavior, less often as a result of accidents.
Already ongoing beach cleanups in Europe are sensitizing coastal residents and
tourists to the problem. The “GESAMP”, the UN’s scientific advisory board for the
protection of the marine ecosystem, estimates that 80% of marine waste comes
from misconduct on land, the rest from misconduct on ships, from illegal disposal.
In the Mediterranean countries, it is estimated that 50% of marine waste is gener-
ated by bathers. GESAMP conducted a study on the impact of plastic particles. The
following measures have been taken [5]:
Identification of hotspots (e. g. by population density, shipping routes, tourism).
Investigation of physical, chemical, and biological processes that influence frag-
mentation and degradation.
Investigation of biological effects and absorption by organisms,
Estimation of the quantity of tiny plastic particles (e. g. UV-decomposed plastic
film, granulates, abrasives, peeling beads) and larger plastic products.
BUND (Friends of The Earth, Germany) lists in [6] which products of our everyday
life contain small plastic beads. The IKT is currently working on a project with the
Biology Institute IBBS of the University of Stuttgart to investigate the effects of
marine pollution with plastics on marine organisms. Selected bioplastics will be
fed to microorganisms and their digestion will be monitored.
The world’s leading plastics associations have joined forces and are already work-
ing on around 140 projects to eliminate waste and sensitize the people who cause
it. Waste in water correlates with poor waste management in the respective coun-
try and on board ships. Governments in all countries should incorporate water
pollution into their national waste legislation. It is important to find out how waste
can be disposed of and what the non-removable waste can cause.
What Can Each of Us Do?

Every piece of waste has its owner. Pollution is always a matter of personal respon-
sibility and must reach the minds of all consumers in the world. How much waste
is produced also depends on our lifestyles. In addition to packaging, it is often
small and unnecessary things such as disposable products or peeling beads made
of polyethylene that make a senseless contribution to the generation of plastic
waste. Plastic is too useful to throw away!
6.2 Are Plastics Toxic?

Plastics are chemical products and are occasionally described as toxic in some
media. But can it really be that we consumers are not obviously protected from
toxic substances?
Plastic articles of daily use which come into direct or indirect contact with people
(see Table 6.1), so-called consumer articles, were especially considered and regu-
lated by the former EU Commissioner Luigi Rossi. As a result, plastics are now
among the best regulated and most strictly controlled substances in Europe. His
successor, Anette Schäfer, now focuses on adhesives and paints, for example.
Table 6.1 Examples of Consumer Goods According to the German Foodstuffs, Consumer
Goods, and Feedstuffs Act (LBFG) [7]
Legal Classification Examples
Food contact articles packaging material (cans, bottles, cups), food
preparation equipment (pots, toasters)
Packaging for cosmetic products cans, boxes, glasses
Mucosal contact articles toothbrushes, teething rings and pacifiers for
babies
6.2 Are Plastics Toxic? 433
Legal Classification Examples

Personal care articles combs, sponges, towels
Toys and joke articles building blocks, toy cars, dolls
Objects with not only temporary body contact clothing, bed linen, mattresses
Cleaning and care products cleaning agents, car care, detergents
Impregnating agents and other finishing agents shoe polish, impregnating sprays, optical
brighteners
Agents and articles for improving odor in rooms room scent sprays, toilet freshener, essential oils
All consumer goods in Germany are subject to the Foodstuffs, Consumer Goods, and
Feedstuffs Act (LBFG) and its ordinances. In the German implementation of the EU
directives, the consumer goods ordinance (BedGgstV), it is specified which materi-
als are permissible for consumer goods and food contact materials and how high, for
example, the migration from the product into food or onto the human body may be.
It is supplemented by a list of substances which may not be used in the manufacture
of certain consumer goods [8]. The level of the limit values is determined by Euro-
pean expert committees following the health assessment of the substances.
Plastics in contact with medicinal products and as a material for medical devices
are regulated by the European Pharmacopoeia and the Medical Devices Act [9, 10].
The EU Chemicals Directive REACh (Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and
Restriction of Chemicals) has been in force since June 2007. It affects not only the
safety of chemicals, but also every link in the plastics value chain: manufacturers
of polymers, additives, plastics, and plastic products [11].
As described in Section 2.3, plastics consist of polymers and additives. Polymers them-
selves are not considered harmful. Due to their high molar mass (> 1000 g/mol),
they cannot migrate from the plastic product. Only substances with a molar mass
of less than 1000 g/mol are considered capable of migration (Figure 6.6).
polymer + additives = plastic

> 1000 g/mol
substances < 1000 g/mol substances < 1000 g/mol migration mainly based
(capable of migration): (capable of migration):
+ polymerization additives + additives themselves D

(e.g. catalysts) + NIAS - temperature
+ residual monomers - concentration of the
+ NIAS migrant (equilibrium)
- time (until equilibrium)
- mobility (Mw)
NIAS = “Non-intentionally added substances“ - solubility/ polarity
(unintentional contaminants, e.g. from
recycling, but also e.g. degradation
(“like dissolves like“)
products due to ageing process or
residual oligomers) migration time)
Figure 6.6 Substances capable of migration from plastics

The risk to humans caused by plastics correlates with the harmfulness of the sub-
stance migrating out. The migration of the substances is mainly based on diffusion
and is therefore dependent on the diffusion coefficient D, temperature, concentra-
tion of the migrating substance, time, mobility, solubility or polarity, and layer
thickness.
Residual monomers and other chemicals from the synthesis of polymers, for exam-
ple, are smaller than the migration limit of 1000 g/mol and are therefore capable
of migration. These can very well be toxic: benzene (the starting substance for the
production of benzene derivatives, e. g. styrene for PS) is considered carcinogenic;
styrene itself is considered reprotoxic. Acrylonitrile (for e. g. ABS) and formal
dehyde (for e. g. POM) are considered toxic. Therefore, it must be ensured during
polymer synthesis that these precursors are converted into polymers as completely
as possible or that they are removed as completely as possible through the degas-
sing zone during compounding into plastics.
Bisphenol A is used in the production of polycarbonate (PC), polyether ketone
(PEK), polysulfone (PSU), and epoxy resin (EP). It is not regarded as toxic, but as a
substance with a hormone-like effect, which is converted in the human body within
a few hours and excreted via the kidneys. This is why bisphenol A is also known as
a so called endocrine disruptor. Polycarbonate is used in the manufacture of food
containers, and epoxy resin for example for coating tinplate cans. The residual
monomeric bisphenol A in the plastics can therefore migrate out in small quanti-
ties and pass into food and beverages if the contact time is long enough.
The European Food Safety Authority [12] has been examining the risk posed by
the consumption (dietary exposure) of bisphenol A several times since 2002. It
concluded that this chemical does not pose a health risk, not even to infants. The
World Health Organization (WHO) came to the same conclusion in an independent
assessment in 2010 [13]. A U.S. American study in 2013 has now shown that the
dietary exposure is about 30 times lower than in a European study in 2006 [14].
The Swiss Federal Office of Public Health states that a ban on bisphenol A would
possibly lead producers to switch to other substances whose hazard potential has
been less well investigated [15]. The German Federal Institute for Risk Assessment
(BfR) now assesses bisphenol A in polycarbonate or epoxy resin as harmless [16].
In 2014 the EFSA came to the conclusion that consumers are ingesting less bi-
sphenol A than previously assumed.
Additives such as antioxidants, UV stabilizers, and flame retardants may also have
molar mass less than 1000 g/mol and under certain circumstances migrate from
the plastic and possibly pose a hazard. Various plasticizers for polyvinyl chloride
(PVC), which have been shown to have hormone-like effects over decades, have
become particularly well known. Like bisphenol A, these plasticizers act as endo-
crine disruptors. According to REACh (see above), the phthalates dioctyl phthalate
6.2 Are Plastics Toxic? 435
(DEHP), dibutyl phthalate (DBP), benzyl butyl phthalate (BBP), and diisobutyl
phthalate (DIBT) are currently considered to inhibit reproduction and must not be
present in toys and childcare articles in concentrations above 0.1% by weight.
In Europe they have mostly been replaced by diisononyl phthalate (DINP) and di
isodecyl phthalate (DIDP). Although these have not yet been proven to be hazard-
ous, their use in toys and baby articles has also been banned as a precautionary
measure. No carcinogenic effect has been proven for all these plasticizers, but such
effects have already been asserted in some media. Most food packaging worldwide
consists of polyethylene and polypropylene (see Section 3.7). These plastics do not
contain plasticizers or bisphenol A. PET beverage bottles are also free of phthalates
and bisphenol A.
Despite all these regulations, some NGOs (non-governmental organizations) de-
clare plastics as hazardous substances and fundamentally question studies carried
out on behalf of industry associations. The author recommends asking the NGOs
for their sources, to read them through well, and to form an considered view there-
from. At the same time, studies initiated by government agencies and environ
mental protection institutes are called into question without a counter-study. This
uncertainty is exploited by some TV programs with high ratings in order to bind
viewers to supposedly investigative journalism.
During the research on this chapter, many Internet pages and literature references
were examined. It was particularly astonishing that numerous natural foods also
contain toxic or hormone-active substances. In pistachios, poppies, and peanuts,
aflatoxins were found which, with 1 to 10 mg/kg body weight, can also kill a hu-
man being [17]. Mushrooms contain the toxic and carcinogenic hydrazine com-
pound agaritine [18]. Woodruff and cinnamon contain the flavoring coumarin,
which may be present in prepared food at a maximum of 2 mg/kg [19]. Raspber-
ries contain 4-(4-hydroxyphenyl)butan-2-one, a natural phenol that is considered
harmful by the EU, the ketone ionone and the alcohol geraniol with allergic poten-
tial, as well as aldehydes [20].
Many vegetables contain hormone-active substances with an estrogen-like effect.
Figure 6.7 shows an illustration from [21], which compiles the content of endo-
crine disruptors in plant foods from various sources. The current limit value for
branded bisphenol A is 0.6 mg/kg food and in its pure form it is 10,000 times less
effective than estrogen 17β-estradiol.
1000 genistein
300 - 920
daidzein
900 glycitein
biochanin A
800 formononetin
content of endocrine disruptors
in mg/kg fresh food weight
700 200 - 520
600
500
400
300
80 - 200
30 - 170
100 - 140
10 - 130
200
30 - 110
0 - 73
23 - 40
100
0 - 50
0 - 20
0 - 14
0 - 0.2
25
20
4-8
1-4
0-1
0-6
0-2
0-2
0-7
0-2
0-2
0.1
0.7
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
bean sprouts
soybeans
soy milk
clover sprouts
beans (div.)
peas (div.)
fruit (div.)
tofu
Figure 6.7 Content of endocrine disruptors (in mg/kg fresh food weight); according to [21]
It is important – not only with regard to plastics – to know the substances that
might be absorbed into our bodies, and to know in which concentrations they pose
a risk. In an interview with the weekly newspaper DIE ZEIT, Ortwin Renn, Stutt-
gart professor and head of the Center for Interdisciplinary Risk and Innovation
Studies (ZIRIUS) and scientific advisor to the President of the EU Commission,
emphasized: “More than 70% of Germans are afraid of pesticide residues, anti
biotics, or hormones in meat products, genetically modified foods, and chemical
preservatives. However, only 15 fatal cancers per year can be attributed to all these
things. More than 70,000 people, on the other hand, die of fatal cancers caused by
unhealthy eating habits: too much food, too much meat, too much fat, too much
sugar. But these risks, which are more than a thousand times higher, are classified
as low and of little concern, and 54% of Germans see no worrying danger at all.
Perceived and actual health risks therefore lie far apart.” [22]
Already in 1538 Paracelsus said:
“All things are poison, and nothing is without poison;

only the dose makes it that a thing is no poison.”
6.3 Biopolymers and Bioplastics 437
6.3 Biopolymers and Bioplastics

