Anatomical Terminology 2

Anatomical Terminology II.
INTERNAL ORGANS
University of Pécs Medical School

Department of Languages for Biomedical Purposes
edited by Gabriella Hábel, revised and up-dated by Eszter Fábián and Adrienn Soós
2020
Table of Contents Page
Acknowledgment 3
Chapter 1 Oral Cavity 4
Chapter 2 Tongue and Pharynx 15
Chapter 3 Teeth 24
Chapter 4 Respiratory System 32
Chapter 5 Heart and Circulation 36
Chapter 6 Digestive System 43
Chapter 7 Urinary System 51
Chapter 8 Male Reproductive System 55
Chapter 9 Female Reproductive System 59
Sources 63
Literature 63
2
Acknowledgment
I am indebted to Mrs Katalin Fogarasi-Nuber and Dr. Anikó Batta for assisting me in various selfless ways
during the preparation of this book.
Gabriella Hábel
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CHAPTER 1
ORAL CAVITY
1.Repetition. Recapitulation of the skull (maxilla, mandible, sphenoid bone, palatine bone, vomer).
The function of the maxilla is basically to hold the upper teeth. This is through the alveolar process. The
alveolar process is the thickened ridge of bone that contains the tooth sockets on bones that bear teeth. It is also
referred to as the alveolar bone.
The maxilla assists in forming the boundaries of three cavities:

- the roof of the mouth,
- the floor and the lateral wall of the nasal antrum, and
- the floor of the orbit.
maxilla
4
Mandible: the horseshoe-shaped bone forming the lower jaw.
mandible
5
Sphenoid bone: a compound bone with winglike processes, situated at the base of the skull.
anterior view of the sphenoid
6
Palatine bone: an irregularly shaped bone posterior to the maxilla, which enters into the formation of
the nasal cavity, the orbit, and the hard palate; it articulates with the maxilla, inferior nasal concha,
sphenoid, and ethmoid bones, the vomer and its fellow of the opposite side.
palatine bone
7
Oral cavity (cavum oris)
Anatomical terms pertaining to oral cavity:
Latin/Anatomical Meaning
maxilla, -ae f. upper jaw
mandibula, -ae f. lower jaw
os sphenoidale sphenoid bone
os palatinum palatine bone
cavum, -i n. cavity
os, oris n. mouth
vestibulum, -i n. entrance
isthmus, -i m narrow part of a structure connecting two larger parts
fauces, -ium f. (Plural) throat
deglutition, -onis f. swallowing
gingiva, -ae f. gum
uvula, -ae f. an appendant fleshy mass
labium, -ii n. lip
frenulum, -i n. small bridle, a fold of tissue joining two structures
musculus orbicularis orbis adjacent facial muscles that surround mouth
bucca, -ae f. cheek
musculus buccinator facial muscle of cheek
palatum durum hard palate
palatum molle soft palate
velum palatinum soft palate
pharynx, pharyngis throat
nasopharynx the part of the pharynx above the soft palate
the part of the pharynx between the soft palate and the
oropharynx
upper edge of the epiglottis
the expanded interlacing tendons of the tensor veli palatini
aponeurosis palatina
muscles
musculus levator
levator veli palatini
veli palatini
hamulus, -i m. hooklike structure
musculus palatoglossus palatoglossus muscle
musculus palatopharyngeus palatopharyngeus muscle
The oral cavity (mouth) consists of three parts:
- the oral vestibule (vestibulum oris)

- the oral cavity proper (cavitas oris propria) and
- the isthmus of fauces (isthmus faucium).
The vestibule is the slit-like spaced between the cheeks and the lips and the teeth and alveolar processes of
the maxilla and mandible. The gingiva is the part of the mucous membrane that covers the alveolar
processes.
The vestibule communicates with the exterior through the orifice of the mouth.
The oral cavity proper is bounded anteriorly and laterally by the alveolar processes, teeth and gingiva. It
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communicates posteriorly with the isthmus of fauces.
The isthmus of fauces or the oropharyngeal isthmus is a part of the oropharynx directly behind the mouth
cavity, bounded superiorly by the soft palate, laterally by the palatoglossal arches, and inferiorly by the tongue.
The fauces are regarded as the two pillars, formed by the palatoglossus and the palatopharyngeus muscle,
respectively, and covered with mucous membrane. The anterior one is known as the palatoglossal arch,
and the posterior one is known as the palatopharyngeal arch. Between these two arches is the palatine tonsil.
Each palatoglossal arch runs downwards, laterally and forwards, from the soft palate to the side of the tongue.
The approximation of the arches due to the contraction of the palatoglossal muscles constricts the isthmus,
and is essential to swallowing (deglutition).
The roof of the oral cavity is formed by the hard palate and soft palate, separates it from the nasal cavity. The floor
of the oral cavity is formed by the muscular floor of the mouth on which the tongue lies.
cavitas oris
The Lips
These are mobile muscular folds that surround the mouth, the entrance of the oral cavity. The lips (labia) are
covered externally by skin and internally by mucous membrane.
In between these are layers of muscles, especially the orbicularis oris muscle.
The vermilion border is where the red colored part of the lip (rubor labii) starts. It represents the change
in the epidermis from highly keratinized to less keratinized skin. It has no sebaceous glands, sweat
glands, or hair.
The upper and lower lips are attached to the gingivae in the median plane by raised folds of mucous
membrane, called the labial frenula.
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The Cheeks
The cheeks form the lateral wall of the vestibule of the oral cavity.
They have essentially the same structure as the lips with which they are continuous.
The principal muscular component of the cheeks is the buccinator muscle.
Superficial to the fascia covering this muscle is the buccal fatpad (Bichat’s fat pad) that gives cheeks their
rounded contour, especially in infants.
The lips and cheeks act as a functional unit (e.g. during sucking, blowing, eating, etc.). They act as an oral
sphincter in pushing food from the vestibule to the oral cavity proper. The tongue and buccinator muscle keep the
food between the molar teeth during chewing.
The Palate
The palate forms the arched roof of the mouth and the floor of the nasal cavities.
The palate consists of two regions: the anterior 2/3 or bony part, called the hard palate (palatum durum), and
the mobile posterior 1/3 or fibromuscular part, known as the soft palate (palatum molle or velum palatinum).
The Hard Palate
The anterior bony part of the palate is formed by the palatine processes of the maxillae and the horizontal
plates of the palatine bones.
Anteriorly and laterally, the hard palate is bounded by the alveolar processes and the gingivae. Posteriorly, the
hard palate is continuous with the soft palate.
The incisive foramen is the mouth of the incisive canal. This foramen is located posterior to the maxillary first
incisor teeth. This foramen is the common opening for the right and left incisive canals. Medial to the third molar
tooth, the greater palatine foramen pierces the lateral border of the bony palate.
The descending palatine vessels and the greater palatine nerve emerge from this foramen and run anteriorly
into two grooves on the palate.
The lesser palatine foramen transmits the lesser palatine nerve and vessels. This runs to the soft palate
and adjacent structures.
hard palate
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The Soft Palate
This is the posterior curtain-like part, and has no bony support. It does, however, contain a membranous
aponeurosis. The soft palate, is a movable, fibromuscular fold that is attached to the posterior edge of the hard
palate. It extends posteroinferiorly to a curved free margin from which hangs a conical process, the uvula
(Latin –uva, -ae f. - grape).
The soft palate separates the nasopharynx superiorly and the oropharynx inferiorly.
During swallowing the soft palate moves posteriorly against the wall of the pharynx, preventing the
regurgitation of food into the nasal cavity. Laterally, the soft palate is continuous with the wall of the pharynx and
is joined to the tongue and pharynx by the palatoglossal and palatopharyngeal folds. The soft palate is
strengthened by the palatine aponeurosis, formed by the expanded tendon of the tensor veli palatini muscle.
Palatine Muscles
The palatine muscles insert into the fibrous palatine aponeurosis which contributes to the formation of the
soft palate.
Levator Veli Palatini (musculus levator veli palatini)
Superior attachment: cartilage of the auditory tube and petrous part of temporal bone.
Inferior attachment: palatine aponeurosis.
Innervation: pharyngeal plexus.
This cylindrical muscle runs inferoanteriorly, spreading out in the soft palate, where it attaches to the
superior surface of the palatine aponeurosis.
It elevates the soft palate, drawing it superiorly and posteriorly.
It also opens the auditory tube to equalise air pressure in the middle ear and pharynx.
Tensor Veli Palatini (musculus tensor veli palatini)
Superior attachment: scaphoid fossa of medial plate of pterygoid process, spine of sphenoid bone, and
cartilage of auditory tube.
Inferior attachment: palatine aponeurosis.
Innervation: medial pterygoid nerve (a branch of the mandibular nerve).
This thin, triangular muscle passes inferiorly, and hooks around the hamulus of the medial plate of pterygoid
process.
It then inserts into the palatine aponeurosis.
This muscle tenses the soft palate by using the hamulus as a pulley.
It also pulls the membranous portion of the auditory tube open to equalise air pressure of the middle ear
and pharynx.
Palatoglossus Muscle (musculus palatoglossus)
Superior attachment: palatine aponeurosis.

Inferior attachment: side of tongue.
Innervation: glossopharyngeal nerve.
This muscle, covered by mucous membrane, forms the palatoglossal arch. The palatoglossus elevates the
posterior part of the tongue and draws the soft palate inferiorly onto the tongue.
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Palatopharyngeus Muscle (musculus palatopharyngeus)
Superior attachment: hard palate and palatine aponeurosis.

Inferior attachment: lateral wall of pharynx.
Innervation: glossopharyngeal nerve.
This thin, flat muscle is covered with mucous membrane to form the palatopharyngeal arch. It passes
posteroinferiorly in this arch.
This muscle tenses the soft palate and pulls the walls of the pharynx superiorly, anteriorly and medially
during swallowing.
Musculus Uvulae
Superior attachment: posterior nasal spine and palatine aponeurosis.

