An official website of the United States government Here's how you know

Log in

Bookshelf Books Search

Browse Titles Advanced Help Disclaimer

StatPearls [Internet].
Show details
Views
Search this book
PubReader

Print View

Embryology, Tongue Cite this Page

Prachi Jain; Manu Rathee.

Author Information and Affiliations In this Page

Last Update: August 14, 2023. Introduction

Development
Introduction Go to:
Cellular
The tongue is an extremely sensitive organ that performs on a complex muscle background. The
Biochemical
primary functions of the stomatognathic system, such as mastication, deglutition, and speech,
require the active involvement of the tongue. Embryologically, the development of tongue is a Molecular Level
very complicated process that starts around the fourth or fifth week of the gestation period, and Function
its development has a marked influence on the oral cavity.
Mechanism

Development Go to: Testing

The tongue begins to develop around the fourth week of intrauterine life. The first, second, third, Pathophysiology

and fourth pharyngeal arches contribute to the development of the various portions of the Clinical Significance
tongue. The development begins with the growth of a medial swelling from the first pharyngeal
Review Questions
arch, known as tuberculum impar. Gradually, two lateral lingual swellings start to grow in the
5th week from the same arch. As the lateral swellings increase in size, they eventually merge References

and overlap tuberculum impar. This merging leads to the formation of the anterior two-thirds of
the tongue. Since the mucosa overlying this area of the tongue has its origin from the first
pharyngeal arch; it receives its sensory innervation from the mandibular branch of the V cranial Bulk Download
Bulk download StatPearls data from FTP
nerve (trigeminal nerve).

Meanwhile, from the mesoderm of the second, third, and fourth pharyngeal arches, another
median swelling, known as hypobranchial eminence, begins to develop and form the posterior Related information
third of the tongue. The mucosa overlying this area of the tongue receives its sensory innervation PMC
from the IX cranial nerve (glossopharyngeal nerve). The posterior-most part of the tongue
PubMed
develops from a third median swelling, arising from the fourth pharyngeal arch. This area of the
tongue receives its innervations from the superior laryngeal nerve.

The muscles of the tongue predominantly derive from the myoblasts which originate in the Similar articles in PubMed
occipital somites. They receive their innervations from the XII cranial nerve (hypoglossal nerve) Appraisal of Function After Rehabilitation With Tongue
Prosthesis. [J Craniofac Surg. 2018]
except the palatoglossus muscle. The muscles of the tongue include extrinsic and intrinsic
muscles. The extrinsic muscles are four in number (genioglossus, palatoglossus, styloglossus, Patient-Reported Quality of Life After Resection With
and hyoglossus) and originate from the structures adjacent to the tongue. They allow the tongue Primary Closure for Oral Tongue Carcinoma.
[Laryngoscope. 2021]

to move in all directions. On the other hand, the four paired intrinsic muscles which include Aspects of stomatognathic system before and after
superior longitudinal, inferior longitudinal, verticalis, and transverses muscle have their origin as adenotonsillectomy. [Codas. 2013]
well as insertion inside the tongue. They are responsible for changing the shape of the tongue. Review Conditions peculiar to the tongue.
[Dermatol Clin. 1996]
The first sign of development of taste bud on the lingual epithelium occurs at the 8th week of
gestation. Between the ninth and eleventh week of gestation, many taste bud primordia develop. Review How to make a tongue: Cellular and
molecular regulation of muscle
[Semin
andCell
connective
Dev Biol.
tissue
2019]
They differentiate into different cell types around the eleventh through the thirteenth formation during mammalian tongue development.
postovulatory week. During this period, taste pores also develop.[1] See reviews...

See all...
Cellular Go to:

The cells which form the tongue are hybrid in nature. The connective tissue component, as well
Recent Activity
as vasculature of the tongue, is derived from cranial neural crest cells (CNCC). These cells Turn Off Clear
initiate the formation of the tongue bud and the interstitial connective tissue. The myoblasts
Embryology, Tongue - StatPearls
which are responsible for the formation of the muscle components of the tongue derive from the
occipital somite. Cells from this somite migrate into the primordium of the tongue, thus, forming
Neuroanatomy, Circle of Willis - StatPearls
the muscle cells in the tongue.[2]

Biochemical Go to: Immediate Hypersensitivity Reactions - StatPearls

Development of tongue is due to the complex interaction between various genes like Pax3, Pax7, Type I Hypersensitivity Reaction - StatPearls
and Dlx gene, which are responsible for survival and expansion of mammalian muscle and
patterning information in tongue myogenesis. Some studies have shown that signaling by TGF
Anatomy, Head and Neck: Internal Carotid
Beta controls explicitly the proliferation of myogenic cells during tongue morphogenesis.[3] Arteries - StatPearls

See more...
Molecular Level Go to:

Development of tongue at the molecular level is influenced by molecular interaction between

CNCC molecules and myogenic regulatory factors like myogenic factor 5 (Myf5), muscle-
specific regulatory factor 4 (MRF4), myoblast determination protein (MyoD) and myogenin.[2]

Function Go to:

The tongue participates in a variety of functions such as taste, speech, and food manipulation
and cleaning of the oral cavity.