Bioplastics are on everyone’s lips and generally achieve a positive response from
consumers who want to behave sustainably. If one takes a closer look at the topic,
it quickly becomes clear that the term “bioplastics” is an umbrella term which
combines the properties of biodegradability and biological origin and conceals the
fact that both properties are not always present in a bioplastic at the same time
(Figure 6.8).
Despite the attractive prefix “bio”, it is important to understand what benefits it
has for the consumer and thus for the plastics industry. In order to understand the
benefits, the exact meaning of the prefix “bio” must be clearly communicated.
biodegradable plastics biobased plastics

(fossil or renewable (renewable carbon
carbon) only)
“biodegradable“ “regenerative“
Biological process of organic For raw materials harvested not
material which is completely later than after two growing
converted to water, CO /methane, seasons (e.g. corn, wheat, grass,
energy and biomass by micro- bacteria).
organisms (bacteria and fungi).
alternative disposal method reduction of fossil CO

independent of crude oil
Figure 6.8 Various characteristics of bioplastics
6.3.1 Biodegradable Plastics
The biodegradability of plastics is a material property. These plastics consist al-

most completely of biodegradable polymers and additives (almost, because the
European standard EN 13432 and ASTM D6400 permit traces of non-degradable
substances).
Biodegradable polymers can be metabolized by microorganisms (bacteria and/or
fungi). Specific bacteria colonize the surface of a plastic component (Figure 6.9;
top left) and produce suitable enzymes with which they wet the plastic (Figure 6.9,
top right). While common aging processes such as media and radiation attack
weaken the polymer chains, the enzymes are able to “cut out” such small frag-
ments that the bacteria can absorb through so-called tunnel proteins (Figure 6.9,
bottom left).
bacteria
enzymes
attack: enzymes are able to split

certain polymer chains
metabolic products
CO2, CH4, H2O
cell wall is nucleus
permeable
Generation of daughter cells, which

segregates enzymes too.
polymer chain
fragments
tunnel protein
in cell wall
Figure 6.9 Different stages of attack by bacteria on biodegradable polymers
There, the polymer chain fragments are completely metabolized as energy carriers
to biomass (the bacterium grows), water, and CO2 or methane. After sufficient cell
growth, daughter cells are formed, which form the correct enzyme right from the
beginning and then increasingly attack the biodegradable plastic components (Fig-
ure 6.9, bottom right). The metabolism is conclusively verified by special experi-
ments that correlate the CO2 formation with the sample weight. There are biode-
gradable polymers that can be metabolized by bacteria alone and those that require
additional fungi. There are also those which require higher temperatures in order
to be damaged by hydrolysis beforehand, so that they then become vulnerable to
the enzymes. This is why a group of biodegradable polymers degrade even under
seawater conditions under which few active bacteria can be expected (see Fig-
ure 6.10). Figure 6.10 was created in collaboration with Michael Carus from the
Nova Institute, Hürth, Germany, and Bruno de Wilde from OWS, Ghent, Belgium.
In fresh water there is a greater bacterial diversity, so the biological attack takes
place more rapidly. If biodegradable polymers are used in home composting, fun-
gal attack will occur in addition to bacterial attack, making additional polymers
vulnerable. The best conditions are found in industrial composting. Here the tem-
peratures are higher, allowing not only faster metabolism, but also hydrolysis be-
fore biological attack, which is important for the degradability of polylactide (PLA).
Fears that biodegradation may occur during normal intended use, e. g. of a kitchen
appliance, are unfounded.
industrial composting
in soil and composting: (~ 3 months)
bacterial and fungal activity temperature
+ CO2-based PPC, PEC
ϑ ~ 50/60 °C
: + PLA, PLA -blends
solely bacterial activity home composting
(~12 months)
+ PBAT, PBAT -blends
soil
+ PBS, PBS -blends
temperature (~ 24 months)
+ chitin, chitosan
ϑ < 35 °C
+ lignin, wood,
fresh water mechanical pulp
(~ 1 month) (with lignin)
sea water +
(6-12 months)
temperature polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA, PHB, PHBV)

ϑ < 35 °C protein-based: casein, gluten, wool, spider silk/silk
starch-based: starch, starch/PCL, TPS
pulp (without lignin), cellulose, cotton,
, cellulose ester
Figure 6.10 Biodegradability of polymers under different environmental conditions
Unfortunately, the term “biodegradability” is used misleadingly and there are con-
ventional plastics on the market that contain either small amounts of biodegrad-
able or other rapidly decomposing substances. In the environment these decom-
pose under suitable conditions into smaller, hardly visible components for which,
however, the complete metabolism by CO2 formation could never be proven. The
plastic fragments – actually “plastic dust” – of these not really biodegradable plas-
tics accumulate over time in our food chain. It must be clearly pointed out that bio
degradable polyethylenes (PE), polypropylenes (PP), polyethylene terephthalates
(PET), and polyamides (PA) do not exist.
The terms “composting” and “compostability” refer to a product characteristic
clearly defined in European standard EN 13432 and American standard ASTM
D6400. A biodegradable plastic is only the necessary basis for compostability.
Compostability is defined as “the microbial transformation of a biodegradable ma-
terial or product under controlled conditions to produce compost” [23, 24].
The conditions of EN 13432 are as follows:
Chemical characterization: organic fraction > 50%; limit values for toxic compo-
nents, e. g. heavy metals.
Biodegradability: laboratory test: max. 5% not biodegradable or 1% per substance;
rest degrades to CO2, H2O, salts, and biomass.
Compostability: field test: 90% of fragments < 2 mm after 12 weeks.
Ecotoxicity: germination rate of special plants > 90% of the untreated soil.
In order to be allowed into the soil, the bioplastics are not allowed to exceed certain
concentrations of heavy metals and cannot restrict the fertility of the soil. At least
90% of the entire plastic component must have disintegrated into fragments smaller
than 2 mm within 12 weeks in order to enable the economical and trouble-free
operation of composting plants. In most cases, only films less than 0.1 mm thick-
ness meet this criterion. Similar to the branch of a tree, thicker products made of
bioplastics must be brought to such small dimensions before being introduced into
the composting plant in order to be metabolized quickly enough [23, 24].
If the European standard presented above is met by a product made of bioplastics,
the commercial use of the European seedling logo is permitted, for an annual fee.
This is intended to help ensure that the product is clearly labeled. However, several
other logos are also in use (Table 6.2).
Table 6.2 Certification for Compostability

Organization Location Norm Logo
DIN CERTCO/ Germany EN 13432
European Bioplastics ASTM D6400
AIB Vincotte Belgium EN 13432
BPI/USCC USA ASTM D6400

ASTM D6868
Jätelaito-syhdistys Finland EN 13432

(FSWA)
Avfall Norge Norway EN 13432
JBPA Japan GreenPla

certification
scheme
This clearly shows that the term “bio” in “biodegradable” stands for the fact that
the plastic becomes part of nature again, i. e. “bio”. The social benefit and therefore
also the benefit for sustainable consumers is an additional disposal option via bio-
waste. In Germany, the decision as to whether bioplastics may be disposed of with
bio-waste is in the hands of the municipalities. It is expected that with the help of
biodegradable bin liners, organic kitchen waste can be more consistently sepa-
rated from household waste.
Examples of biodegradable polymers are polylactide (PLA), polyhydroxyalkanoate
(PHA), cellulose derivatives such as cellulose acetate (CA) and cellulose acetobu-
tyrate (CAB), thermoplastic starch, but also petroleum-based polybutylene adipate
(PBAT) and petroleum-based polybutylene succinate (PBS). These biopolymers
form the basis for biodegradable plastics.
6.3.2 Bio-based Plastics
Let us turn to the other group of bioplastics. In the case of so-called bio-based plas-
tics, the prefix “bio” stands for renewable raw materials obtained from today’s na-
ture. The confusion is caused by the fact that bio-based plastics do not necessarily
have to be biodegradable.
“Bio-based” is both a material and a product property. It describes that the carbon
atoms that make up the molecular chains are taken from today’s nature, i. e. are
“bio”. Section 2.1 has already explained the various possibilities of the biogenic
origin of polymers and many of the primary plastics (Section 1.1) are often ob-
tained from biopolymers.
Fossil Hydrocarbons versus Renewable Raw Materials

But why is that so important? Haven’t fossil hydrocarbons from crude oil, natural
gas, and coal ever been part of nature?
That is right: Carbon has existed since shortly after the beginning of the universe
and within molecules, usually combined with hydrogen, is the origin of all life on
earth. There have been algae in the sea for 540 million years (Cambrian age), and
fungi and lichens as well as the first animals for about 440 million years (Silurian
age). After their death, algae and small marine animals sank over millions of years
to huge quantities on the seabed (Figure 6.11). In the Triassic age, this seabed
dried out and was covered by other strata as soil by geological changes. Bacteria
followed by the action of heat and pressure converted this biomass into fossil
hydrocarbons in the absence of oxygen over many millions of years. (These are
bacteria other than those involved in biological degradation!)
natural gas
bacteria
crude oil
seabed
Figure 6.11 Origin of fossil hydrocarbons (crude oil, natural gas, coal)
Humanity currently extracts annually the biomass collected over a period of 1 mil-
lion years in the form of fossil crude oil, natural gas, and coal, and thereby brings
it into the present. The combustion of such fossil hydrocarbons produces carbon
dioxide, the carbon of which was taken hundreds of millions of years ago from the
carbon dioxide of the atmosphere of that time by living organisms during their
growth. As a result, today’s atmosphere is being increasingly strongly concen-
trated in CO2, leading to increasingly large problems concerning the climate. So
there is “good” and a “bad” CO2 – that from today and that from yesterday, which
does not belong to today’s time.
When using renewable raw materials, i. e. carbon atoms from today, exactly as
much carbon dioxide is removed from the atmosphere during plant growth as is
later released into the atmosphere during biological degradation (see Figure 6.12,
left) or thermal utilization (right). This material cycle is CO2-neutral.
Another reason for using renewable raw materials is the increasing scarcity of
crude oil. While the author was confronted during his school years with the fact
that fossil hydrocarbon sources are finite, it really seemed to be more and more
difficult to cover the demand for crude oil. Since around 2006, fewer new oil re-
serves have been found than old ones have been exhausted. What is unpleasant is
that today’s global society is completely dependent on this energy source.
The price of oil has always been dependent on supply/demand and is the plaything
of speculation. Figure 6.13 shows the constant ups and downs of the price against
the background of crises and wars. From 2006 until the beginning of global eco-
nomic crisis a few years later, the price of oil climbed to previously unknown
heights. After a brief decline during the crisis, it rose back to this high level and –
probably for political reasons – fell back to lows in the winter of 2014/2015.
sunlight rain
CO
combustion
wood
CO
Figure 6.12
biomass H ash
Closed CO2 cycle through the use
biodegradation of renewable raw materials
120 –
price for crude oil in US dollars x 119 $
Feb 4, 2013
110 –
(value of 2010 and inflation-adjusted)
100 – oil price = f(scarcity and speculation)