Inferior attachment: mucosa of uvula.
Innervation: pharyngeal plexus.
It passes posteriorly on each side of the median plane and inserts into the mucosa of the uvula. When the
muscle contracts, it shortens the uvula and pulls it superiorly.
Exercise 1. Complete these statements.
The oral cavity, or mouth, is bounded by the lips and cheeks, and contains the teeth and tongue. The lips
are muscular structures formed mostly by the muscle, and covered internally by mucosa
and externally by stratified squamous keratinizing epithelium. The form the lateral walls
of the oral cavity; most of their thickness is contributed by the muscle, which flattens the
cheek against the teeth. The lips and cheeks are important in the processes of and speech.
The is a large, muscular organ that occupies most of the oral cavity. The anterior portion
of the tongue is attached to the floor of the mouth by a thin fold of tissue called the The
tongue is important in mastication, swallowing, speech, and is a major sensory organ for .
Exercise 2. Supply anatomical terms for the following definitions.
Mixture of serous (watery) and mucous fluids that contains digestive enzymes
Serous glands located just anterior to each ear; its duct enters the oral cavity adjacent to the second upper
molar
Glands that produce more serous than mucous secretions, located along the inferior border of the mandible
Glands that produce mainly mucus, located below the mucous membrane in the floor of the oral cavity
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Exercise 3. Translate the following anatomical terms into English.
Musculus orbicularis orbis:

Musculus buccinator:
Musculus levator veli palatini:
Musculus palatoglossus:
Musculus palatopharyngeus:
Exercise 4. Fill in the missing case endings and translate the anatomical terms into English.
os sphenoidal
os palatin
vestibul or
rubor labi
palatum moll
cavitas oris propri
isthmus fauci
cavitas or
palatum dur
uvula palatin
Exercise 5. Fill in the gaps.
Sing. nominative Sing. genitive Plural nominative Plural genitive

buccae buccarum
uvula uvulae
ossis ossum
os orum
cavi cava
hamuli hamulorum
palatum palata
faucis faucium
musculi
Exercise 6. Put the adjectives in agreement with the nouns in gender.
e.g. velum (palatinus, -a, -um) velum palatinum
palatum (durus, -a, -um)

os (sphenoidalis, sphenoidale)
os (palatinus, -a, -um)
facies (nasalis, nasale)
palatum (mollis, molle)
cavum (magnus, -a, -um)
facies (palatinus, -a, -um)
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Exercise 7.Supply technical terms for the following definitions.
The portion of the oral cavity bounded on one side by teeth and gingivae and on the other by the lips and
cheeks: .
Butterfly-shaped bone at the base of the skull:
The movable fold, consisting of muscular fibers enclosed in a mucous membrane, that is suspended from
the rear of the hard palate and closes off the nasal cavity from the oral cavity during swallowing or sucking.
Either of a pair of bones of the human skull fusing in the midline and forming the upper jaw.
A muscle that flattens the cheek and retracts the angle of the mouth
A conic projection from the back edge of the middle of the soft palate, composed of connective tissue
containing a number of racemose glands, and some muscular fibers.[
adjacent facial muscles that surround mouth
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CHAPTER 2
TONGUE AND PHARYNX

Tongue ( Lingua)
Anatomical and Clinical Terms Pertaining to Tongue and Taste
Latin/Anatomical Meaning Greek Stem/ Clinical Example

lingua, -ae f tongue glossa, gloss/o glossitis
frenulum, -i n frenum, bridle frenulum linguae
gustus, -us m taste papillae gustatoriae
gustatorius, -a, -um gustatory
papilla, -ae f papilla papillae linguales
leaf, leaf like
folium, -ii n papilla foliata
formation
thread, thread-
filum, -i n papilla filiformis
like structure
fungus, -i m fungus papilla fungiformis
vallum, -i n rampart papilla circumvallata
apex, -icis m tip
dorsum, -i n back dorsum linguae
sulcus, -i, m groove
terminalis, terminale terminal sulcus terminalis linguae
tonsilla, -ae, f tonsil tonsillar lingualis
a bud-shaped
caliculus, -i m caliculus gustatorius
structure
facies, ei, f surface facies inferior linguae
hyoeides – shaped like the
os hyoideum hyoid bone
letter ‘u’ in Greek alphabet
vallecula, -ae f a small fossa
follicle, small sac or
folliculus, -i, m pouch often
secretory
septum, -i n wall septum linguale
saliva, -ae f saliva
small, fleshy
caruncula, -ae f caruncula sublingualis
eminence
A thin partition
diaphragma, -atis n separating adjacent diaphragma diaphragma oris
regions
hypoglossus hypo- under, below
macroglossia makros - long
ankylos – crooked,
ankyloglossia
curved
calculus, -i m small stone lithos - stone
xerostomia xeros - dry
xerostomia stoma - mouth
bifidus, -a, -um split into two
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gnathoschisis gnathos - jaw
gnathoschisis schisis – cleft, split
The tongue is a muscular organ in the mouth (cavum oris) with specialized functions like taste and
speech.
It can be divided into three parts:

- a body,
- a tip (apex) and
- a root.
The convex surface of the tongue, the dorsum of tongue (dorsum linguae) is divided into two portions by the
terminal sulcus (sulcus terminalis linguae) which is a shallow groove that runs laterally and forward on either
side to the margin of the tongue.
The anterior or presulcal part (pars papillaris linguae), and the posterior or postsulcal or pharyngeal part
(pars follicularis linguae). There are no papillae here but aggregated lymphatic tissue (lingual tonsils- tonsilla
lingualis) and serous and mucus-secreting glands are present.
The top surface, (dorsum) contains numerous projections of the mucous membrane called papillae (papillae
- small, round or cone-shaped protuberances on the top of the tongue). They can contain taste buds (caliculus
gustatorius), which are sensitive to chemical constituents of food and are involved in detecting the five (known)
elements of taste perception: salty, sour, bitter, sweet and savory (now sometimes called umami, results from
tasting glutamate).
Types of papillae
There are four types of papillae present in the human tongue:
Fungiform papillae – (papillae fungiformes) as the name suggests, these are slightly mushroom-
shaped if looked at in longitudinal section. These are present mostly on the margin of the tongue.
They contain taste buds as well as mechano- and thermoreceptors.
Filiform papillae – (papillae filiformes) these are thin, long papillae that do not contain taste buds
but are the most numerous. They are characterized by increased keratinization and mainly
transmit tactile information.
Foliate papillae – (papillae foliatae) these are involved in the sensations of taste and have
taste buds embedded in their surfaces. The foliate papillae are clustered into two groups positioned on
each side of the tongue. Their name is descriptive, with each of these papillae having an elongated
fold that looks like a leaf seen edge-on.
(Circum)Vallate papillae – (papillae circumvallatae) there are only about 10 to 14 of these papillae
on most people, and they are present at the back of the oral part of the tongue. They are arranged in
a circular-shaped row just in front of the sulcus terminalis of the tongue and contain numerous
taste buds.
The inferior surface (facies inferior linguae) leads from the tip of the tongue to the floor of the mouth; its mucous
membrane is smooth, devoid of papillae, and purple in colour from the many blood vessels present. The root, the
remainder of the underside that lies on the mouth’s floor, contains bundles of nerves, arteries, and muscles that
branch to the other tongue regions.
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The tongue is anchored to the mouth by webs of tough tissue and mucosa. The tether holding down the front of
the tongue is called the frenum (frenum/frenulum). In the back of the mouth, the tongue is anchored into the
hyoid bone (os hyoideum).
The posterior postsulcal or pharyngeal part of the tongue (also referred to as the root of the tongue) forms the anterior
wall of the oropharynx.
Three folds extend from the posterior part of the tongue to the epiglottis:
- the median glossoepiglottic fold
- the lateral glossoepiglottic folds from each side.
Between these folds are two depressions, the epiglottic valleculae. The irregular surface of the root of the tongue is
formed by lymphoid follicles known as lingual follicles (these collectively form the lingual tonsils). (folliculus).
The tongue contains tongue muscles controlled by the 12th (hypoglossal) cranial nerve that help in speech,
articulation and swallowing.
Beneath a cover of taste buds, the tongue is almost entirely made up of muscle. Two groups of muscle within the
tongue, extrinsic and intrinsic muscles, work in coordination to produce movements.
Intrinsic muscles lie entirely within the tongue, act to change the shape of the tongue (that is their origin and
insertions are inside the tongue). There are four groups of them:
- Superior goes the length of the tongue

- Inferior longitudinal moves tip up and down
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- Transverse or horizontal goes across the tongue, narrows and lengthens the tongue
- Vertical goes up and down in the tongue, flattens and depresses the tongue
The extrinsic muscles are those that continue beyond the tongue, act to change the position the tongue anchoring it
to other structures, namely:
- Genioglossus
- Hyoglossus
- Styloglossus
- Palatoglossus
cross-section of the middle part of the tongue
median-sagittal section of the tongue with the mandible and larynx
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midline groove on the anterior part of the tongue
any of numerous spherical or ovoid clusters of receptor cells found mainly in the epithelium of the tongue and
constituting the end organs of the sense of taste
this depression is the point of attachment of the thyroglossal duct and is formed during the embryological descent of
the thyroid gland
a depression just behind the root of the tongue between the folds in the throat; these depressions serve as "spit traps";
saliva is temporarily held here to prevent initiation of the swallowing reflex; it is frequently an important landmark in
intubation of the trachea
Exercise 2. Define the following terms.
diaphragma oris
left hypoglossus palsy
fossa tonsillaris
macroglossia
ankyloglossia
benign migratory glossitis
tonsillolith
xerostomia
lingua bifida
gnathoschisis
Exercise 3. Explain the anatomical terms. What structures (bones, organs) are connected by the following
muscles?
m. genioglossus
m. hyoglossus
m. styloglossus
m. chondroglossus
m. palatoglossus
m. mylohyoid
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m. geniohyoid
m. stylohyoid
digastric
m. thyrohyoid
m. omohyoid
m. sternohyoid
m. sternothyroid
The salivary glands (glandulae salivariae) are exocrine glands, glands with ducts, that produce saliva and drain
into the oral cavity. They also secrete amylase, an enzyme that breaks down starch into maltose.
Parotid glands
The parotid gland (glandula parotidea) is the largest

salivary gland and is found wrapped around the
mandibular ramus, anterior and inferior to the
external ear, extends superiorly to the zygomatic
arch and deeply, behind the ramus of the
mandible to the wall of the pharynx.
The secretion produced is mainly serous in nature and

enters the oral vestibule on the parotid papilla via
Stensen's duct.
Submandibular glands
The submandibular glands are a pair of glands located beneath the lower jaws, superior to the digastric muscles.
The secretion produced is a mixture of both serous fluid and mucous, and opens on the sublingual caruncle
(caruncula sublingualis) via Wharton's ducts. Approximately 70% of saliva in the oral cavity is produced by
the submandibular glands, even though they are much smaller than the parotid glands.
Sublingual gland
The sublingual glands are a pair of glands located beneath the tongue, anterior to the submandibular
glands. The secretion produced is mainly mucous in nature, however it is categorized as a mixed gland.
Unlike the other two major glands, the ductal system of the sublingual glands do not have striated ducts, and exit
from 8-20 excretory ducts. Approximately 5% of saliva entering the oral cavity come from these glands.
Minor salivary glands
There are over 600 minor salivary glands located throughout the oral cavity within the submucosa of the oral mucosa.
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They are 1-2mm in diameter and unlike the other glands, they are not encapsulated by connective tissue only
surrounded by it. A minor salivary gland may have a common excretory duct with another gland, or may have its
own excretory duct. Their secretion is mainly mucous in nature and have many functions such as coating the oral
cavity with saliva.
Pharynx
The pharynx (plural: pharynges) is the part of the throat situated immediately inferior to the mouth and nasal
cavity, and superior to the esophagus and larynx. The pharynx is conventionally divided into three sections:
the nasopharynx (epipharynx),

the oropharynx (mesopharynx), and
the laryngopharynx (hypopharynx). The pharynx is part of the digestive system and also the
respiratory system; it is also important in vocalization.
Nasopharynx
It extends from the base of the skull to the upper surface of the soft palate. It includes the space between the
choanae and the soft palate and lies superior to the oral cavity. The pharyngeal tonsil, more commonly referred to
as the adenoid, is lymphoid tissue structure located in the posterior wall of the nasopharynx.
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The oropharynx
It lies behind the oral cavity, extending from the uvula to the level of the hyoid bone. It opens anteriorly, through
the isthmus faucium.
These are the borders of the isthmus not the oropharynx. Because both food and air pass through the
pharynx, a flap of elastic cartilage called the epiglottis closes over the glottis when food is swallowed to
prevent aspiration.
The hypopharynx (Latin: pars laryngea pharyngis)