Taste Functions

The dorsal surface of the tongue is covered by a stratified squamous epithelium, with numerous
papillae such as circumvallate papilla, fungiform papilla, filiform papilla, and foliate papilla.
Taste buds which are intraepithelial chemosensory organs present within these papillae are
responsible for taste perception. The circumvallate papilla carries the maximum number of taste
buds. These taste buds via gustatory cell receptors interact with the chemicals present in the food
and induce different taste sensations (sweet, salty, sour, and bitter).

Speech Functions

Various speech sounds require the interaction of the tongue with the teeth and different parts of
the palate. The linguodental sounds such as “Th” require interaction between the tip of the
tongue with the incisal surface of upper and lower incisors. The linguopalatal sounds may
include the contact of the tongue with the anterior or the posterior part of the hard palate. When
the tip of the tongue contacts with the anterior part of the hard palate, sounds such as “D, T, N,
and, Z” is produced. When the tongue forms a valve and contacts the posterior part of the hard
palate, it produces sounds like “ch" and "sh.” The velar sounds include a contact of the posterior
part of the tongue with the soft palate. these sounds include “k" and "g .”

Food Manipulation Functions

The tongue aids in moving the food onto the occlusal surface of the teeth, mixing it with saliva
as the food move away from the teeth, and in placing the food again on the teeth.[4] Thus, it
helps in the formation of food bolus during the oral phase of deglutition. It also helps in
propelling the food bolus beyond the anterior tonsillar pillar, which triggers the swallowing
reflex.

Mechanism Go to:

Tongue musculature: The various functions of the tongue require the effective functioning of
the extrinsic and intrinsic tongue musculature. The inferior fibers of the genioglossus muscle
help in protrusion of the tongue, the middle fibers help in depressing the tongue, whereas the
superior fibers of the muscle draw the tip of the tongue backward and downward. The
hyoglossus muscle depresses and retracts the tongue, whereas the styloglossus muscle elevates
and retracts the tongue. The activation of palatoglossus muscle helps in elevating the posterior
aspect of the tongue.

Among the intrinsic muscles of the tongue, the transverse muscle lengthens and protrudes the
tongue whereas the vertical muscle flattens and widens the tongue. The superior longitudinal
muscle runs in the longitudinal direction from their point of origin to insertion and aid to elevate
the tip and lateral surface of the tongue, thus, shaping the dorsal surface of the tongue into a
concavity. The inferior longitudinal muscle depresses the tip and lateral surface of the tongue,
thus, shaping the dorsal surface of the tongue into convexity.

Taste buds: The taste buds present on the tongue contain taste villi. The stimulating substances
present in the food or liquid interact with the taste villi. The taste chemical binds to a protein
receptor molecule that lies on the external surface of the taste receptor cell. This interaction
opens ion channels allowing positively charged sodium or hydrogen ions to enter the cell leading
to depolarization. The type of receptor protein determines the type of taste that will be perceived
in each taste villus.

Testing Go to:

The strength and mobility of the tongue during protrusion is testable by using a tongue
depressor. The tongue depressor is held vertically in front of the patients’ lips, and he/she is then
asked to push the tongue against the depressor. Lateral movements of the tongue are also
assessable by having the patient push the tongue against the depressor positioned to the right and
left of the lips. The rating can be a mild, moderate, or severe weakness.[5]

Pathophysiology Go to:

Developmental and structural abnormalities of the tongue are common features. The various
morphological variations that may occur during the development of tongue are[5]:

Aglossia

Microglossia

Macroglossia

Ankyloglossia

Cleft tongue

Pentafid tongue

Fissured tongue

Geographic tongue

Hairy tongue

Median rhomboid glossitis

Aglossia: Congenital absence of the tongue is extremely rare. Usually, the tongue is absent in
cases of gross underdevelopment or maldevelopment of the first visceral arches.

Microglossia: It is an uncommon developmental condition and is also known as hypoglossia. Its

defining feature is a rudimentary or an abnormally small tongue. It leads to limited muscular
movement and is associated with syndromes such as Hanhart syndrome.

Macroglossia: Macroglossia is an infrequently encountered condition characterized by tongue

enlargement, seen in association with other congenital defects leading to syndromes such as
down syndrome (trisomy 21), Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome.

Ankyloglossia It occurs due to failure in cellular degeneration leading to a longer anchorage

between the tongue and floor of the mouth; this is commonly known as "tongue-tied" and
demonstrates an abnormally short lingual frenulum. Ankyloglossia can range in severity from
mild to complete ankyloglossia in which the tongue gets fused to the floor of the mouth
restricting its free movement.[6] A short lingual frenulum leading to tongue-tie is also associated
with several genetic syndromes such as related Robinow syndrome, oral-facial-digital syndrome
Type I, Opitz syndrome, and Van der Woude syndrome.