90 –
80 –
x 63 $
70 – July 26, 2019
60 –
50 –
x 48 $
40 – Oct 28, 2015
30 –
20 –
10 –
0 –| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 2020
first scarcity problems in the USA
revolution in Iran
financial crisis in Asia

start of production in Venezuela
first oil boom
Russian oil export
Iraq attacked Kuwait
scarcity problems
global economic crisis
loss of production from Iran
rediscovery in Texas
rediscovery in Texas
Yom Kippur war

Suez crisis
Ukraine/Crimea crisis
oversupply of shale gas
start of production in Sumatra
reconstruction after World War II
2nd Iraq war
Figure 6.13 Oil price influenced by supply/demand and speculation (Source: BP)
Global society would therefore do well to free itself from its dependence on crude
oil. The efforts of past governments in certain countries, including Germany, to
cover the hunger for energy less and less with crude oil have been successful (see
also Section 6.4.3).
Figure 6.14 makes it clear that only 6% of Germany’s crude oil demand are used
to manufacture polymer materials. With a polymer production in Germany of
20.70 million metric tons, 10.08 million tons (48.7%) is used for adhesives, resins,
and coatings and only about 8.84 million tons (42.7%) for the production of plas-
tics. Transferred to oil demand, 2.6% of crude oil is used for the production of plas-
tics [25].
diesel and heating oils

52 %
polymers
6%
chemical (approx. 2.6 % plastics)
raw materials
10 % other chemical
products
4%
motor other
gasoline 20 %
18 %
Figure 6.14 Use of crude oil in Germany [according to PlasticsEurope and own research]
Therefore, the social benefit of bio-based plastics is to provide for the post-petro-
leum era. On the one hand, less fossil hydrocarbons are used and consequently
less of “yesterday’s” CO2 is introduced into the environment. On the other hand,
independence from increasingly scarce fossil raw materials is being promoted.
However, it must be pointed out that despite the increasing use of renewable raw
materials, the plastics industry will hardly contribute to oil preservation, as only a
few percent of crude oil is used to manufacture plastics. They are used to a far
greater extent in the world for energy generation and transport (see above). The
plastics industry cannot save “the world” by using renewable raw materials! But it
can save itself, because if crude oil becomes increasingly scarce and expensive, the
plastics industry can switch to renewable raw materials.
Bio-based polymers are partly found in nature; they are obtained on a large scale
from various carbohydrates, such as sugar, starch, and cellulose, as well as pro-
teins, lignin, fats, and vegetable oils. Examples of commercially available bio-based
polymers are polylactide (PLA), the group of polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA), cellu-
lose derivatives such as cellulose ester (CA) and cellulose butyrate (CAB), as well
as starch derivatives. These biopolymers form the basis for bio-based plastics.
Bioplastics also include, for example, bio-polyethylene, which is produced in Brazil
from bioalcohol obtained from sugar cane. This bio-polyethylene from the Brazilian
company Braskem is made entirely from renewable raw materials, has properties
identical to conventional polyethylene, but is by no means biodegradable. Large
polyamide manufacturers such as BASF and Evonik offer bio-polyamides based on
renewable raw materials that are also non-biodegradable. Another new product is
bio-based polyethylene furanoate (PEF), which Avantium is promoting as a PET
substitute for beverage bottles. In mid-2015, Coca-Cola presented the first PET
bottle made from 100% renewable raw materials at the world exhibition in Milan.
The a uthor will monitor further developments and is curious to see what happens
next.
Food Shortage
Fears that food shortages would result from the use of carbohydrates for bioplas-
tics are unfounded. Here, the fact that the world’s energy demand cannot be met by
vegetable carbon sources is confused with the much lower need for carbohydrates
to produce plastics.
In order to produce all plastics, i. e. about 300 million t/a, on the basis of biomass,
only 6% of the total usable agricultural area would be needed, which is less than
the normal annual yield fluctuation [26] [and from author’s research]. In 2008,
0.72 million t/a of bioplastics was produced, using only about 0.02% of the world’s
agricultural land (Figure 6.15) [27].
18 %
material use
4.3 %
biobased plastics
0.3 %
energetic use
3.7 %
74 %
total biomass
approx. 10 billion t
Figure 6.15 Bioplastics: relative demands on the natural environment [27]

There are sources who have calculated that even the fallow arable land in Europe
would be sufficient for Europe’s entire plastics demand. Then we would be pre-
sented with a successful model of being able to operate our agriculture subsidy-
free and at full capacity. In all these calculations it is also forgotten that the oceans
are full of carbohydrates in the form of algae, the drying of which is only too uneco-
nomical at present.
6.3.3 From Biopolymer to Bioplastic – Compounding of Biopolymers
Occasionally, one still encounters the conviction that bioplastics are still “not any
good”, but this certainly derives from the unfortunate results of experiments with
pure biopolymers of the “first hour”. Bioplastics that have been processed do in-
deed have very good and independent property profiles, as long as the biopolymers
are blended with each other and/or with additives. Mixing/blending by gentle
compounding with suitable additives is the key to the current market success (Fig-
ure 6.16).
PLA PHA PBAT PBS starch CA lignin
biopolymers (selection)
(hardly processable on conventional
PLA/ PLA/ PLA/ starch/ lignin/

PHA- PBAT- PBS- PBAT- PBAT-
blend blend blend blend blend
processable bioplastics
Figure 6.16 Biopolymers are compounded into processable bioplastics
Bioplastics experienced their first successes in tear-proof, biodegradable waste

bags, mulch films, and break-proof disposable cutlery. Now they are being used on
a large scale for biodegradable carrier bags in Southern Europe. More and more
sophisticated packaging solutions made of biodegradable plastics followed and for
some time now bio-based plastics have even been used successfully in automotive
and consumer electronics applications (Figure 6.17).
Market data from the “European Bioplastics” association show annual growth of
20% [28] (Figure 6.18). However, this comes from a low initial value: bioplastics
represent only 0.4 percent of the world’s plastics production.
Figure 6.17 Applications of bioplastics [Image source: © European Bioplastics]
6731
1126
megatons
5605
1670
1492 1622
610 643
571
921 1011 1028
2012 2013 2014 2018

year
Figure 6.18
World production of
biodegradable
bioplastics – forecast
biobased/ not biodegradable until 2018 [28]
6.4 Conserving Resources with Plastics

6.4.1 Origin of the Term “Sustainability”
The term “sustainability” was used in 1713 by Hans Carl von Carlowitz (1645–
1714), head inspector of mines in Saxony, Germany, against the background of an
increasing national wood shortage: in his work “Sylvicultura Oeconomica” he
pleaded for a careful or “sustainable” use of forests and thereby laid the foundation
for sustainable forestry even today.
“Will therefore the greatest art/science/diligence and institution of this land be based on it/how
to preserve and cultivate the wood in such a way/that there will be a continuous, constant and
sustainable use/because it is an indispensable thing/without which the land may not remain in
its forge (in the sense of essence, existence, author’s remark)” (pp. 105–106 of the source).
According to its origin, sustainability is therefore a forestry concept that has been
extended to other branches of the economy by politics, industry, and society for
some time.
6.4.2 The Brundtland Report and the Kyoto Protocol
The information in this section is essentially taken from [29] and [30] and pre-
sented in abbreviated form.
In 1983, the United Nations established the World Commission on Environment
and Development (WCED) as an independent commission of experts. Its mandate
was to prepare a perspective report on long-term sustainable, environmentally
sound development on a global scale up to the year 2000 and beyond.
The Expert Commission was composed of plenipotentiaries from 18 countries
worldwide. Gro Harlem Brundtland, former Environment Minister and then Prime
Minister of Norway, was elected Chairperson. In 1987, the Commission published
its future report “Our Common Future”, also known as the Brundtland Report. The
final report is so important for the international debate on development and
environmental policy because it was the first time that the concept of “sustainable
development” was presented:
“Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.”
Under the Kyoto Protocol of 1997, the signatory industrialized countries commit-
ted themselves to reducing their emissions of the six most important greenhouse
gases – including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs) – by at least 5% below 1990 levels between 2008 and 2012. Different coun-
6.4 Conserving Resources with Plastics 449
tries have accepted different emission reduction commitments (e. g. Japan 6%,
Russia +/−0%). The EU, with its at that time 15 member states (EU-15), has redis-
tributed its Community Kyoto commitment of 8% within the EU so that, for exam-
ple, Germany has to meet 21%, the UK 12.5%, and France only +/−0%.
The Protocol is a milestone in international climate policy, as it sets binding emis-
sion reduction targets for industrialized countries under international law for the
first time and provides them with a clear timeframe. However, the Climate Change
Conference had not clarified concrete details on the implementation of the Proto-
col. These issues were the subject of subsequent negotiations. In the meantime, it
looked as if the negotiations would still fail because the positions of the negotiating
states were too far apart. The central point of contention was the nature and scope
of the various options for reducing greenhouse gases.
The negotiations suffered a further setback at the beginning of 2001 when the
then newly elected US government under George W. Bush declared that it would
not support the Kyoto Protocol negotiated by the Clinton government. Despite the
USA’s abstention, the environment ministers of over 180 states were able to reach
a political compromise on the most controversial issues in Bonn, Germany in July
2001. In the meantime, 191 countries have ratified the Kyoto Protocol, including
all EU member states, Canada, New Zealand, Norway, Japan, but also, since 2007,
Australia and important emerging economies such as Brazil, China, India, Mexico,
South Africa, and South Korea. The USA is the only remaining industrialized coun-
try to have rejected ratification of the Kyoto Protocol from the very beginning.
At this stage, Germany will significantly exceed its Kyoto target (21%): by the end
of 2010, national greenhouse gas emissions had already been reduced by almost
25% compared with 1990 levels. The European Union (EU-15) is also expected to
meet its Kyoto commitment (8%): By 2010, emissions in the EU-15 countries had
fallen by 10.6% compared with 1990 levels. The 27 EU member states (EU-27) of
2010 had reduced their emissions by as much as 15.5% by that time – while eco-
nomic growth continues to rise. This shows that a decoupling of growth and emis-
sions has been achieved within the EU.
In comparison, total emissions of all industrialized countries with Kyoto commit-
ments fell by only 6.1% between 1990 and 2008. The global emission trend is also
pointing in a completely different direction: by 2006, global greenhouse gas emis-
sions had risen by around 24% compared with 1990. Responsible for this, in addi-
tion to a number of obdurate industrialized countries, are the rapidly growing
emerging economies such as China and India, whose emissions are continuously
growing strongly. This makes it clear that if the serious consequences of climate
change are to be prevented, the entire world community must act more decisively
than before.
G7 Summit at Castle Elmau (June 2015) and UN Climate Conference