It is the caudal part of the pharynx; it is the part of the throat that connects to the esophagus. It lies inferior
to the epiglottis and extends to the location where this common pathway diverges into the respiratory
(larynx) and digestive (esophagus) pathways. At that point, the laryngopharynx is continuous with the
esophagus posteriorly.
Exercise 4. Define the terms.
sialogram
mucocele
sialadenitis
parotitis
interlobular
sublingual caruncle
torus tubarius
pharyngeal recess
tubal tonsil
pharyngeal raphe
pharyngobasilar fascia
adenoidectomy
piriform recess
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Muscles of the pharynx:
Exercise 5. Give the origin and insertion of the following muscles.
superior constrictor muscle of pharynx
middle constrictor muscle of pharynx
inferior constrictor muscle of pharynx
stylopharyngeal
palatopharyngeal
salpingopharyngeal
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CHAPTER 3
TEETH
The teeth are hard white structures found in the mouth and are used for mastication.
Anatomical terms relating to teeth
Latin/Anatomical Meaning
dentatio, nis, f dentition
dens, dentis m tooth
dens caninus canine tooth (4)
dens molaris molar tooth (12)
molaris, molare molar adj
dens deciduus milk tooth, temporary tooth (10-10)
dens permanens permanent tooth
dens sapientae/serotinus wisdom tooth
serotinus, -a, -um late
dentatus, -a, -um dentate, having teeth
dentalis, dentale dental
dens incisivus incisor tooth (8)
dens praemolaris premolar tooth (8)
deciduus, -a, -um impermanent
collum dentis neck of the tooth; dental cervix
gingiva, gingivae f gum
pulpa, pulpae f pulp
cuspis, cuspidis f cusp, pointed elevation
enamelum, enameli n enamel
permanens (permanentis) permanent adj.
corona dentis crown of tooth (dental crown)
radix dentis root of tooth
gingivalis, gingivale gingival
dentinum, dentini n dentine
mesialis, mesiale mesial, the mesial side, faces the front of the mouth
distalis, distale faces the back of the mouth
periodontium, periodontii n periodontium, periodontal membrane surrounding the root of a tooth
foramen, -inis n opening
diphyodont having two dentitions
septum, -i n wall, fence
diastema -atis n distance
Structure of the Teeth and Supporting Tissues
A tooth is divided into three parts, the crown, the neck and the root. The anatomical crown is the part of the tooth
covered with enamel. The root of a tooth is embedded in alveolar bone and covered with cementum.
In young people, areas of the anatomical crown are frequently buried in gingival tissue.
As a person gets older it becomes common for a tooth’s enamel to be completely exposed above the gingiva and to
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have root surface showing. The term clinical crown is applied to the part of the tooth that is visible above the gingiva to
include root surface.
The bulk of a tooth is composed of a bone-like substance called dentin which is covered by enamel to form the crown
and cementum to form the root. The line of division between the crown and root is called the cervical line. The dividing
line is found in a somewhat constricted region on the tooth’s surface called the cervix or neck. The tip of the root is
known as the apex.
The tooth contains an aggregate of blood vessels, nerves, and cellular connective tissue called the dental pulp. The
dental pulp is housed within a pulp chamber and root canal of a tooth. Anterior teeth ordinarily have one root canal;
multiple canals occur in posterior teeth. The nerves and blood vessels enter and leave the tooth through an opening
called the apical foramen at or near the apex of the root.
Supporting Structures of the Teeth
The supporting tissues of the teeth are collectively called the periodontium. The periodontium consists of the alveolar
process of the maxillae and the mandible, the periodontal ligament, the cementum of the tooth, and the gingiva.
Alveolar Process. The alveolar process is the portion of the maxillae or mandible in which the roots of the teeth are
embedded and by which tooth roots are supported. An alveolar process consists of three kinds of bone:
- the outer cortical plate: a compact layer of bone on the bone’s surface
- lamina dura: a thin, dense layer of bone that lines tooth sockets. The lamina dura is a specialized continuation
of the cortical plate
- spongy bone: is the less dense, cancellous bone representing the alveolar process’ central mass.
Periodontal Ligament. The periodontal ligament is a thin, fibrous ligament connecting a tooth to the lamina dura of
the bony socket. Normally, teeth do not contact the bone directly; a tooth is suspended in its socket by the fibers of the
ligament. This arrangement allows each tooth limited individual movement. The fibers act as shock absorbers to
cushion the force of chewing impacts.
Cementum. The cementum is the only tissue considered as both a basic part of the tooth and a component of the
periodontium. It is a thin, calcified layer of tissue that completely covers the dentin of a tooth’s root. Cementum is
formed during the development of the root. It functions as an area of attachment for periodontal ligament fibers.
Gingiva. The gingiva is the specialized mucous membrane covering the alveolar processes and encircling the necks
of the teeth. It aids in the support of the teeth, and protects the alveolar process and periodontal ligament from bacterial
invasion. Healthy gingiva is pale pink, firm, and resilient. It is divided into two types, free and attached gingiva.
Free gingiva is "free" to the extent that it can be displaced; it is not tightly bound to anything underneath it. Free gingiva
extends from the gingival crest to the bottom of the gingival sulcus. At the bottom of the sulcus, an epithelial attachment
joins the free gingiva to the tooth surface. The interdental papilla is the portion of the free gingiva that fills the proximal
space below the contact areas of adjacent teeth. It helps prevent food from packing between the teeth.
Attached gingiva covers the labial cortical plate of the alveolar process. It is firmly fixed to underlying bone.
25
Tooth Surfaces
Approximal. A tooth has two approximal surfaces, one that is oriented toward the midline of the dental arch and
another that is oriented away from the midline of the arch.
Mesial. The mesial is the proximal surface closest to the midline of the arch.
Distal. The distal is the proximal surface oriented away from the midline of the arch.
Vestibular. The vestibular is the surface of a tooth that "faces" toward the lips or cheeks. When there is a requirement
to be more specific, terms like labial and buccal are used:
Labial. The labial is the surface of an anterior tooth that faces toward the lips.
Buccal. The buccal is the surface of a posterior tooth that faces toward the cheek.
Lingual. The surface of a tooth facing toward the tongue is called the lingual.
Occlusal. The chewing surface of a posterior tooth.
Incisal. The cutting edge of an anterior tooth.
26
Groups of Teeth
Teeth, as they exist in the mouth, can be placed into any of three broad groups, the maxillary or mandibular, right or
left, anteriors or posteriors. These groups apply to both the natural dentition and to artificial teeth:
Maxillary or Mandibular
A person has two jaws, a maxillary (upper) and a mandibular (lower). The teeth in these jaws are called either maxillary
or mandibular teeth. The combination of natural teeth and supporting alveolar bone that is found in an upper or a lower
jaw is called a dental arch. When natural teeth are extracted, the healed alveolar process is called the residual ridge.
Artificial teeth sit over residual ridges so they coincide with the original arch form.
Right or Left
If we split the two dental arches down the midline from front to back, the arches can be divided into upper and lower
right sections and upper and lower left sections. Since one of these sections represents one-fourth of the upper and
lower arches taken together, the section is called a quadrant If a tooth is located to the left of the midline in the upper
arch, the tooth is part of the maxillary left quadrant (etc.).
Anteriors or Posteriors
Teeth can also be classified as anteriors (incisors and cuspids) or posteriors (bicuspids and molars). A complete adult
natural dentition has 32 teeth; each arch contains 16. The teeth in an arch are composed of 6 anteriors (incisors,
canine) and 10 posteriors (all teeth distal to the canine). There are 3 anteriors and 5 posteriors in a quadrant.
Humans normally have two sets of teeth during their lifetime (diphyodont – Gr.- having two dentitions).
The first set is acquired gradually between the ages of six months and two years. As the jaws grow and expand, these
teeth are replaced one by one by the teeth of the secondary set. The first set is known as the milk, deciduous, or
primary dentition. The teeth on one side of the jaw are essentially a mirror image of those located on the opposite side.
The upper teeth differ from the lower and are complementary to them. There are five deciduous teeth and eight
permanent teeth in each quarter of the mouth, making a total of 32 permanent teeth to succeed the 20 deciduous ones.
Names of Teeth
Anteriors
Central and Lateral Incisors. In each quadrant, the two teeth nearest the midline of the dental arches are called
incisors. The first incisor on either side of the midline is called a central incisor. The second incisor from the midline of
either arch is called a lateral incisor. The word incisor describes their functions of incising or cutting food.
Canine. Canines are sometimes called Cuspids. A cuspid is so named because its cutting edge is a single, pointed
elevation or cusp. They are used to tear food. Each dental arch has two canines.
Posteriors
Premolar Biscupids are so named because most have two cusps on their chewing surfaces. They are also called
premolars because they occupy an anatomical position mesial to the molars. There are eight premolar, two in each
quadrant, functioning as seizing and grinding teeth.
The two premolar in any given quadrant are further called first and second premolar.
27
Molars. molars, the largest teeth in the dental arches, lie directly behind the bicuspids and function as grinders during
mastication (chewing); under normal conditions, there are six molars in each arch (three in each quadrant). They are
called first, second, and third molars.
Distinctive Crown Convexities and Concavities Cusp