Cleft tongue: It is also known as bifid tongue and occurs when the lateral swellings fail to
merge. It can be partial or complete. The former is a more common entity and is manifested as a
deep groove on the dorsal surface of the tongue in the midline. It occurs when the mesenchymal
proliferation interferes with the merging leading to failure of the obliteration of the groove.
There are reports of bifid tongue in syndromic cases like Opitz G BBB syndrome, oral-facial-
digital syndrome type I, Klippel–Feil anomaly, and Larsen syndrome.[7]

Pentafid tongue: Disturbance in the mesodermal penetration and mesenchymal fusion during
the development of tongue development is responsible for this malformation.

Fissured tongue: It is also known as scrotal tongue or lingua fissurata. It is congenital anomaly
manifested as grooves oriented anteroposteriorly on the dorsal aspect of the tongue with multiple
branches extending towards the lateral aspect. The grooves range from 2 to 6 mm in depth. In a
severe form of the fissured tongue, when the grooves are extremely prominent and
interconnected, the tongue may appear to be lobulated. It can also present in association with
down syndrome or Melkerson-Rosenthal syndrome (a triad of fissure, granulomatous cheilitis,
and cranial nerve VII paralysis).

Geographic tongue: Geographic tongue, also known as lingua geographica or benign migratory
glossitis is an inflammatory disorder caused by loss of filiform papillae.

Hairy tongue: It is also known as a black hairy tongue and characteristically demonstrates the
accumulation of excess keratin on the filiform papillae on the dorsal surface of the tongue
leading to the formation of elongated strands resembling hair. This condition most commonly
affects the midline just anterior to the circumvallate papillae, usually sparing the lateral and
anterior borders.

Median rhomboid glossitis: It is a condition that presents in the midline of the dorsal surface of
the tongue, just in front of the circumvallate papillae. It presents as a well-demarcated,
symmetric, depapillated area. However, it also occasionally appears in the paramedial location.

Clinical Significance Go to:

In infants, macroglossia is manifested by noisy breathing, drooling, and difficulty while eating.
It can also result in a lisping speech. The pressure exerted by the large tongue against the
mandible and teeth can produce mandibular prognathism and open bite. Cleft tongue if present
can lead to difficulty while eating. In breastfeeding infants, ankyloglossia can cause feeding
problems resulting in untimely weaning. It may also lead to speech defects and dental problems.
It leads to the blanching of soft tissue during extrusion of the tongue and also exerts force on
mandibular anteriorly. Moreover, it interferes in the process of tooth brushing, favoring the risk
of plaque accumulation, followed by tissue inflammation and gingival recession.

Review Questions Go to:

Access free multiple choice questions on this topic.

Comment on this article.

References Go to:

1. Witt M, Reutter K. Embryonic and early fetal development of human taste buds: a
transmission electron microscopical study. Anat Rec. 1996 Dec;246(4):507-23. [PubMed]
2. Parada C, Han D, Chai Y. Molecular and cellular regulatory mechanisms of tongue
myogenesis. J Dent Res. 2012 Jun;91(6):528-35. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
3. Hosokawa R, Oka K, Yamaza T, Iwata J, Urata M, Xu X, Bringas P, Nonaka K, Chai Y.
TGF-beta mediated FGF10 signaling in cranial neural crest cells controls development of
myogenic progenitor cells through tissue-tissue interactions during tongue morphogenesis.
Dev Biol. 2010 May 01;341(1):186-95. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
4. Logemann JA. Critical Factors in the Oral Control Needed for Chewing and Swallowing. J
Texture Stud. 2014 Jun 01;45(3):173-179. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
5. Solomon NP. Assessment of tongue weakness and fatigue. Int J Orofacial Myology. 2004
Nov;30:8-19. [PMC free article] [PubMed]
6. Kotlow LA. Ankyloglossia (tongue-tie): a diagnostic and treatment quandary. Quintessence
Int. 1999 Apr;30(4):259-62. [PubMed]
7. Surej KL, Kurien NM, Sivan MP. Isolated congenital bifid tongue. Natl J Maxillofac Surg.
2010 Jul;1(2):187-9. [PMC free article] [PubMed]

Disclosure: Prachi Jain declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Disclosure: Manu Rathee declares no relevant financial relationships with ineligible companies.

Copyright © 2023, StatPearls Publishing LLC.

This book is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International
(CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) ( http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ ), which permits others to distribute the work, provided
that the article is not altered or used commercially. You are not required to obtain permission to distribute this article, provided
that you credit the author and journal.

Bookshelf ID: NBK547697 PMID: 31613477

FOLLOW NCBI

Connect with NLM National Library of Medicine Web Policies Help

8600 Rockville Pike FOIA Accessibility
Bethesda, MD 20894 HHS Vulnerability Disclosure Careers

NLM NIH HHS USA.gov