(December 2015) in Paris
The G7 Summit in Germany at Castle Elmau in June 2015 primarily had a climate
policy message: the commitment of the G7 states, against the resistance of Japan,
to the two-degree goal of global warming and the decarbonization of the world
economy by the end of the 21st century, i. e. the gradual and complete abandon-
ment of fossil fuels such as coal, natural gas, and oil. The G7 countries want to
finance these goals with their own contributions and an annual fund of 100 million
US dollars for developing countries. Unexpected praise came from G7-critical orga-
nizations such as Oxfam and Greenpeace [31].
The 21st UN Climate Conference at the beginning of December 2015 in Paris was
also the 11th meeting of the Kyoto Protocol. It agreed on the first climate protection
agreement, which makes all countries responsible for climate protection. With the
agreement the international community has committed itself to the goal of limiting
global warming to less than two degrees Celsius. It also states that the world must
become greenhouse gas neutral after 2050 [31].
The agreement also sets out a concrete way in which the objective is to be achieved:
Starting in 2020, the states will present new climate protection plans every five
years, which must be as ambitious as possible. These plans are subject to the bind-
ing principle that they must not be weakened, but rather must become increas-
ingly ambitious. In addition, each country must report on its greenhouse gas
emissions so that progress is not only on paper, but also reflects reality [31].
6.4.3 Conservation of Resources with Plastics
The fossil hydrocarbon carriers (crude oil, natural gas, coal) that are used world-
wide for energy production (see Figure 6.14; in Germany alone about 70–80% of
the crude oil requirement is used for energy production) are on the one hand fi-
nite, becoming scarcer and therefore more and more expensive, and on the other
hand the exhaust gases produced during energy production (carbon dioxide, meth-
ane, etc.) intensify global warming, which is to be contained by the Kyoto Protocol,
so the emission levels should be reversed.
Saving energy is therefore an important way of increasing our independence from
fossil hydrocarbon sources and at the same time reducing the gases that harm the
climate. There is hardly a country today that handles energy as carefully as Ger-
many. While economic output has increased significantly over a period of 20 years,
energy consumption has fallen by about one tenth (Figure 6.19). Germany is al-
ready one of the most productive industrial locations in the world. Together with
Japan, it is one of the world’s leading major industrial nations in terms of energy
efficiency. And the possibilities are far from exhausted. By 2020, GDP-specific en-
ergy consumption in Germany is to fall by a fifth, and by 2050 by as much as a half.
140
+39.1 %
130
+30.7 %
energy productivity
120
gross domestic product (GDP)
110
100 primary energy consumption
90
-9.8 %
80 | | | | |
1990 1995 2000 2005 2010
Figure 6.19 Development of gross domestic product, primary energy consumption, and
electricity generation in Germany [Image source: Gesamtverband Steinkohle e. V.]
There are several political measures to increase energy efficiency in Germany. One
funding priority is the development of energy-efficient manufacturing technolo-
gies and their use in production. A further field of action is the renovation of build-
ings of private households to improve their energy efficiency, and the creation of
incentives for energy-saving motor vehicles.
Plastics are ideal materials for conserving resources. They are used as insulating
materials in buildings (e. g. EPS = expanded polystyrene, Figure 6.20) and in cool-
ing appliances (e. g. polyurethane insulation, Figure 6.21). With the help of ther-
mal insulation, a lot of heating oil and natural gas can be saved. The thermal insu-
lation materials installed between 1980 and 1995 saved 9.2 million tons of crude
oil equivalents in 1995. This corresponded to about 7% of German mineral oil con-
sumption in 1995.
Figure 6.20
EPS as thermal insulation material
for buildings
Figure 6.21
Polyurethane as an insulator in a refrigerator [Image source: Bosch]
Plastics and fiber-reinforced composites are increasingly being used in individual

passenger transport because their low mass forces also reduce inertia. If mass
inertia is reduced, the motor output and consequently the distance-related energy
input can be greatly reduced. A passenger car saves 0.15 to 0.4 liters of gasoline
(petrol) per 100 km per 100 kg less mass (Figure 6.22). A commercial aircraft
saves 300,000 kg fuel over 60,000 hours per 100 kg reduced mass (Figure 6.23).
Figure 6.22 Lightweight construction in the automotive sector [Image source: BMW AG]
Figure 6.23 Lightweight construction in aviation [Source: Airbus AG]
Reducing the energy input for the production of a product is at least as important
as that for the operation of a building or a vehicle. However, the energy required to
manufacture a product is not only dependent on its energy-efficient production.
The global warming potential (GWP) also indicates how much fossil hydrocarbons
have been used in the life cycle of a product. As a comparative value for the green-
house gases considered in the Kyoto Protocol, a reference to carbon dioxide is cho-
sen. The abbreviation is CO2e (e for equivalent).
The CO2 footprint has become more important in recent years as it can be a useful
tool to determine the climate impact of products, services, and other events in the
everyday life of each individual. A nationally (not internationally) accepted defini-
tion for the CO2 footprint of products is the following [32]:
The Product Carbon Footprint (CO2 footprint of products) describes the balance of
greenhouse gas emissions along the entire life cycle of a product in a defined applica-
tion and related to a defined usage unit.
The product life cycle should cover the entire value chain:
Extraction, processing, and transport of intermediate products,
Production and logistics of the products,
Use of the products, and
Disposal/recycling after use of the products.
The CO2 footprint of products could be suitable to show the environmental damage
of a product in a value and to make it easier for the consumer to decide for or
against a product. This could also lead to taxation in the future.
A life cycle assessment (LCA) is usually more comprehensive and meaningful. The
CO2 footprint is part of a life cycle assessment, which is a systematic analysis of
the environmental impacts of products throughout their entire life cycle (“from
cradle to grave”) or up to a certain point in time of processing (“from cradle to fac-

tory gate”). However, a life cycle assessment not only covers the impact on global
warming (CO2 footprint), but also water pollution, pesticide use, the generation of
radioactive waste, and the impact on the ozone hole. LCAs are considered multi
dimensional, the CO2 footprint one-dimensional. However, LCAs cannot be repre-
sented in one value.
In an LCA, no unit of weight or volume of material is compared with another in
order to determine its potential to conserve resources. Instead, the end product
made of plastic is always compared with the end products made of other materials
that serve the same purpose. Reuse and possible recycling are also part of an LCA.
Since the Kyoto Protocol, numerous LCAs have been carried out worldwide, which
evaluate complete products as they are purchased by the end consumer. Particu-
larly tested LCAs of plastic products (and materials) can be found in the Probas
database on the website of the German Federal Environment Agency.
Examples of particularly resource-saving effects of plastics can be found in [33]
and [34]; in [33] it is very clearly formulated: “The existing PET returnable systems
are preferable to the existing glass returnable systems for mineral water and
CO2-containing soft drinks from an environmental point of view”. The websites for
sustainable building [34] state that in an ecological comparison systems with
expanded polystyrene (EPS) and graphite (“gray” boards) perform best, followed by
EPS without graphite, rock wool, and cork.
A study by the Environment Agency in England [35] carried out a life cycle assess-
ment on various carrier bags (shopping bags). To the author’s astonishment, this
study showed that paper bags have to be reused about 3 times more, and jute bags
about 131 times more, in order to be able to compete ecologically with the normal
plastic carrier bag made of PE-HD, which is only used once. If the plastic bag is
only reused two and a half times – as is the average practice in Germany – a paper
bag would have to be reused 7.5 times and a jute bag 328 times in order to do as
little damage to the environment.
It is also interesting to note that the German association for plastic packaging (IK)
points out that every kg of food that is packaged with plastics and does not spoil
makes a greater contribution to climate protection than the packaging material
causes climate damage. Table 6.3 shows the CO2 equivalents of various foodstuffs
compared with those of some packaging [36]. Denkstatt GmbH comes to a similar
conclusion in a report [37], which shows that the use of plastic packaging for fresh
food can save CO2, as less food spoils.
Table 6.3 Plastic Packaging Avoids CO2 According to [36]

Food Products CO2 Equivalent Packaging CO2 Equivalent
0.5 kg beef 6.65 kg CO2 e 0.5 l PP meat tray 0.084 kg CO2 e
1 kg coffee 8.50 kg CO2 e 1.5 l PET bottle 0.085 kg CO2 e
0.5 kg French fries 2.85 kg CO2 e 0.5 l PS tray 0.065 kg CO2 e
0.5 kg curd cheese 0.98 kg CO2 e 0.5 l PP curd cup 0.073 kg CO2 e
0.5 kg noodles 0.46 kg CO2 e 0.2 m2 LDPE film 12μ 0.010 kg CO2 e
6.4.4 Regenerative Energy Generation with Plastics
In Section 6.4.2 it was already discussed that energy saving is an important way to
increase independence from fossil hydrocarbon sources. Another is the production
of energy without fossil hydrocarbon sources, i. e. from renewable (so-called regen-
erative) sources. These are sources that are almost inexhaustibly available or re-
new themselves relatively quickly. These include hydropower, wind energy, solar
radiation, geothermal energy, and renewable raw materials.
While it is known that renewable resources cannot satisfy humankind’s hunger for
energy with currently over 7 billion people, they can still be used for material pur-
poses and help to avoid the use of crude oil, natural gas, and coal. Section 6.3 ex-
plained the limitations and possibilities of bio-based plastics in more detail.
In 2015, a capacity of 392 GW of wind energy was installed worldwide [38]. More
large wind turbines (Figure 6.24) with increasingly larger blades are being in-
stalled every day. These large blades are only possible through the combination of
low density and high strength of fiber composites (see also Section 3.3.1). Blades
made of metallic materials would tear due to centrifugal force. At the Institute of
Polymer Chemistry (IPOC) at the University of Stuttgart, research is being carried
out on increasingly stronger fibers. In the field of lightweight construction, IPOC
uses natural principles to produce increasingly lighter structures with outstanding
mechanical properties.
Figure 6.24
Wind turbines
Photovoltaics are another example of renewable energy generation. A very large