A cusp is an elevation on an occlusal surface of posterior teeth
and canines. It contributes to a significant portion of the tooth's
surface. Canines have one cusp. Maxillary premolars and the
mandibular first premolars usually have two cusps. Mandibular
second premolars frequently have three cusps--- one buccal and
two lingual. Maxillary molars have two buccal cusps and two
lingual cusps. A fifth cusp that may form on the maxillary first
molar is known as the cusp of Carabelli. Mandibular molars may
have five or four cusps.
Mamelons
Mamelons are small, rounded projections of enamel from the incisal edges of newly erupted anterior teeth.
mamelon
Sulcus
A sulcus is an elongated valley or depression in the surface of a tooth formed by the inclines of adjacent cusps
or ridges.
sulcus
Fissure
A linear fault that sometimes occurs in a developmental groove. A fissure represents a lack of union between
the inclined walls of a sulcus.
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1. Number of incisors in each quadrant of the adult mouth

2. Number of canines in each quadrant of the adult mouth
3. Number of premolars in each quadrant of the adult mouth
4. Number of molars in each quadrant of the adult mouth
5. Milk teeth
6. Teeth of the adult mouth
7. Sockets containing the teeth
8. Dense, fibrous connective tissue, and
moist stratified squamous epithelium that cover alveolar ridges
9. Connective tissue that holds the teeth in the alveoli
10. Cutting or chewing surface with one or more cusps (points)
11. Part of the tooth between the crown and the root
12. Center of the tooth; contains blood vessels, nerves, and connective tissue
13. Connective tissue located in the pulp cavity
14. Living, cellular, bonelike tissue surrounding the pulp cavity
15. Extremely hard, acellular substance
that protects the tooth against acids and abrasion
16. Substance covering dentin in the root; helps anchor teeth in the jaw
17. Part of the tooth anchored in an alveolus by periodontal ligaments
18. Anterior bony portion of the roof of the oral cavity
19. Posterior portion of the roof of the oral cavity,
composed of skeletal muscle and connective tissue
20. Projection from the posterior edge of the soft palate;
prevents food from passing into the nasal cavity during swallowing
21. Collection of lymphoid tissue,
located in the lateral posterior walls of the oral cavity
interalveolar septa
interradicular septa
heterodont dentition
diastema
mesiodens
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odontogenesis
apicoectomy
malocclusion
overbite
overjet
prognathism
attrition
abrasion
erosion
oligodontia
hypodontia
hyperdontia
dental papilla
dental sac
enameloblast
odontoblast
Exercise 3. Put into plural and translate them into English.
dens caninus
dens permanens
dens molaris
corona dentis
dens incisivus
dens serotinus
dens praemolaris
30
Exercise 4. Fill in the missing case endings.
dentes incisiv
dens praemolar
radix dent
foramen apic dent
dentes decidu
dens serotin

dentis dentium
radix radices
coronae
permanens permanentes
serotini
deciduus deciduorum
canini caninorum
cuspides
collum
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CHAPTER 4
RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
The main function of the respiratory system is to provide oxygen to body cells for energy metabolism and to
eliminate carbon dioxide, a byproduct of metabolism. Because these gases must be carried to and from the cells in the
blood, the respiratory system works closely with the cardiovascular system to accomplish gas exchange.
Respiration is achieved through the mouth (os, oris n.), nose (nasus, -i m.), trachea (trachea, -ae f.), lungs (pulmo, -
onis m.), and diaphragm (diaphragma, -atis n.). Oxygen enters the respiratory system through the mouth and the nose.
The oxygen then passes through the larynx (larynx, -gis m.) - where speech sounds are produced - and the trachea
which is a tube that enters the chest cavity. In the chest cavity, the trachea splits into two tubes called the main bronchi
(bronchus principalis dexter et sinister).
Each bronchus then divides again forming the bronchial tubes. The bronchial tubes lead directly into the lungs where
they divide into many smaller tubes (bronchiolus, -i m) which connect to tiny sacs called alveoli (alveolus, -i m.). The
inhaled oxygen passes into the alveoli and then diffuses through the capillaries into the arterial blood. Meanwhile, the
waste-rich blood from the veins releases its carbon dioxide into the alveoli. The carbon dioxide follows the same path
out of the lungs during exhalation.
The Lungs
Each lung is covered by a membrane called the pleura (pleura, -ae, f.). The outer layer nearest to the ribs is parietal
pleura (pleura parietalis). The inner layer closest to the lungs is the visceral pleura (pleura visceralis). The right lung is
slightly larger than the left, divided into three lobes (lobus, -i m.). The left lung has two lobes. There is a narrow, fluid-
filled space between the two layer, the pleural space. The moist pleural membranes slide easily over each other
allowing the lungs to expand during breathing.
Anatomical and Clinical Terms Pertaining to the Respiratory System

ala, alae f wing, nostril ala nasi
aër, aëris m air, gas aër/o, pneum/o pneumothorax
alveolus, alveoli m air sac alveol/o alveolaris, -e
bronchiolus, bronchioli, m bronchiol bronchiol/o bronchiolaris, -e
bronchus, -i m bronchus bronch/o, bronch/i bronchogenic
diaphragma, diaphragmatis n diaphragm phren/o nervus phrenicus, phrenic
phrenic nerve phrenic/o phrenicotripsy
larynx, laryngis m larynx laryng/o laryngealis, -e
lobus, lobi m lobe lob/o lobus pulmonis
nasus, nasi m nose rhin/o paranasalis,-e, rhinoplasty
pharynx, pharyngis m pharynx pharyng/o pharyngospasm
pleura, pleurae f pleura pleur/o pleura visceralis, pleuralgia
pulmo, pulmonis m lung pneumon/o pneumonectomy,
pulmonalis, -e
spir/o breathing -pnea spirometer, eupnea
trachea, tracheae f trachea trache/o tracheotome
level of oxygen -oxia hypoxia
level of carbon dioxid -capnia hypercapnia
voice -phonia dysphonia
32
Exercise 1. Trace a molecule of oxygen from the external nares to the pulmonary capillaries of the lungs,
put the following phrases into the right order.
alveolar duct trachea

secondary/tertiary bronchi (etc.) bronchiole
pharynx nasal cavity
alveolar sac respiratory bronchiole
larynx primary bronchus
across alveolar/capillary walls pulmonary blood
external nares
external nares → → → larynx →
→ → → → respiratory bronchiole
→ → alveolar sac → → pulmonary blood.
Exercise 2. Supply anatomical terms for the following.
Posterior openings from the nasal cavity into the pharynx

Divides the nasal cavity into right and left parts
Air-filled spaces within bones that connect to the nasal cavity; reduce skull weight and act as resonating chambers
The auditory tubes open into this part of the pharynx

Largest, unpaired cartilage of the larynx; the Adam's apple
Unpaired cartilage; covers opening into larynx during swallowing
Three paired cartilages
Ligaments that close together to prevent materials from entering the larynx
Vibrate to produce sound; the true vocal cords
Useful to know
thyroid – Gk, thyreoiedes "shield-shaped" from thyreos, shield + eidos, form, (in khondros thyreoiedes
"shield-shaped cartilage," used by Galen to describe the "Adam's apple" in the throat);
cricoid – "ring-shaped", Gk, krikos, ring, eidos, form;
arytenoid – shaped like a jug or pitcher, as arytenoid cartilage, Gk, arytaina, ladle + eidos, form;
corniculate – having horns or hornlike projections; Lat, cornu – horn, corniculum – small horn;
cuneiform – either of a pair of cartilages, one on either side in the aryepiglottic fold; wedge-shaped; Lat,
cuneus – wedge;
33
triticeal – resembling a grain of wheat; a small cartilaginous nodule (cartilago triticea), sometimes bony,
is frequently found in the lateral thyrohyoid ligament;
glottis – Gk, glottis "mouth of the windpipe," from glotta, Attic dialect variant of glossa "tongue";
rima glottidis – Lat, rima- slit, cleft, fissure; opening between the true vocal cords and the arytenoid
cartilages; it is normally subdivided into two parts, that between the arytenoid cartilages is called the
intercartilaginous part (or the intercartilaginous glottis, respiratory glottis, or interarytenoid space), and
that between the vocal folds the intermembranous part or glottis vocalis.
epiglottis – Gk, epiglottis, lit. "(that which is) upon the tongue," from epi "on" + glottis, from glotta;
conus elasticus – the lateral portion of the cricothyroid ligament; the lateral portions are thinner and lie
close under the mucous membrane of the larynx; they extend from the superior border of the cricoid
cartilage to the inferior margin of the vocal ligaments, with which they are continuous. Lat, conus "a cone,
peak of a helmet," from Gk, konos "cone”, spinning top, pine cone.
Exercise 3. Name the specific cartilages in the larynx that correspond to the following descriptions:
forms the Adam’s apple: shaped like a signet ring:
a “lid” for the larynx: vocal cord attachment:
Parts of the lung separated by deep fissures on the surface of the lungs
Sections of lung separated by connective tissue but not visible as surface fissures
Tubes that supply the lobes of the lungs
Tubes that supply the bronchopulmonary segments
Tubes that supply the respiratory bronchioles
Tubes formed by the subdivision of the respiratory bronchioles
Place where most gas exchange takes place (some exchange takes place in the alveolar ducts and respiratory
bronchioles)
carina of trachea
tracheal bifurcation
anular ligaments
acinus
mediastinum
pleural cupula
34
costodiaphragmatic recess
costomediastinal recess
Exercise 6. Match the terms in column B to the descriptions in column A.
Column A Column B
1. connects the larynx to the primary bronchi a. alveolus

2. site of tonsils b. bronchiole
3. food passageway posterior to the trachea c. concha
4. covers the glottis during swallowing of food d. epiglottis
5. contains the vocal cords e. esophagus
6. nerve that activates the diaphragm during inspiration f. glottis
7. pleural layer lining the walls of the thorax g. larynx
8. site from which oxygen enters the pulmonary blood h. opening of auditory tube
9. connects the middle ear to the nasopharynx i. palate
10. opening between the vocal folds j. parietal pleura
11. increases air turbulence in the nasal cavity k. pharynx
12. separates the oral cavity from the nasal cavity l. phrenic nerve
m. primary bronchi
n. trachea
o. vagus nerve
p. visceral pleura
35
CHAPTER 5
HEART AND CIRCULATION
Blood circulates throughout the body in the cardiovascular system, which consists of the heart and the blood vessels.
This system forms a continuous circuit that delivers oxygen and nutrients to all cells and carries away waste products.
The heart (cor, -dis n.) is located anterior to the vertebral column and posterior to the sternum.
The wall of the heart consists of three layers, all named with the root cardi/o, meaning ‘heart’, taken from the Greek
word kardia (καρδία). Moving from the innermost to the outermost layer, these are:
1. endocardium- a thin membrane lining the chambers and valves (endo- means ‘within’)
2. myocardium- the thick muscle layer that makes up most of the heart wall (my/o –means ‘muscle’,
from Latin musculus, diminutive of the Greek μυς - mouse)
3. epicardium- a thin membrane covering the heart (epi- means ‘on’, ‘over’;)
The heart is enclosed in a double-walled sac called the pericardium (-peri- means ‘around’). This sac protects the
heart, anchors it to surrounding structures.
The human heart has four chambers, two superior atria (atrium dextrum and sinistrum) and two inferior
ventricles (ventriculus dexter and sinister).
Each of the upper receiving chambers of the heart is an atrium (plural: atria). Atrium is taken from the
Latin atrium, meaning ‘chamber’, related to āter black, perhaps originally referring to the part of the
house that was blackened by smoke from the hearth).
Each of the lower pumping chambers is a ventricle. Ventricle (ventriculus) is taken from the Latin word
ventriculus, meaning ‘little belly’. The atria receive blood from the body and the ventricles pump blood
back out into the body. Valves (valvae) connect each atrium to the ventricles below.
- the bicuspid valve (also called mitral) – the prefix bi- indicates this valve has two flaps; (valva
bicuspidalis or valva mitralis or valva atrioventricularis sinistra)
- the tricuspid valve – the prefix tri- indicates, this valve has three flaps, keeping blood moving
forward; (valva tricuspidalis or valva atrioventricularis dextra)
- the pulmonary semilunar valve and the aortic semilunar valve – both have a half-moon shape
(valva trunci pulmonalis and valva aortae)
The chambers of the heart are divided by walls, each of which is called a septum. The interventricular
septum (septum interventriculare) separates the two ventricles; the interatrial septum (septum
interatriale) divides the two atria. There is also a septum between the atrium and ventricle on each side.
Cardiovascular system
The heart pumps blood through two circuits. The right side pumps blood to the lungs to be oxygenated
through the pulmonary circuit. The left side pumps to the remainder of the body through the systemic
circuit.
36
Portal circulation (Portal venous system)
It is a special part of the systemic circuit. Venous blood from unpaired abdominal organs (stomach,
spleen, pancreas, intestine) does not flow directly into the inferior vena cava. Substances absorbed in
the small intestine travel first to the liver through the portal vein for processing before continuing to the
heart. Not all of the gastrointestinal tract is part of this system. The system extends from about the lower
portion of the esophagus to the upper part of the anal canal.
The arterial system is composed of arteries and arterioles (smaller arteries). Starting with the largest
artery, the aorta (aorta – from Greek ’αορθή, literally: something lifted, from aeirein to raise), the arteries
(arteriae) carry oxygenated blood away from the heart to the arterioles (arteriolae), and then to the
capillaries (vas capillare), where the exchange of gases takes place. The pulmonary trunk (truncus
pulmonalis), with its two branches, is the exception of the arterial system. Instead of carrying oxygen-
filled blood to other parts of the body, its branches carry oxygen-deprived blood to the right and left lungs
(pulmo dexter and pulmo sinister).
The venous system is made up of veins (venae) and venules (venulae – little veins). The veins carry
oxygen-depleted blood back to the heart via the body’s largest veins, the superior vena cava (vena cava
superior), and the inferior vena cava (vena cava inferior), received into the right atrium. The pulmonary
veins (venae pulmonales) carry oxygen-rich blood from the lungs back to the heart.
Capillaries are incredibly small vessels. The word capillary is taken from the Latin, means ‘hair- like’
(capillus). These tiny vessels bridge the gap between the arterioles and venules to keep blood flowing
in a continuous motion.
Anatomical Terms Pertaining to the Heart and Blood Vessels
Word (root) Meaning Example

aorta, aortae f (Gr. ’αορθή) aorta valva aortae
apex, apicis m apex, tip
arcus, arcus m arch arcus aortae
arteria, arteriae f (Gr.) artery arteriogram
atrium, atrii n atrium Plu.: atria atrium dextrum et sinistrum
basis, basis f basis, the lower part
bifurcatio, bifurcationis f bifurcation; a division bifurcatio trunci pulmonalis
into two branches
cardi/o (Gr. καρδία) heart cardiology
cavus, cava, cavum hollow
circulatio, circulationis f circulation
cor, cordis n heart apex cordis
coronarius, coronaria, adj. coronal arteria coronaria cordis
coronarium
cuspis, cuspidis f cusp bicuspidalis, bicuspidale
dexter, dextra, dextrum right
endocardium, endocardii n endocardium
epicardium, epicardii n epicardium
lamina, laminae f lamina, plate
myocardium, myocardii n myocardium infarctus myocardii
paries, parietis m wall paries arteriae
pericardium, pericardii n pericardium pericarditis
37
sanguineus, -ea,-eum sanguineous of or relating to blood
sanguis, sanguinis m blood vasa sanguinea (blood vessels)
semilunaris, semilunare adj. semilunar
septum, septi n septum septum interventriculare
sinister, sinistra, sinistrum left
sulcus, sulci m furrow, depression sulcus coronarius (coronal sulcus)
truncus, trunci m trunk truncus pulmonalis
valva/valvula, valvulae f valve valva aortae / aortic valve
vas, vasis n (Sing.) vessel vas capillare (capillary)
vasa, vasorum (Plu.) vessels
vena, venae f vein vena cordis
ventriculus, -i m little belly
Exercise 1. Categorize the words in the word-list above according to which declination they
belong to.
I. II. III. IV. V.

(-a) (-us, -um) (many) (-us) (-es)
aorta, -ae f atrium, -ii n sanguis, -inis m arcus, -us m
Exercise 2. Fill in the missing gaps.
I. declination Singular Plural

Nominative venae
Genitive venae
I. declination Singular Plural

Nominative arteria
Genitive arteriarum
II. declination Singular Plural

Nominative
Genitive septi septorum
II. declination Singular Plural

Nominative sulcus
Genitive sulcorum
III. declination Singular Plural

Nominative
Genitive circulationis circulationum
38
III. declination Singular Plural
Nominative vas vasa
Genitive
IV. declination Singular Plural

Nominative arcus
Genitive arcuum
Groove that runs around the heart, separating the atria from the ventricles
Carry blood from the body to the right atrium
Carry blood from the lungs to the left atrium
Carry blood from the right ventricle to the lungs
Carries blood from the left ventricle to the body
Supply blood to the tissues of the heart
Large vein that drains the cardiac veins of the heart and empties into the right atrium
Supplies blood to much of the anterior wall of the heart and most of the left ventricle
Supplies blood to most of the wall of the right ventricle
Drain blood from cardiac muscle; empty into coronary sinus
Atrioventricular valve between the right atrium and right ventricle
Atrioventricular valve between the left atrium and left ventricle
Cone-shaped muscular pillars in each ventricle
Connective tissue strings connecting papillary muscles with the cusps of atrioventricular valves
Valves with three cusps found in the aorta and pulmonary trunk
Plate of fibrous connective tissue that provides support, electrical insulation, and rigid attachment for cardiac muscle
Exercise 4. Define the following anatomical terms.
sinus obliquus
39
sinus transversus
coronary sulcus
sulcus terminalis cordis
coronary sinus
anterior interventricular sulcus
posterior interventricular sulcus
pectinate muscles
oval fossa
limbus fossae ovalis
trabeculae carneae
chordae tendineae
papillary muscles
conus arteriosus
anulus fibrosus
right and left fibrous trigone
commissural cusps
vortex of the heart
nodule and lunulae of semilunar cusp
Exercise 5. Compare the diagrams. Define the following terms.
ductus venosus –ligamentum venosum;

foramen ovale – oval fossa;
ductus arteriosus – ligamentum arteriosum;
umbilical vein – round ligament of the liver;
umbilical arteries – cords of the umbilical arteries;
40
41
42
CHAPTER 6
DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
The digestive tract, also known as the alimentary canal or gastrointestinal (GI) tract, is essentially a long
tube modified into separate organs with special functions.
From the Mouth to the Stomach

Digestion begins in the mouth (os), also called the oral cavity (cavum oris), where food is chewed into
small bits by the teeth. In the process of chewing, or mastication (masticatio), the tongue (lingua), lips
(labium), cheeks (bucca), palate (palatum) also help to break up the food and mix it with saliva (saliva),
a secretion that moistens the food and begins the digestion of starch. The salivary glands (glandulae
salivares) secrete saliva into the mouth and are considered to be accessory organs of digestion. There
are two types of saliva. One is a thin, watery secretion, and its purpose is to wet the food. The other is a
thick, mucous secretion, and it acts as a lubricant and causes food particles to stick together and form a
bolus.
Portions of moistened food are moved toward the pharynx (pharynx), where swallowing reflexes push it
into the esophagus (oesophagus). Peristalsis moves the food through the esophagus and into the
stomach (ventriculus). At its distal end, where it joins the stomach, the esophagus has muscle tissue that
contracts to keep stomach contents from refluxing.
In the stomach food is further broken down as it is churned and mixed with secretions containing the
enzyme pepsin and powerful hydrochloric acid (HCl), both of which break down proteins. The partially
digested food then passes through the lower portion of the stomach, the pylorus (pylorus) and then into
the small intestine (intestinum tenue).
The Small Intestine

Food leaving the stomach enters the duodenum (duodenum), the first portion of the small intestine.
Duodenum is from the Latin duodeni, meaning “twelve each”, referring to its length. As food continues
through the jejunum (jejunum) and ileum (ileum), the remaining sections of the small intestine, digestion
is completed. The digestive substances active in the small intestine include enzymes from the intestine
itself and products from accessory organs that secrete into the duodenum. The digested nutrients, as
well as water, minerals, and vitamins are absorbed into the circulation, aided by small projections in the
lining of the small intestine called villi (villi intestinales). Each villus (villus) has blood capillaries to absorb
nutrients into the blood stream and lymphatic capillaries, or lacteals, to absorb small molecules of
digested fats into the lymph.
The Large Intestine