modern open-air solar power plant was built in Brandenburg, Germany. It supplies
36,000 households in Berlin with electricity and simultaneously reduces the re-
gion’s carbon dioxide emissions by 90,000 t/a. Figure 6.25 shows that large-scale
photovoltaic systems are also possible in more densely populated regions such as
the Stuttgart conurbation. Certain functional polymers such as polyacetylene,
polypyrrole, polyphenylene sulfide, and polythiophene are electrically conductive.
What is special about them is that they can be deformed to a limited extent from
coatings and allow solar cells to be mounted on plastic films. This means that, in
principle, very inexpensive and highly flexible solar cells can be produced, which,
however, lag behind the well-known inorganic solar cells in terms of electrical
power and continuous use.
Figure 6.25 Solar power generation on the exhibition fair car park in Stuttgart
[Source: Bosch]
However, significant progress has been made in recent years in polymer-based so-
lar cells by developing new materials and optimizing cell structures. At the IPOC of
the University of Stuttgart, research is being carried out on the synthesis of highly
branched polythiophenes for organic light-emitting diodes and for organic photo-
voltaics. In addition, the institute is working on the molecular order in thin films of
these semiconducting functional polymers.
Fuel cells are also low-emission energy producers (Figure 6.26). Polymers are in-
dispensable for the most widely used low-temperature fuel cells: In the chemical
reaction, also known as cold combustion, hydrogen is first oxidized electro
chemically at the anode. The hydrogen ions H+ can migrate through a polymer
membrane and reduce oxygen at the cathode. At the same time, the electrons are
transferred to the electric circuit and in this way reach the anode. The product of
this reaction is water.
6.5 Conclusion 457
Figure 6.26
Use of a polymer film in a fuel
cell as a membrane
The polymer membrane is several 100 μm thin, must be gas-tight, but proton-
conductive. Consequently, it acts as an electrolyte. After initial successes with
sulfonated polystyrene (PS, during sulfonation acid groups are integrated), further
developments based on sulfonated polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) were carried
out. Such functional polymers belong to the so-called ionomer group because they
are ion-permeable.
6.5 Conclusion
The reader may draw his or her own conclusions after studying the many sources
given. This is how the author sees it:
Garbage: It is not the material that is responsible for environmental pollution,
but the human being. Waste in the environment is mostly caused by laziness and
lack of discipline. But it also has something to do with our way of life; we live in
a disposable society, surrounded by superfluous disposable products. So, environ
mental protection starts with each and every one of us! Plastics are too good to
throw away!
Toxicity: Keep a sense of proportion, but also keep your eyes wide open! Horror
stories about toxic plastics spread by the media do not need to cause sleepless
nights, but at the same time it is reassuring to know that studies are constantly
being prepared to reassess the possible influences of plastics or the additives
they contain on our bodies or our food chain. It is also reassuring to know that
plastic is probably the most comprehensively regulated and controlled material
in Europe.
Bioplastics: They will not save the world, but they will also not cause hunger. The
main benefit of bio-based plastics is that they do not consume fossil raw materi-
als and therefore do not emit any “bad” CO2 when burned. Above all, they will
prepare the industry for the world “after oil”. The benefit of biodegradable plas-
tics lies in a special disposal alternative, but this should not induce anyone to
carelessly throw bioplastic products into the environment.
Resource-conserving material: Plastics make a major contribution to the conserva-
tion of resources worldwide. Saving energy is becoming increasingly important
in order to become less dependent on fossil hydrocarbon sources and to reduce
emissions. The life cycle assessments of plastic products often look more favor-
able than those of products made of other materials. Plastics reduce enormous
quantities of fossil fuels in the form of insulating materials, but also as light-
weight construction materials.
Renewable energy generation: regenerative energy production would not be possi-
ble without plastics. Films made of functional polymers are used as flexible and
cost-effective photovoltaic layers, others as membranes in fuel cells. Only ex-
treme lightweight construction makes the large blades of clean wind turbines
possible; other materials would tear due to centrifugal force.
QR-Code 6-3
This video shows why it is a pity to throw away plastic and picks up
on several aspects of this chapter.
http://www.ikt.uni-stuttgart.de/links/Videolinks/Its-a-great-pity

6.6 References
[1] Bundesgesetz, Gesetz zur Förderung der Kreislaufwirtschaft und Sicherung der umweltverträg
lichen Bewirtschaftung von Abfällen (Kreislaufwirtschaftsgesetz – KrWG), 2012.
[2] Statistisches Bundesamt, “Ergebnisbericht – Umwelt – Erhebung über Haushaltsabfälle, bei den
öffentlich-rechtlichen Entsorgungsträgern,” 2011.
[3] N. N., “Nachhaltigkeitsbericht 2012,” IK e. V. 2012.
[4] NABU, “www.NABU.de” August 3, 2012. [Online]. [Accessed September 23, 2013].
[5] GESAMP, “www.gesamp.org,” [Online]. Available: http://www.gesamp.org/. [Accessed September
26, 2013].
[6] Bund für Umwelt und Naturschutz Deutschland e. V. (BUND), “BUND Friends of the Earth
Germany,” January 13, 2014. [Online]. Available: http://www.bund.net/fileadmin/bundnet/pdfs/
meere/131119_bund_meeresschutz_mikroplastik_produktliste.pdf. [Accessed January 27, 2014].
[7] Lebensmittel-, Bedarfsgegenstände und Futtermittelgesetzbuch (LFGB), 2005.
[8] Bedarfsgegenständeverordnung, 1992.
[9] Europäisches Arzneibuch, 2012: Deutscher Apotheker Verlag.
6.6 References 459
[10] Bundesgesetz über Medizinprodukte (Medizinproduktegesetz – MPG), Germany, 1994.

[11] REACH, 2006R1907-EN-09.10.2012-014.001-1 Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restric-
tion of Chemicals (REACH), 2012.
[12] E. F. S. A., “www.efsa.europa.eu,” [Online]. Available: http://www.efsa.europa.eu. [Accessed Sep-
tember 27, 2013].
[13] W. H. O., “Toxicological and Health Aspects of Bisphenol A,” 2012.
[14] U. S. F. D. A., “U.S. Food and Drug Administration,” March 30, 2013. [Online]. Available: http://
www.fda.gov/newsevents/publichealthfocus/ucm064437.htm#current. [Accessed January 14, 2014].
[15] B. f. G. B. Switzerland, “Faktenblatt – Bisphenol A,” 2011.
[16] Bundesamt für Risikobewertung, “Fragen und Antworten zu Bisphenol A in verbrauchernahen
Produkten,” [Online]. Available: www.bfr.bund.de/cm/343/fragen-und-antworten-zu-bisphenol-a-in-
verbrauchernahen-produkten.pdf. [Accessed August 20, 2013].
[17] Bayerisches Landesamt für Gesundheit und Lebensmittelsicherheit, “Bayerisches Landesamt
für Gesundheit und Lebensmittelsicherheit,” March 14, 2013. [Online]. Available: http://www.lgl.
bayern.de/lebensmittel/chemie/schimmelpilzgifte/aflatoxine/. [Accessed January 16, 2014].
[18] D. S. Kreibe, “Hochschule Augsburg,” 2008. [Online]. Available: http://www.hs-augsburg.de/
∼skreibe/downloads/grundlumwelt8risikomanagement.pdf. [Accessed January 18, 2014].
[19] Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernäherung e. V. , “Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung e. V.,” June 2,
2008. [Online]. Available: http://www.dge.de/modules.php?name=News&file=article&sid=834. [Ac-
cessed January 8, 2014].
[20] W. Krämer, “Der Tagessspiegel,” September 16, 2011. [Online]. Available: http://www.tagesspiegel.
de/wissen/lebensmittel-leckeres-gift-seite-2/4616986-2.html. [Accessed January 8, 2014].
[21] Kulling, “Phytoöstrogene,” Ernährungs-Umschau 50, Vol. 50, No. 6, 2003.
[22] O. Renn, Interview in “Die Zeit,” No. 16, 2014.
[23] EN 13432, Verpackung – Anforderungen an die Verwertung von Verpackungen durch Kompostie-
rung und biologischen Abbau – Prüfschema und Bewertungskriterien für die Einstufung von
Verpackungen; 2000.
[24] ASTM D6400. International, Standard Specification for Labeling of Plastics Designed to be Aerobi-
cally Composted in Municipal or Industrial Facilities, 2012.
[25] R. Essel, Consulting Marketing & Industrieberatung GmbH, “Produktion, Verarbeitung und Ver-
wertung von Kunststoffen in Deutschland 2011,” 2012.
[26] Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz, August 29, 2013.
[Online]. Available: http://www.bmelv.de/SharedDocs/Downloads/Landwirtschaft/Markt-Statistik/
Ernte2013_Bericht+Anlagen.pdf?__blob=publicationFile. [Accessed January 17, 2014].
[27] R. Essel, M. Carus, and A. Raschka, “Bio-Based Polymers – An Ecological Alternative?,” Kunst
stoffe International, No. 8, pp. 54–57, 2012.
[28] European Bioplastics market data. [Online]. Available under: https://www.european-bioplastics.
org/market/ [Accessed for this statement on January 9, 2014].
[29] Lexikon der Nachhaltigkeit, [Online]. Available: http://www.nachhaltigkeit.info/. [Accessed De-
cember 30, 2013].
[30] Bundesministerium für Umwelt, Naturschutz, Bau und Reaktorsicherheit, [Online]. Available:
https://secure.bmu.de/en/service/chronology/milestones-until-2014/1987/ [Accessed December
30, 2013].
[31] http://www.bmub.bund.de/presse/pressemitteilungen/pm/artikel/klimaschuetzer-schreiben-
geschichte/.
[32] Bundesministerium für Umwelt, “www.bmu.de,” December 2009. [Online]. [Accessed August 15,
2013].
[33] Bundesumweltministerium, “Hintergrundpapier: Ökobilanz Getränkeverpackungen für alkohol-

freie Getränke und Wein,” 2000.
[34] N. N., “www.nachhaltiges-bauen.de,” [Online]. Available: http://nachhaltiges-bauen.de/baustoffe/.
[Accessed August 5, 2013].
[35] C. Edwards and J. Meyhoff Fry, “Lifecycle Assessment of supermarket carrierbags,” Report:
SC030148; Environment Agency England February 2011. [Online]. Available: https://assets.publi-
shing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/291023/scho0711
buan-e-e.pdf
[36] BKV, Plattform für Kunststoff und Verwertung, “Mit Kunststoff in die Zukunft. Zur Nachhaltigkeit
von Kunststoffverpackungen,” 2011.
[37] H. Pilz, “Die Auswirkungen von Kunststoffen auf Energieverbrauch und Treibhausgasemissionen
in Europa,” 2010.
[38] World Wind Energy Association (WWEA), “2013 Half-year report,” 2013.
A Recommendations for
Writing a Bachelor’s/
Master’s Thesis at the IKT
A.1 Different Demands of Bachelor’s,