Any food that has not been digested, along with water and digestive juices, passes into the large intestine
(intestinum crassum). This part of the digestive tract begins in the lower right region of the abdomen with
a small pouch, the cecum (caecum), to which the appendix (appendix vermiformis) is attached. The large
intestine continues as the colon (colon), a name that is often used to mean the large intestine because
the colon constitutes such a large portion of that organ. The colon travels upward along the right side of
the abdomen as the ascending colon (colon ascendens), crosses below the stomach as the transverse
colon (colon transversum), then continues down the left side of the abdomen as the descending colon
(colon descendens). As food is pushed through the colon, water is reabsorbed and stool or feces (faeces)
is formed. This waste material passes into the S-shaped sigmoid colon (colon sigmoideum) and is stored
in the rectum (rectum) until eliminated through the anus (anus).
43
The Accessory Organs
The salivary glands, which secrete into the mouth, are the first accessory organs to act on food. They
secrete an enzyme (salivary amylase) that begins the digestion of starch. The remainder of the
accessory organs is in the abdomen and secrete into the duodenum. The liver (hepar) is a large gland
with many functions. The liver’s role in digestion is the secretion of bile (bilis), which emulsifies fats
(breaks them down into smaller units). The gallbladder (vesica fellea) stores bile until it is needed in
digestion. The common hepatic duct (ductus hepaticus communis) from the liver and the cystic duct
(ductus cysticus) from the gallbladder merge to form the common bile duct (ductus choledochus), which
empties into the duodenum.
The pancreas (pancreas) produces a mixture of digestive enzymes that is delivered into the duodenum
through the pancreatic duct (ductus pancreaticus). It also secretes large amounts of bicarbonate, which
neutralizes the strong stomach acid.
Anatomical and Clinical Terms Pertaining to the Digestive System
Latin/Anatomical Meaning Greek Stem/Clinical Example

anus, ani m anus proct/o coloproctostomy
rectum, recti n
antrum, antri n cavity, chamber
apparatus, apparatus m apparatus
appendix, appendicis f appendix appendicitis
bilis, bilis f gall, bile chol/o, chol/e cholestasis
fel, fellis n gall, bile
bucca, buccae f cheek buccal
caecum, caeci n cecum typhl/o typhlectasis
colon, coli n colon col/o coloclysis
crassus, -a, -um thick, dense
dens, dentis m tooth, teeth odont/o oligodontia
digestorius, -a, -um digestive digestive tract
ductus bilifer bile duct cholangi/o cholangioma
ductus choledochus common bile duct choledoch/o choledochal
ductus cysticus cystic duct
ductus hepaticus hepatic duct (hepatic-)
ductus pancreaticus pancreatic duct
ductus, ductus m duct
duodenum, duodeni n duodenum duodenalis, -e
faex, faecis f feces
gingiva, gingivae f gingiva gingiv/ gingivectomy
hepar, hepatis n liver hepat/o hepatorrhexis
ileum, ilei n ileum ile/o ileitis
intestinum, intestini n intestine enter/o dysentery
isthmus, isthmi m isthmus isthmus uteri
jejunum, jejuni n jejunum jejun/o jejunectomy
labium, labii n lip cheil/o cheiloschisis
lingua, linguae f tongue gloss/o orolingual
mandibula, mandibulae f lower jaw, geneion, geni- mandibularis, -e
mandible
44
maxilla, maxillae f upper jaw gnath/o micrognathia
oesophagus, oesophagi m esophagus esophag/o esophageal
os, oris n mouth stoma,stomat/o stomatopathy
palatum, palati n palate palatum durum
palatum molle
pancreas, pancreatis n pancreas pancreat/o pancreatotropic
pylorus, pylori m pylorus pylor/o pyloroplasty
saliva, salivae f saliva, salivary sial/o sialogram
gland
salivaris, -e salivary
sigmoideus, -ea, -eum sigmoid sigmoid/o
suppurativus, -a, -um relating to or
characterized by
suppuration
tenia, teniae f ribbon, tape, band teniae coli
ulcer, ulceris n ulcer
ventriculus, ventriculi m stomach gastr/o gastroparesis
vermiformis, -e vermiform
vesica fellea gallbladder cholecyst/o cholecystitis
vesica biliaris
villus, villi m villus villi intestinales
Exercise 1. Break down the following terms into smaller subunits.
choledocholithotomy
duodenojejunostomy
ileosigmoidostomy
cholangiorrhaphy
choledocholithiasis
Exercise 2. Form clinical terms using the given suffixes.
-itis: lip, gallbladder, tooth, appendix, stomach, liver, peritoneum, tonsil, pancreas
-scopy: intestine, rectum, stomach, esophagus
- ptosis: liver, stomach, intestine, colon
cardiac orifice
angular incisure
45
mesoappendix
omental appendices
semilunar folds
haustra
teniae coli
transverse mesocolon
hepatoduodenal ligament
hepatogastric ligament
gastrocolic ligament
right and left colic flexures
rectouterine pouch
pyloric antrum
falciform ligament
epiploic foramen
mesocolon
hepatopancreatic ampulla
major and minor duodenal papilla
sphincter of Oddi
Useful to know: Peritoneum – Omentum - Mesentery

Peritoneum: (Gr.: Peri- around, -ton- refers to stretching, „stretched around or stretched over”)
serous membrane that forms the lining of the abdominal cavity and covers most of the intra- abdominal
organs.Two layers of the peritoneum:
- parietal
- visceral
46
Subdivisions: There are two main regions of the peritoneum, connected by the epiploic foramen:
- the greater sac (general cavity of the abdomen), represented in red in the diagram above;
- the lesser sac (or omental bursa), represented in blue; the lesser sac is divided into two „omenta”
Greater Omentum (epiploon, omentum majus)
A peritoneal fold hanging from the greater curvature of stomach to the transverse colon, like an apron in
front of the intestines; also called caul, velum.
Functions:
- fat deposition
- immune contribution
- infection and wound isolation
Lesser Omentum (omentum minus)

A double layer of peritoneum that extends from the liver to the lesser curvature of the stomach and the start of
the duodenum.
47
Mesentery (Gr.: meso – enterion)
- a double layer of visceral peritoneum connecting the intestines to the dorsal abdominal wall
- supplied with blood and lymph vessels and nerves
Stomach
Opening between the esophagus and the stomach
Most superior portion of the stomach
Opening between stomach and small intestine
Thick ring of smooth muscle that surrounds pyloric opening
Large folds of the submucosa and mucosa formed when the stomach is empty
Small intestine
Two ducts that join together and empty into the duodenum
Tiny fingerlike projections of the mucosa
Cytoplasmic extensions from cells on the surface of villi
Lymphatic capillaries found in villi
Junction between the ileum and large intestine
Ring of smooth muscle surrounding the ileocecal junction
Large intestine
Blind sac that extends inferiorly past the ileocecal junction
Small blind tube attached to the cecum
Part of the colon closest to the cecum
Extends from the right colic flexure to the left colic flexure
48
Extends from the left colic flexure to the pelvis
S-shaped tube that ends at the rectum
Straight tubular glands in the mucosal lining of the colon
Three longitudinal smooth muscle bands that run the length of the colon
Straight, muscular tube between sigmoid colon and anal canal
The last 2 to 3 cm of the digestive tract
Thick involuntary smooth muscle layer at the superior end of the anal canal
Voluntary skeletal muscle at the inferior end of the anal canal
Exercise 5. Match the items in column B with the descriptive statements in column A.
Column A Column B
structure that suspends the small intestine from the posterior
_____ 1. a. visceral peritoneum
body wall
fingerlike extensions of the intestinal mucosa that increase the
_____ 2. b. stomach
surface area for absorption
deep folds of the mucosa and submucosa that extend
_____ 3. completely or partially around the circumference of the small c. villi
intestine
_____ 4. regions that break down foodstuffs mechanically d. tongue
mobile organ that manipulates food in the mouth and initiates
_____ 5. e. small intestine
swallowing
_____ 6. conduit for both air and food f. mesentery
three structures continuous with and representing modifications
_____ 7. g. vestibule
of the peritoneum
_____ 8. the “gullet”; no digestive/absorptive function h. pyloric valve
_____ 9. folds of the gastric mucosa i. rugae
_____ 10. sacculations of the large intestine j. pharynx
_____ 11. projections of the plasma membrane of a mucosal epithelial cell k. large intestine
_____ 12. valve at the junction of the small and large intestines l. oral cavity
_____ 13. primary region of food and water absorption m. frenulum
_____ 14. membrane securing the tongue to the floor of the mouth n. microvilli
_____ 15. absorbs water and forms feces o. haustra
_____ 16. area between the teeth and lips/cheeks p. ileocecal valve
_____ 17. wormlike sac that outpockets from the cecum q. esophagus
_____ 18. initiates protein digestion r. parietal peritoneum
49
_____ 19. structure attached to the lesser curvature of the stomach s. greater omentum
_____ 20. organ distal to the stomach t. anus
valve controlling food movement from the stomach into the
_____ 21. u. lesser omentum
duodenum
location of the hepatopancreatic sphincter through which
_____ 22. v. circular folds
pancreatic secretions and bile pass
_____ 23. serous lining of the abdominal cavity wall x. appendix
_____ 24. principal site for the synthesis of vitamin K by microorganisms
region containing two sphincters through which feces are
_____ 25.
expelled
50
CHAPTER 7
URINARY SYSTEM
The urinary system (systema uropoeticum - excretory system) is the organ system that produces, stores, and
eliminates urine. In the process of forming and eliminating urine, it also regulates the composition, volume and acid-
base balance of body fluids. In humans it includes two kidneys (ren), two ureters (ureter), the bladder (vesica
urinaria), the urethra (urethra), and two sphincter muscles (m. sphincter vesicae et urethrae).
Kidney
The kidneys are bean-shaped organs that lie in the abdomen, retroperitoneal to the organs of digestion, around or
just below the ribcage and close to the lumbar spine. On the top of each kidney rests an adrenal gland. Each kidney
is encased in a capsule of fibrous connective tissue overlaid with fat (capsula adiposa et fibrosa).
The kidney consists of an outer cortex (cortex renalis) and an inner medulla region (medulla renalis). The renal
medulla is divided into triangular sections, the renal pyramids (pyramides renales). These pyramids have a lined
appearance because they are made up of the loops and collecting tubules of the nephrons, the kidney’s functional
units.
Nephron
A nephron eliminates wastes from the body, regulates blood volume and blood pressure, controls levels of
electrolytes and metabolites, and regulates blood pH. Its functions are vital to life and are regulated by the endocrine
system by hormones such as antidiuretic hormone. In humans, a normal kidney contains 800,000 to 1.5 million
nephrons.
Each nephron is composed of an initial filtering component (the "renal corpuscle", corpusculum renis) and a tubule
specialized for reabsorption and secretion (the "renal tubule", tubulus renalis).
- The renal corpuscle (or Malpighian corpuscle - corpusculum renis Malpighi) composed of a glomerulus
(glomerulus) and the Bowman's capsule (capsula glomeruli), is the beginning of the nephron. It is the
nephron's initial filtering component.
- The tubule then folds into the proximal convoluted tubule (tubulus renalis contortus proximalis), straightens
out to form the loop of Henle, coils again into the distal convoluted tubule (tubulus renalis contortus distalis),
and then finally straightens out to form a collecting duct (tubulus collectivus – Plu.: tubuli collectivi).
Blood Supply to the Kidney

Blood enters the kidney through a renal artery (arteria renalis), a short branch of the abdominal aorta. This vessel
subdivides into smaller vessels as it branches throughout the kidney tissue, until finally blood is brought into the
Bowman capsule and circulated through a cluster of capillaries, called a glomerulus, within a capsule.
Blood leaves the kidney by a series of vessels that finally merge to form the renal vein (vena renalis), which empties
into the inferior vena cava.
Urine Formation
As blood flows through the glomerulus, blood pressure forces materials through the glomerular wall and through the
glomerular capsule into the nephron. The fluid that enters the nephron, the glomerular filtrate, consists mainly of
water, electrolytes, soluble wastes, nutrients, and toxins. The filtrate should not contain proteins, such as albumin.
The waste material and the toxins must be eliminated, but most of the water, electrolytes and nutrients must be
returned to the blood. This tubular reabsorption occurs through the peritubular capillaries that surround the nephron.
Finally, the filtrate, now called urine (urina), flows into the collecting tubules to be eliminated. Each collecting tubule
empties into a urine-collecting area called a calyx (calix). Several of the smaller minor calices merge to form a major
calyx (calices renales minores et majores). The major calices then unite to form the renal pelvis (pelvis renalis
/pyelon), the upper portion of the ureter (ureter).
51
The ureter carries urine from each kidney into the urinary bladder (vesica urinaria). Urine collects in the bladder until
it passes out of the body through another tube, the urethra. Healthy kidneys produce from 1 to 2 litres of urine daily.
Anatomical and Clinical Terms Pertaining to the Urinary System
Latin/Anatomical Meaning Greek Stem/ Example

Clinical
calix, calicis m calyx cali/o, calic/o calicectomy
capsula adiposa adipose capsule
capsula fibrosa fibrous capsule
capsula renis renal capsule
colligens (colligentis) collecting adj. tubuli colligentes
columna renalis renal column
contortus, -a, -um convoluted adj. tubulus contortus
cortex renalis renal cortex
cortex, corticis m cortex
glomerulus, glomeruli m glomerulus glomerul/o glomerulonephritis
hilus, hili m; hilum, hili n hilum, area through hilus renalis
which ducts,
nerves, or blood
vessels enter and
leave a
gland or organ
glandula suprarenalis/ adrenal; adrenal epinephros
adrenalis gland
medulla renalis renal medulla
pelvis renalis renal pelvis pyel/o pyelectasis
pus, puris n pus py/o pyuria
pyelon, pyeli n renal pelvis pyel/o pyelotomy
pyramis, pyramidis f pyramid pyramides renales
renes, renum m Pl. kidneys nephr/o renalis, -e
systema, systematis n system
tubulus, tubuli m tubule tubularis, tubulare adj.
ureter, ureteris m urinary duct ureter/o ureterostenosis
urethra, urethrae f urethra urethr/o urethrotome
urina, urinae f urine, urinary tract ur/o, urin/o urosepsis, nocturia
urinarius, -a, -um urinary adj.
uropoeticus, -a, -um adj. producing urine
vesica urinaria urinary bladder cyst/o, vesic/o supravesical, cystocele
Exercise 1. Supply medical terms for the following.
inflammation of the urinary bladder

surgical fixation of the urinary bladder
an instrument for examining the inside of the bladder
incision into the bladder
52
endoscopic examination of the urethra
surgical fixation of the urethra
pain felt in the urinary bladder
formation of urine
lack of urine
painful or difficult urination
formation of excess urine
presence of blood in the urine
Exercise 2. Complete the following statements.
The urinary system is composed of the paired kidneys and the _______________. The kidneys filter the blood to
remove _______________. wastes and then modify the resulting fluid, which allows these organs to maintain fluid,
_______________, acid-base, and _______________ homeostasis. This process produces _______________, a
fluid that consists of _______________, electrolytes, and metabolic wastes.
Then the remaining organs of the urinary system – those of the urinary tract – transport, store, and eventually
eliminate urine from the body.
The _______________ resemble their namesake, the kidney bean, in both shape and color. The kidneys are situated
against the posterior _________________________ and are _______________ organs, meaning they are located
posterior to the peritoneal membranes.
Each kidney is capped by an _______________ gland; these glands perform endocrine functions and secrete a
variety of _______________. The urinary tract is composed of the paired _______________, the urinary bladder,
and the urethra. Urine leaves each kidney through one of the two ureters, tubes that run along the posterior body
wall, connecting the kidneys with the hollow urinary _______________. The bladder, which stores the urine, sits on
the floor of the _______________. Urine is expelled from the body through the tube called the _______________,
which connects the urinary bladder with the outside of the body.
a. urine b. abdominal wall c. ureters d. metabolic e. blood pressure

f. kidneys g. hormones h. bladder i. electrolyte j. adrenal
k. urethra l. retroperitoneal m. water n. urinary tract o. pelvic cavity
Functional unit of the kidney

Duct into which the distal tubule empties
Enlarged end of nephron; Bowman's capsule and glomerulus
Tuft of capillaries surrounded by Bowman's capsule
Specialized cells that surround the glomerulus and form the inner layer of Bowman's capsule
Composed of glomerular capillary walls, podocytes, and the basement membrane between them
Small tubes that carry urine from the renal pelvis to the urinary bladder
Triangle-shaped portion of the urinary bladder located between the opening of the ureters and the opening of the
urethra
53
Tube that carries urine from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body
Cells that line the ureters and urinary bladder
Cells that form the walls of the ureters and urinary bladder
Smooth muscle at the junction of the urinary bladder and urethra that regulates urine flow through the urethra
Skeletal muscle that surrounds the urethra as the urethra extends through the pelvic floor
Exercise 4. Place these vessels in the correct sequence that blood would pass through them, from abdominal
aorta to renal veins.
arcuate artery, interlobar artery, afferent arteriole, interlobular artery, efferent arteriole, peritubular capillaries,
glomerular capillaries, renal artery
1.abdominal aorta 2. __________________ 3. __________________
4. __________________ 5. __________________ 6. __________________
7. __________________ 8. __________________ 9. __________________
10. renal veins
Exercise 5. Fill in the missing case endings.
capsula ren___
calix renal___ minor
pyramis renal___
calices renal___ major___
tubulus collectiv___
tubulus renal___
systema uropoetic___
pyramid___ renal___
tubuli colligent___
vesica urinari___
54
CHAPTER 8
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The reproductive system is a system of organs which work together for the purpose of reproduction.
The major organs of the human reproductive system include the external genitalia (penis and vulva) as well as a
number of internal organs including the gamete producing gonads (testicles and ovaries).
The Male Genital Organs (organa genitalia masculina)

The gonads in the male produce spermatozoa (singular: spermatozoon), the male reproductive cells, and secrete
testosterone, the male hormone. The male reproductive organs, or gonads, are the testes (testis). They are
supported by accessory organs, ducts, and glands. The ducts include the epididymides (epididymis), vas deferens
(ductus deferens), ejaculatory ducts (ductus ejaculatorius), and the urethra (urethra). Glands include seminal vesicles
(vesicula seminalis), prostate (prostata), and bulbourethral glands (or Cowper’s glands) (glandula bulbourethralis).
The supporting structures are the penis (penis), scrotum (scrotum), and spermatic cords (funiculus spermaticus).
The Testes
The male gonads consist of two testes which are egg-shaped glands that develop in the kidney region before
descending into the scrotum before birth. The interior of a testis is composed of a large mass of narrow coiled tubules
called the seminiferous tubules (tubuli seminiferi). The scrotum is a sac enclosing the testes on the outside of the
body. The scrotum lies between the thighs in order to expose the testes to a lower temperature than if they were
enclosed within the body. This lower temperature is necessary for the adequate maturing and development of sperm.
Between the anus and the scrotum, at the floor of the pelvic cavity in the male is the perineum, (perineum) which is
similar to the perineal region in the female.
Glands
Semen (semen or sperma) is the thick, whitish fluid in which spermatozoa are transported. It contains, in addition to
sperm cells, secretions from three types of accessory glands. The first of these, the paired seminal vesicles (vesiculae
seminales), release their secretions into the ejaculatory duct. The second, the prostate gland (prostata), secretes
into the first part of the urethra beneath the bladder. The two bulbourethral glands (Cowper) (glandulae
bulbourethrales) secrete into the urethra just below the prostate gland. Together these glands produce a slightly
alkaline mixture that nourishes and transports the sperm.
Anatomical and Clinical Terms Pertaining to the Male Reproductive System

corpus cavernosum penis cavernous body of penis
corpus spongiosum penis spongy body of penis
ductus deferens vas deferens, deferent duct vas/o vasostomy
epididymis, epididymidis f epididymis epididym/o epididymotomy

funiculus spermaticus spermatic cord
funiculus, funiculi m cord, funicle, bundle
genitalis, -e genital
glans penis glans penis balan/o balanitis
glans, glandis f glans
organum, -i n organ
penis, penis m penis phallo/o phalloplasty
praeputium, praeputii n prepuce posthi/o posthioplasty
prostata, prostatae f prostate prostat/o prostatometer
55
scrotum, scroti n scrotum osche/o oscheal, scrotalis, -e
semen, seminis n semen, seminal fluid sperm/i, spermat/o seminalis, -e
sperma, spermatis n spermaticus, -a, -um
smegma, smegmatis n smegma, product of glands smegma praeputii
of prepuce
spermium, spermii n sperm, male germ cell
spermatozoon, -i n
testis, testis m testis orchi/o, orchid/o anorchism
vesicula seminalis seminal vesicle vesicul/o vesiculogram
vir, viri m man andro/o andropathy
Exercise 1. Word building.
stone in the scrotum

surgical incision of the prostate
surgical fixation of the testis
inflammation of a seminal vesicle
excision of the vas deferens
plastic repair of the scrotum
excision of the prostate gland
surgical creation of an opening in the vas deferens
incision of the epididymis
presence of pus in the semen
condition of having sperm in the urine
undescended testes

organi organorum
testis testium
spermium spermia
corpus corporum
viri viri
prostatae prostatarum
semen semina
funiculi
ductus ductus
56
rectovesical pouch
tunica vaginalis testis
processus vaginalis testis
dartos fascia
cremaster
raphe of scrotum
rete testis
hypospadias
epispadias
Exercise 4. Give anatomical terms for the following.
Sac containing the testes