Master’s, and Doctoral Theses
According to the examination regulations of the University, a bachelor’s thesis
should show that students are able to work independently on a project using scien-
tific methods within a given period of time. Furthermore, the students must pres-
ent the results in a 20 minutes long oral presentation. The same applies to a mas-
ter’s thesis, but the expectation of independence and depth is higher. Neither are
“scientific works” (see below). The scientific methods learned are to support grad-
uates in successfully working on tasks inside and outside of science.
A doctoral thesis differs from a bachelor’s or master’s thesis not only in its degree
of independence. It is an independent scientific research achievement (“scientific
work”; see below) that contributes to the overall progress of knowledge in the re-
spective subject area and must be published. As a rule, with a doctoral thesis in
the technical sciences, additional competencies are acquired that are also useful
for tasks outside the field of science. Scientific competence should be supple-
mented by additional competencies in project acquisition, project management,
and first chance for personnel management (guiding undergraduates and graduate
students), which prepare Ph.D. students for managerial tasks within and outside of
science.
Experience of working with students and research staff in recent years has made
it clear that the similarity between the terms “scientific method” and “scientific
work” can cause confusion. Therefore, the following explanations shall illustrate
the huge difference.
462 A Recommendations for Writing a Bachelor’s/Master’s Thesis at the IKT
A.2 Scientific Methods

Scientific methods are planned, systematic, target-oriented, and verifiable proce-
dures for developing research results, but also for solving tasks outside of science.
Different sciences use different methods. In the technical sciences and natural
sciences, usually they use methods that examine different sources, theoretical
methods, and empirical methods.
A.2.1 Source-Examining Methods
Numerous research efforts will likely only be undertaken if the researcher and also
the person funding the research believe, to the best of their knowledge, that this
research object has not already been researched. Therefore, the competence of the
researcher requires knowledge of the state of the art and of research and technol-
ogy, which he/she can only acquire through source research (literature, patents,
and expert discussions).
Sources from different authors should be considered and working groups and must
be researched, described, analyzed, and interpreted up to the primary source. The
selection may also have to be justified. Sources often also serve to clearly define
and delimit a subject area.
The individual methods are called:
Source selection,
Source interpretation,
Source comparison, and also
Source criticism.
In the written version, sources must always be verifiable and clearly marked as
quotations or loans.
A.2.2 Theoretical Methods
The theory is the design of a cause-and-effect relationship which anticipates the

experimental confirmation. A proof is the strictly logical tracing back of a theory to
proven truths. In the strict sense, such proofs exist only in mathematics. Other
sciences in this strict sense work with hypotheses and models of cause-and-effect
relationships which can be verified as well as possible but not exactly proven. In
this strict interpretation of terms, for example, the theory of relativity and the
Higgs boson theory are not theories, but hypotheses.
A.3 Scientific Work 463
The methods used in this context are called:

Analogy in the sense of transferability and
Causality in the sense of “cause-and-effect”.
“Deduction” starts from a draft of a general cause-and-effect relationship and
searches for evidence (→ empiricism) to reinforce the draft.
“Induction”, on the other hand, brings together many individual observations to
formulate a general cause-and-effect relationship.
A.2.3 Empirical Methods
Empiricism (Greek: empeiria = “experience”) is understood as a collection of sys-

tematically determined, verifiable information. In the technical and natural sci-
ences, they usually serve to support hypotheses or models (→ deduction) or to build
up a hypothesis or model (→ induction).
Technical scientists and natural scientists often work heuristically. Heuristics (an-
cient Greek: heurisko = “I find”) is the analytical procedure of drawing conclusions
about a cause-and-effect relationship when knowledge is insufficient. Technical
scientists and natural scientists also approach their scientific work in a very simi-
lar way: they work, for example, with boundaries of the system under consider-
ation (“balance limits”) in order to consider cause and effect here. They plan such
experiments skillfully so that hypotheses can be tested, rejected, or adapted with
little effort in order to arrive at a consistent statement iteratively (i. e., deductively
and inductively in alternation).
Empiricism uses the following methods:
Unbiased observation,
Reproducible description,
Defined system boundaries,
Analysis of determining influencing variables, and
Their targeted variation in experiments.
A.3 Scientific Work

A scientific work requires knowledge that cannot be derived purely by hard think-
ing. It tries to give clarity to the extent to which statements about “splinters” of
reality can be generalized, i. e. it serves the knowledge of general connections and
laws. It is not a coincidental discovery, but a systematic search for the universal
connection with the help of scientific methods.
The application of scientific methods (see above) alone is not scientific work. This
requires at least the following additional steps:
Interpretation of the results based on the cause-and-effect relationship (the “hy-
pothesis”, the “model”),
Consideration and discussion of possible errors,
Comparison, discussion, and delimitation of the results with cause-and-effect
relationships of the source work,
Positive conclusion: decision to embed in the general cause-and-effect relation-
ship and thereby extension.
Negative conclusion: discard the hypothesis or the model with justification and
thereby question the cause-and-effect relationship. Scientific work is therefore
also an act of “creative destruction”.
From the author’s point of view, the application of the above-mentioned scientific
methods to achieve technical improvement is not scientific work (nor “applied re-
search” or similar), but rather “development”. They can nevertheless use the same
methods, see Figure A.1. For example, large-scale parameter studies without inter-
pretation against the background of a model or a hypothesis and without “embed-
ding” are only method applications.
general
specific
S
research development
T E
S: source-examining methods
T: theoretical methods
E: empirical methods
Figure A.1 Differentiation of research and development
A.4 Bachelor’s or Master’s Thesis

Of course, we at the IKT in Germany are pleased about the creativity of our stu-
dents, but they should focus on the problem of the work and not on the structure of
the written composition.
A.4 Bachelor’s or Master’s Thesis 465
The structure of a bachelor’s or master’s thesis is like any other scientific and tech-
nological publication and is described quite well in ISO 7144. Scientific journals
such as “Nature” or “Polymer” also expect approximately the same structure of a
submitted publication, so it makes sense to imprint this on the students in Stutt-
gart as well. The basic structure is as follows:
Table of contents (structure: max. 3rd level),
List of illustrations, tables, symbols and abbreviations, glossary (if required),
Abstract,
Introduction,
Body of thesis (state of the art, objectives, experimental, results/discussion, con-
clusion/outlook),
References,
Annexes (if necessary).
A.4.1 About the Title of the Thesis
During my time in industry and also as an institute director, I received CVs from
applicants containing titles of theses that had to be explained to me first. Since
then, I have taken great care to ensure that the titles, at least of the master’s the-
ses, do not sound too academic on the one hand, but are also meaningful on their
own, without reflecting the entire content and objectives.
A.4.2 About the Content of the Thesis
The successful processing of a task naturally requires first and foremost new, care-
fully prepared results. However, these are not useful if they are not written down
just as carefully in the final paper and are therefore comprehensible for interested
readers.
It is important that the work contains a central theme. This can only be achieved
by presenting not only the results but also the initial problem and the complete
path to a solution. The following section shows which aspects of content should be
covered in the components of a bachelor’s or master’s thesis.
A.4.2.1 Summary
Professionals spend about 30% of their time reading. Since there is a flood of read-
ing material coming up every day, e. g. in the form of specialist publications, news-
letters, letters, file notes, etc., it is becoming increasingly important to be able to
select essential information in a target-oriented manner and to make the relevant
texts accessible rationally. Therefore, a summary is always read first and thus de-
termines whether a text is read completely or not.
It should therefore inform the reader in advance about essential aspects of the
work – introduction, status quo, goal, and procedure – as well as briefly and clearly
reflect the principal conclusions and recommendations from the content of the
entire work, without weighing different results against each other. The summary
should be able to stand alone and be understandable without the rest of the work.
Altogether it should not comprise more than one page, for master’s and doctoral
theses a maximum of two. As a rule, a summary does not mention any brand
names or concrete numerical values, and only uses generally known abbreviations.
Descriptors are descriptive short terms that represent the content of the work,
with which the work is linked in literature databases in order to make it easier to
find. At the IKT in Stuttgart they are listed at the beginning of the summary.
A.4.2.2 Introduction
The introduction is supposed to provide the reader with a quick introduction to the
research area in question on one to two pages. For this purpose, for example, the
motivation and the embedding in plastics technology can be described, however,
without going into the concrete objectives.
A.4.2.3 Main Part

The main part forms the core of every bachelor’s and master’s thesis. It should
therefore be given special care in its preparation. In order to achieve the above-men-
tioned central theme of the thesis, the main part should preferably be structured
in three main chapters according to the following scheme:
First Main Chapter: Initial Situation and Objectives

Distinguishing new knowledge from already known knowledge requires compre-
hensive source work (literature, patents, and expert discussions) and the presenta-
tion of the status quo. Quotations and loans must, of course, be labeled. The follow-
ing content aspects should be developed and presented in the work:
State of knowledge,
Open questions,
Idea derived from this to answer the open questions/“objectives”.
Second Main Chapter: Solution

The second main chapter describes the solution and therefore the approach chosen
to achieve the objective. In theoretical work, the focus is on source and theory
work. The following content aspects should be presented in a practical work:
Explanation and justification of the materials, processing machines, analytical

procedures, and methods used for the experiments.
Exact experimental setup and execution with explanation of difficulties, special
features, and how they were dealt with.
The content must be presented in such a way that each subsequent operator can
reproduce it and arrive at the same results.
Important note: Brand names or manufacturer designations of the carefully chosen
materials used should only be mentioned once at the beginning. Easily memorable,
meaningful abbreviations are used for the further course of the work.
Third Main Chapter: Results and Discussion

Here the results of the work are presented value-free, then discussed and evalu-
ated against the background of the objectives and source situation (first main
chapter).
The focus should be on the most important findings, thereby sharpening the “eye
for the essentials”. In addition, honest statements on uncertainties or a critical
discussion of errors in no way diminish the work, but are an expression of the
self-critical discussion.
A.4.2.4 Concluding Remarks