Two structures that regulate the temperature of the testes
Subdivisions of the testes
Site of sperm cell development
Responsible for testosterone production
Large cells that nourish the germ cells and produce hormones
Most peripheral cells; they divide by mitosis
Germ cells produced from spermatogonia, which divide into two cells during the first
meiotic division
Formed from primary spermatocytes these cells undergo a second meiotic division
Produced from a secondary spermatocyte; each has 23 chromosomes

Develop from a spermatid by forming a head, midpiece, and flagellum; spermatozoon
Sperm cell vesicle containing enzymes released during fertilization

Receive sperm cells from the seminiferous tubules
Tubes that exit the testis
Receives the efferent ductules from the testis; a comma-shaped structure on the outside of the
testis
Site of sperm cell maturation
Duct that passes through the abdominal wall
Blood vessels and nerves that supply the testis, the cremaster muscle, and the
ductus deferens
57
Formed by the ampulla of the ductus deferens and a duct from the seminal vesicle; empties into
the urethra
Extends to the tip of the penis
Engorgement of penile erectile tissue with blood
Paired columns of erectile tissue in the penis
Single column of erectile tissue in the penis; the urethra passes through it
Expanded distal end of the penis
Opening of the urethra to the exterior
Skin that covers the glans penis; foreskin
Surgical removal of the prepuce
58
CHAPTER 9
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The Female Genital Organs (organa genitalia feminina)
External Genital Organs
The external genitalia (organs of reproduction) of the female are together called the vulva (vulva). The mons pubis
(mons pubis/mons Veneris) forms the anterior portion of the vulva. The labia majora (labia majora pudendi) are the
two outer folds of the vulva, and the labia minora (labia minora pudendi) are the smaller inner lips. The clitoris (clitoris)
and Bartholin’s glands (glandula vestibularis major) are also part of the vulva. Bartholin’s glands are two small glands
on each side of the vaginal opening. They produce a mucous secretion that lubricates the vagina.
The clitoris is situated in front of the vaginal opening and the urethral meatus. The clitoris is similar in structure to the
penis in the male, being an organ made up of sensitive, erectile tissue.
The region between the vaginal opening and the anus is called the perineum (perineum).
Internal Genital Organs
After ovulation (ovulatio), the ovum travels into an oviduct (also called the uterine tube or fallopian tube) (tuba uterina),
one of the two tubes attached to the upper lateral portions of the uterus (uterus).
These tubes arch above the ovaries and have fingerlike projections (fimbriae) that sweep the released ovum into the
oviduct.
The uterus is the organ that nourishes the developing offspring. It is pear-shaped, a triangular cavity (corpus uteri),
and a lower narrow cervix (cervix uteri) that projects into the vagina. The recess around the cervix in the superior
vagina is the fornix (fornix). At the posterior cervix, can be found the cul-de-sac Douglas pouch, the lowest point of
the peritoneal cavity. The mucous membrane forming the inner layer of the uterine wall is the endometrium
(endometrium). It receives the fertilized ovum and becomes part of the placenta during pregnancy. The endometrium
is shed during the menstrual period if no fertilization occurs. The muscle layer of the uterine wall is the myometrium
(myometrium).
The vagina (vagina) is a muscular tube that receives the penis during intercourse, functions as a birth canal, and
transports the menstrual flow out of the body. The hymen (hymen) is a mucous membrane partially covering the
entrance to the vagina.
Anatomical and Clinical Terms Pertaining to the Female Reproductive System

clitoris, clitoridis f clitoris clitor/o, clitorid/o clitorectomy
endometrium, -ii n the mucous membrane
that lines the uterus
femina, feminae f woman gyn/o, gynec/o gynecology
hymen, hyminis f hymen, a mucous
membrane that partly
closes the opening of
the vagina
labium majus pudendi the two outer folds of the
vulva
59
labium minus pudendi the two inner folds of the
vulva
mamma, mammae f breast, mammary gland mamm/o, mast/o amastia,
mammoplasty
mensis, mensis m month, menstruation men/o, mens premenstrual
myometrium, -ii n the smooth muscle
forming the wall of the
uterus
ovarium, ovarii n ovary ovari/o, oophor/o ovariopexy
ovum, ovi n ovum, egg cell oo, ov/o, ovul/o oocyte
perineum, perinei n perineum perine/o, episi/o episiotomy
pubes, pubis f pubic region mons pubis
pudendum, -i n the human external
genital organs
collectively, esp of a
female
tuba uterina oviduct, tube salping/o salpingoplasty
uterus, uteri m uterus metr/o, hyster/o hysterotomy
vagina, vaginae f vagina colp/o, vagin/o colposcope
vestibulum, -i n vestibule, entrance vestibularis
vulva, vulvae f vulva vulv/o vulvitis
gynecopathy
oogenesis
oophoritis
anovulatory
salpingectomy
hysteroscopy
metromalacia
uterovesical
vaginoplasty
colpodynia
hysterolithiasis
mastitis cystica
Exercise 2. Explain the following pathological findings.
Fibromyomata uteri.
Corpus luteum haemorrhagicum ovarii dextri.
Hyperplasia prostatae.
Atrophia testium.
60
Degeneratio adiposa renis.
Cystitis haemorrhagica.
Nephrolithiasis.
Pyelectasia lateris utriusque.
Urocystitis chronic et hypertrophia parietis vesicae urinariae.
Atrophia glandularum suprarenalium.
Holds the uterus, uterine tubes, and ovaries in place

Peritoneum that attaches the ovaries to the broad ligament
Ligament that extends from the lateral body wall to the ovary
Attaches the ovary to the uterus
Extend from the ovaries to the uterus; conduct the oocyte to the uterus; also called fallopian
tubes or oviducts
Long processes that surround the ovary and sweep the oocyte into the uterine tube
Fertilization usually occurs here

The inferior, narrow neck of the uterus
Cavity that opens into the vagina
Outer layer of the uterine wall consisting of peritoneum
Middle muscular layer of the uterine wall
Inner epithelial and connective tissue layer of the uterus
The space into which the vagina and urethra open
Thin, longitudinal skin folds bordering the vestibule
Small erectile structure covered by the prepuce
Glands that maintain the moistness of the vestibule
Rounded folds of skin lateral to the labia minora
The region between the vagina and anus; the location where an episiotomy is performed
mesovarium
tunica albuginea of ovary
infundibulum of uterine tube
isthmus of uterine tube
mesosalpinx
61
portio
parametrium
paracervix
paracolpium
vaginal fornix
urethral carina of vagina
ischiocavernosus
bulbospongiosus
polymastia
polythelia
gynecomastia
62
Sources:
http://msk-anatomy.blogspot.hu/2012/06/maxilla-anatomy.html
http://msk-anatomy.blogspot.hu/search/label/Facial%20Bone%20Anatomy
http://download.videohelp.com/vitualis/med/oral_cavity.htm http://agaveclinic.com/en/cleft_velum.php
medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com winkingskull.com
http://academic.kellogg.edu/herbrandsonc/bio201_mckinley/Urinary%20System.htm
Literature
Tibor Donáth, Lexicon anatomiae, Budapest 1999, Semmelweis.

Sobotta, Az ember anatómiájának atlasza, (Szerk.: R. Putz és R. Pabst) Budapest 1994, Semmelweis.
Györkössy-Kapitánffy-Tegyey: Ógörög-magyar nagyszótár, Budapest 1990, Akadémiai.
Dorland’s Illustrated Medical Dictionary, (W. B.Saunders Company) Harcourt International Edition, USA, 2000.
H. Fritsch, W.Kuehnel, Internal Organs, Color Atlas of Human Anatomy, Thieme.
63

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Anatomical Terminology 2

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Anatomical Terminology II.

University of Pécs Medical School

Chapter 1 Oral Cavity 4

Chapter 2 Tongue and Pharynx 15

Chapter 4 Respiratory System 32

Chapter 5 Heart and Circulation 36

Chapter 6 Digestive System 43

Chapter 7 Urinary System 51

Chapter 8 Male Reproductive System 55

Chapter 9 Female Reproductive System 59

The maxilla assists in forming the boundaries of three cavities:

anterior view of the sphenoid

Anatomical terms pertaining to oral cavity:

The oral cavity (mouth) consists of three parts:

- the oral vestibule (vestibulum oris)

The Hard Palate

Levator Veli Palatini (musculus levator veli palatini)

Tensor Veli Palatini (musculus tensor veli palatini)

Palatoglossus Muscle (musculus palatoglossus)

Superior attachment: palatine aponeurosis.

Superior attachment: hard palate and palatine aponeurosis.

Superior attachment: posterior nasal spine and palatine aponeurosis.

Exercise 1. Complete these statements.

Exercise 2. Supply anatomical terms for the following definitions.

Musculus orbicularis orbis:

Exercise 5. Fill in the gaps.

Sing. nominative Sing. genitive Plural nominative Plural genitive

Exercise 6. Put the adjectives in agreement with the nouns in gender.

e.g. velum (palatinus, -a, -um) velum palatinum

palatum (durus, -a, -um)

TONGUE AND PHARYNX

Anatomical and Clinical Terms Pertaining to Tongue and Taste

Latin/Anatomical Meaning Greek Stem/ Clinical Example

It can be divided into three parts:

There are four types of papillae present in the human tongue:

- Superior goes the length of the tongue

cross-section of the middle part of the tongue

median-sagittal section of the tongue with the mandible and larynx

midline groove on the anterior part of the tongue

Exercise 2. Define the following terms.

left hypoglossus palsy

benign migratory glossitis

The parotid gland (glandula parotidea) is the largest

The secretion produced is mainly serous in nature and

Minor salivary glands

the nasopharynx (epipharynx),

The hypopharynx (Latin: pars laryngea pharyngis)

Exercise 4. Define the terms.

Exercise 5. Give the origin and insertion of the following muscles.

superior constrictor muscle of pharynx

middle constrictor muscle of pharynx

inferior constrictor muscle of pharynx

Anatomical terms relating to teeth

Structure of the Teeth and Supporting Tissues

Supporting Structures of the Teeth

Distinctive Crown Convexities and Concavities Cusp

1. Number of incisors in each quadrant of the adult mouth

Exercise 2. Define the following terms.

Exercise 3. Put into plural and translate them into English.

Exercise 5. Fill in the gaps.

Sing. nominative Sing. genitive Plural nominative Plural genitive

Anatomical and Clinical Terms Pertaining to the Respiratory System

Latin/Anatomical Meaning Greek Stem/ Clinical Example

alveolar duct trachea

1.abdominal aorta 2. 3.

4. 5. 6. __

7. 8. 9. __