In the final remarks, conclusions from the essential, newly achieved work results
and follow-up work deemed necessary are to be presented.
A.4.2.5 Appendix
The chapters of the main section should clearly refer to the core contents and the
central theme of the task at hand. Documentations, longer mathematical deriva-
tions, detail pictures, measurement data, etc., which would disturb the flow of the
representations in the main part by their detail or quantity, should therefore be
placed in the appendix.
A.4.3 About the Scope of the Thesis
Structure the substance at an early stage and always log problems and decisions
“online” in a laboratory book, i. e. during practical work. Add results to an Excel
file, for example, already during the tests and visualize them in meaningful dia-
grams. Do not start “writing up” after all the practical work has been completed.
The scope is not a measure of the quality of a work. The work should be short and
concise, but sufficiently clear. At IKT, a length of 40 to 70 pages (without appendix)
is appropriate for a bachelor’s or master’s thesis; a good guideline for doctoral the-
ses in technical sciences is 100 pages (without appendix).
A.4.4 About the Writing Style of the Thesis
Although the most important thing in student theses is the content, seemingly
minor aspects such as correct spelling, punctuation, and formatting are very im-
portant. Inadequacies in these areas would attract the attention of the educated
reader, distract him/her and interfere with the flow of reading. In extreme cases,
even research results may appear less important if the reader is left with the im-
pression that the author has not devoted enough linguistic attention to his/her
work. Appropriate formatting and correct spelling and grammar are therefore not
only decorative accessories, but also quality features, like the content.
As a rule, bachelor’s and master’s theses in Stuttgart must be written according to
the recognized spelling and grammar rules. Transferred to e. g. U. S. universities
that would mean that standard U. S. English would be required. Everyone has his
or her own personal style of writing, which he or she should be happy to retain.
Nevertheless, for a better understanding of the work, some aspects should be con-
sidered:
The content of a bachelor’s or master’s thesis has to be formulated concisely and
clearly, following the logical train of thought. In any case, the thesis must be pre-
sented so precisely that third parties can understand the investigations and exper-
iments you have carried out. Comprehensibility and accuracy are therefore usually
more important than a polished writing style.
In addition, only those technical terms should be used whose comprehension
seems assured to the reader. For a bachelor’s or master’s thesis at the IKT, you
should aim to ensure that a plastics technology engineer, or an engineer from a
related discipline, understands your work. Newly introduced or less common terms
or designations should be defined (abbreviations or glossary). These terms or des-
ignations must be used consistently with the same meaning. Repeated words that
were frowned upon in school essays are appropriate for technical terms in order to
impress them on the reader.
Despite all its precision, a paper does not have to be boring or dryly formulated. It
is quite possible to present such a text in an interesting way.
Concrete Writing Style Recommendations

Avoid colloquial formulations. Not: “The created software was really great.”
Use short, easy-to-understand sentences instead of nested sentences. Not: “The
computer in which the . . . is located, then causing the . . .”
Create clear references: “The current I flows through the resistor R. This is rela-
tively small.” What is meant, I or R?
Use clear, meaningful formulations. Not: “quite complex”, “almost linear”, “rela-
tively small”, etc.
Choose unique names for the same object. Stick to a name! Repetitions are ex-
pressly desired here! Not: “The input stage . . . In the preliminary stage . . . At the
1st stage . . .”, etc.
Illustrate your text with pictures and diagrams. Too much text can be confusing.
Not: “The second uppermost hole of the rod holder is exactly 3.4 mm below the
middle bead of the third mounting plate, with the lateral edge distance from the
left . . .”.
Avoid or explain internal designations. Not: “The measurements were made with
our proven RUDI measuring system.”
Use the present as narrative time. Instead of “To prevent oscillation, I soldered a
capacitor (. . .)”. Better: “The additionally soldered capacitor C reduces the ten-
dency to oscillate.”
Avoid the first person (“I” and “we”) and use the passive form instead if it is
clear. Better is, for example: “the software is started by a mouse click”, than:
“I start the software with a mouse click”.
But avoid the passive form if possible. Better is, for example: “A mouse click
starts the software” than: “The software is started by a mouse click”.
Index
Symbols ball joint connection 347

barrier effect 350
3D printing 412
barrier element 165
barrier layer 137, 270
A barrier screw 259
Bayer, O. 4
ABS 193 bending test 107
absorption 114 benzene 434
acrylic ester-styrene-acrylonitrile 10 binding nature 28
acrylonitrile 434 bio-based 441, 458
acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene copolymers biodegradable 437, 442, 458
207 biomass 442
acrylonitrile-styrene-acrylate copolymers 208 bioplastic 437
additives 47, 137, 154, 169, 433 biostabilizers 187
adhesive 47 biosynthesis 14
adhesive bonding mechanism Bisphenol A 434
–– chemical 344 blend 19, 35, 157, 446
–– physical 344 blowing agent 179, 308
aging 35, 179, 364, 404 blown film extrusion 267
–– accelerated 404 braiding 321
aging mechanisms breaking stress 50
–– chemical 184 brittle 49
–– mechanical 182 Brownian molecular motion 32, 44, 52
–– physical 182 Brundtland Report 448
aluminum 2 Burger model 59
anisotropy 138, 144
annealing 176
antioxidants 187, 434 C
Arrhenius equation 405 cantilever chair 10
assembly injection molding 293 caprolactam 145
CARPOW approach 78
Carreau approach 72
B
cascade injection molding 291
back injection technology 298 catalyst 18, 35
Baekeland, L. H. 3 cavity 275, 280, 293, 313
Bagley correction 88 celluloid 3
Bakelite 3 cellulose 15
472
Index
ceramic radiator 325 degassing zone 168

chain growth reaction 17 degree of crystallization 41
channel depth 252 degree of stretching 327
cheap image 8 delamination 148
clamping unit 274, 279 demolding system 280
CO2 footprint 453 density 127, 307, 362
CO2-neutrality 442 design 8
coating 350, 354 –– material-specific 383
–– hydrophilic 350 –– mechanical 281, 396
–– hydrophobic 350 –– production-oriented 393
coatings 47 –– rheological 281, 311
co-extrusion 270 –– stress-oriented 396
coloring 8 –– thermal 281, 283
composite injection molding 293 design engineering 60
compounding 65, 157, 162 design freedom 8, 375
–– of biopolymers 446 desorption 133
compression 51 die
compression molding 304 –– extrusion 163, 250
compression zone 251 dielectric strength 111
computed tomography 151 die resistance 256
concept phase 408 die swell 83, 263
conductivity 350 differential scanning calorimetry 125, 189
configuration 36 diffusion 134
conformation 38 dipole-dipole forces 29
conservation of resources 450 discharge zone 257
constitution 36 dispersion forces 31
consumer goods 8 disposal route 441
contraction 85, 173, 287 draft angle 395
–– thermal 173 drilling 332
conveying element 165 ductile 49
conveying zone 168 dwell time
cooling rate 44 –– average 169
cooling time 275, 335, 393
copolymer 19, 158
E
core component 295
core layer 177 ecotoxicity 439
coupling agents 159 edge layer 177
craze 57 elaboration phase 408
creep test 103 elastic 56
crosslinking 33, 35, 303, 308, 313 elastic shear modulus 156
crosslinking density 33 elastomer 33, 54, 302, 305
crystalline melting temperature 53, 127 –– thermoplastic 35
crystallization 40, 172, 177 electrical engineering 3
cycle time 286, 335 electron gas 27
elongation 51
elongation at break 50, 157
D
elongation at yield 50
damper 57 embrittlement 187
damping 121 energy
decomposition temperature 54 –– specific 168
473
energy efficiency 451 flat film extrusion 265

energy generation flight clearance 252
–– regenerative 455 flight width 252
–– renewable 458 flow
enthalpy –– laminar 285
–– specific 123 –– turbulent 285
epoxy resin 144, 241 flow activation energy 76
ethylene 14 flow aids 154
ethylene-propylene-(diene) copolymers 197 flow behavior
extensibility 363 –– Newtonian 68
extensional rheometer 94 –– shear thinning 68
extruder screw 251 flow marks 262
extrusion blow molding 268, 299 fluid injection technology 297
extrusion welding 337 foam 178, 291, 307
–– closed-cell 178
–– open-cell 178
F
food packaging 6
feed zone 166, 251 forced conveying 256
feel 8 forced deformation 395
fiber formaldehyde 434
–– aramid 143 forming 323
–– breakage 148 fragmentation 431, 439
–– carbon 140, 143 friction block 58
–– chemical 47 friction properties 350
–– continuous 141, 312, 315, 316, 319 fuel cell 456
–– glass 138, 143 functional elements 375
–– long 141, 312, 315 fused deposition modeling 413
–– natural 47, 143 fused filament fabrication 413
–– neutral 51
–– orientation 313
G
–– reinforcement 144
–– semi-finished product 142 Geiger, K. 78
–– short 141, 176, 312, 313 glass mat reinforced 316
fiber plastic composite 455 glass transition 52, 126
fiber-reinforced composite 452 global warming potential 453
fiber reinforced plastic glucose 15
–– three-dimensional structures 321 Goodyear, C. 35
fiber-reinforced plastic composite 311 granulation. See pelletizing
fibers 138 greenhouse gases 448
fiber spraying 313 grinding 331
fiber winding 322 grooved barrel extruder 252
fillers 35, 137, 162 Grünschloß, E. 258
–– organic 162
film
H
–– barrier 429
film hinge 378, 396, 402 hand lamination 312
filter model 366 hardener 303, 313
flame retardants 434 heat capacity
flank –– specific 124, 364
–– pushing 256 heat penetration coefficient 133
474
Index
heat transfer 334 K

heavy metals 440
Keltool 419
Helibar® 258
Klatte, F. 4
helix angle 252
Kyoto Protocol 448, 454
Henry’s law 134
high speed tensile test 99
holding pressure phase 275, 287 L
hormone active 434
hot gas welding 337 La Chaise 9
hot plate welding 335 lamella 45
Hyatt, J. W. 3 laminate 147
hydrogen bond 30 laminated object manufacturing 411
hydrolysis 186 laser sintering 419
–– selective 410
laser welding 341
I L/D ratio 169, 252
impact bending test 108 leakage current 256
impact modifiers 157 life cycle assessment 453
impact strength 108 light stabilizers 187, 434
induction forces 31 lightweight construction 5, 138, 452
infrared spectroscopy 189 load
initiator 16 –– dynamic 363
injection-compression molding 290 long-range order 40, 43
injection molding 10, 272, 306 loss factor 89, 93, 122
–– special processes 289 loss modulus 89
injection molding compounding 292
injection molding cycle 275 M
injection molding machine 273
injection nozzle macromolecule 14, 28
–– open 278 main valence bond 27
injection phase 286 mass accumulation 286, 387
injection stretch blow molding 299 mass throughput 168
injection unit 273, 277 material preselection 365
inline production 329 materials engineering 60, 65
innovation material 8 matrix 144
insert 380 Maxwell model 58
insulation 451 mechanical machining 330
integral foam 308 melamine formaldehyde resin 242
interferometry 150 melt channel 259
intermediate fiber breakage 148 melt filter 170
investment casting 417 melt flow index 86
isotropy 144 melt flow rate 86
melt front 175
metabolism 438
J metallic bond 27
joining 347 metal spraying 417
metering zone 251, 253
microplastic 431
migration-capable 433
475
milling 330 P
–– circumferential 331
Panton, V. 10
–– form 331
parallel axis theorem 381
mixing
pelletizing
–– dispersive 152, 164
–– cold 171
–– distributive 164
–– dry 171
mixing element 165
–– hot 171
–– dispersive 258
–– strand 171
–– distributive 258
–– underwater 171
mixing rule 145
–– wet 171
molar mass 22, 155, 433
percolation threshold 111
molar mass distribution 22, 76, 188
permeation 134, 135
mold
peroxide 35
–– injection 280
PET 193, 217, 435, 454
–– open 326
phenol-formaldehyde resin 243
mold filling simulation 394
phenol resin 243
monomer 13, 145
photovoltaics 456
–– residual 434
phthalates 434
multi-axial fabrics 142
phyllosilicate 153
multi-head system 339
pipe extrusion 261
multi-station machine 328
pitch 252
plastic 8, 57
N plastic behavior 323
plastic bottles 6
nanoparticles 152
plastic carrier bag 454
nanotubes 153
plastic dust 431, 439
naphtha 14
plasticizers 155, 434
negative forming 324
plasticizing zone 166
non-return valve 277
plastics
non-uniformity 23
–– engineering 191
normal stress 51
–– high-performance 191
notched impact strength 157
–– standard 191
notch effect 396
plastics consumption 6
nucleating agents 159
plastics technology 60
plastic waste 427, 430, 457
O plate machine 328
PMMA 193
oil price 443
polarization filter 44
oligomer 14
polishing 331
one-dimensional flow 66
polyaddition 21, 308
opacity 40, 117
polyamide 4, 193, 211
organic sheet 299, 318
polybutylene terephthalate 216
orientation 334
polycarbonate 5, 193, 220
–– fiber 142, 146, 176, 385, 394
polycondensation 19
–– molecular 118, 172, 174, 385,
polydispersity 23
394
polyether ether ketone 228
oscillation test 92
polyethersulfone 230
outsert 378
polyethylene 4, 18, 193, 194
overflow mold 304
polymer 13, 60, 433
oxidation 185
476
Index
polymer chemistry 13 pultrusion 316

polymerization PVC 4, 18, 156, 193, 200, 434
–– in situ 145
polymer membrane 456
R
polymer synthesis 16
polymethyl methacrylate 4, 222 radical 16, 35
polyolefin 193 rapid prototyping 408
polyoxymethylene 224 rapid tooling 284, 415
polyphenylene sulfide 232 raw materials 65
polypropylene 193, 196 –– fossil 13, 430, 441
–– long glass fiber-reinforced 10 –– renewable 14, 441
polystyrene 4, 18, 193, 202 reaction injection molding 310, 415
–– expanded 4, 193, 451 recovery
polysulfone 230 –– energy 429
polytetrafluoroethylene 193, 227 –– material 429
polyurethane 4, 10, 21, 193, 240, 307, recyclability 353
451 recycling 428
porcelain 2 reduction factor 400
positive forming 326 reference stress 398
power law approach 72 reflection 114
preform 299, 319 refractive index 116
prepreg 318 Regnault, H. V. 4
pressure build-up zone 168 reinforcing materials 137
pressure drop 88, 393 relaxation 104
pre-stretching 327 repeating unit 18
pre-stretch plug 324 replacement model
primary forming 8, 52 –– mechanical 56
primary shaping 249 reptation model 70
primary structure 36, 41 residual stress 130, 172, 173, 334
processing 65, 172, 364 resin 303, 313
processing technology 60, 249 resin injection molding 319
product development 361 resin injection processes 322
products resin molding 416
–– complex 370, 423 resin nest 148
–– container-like 369, 422 resin transfer molding 319
–– housing-like 368, 421 resource conservation 458
–– large-area 368, 421 retardation 104
profile extrusion 262 rheology 66
properties rheometer
–– acoustic 120 –– extensional 94
–– electrical 110, 365 –– high-pressure capillary 87
–– magnetic 112 –– rotational 89
–– optical 113 rheometry 85
–– physical 110 rib 380, 388
propylene 14 –– intersection 391
prototype 408 ring snap connection 347
–– concept model 420, 423 riveting 349
–– functional 420, 422, 424 roll machine 328
–– geometry 420, 422, 424 roving 142
–– technical 420, 422–424 rubber 305
477
S strain 49
–– critical 402
sagging 155
–– outer fiber 401
sandwich injection molding 295
–– permissible 401
sawing 330
strength 48, 363
Schlack, P. 4
stress 49
Schnell, H. 5
–– permissible 398
screw boss 377, 392, 399
stress at break 50
screw connection 348
stress cracking 183
screw vestibule 277
stress-strain curve 98
sealing time 275
stress-strain diagram 49
secondary structure 38
styrene 434
secondary valence bond 29, 40
styrene-acrylonitrile copolymers 204
semi-crystalline 40
styrene-butadiene-styrene copolymers 203
semi-finished product 324
surface moment of inertia 307, 380
service life prediction 404
shear 174
shear deformation 51 T
shear edge mold 304
tacticity 36
shear modulus 89
tape laying 322
shearography 150
temperature-control medium 284
shear rate 68
temperature control system
–– transition 73
–– variotherm 301
shear stress 51, 67
temperature shift 75
shear thinning 68
tensile strength 50, 363
sheet molding compound 313
tensile test 96
short-range order 40
tertiary structure 43
shrinkage 85, 385
textile technology 47
single-screw extruder 250
thermal conductivity 128, 364
single-station machine 328
thermal diffusivity 131
sink marks 386
thermal endurance graph 405
size exclusion chromatography 26
thermal expansion 130, 364
skin component 295
thermoelastic 52
smooth-bore extruder 252
thermoforming 323
snap connection 347, 376
thermography 149
sonotrode 339
thermoplastic 33, 52, 144
sorption 133
–– amorphous 40, 52, 367
specification 371
–– semi-crystalline 53, 367
spherulite 43, 159
thermoplastic foam injection molding 291
spring 56
thermoplastic injection molding 274
sprue system 280, 282
thermoplastic polyurethane 239
stabilizer 186
thermoplastic pultrusion 317
stamping gap 290
thermoplastics
starch 15
–– semi-crystalline 40
Stastny, F. 4
thermoset 33, 54, 144, 302
Staudinger, H. 4
three-zone screw 251, 277
step growth reaction 19
tie molecules 45
stereolithography 409, 416
time-temperature superposition principle 102,
stiffness 48
405
storage modulus 89
tool 249
478
Index
tool resistance 256 vibration welding

toughness 48–50 –– biaxial 340
toxicity 432, 457 –– linear 340
transducer 339 viscoelasticity 58
transfer molding 305 viscometer (See also rheometer)
transition zone 251 –– Ubbelohde 25
transmission 114 viscosity 53, 145, 155
transmission electron microscope 45 –– apparent 79
transmission welding 341 –– representative 79
transparency 114 –– shear 68
turning 333 –– strain 82
turntable 293 –– structural 287
twin-screw extruder 157, 163 –– true 79
–– co-rotating 163, 166 –– zero 71, 73
–– counter-rotating 163 viscous 57
void 386
volume
U
–– free 136
ultrasonic welding 339 –– specific 127
ultrasound 151 vulcanization 35, 306
undercut 394
undulation 148
W
unsaturated polyester resin 245
urea-formaldehyde resin 244 wall adhesion 67
utilization wall thickness distribution 324
–– energetic 442 warpage 383
–– angular distortion 383
welding 333
V
welding cycle 335
vacuum casting 416 weld line 175, 394
valence bond weld seam 334
–– covalent. See main valence bond wetting 350
valence electron 27, 28
Van der Waals forces 31
Y
variothermal mold temperature control 301
VARI procedure 320 yield point 78
vibration friction welding 340 yield strength 50
vibration test 105 Youngʼs modulus 56, 97, 145

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Bonten

Hanser Publishers, Munich Hanser Publications, Cincinnati

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Distributed in all other countries by:

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019946865

© Carl Hanser Verlag, Munich 2019

Immediately after I started working at the University of Stuttgart in late summer

Stuttgart, September 2019

Univ.-Prof. Dr.-Ing. Christian Bonten

A video can be played here.

If teachers in schools or similar non-commercial entities want to make use of the

The Author: Prof. Christian Bonten . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . VII

How to Use This Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX

2.1.7.2 Crystalline Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40

3 Plastics Materials Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65

3.2.2.2 Magnetic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112

3.33 Melamine Formaldehyde Resin (MF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242

4 Plastics Processing Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249

4.4 Technology of Fiber-Reinforced Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311

5 Product Development with Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

5.3.4 Material-Specific Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383

6 Plastics and the Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427

6.5 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

A Recommendations for Writing a Bachelor’s/Master’s Thesis

1.1 Plastics – Material of the Modern Age

Stone Age Bronze Age Iron Age Middle Age Modern

glass paper aluminum

Figure 1.1 Chronology of development of different materials in human history

The Era of Imitation Materials

The Era of Substitute Materials

The Era of Materials with New Properties

1.2 Applications of Plastics

Figure 1.5 Application of plastics in passenger transportation [Image source: Deutsche

Figure 1.6 Packaging made of plastic

Figure 1.8 Application in the sports sector

1.3 Plastics and Design

Figure 1.10 Everyday objects in different colors, shapes, and surfaces

For the engineer working with plastics, an introduction to polymer chemistry is a

2.1 From Monomer to Polymer –

2.1.1 Origin of Monomers

benzene ethylbenzene styrene PBT

cyclohexane adipic acid

oil ethylene ethylene oxide ethylene glycol S/B-polymers

Figure 2.1 Polymer production routes [Image source: BASF SE]

ethanol lactic acid succinic acid 5-HMF sorbitol

lactic acid/ succinic acid furan di-

polylactic acid polyester polyhydroxy

2.1.2 Polymer Synthesis

The production of polyethylene originating from ethylene is shown, as

The length of the molecular chains is determined by the concentration of the

n ethene n vinyl chloride n styrene

polyethene with n polyvinyl chloride with n polystyrene with n

A hydrogen atom is often replaced by a characteristic atom or group of atoms, the

2.1.2.2 Copolymerization (Special Form of Polymerization)

statistically composed macromolecule composed of blocks

homogeneous chain with grafted

Figure 2.6 Types of copolymerization

example: polyamide 6.6

Figure 2.7 Polycondensation

The polycondensation of heptanedioic acid and 1,6-hexanediamine is

Figure 2.8 Polyaddition

The polyaddition reaction is explained using the example of an epoxy

2.1.3 The Molar Mass of Polymers

1.1 Plastics – Material of the Modern Age

1.2 Applications of Plastics

1.3 Plastics and Design

2.1 From Monomer to Polymer –

2.2 Fundamentals of Force Transmission

εm εm εm εtb εtb εm Figure 2.39