definition

Neuropsychology is the branch of science that studies the

physiological processes of the nervous system and relates them to
behavior and cognition, in terms both of their normal function and of
the dysfunctional processes associated with brain damage.

Histoty.
Recent research (Bruce 1985) suggests that the term
'neuropsychology' was first used in 1913 by Sir William Osler in an
address he gave at the opening of the Phipps Clinic at the Johns
Hopkins Hospital. Hans-Lukas Teuber, one of the early pioneers in
neuropsychology, argued that the task of neuropsychology is
twofold.

How did the human mind evolve?

As early humans faced new environmental challenges and evolved bigger bodies,
they evolved larger and more complex brains. Large, complex brains can process
and store a lot of information. That was a big advantage to early humans in their
social interactions and encounters with unfamiliar habitats.

Types of Brain Disorders

 Alzheimer's Disease.
 Dementias.
 Brain Cancer.
 Epilepsy and Other Seizure Disorders.
 Mental Disorders.
 Parkinson's and Other Movement Disorders.
 Stroke and Transient Ischemic Attack (TIA)

Brain Disorders
 Medically reviewed by Nancy Hammond, M.D. — By Lauren Reed-
Guy — Updated on April 13, 2023
 Types
 Risk factors
 Diagnosis
 Outlook
Different problems with the brain can have various causes,
such as illness, genetics, or injury. Each comes with different
risks, diagnoses, and treatments.

What are brain disorders?

Your brain is your body’s control center. It’s part of the nervous system, which
also includes the spinal cord and a large network of nerves and neurons.
Together, the nervous system controls everything from your senses to the
muscles throughout your body.

When your brain is damaged, it can affect many different things, including
your memory, your sensation, and even your personality. Brain disorders
include any conditions or disabilities that affect your brain. This includes
conditions that are caused by:

 illness
 genetics
 traumatic injury

This is a broad category of disorders, which vary greatly in symptoms and

severity. Keep reading to learn about some of the largest categories of brain
disorders.

What are the different types of brain disorders?

Brain injuries

Brain injuries are often caused by blunt trauma. Trauma can damage your
brain tissue, neurons, and nerves. This damage affects your brain’s ability to
communicate with the rest of your body. Examples of brain injuries include:

 hematomas
 blood clots
 contusions, or bruising of brain tissue
 cerebral edema, or swelling inside the skull
 concussions
 strokes

Examples of the symptoms of a brain injury includeTrusted Source:

 vomiting
 nausea
 speech difficulty
 bleeding from the ear
 numbness
 headaches
 paralysis
 memory loss
 problems with concentration

Later, you may develop:

 high blood pressure

 a low heart rate
 pupil dilation
 irregular breathing
Depending on the type of injury you have, treatment may include:

 medication
 rehabilitation
 brain surgery

Many people with severe brain injuries need surgery to remove or repair
damaged tissue or to relieve pressure. People with minor brain injuries may
not need any treatment beyond pain medication.

Most people with brain injuries need rehabilitation. This can include:

 physical therapy
 speech and language therapy
 psychiatric services

Brain tumors

Sometimes, tumors form in the brain and can be very dangerous. These are
called primary brain tumors. In other cases, cancer somewhere else in your
body spreads to your brain. These are called secondary or metastatic brain
tumors.

Brain tumors can be either malignant (cancerous) or benign (noncancerous).

Doctors classify brain tumors as grades 1, 2, 3, or 4. Higher numbers indicate
more aggressive tumors.

The cause of brain tumors is largely unknown. They can occur in people of
any age. Symptoms of brain tumors depend on the size and location of the
tumor. The most common symptoms of brain tumors are:

 headaches
 seizures
 numbness or tingling in your arms or legs
 nausea
  vomiting
 changes in personality
 difficulty with movement or balance
 changes in your hearing, speech, or vision

The type of treatment you’ll receive depends on many different factors, such
as the size of the tumor, your age, and your overall health. The main types of
treatment for brain tumors are:

 surgery
 chemotherapy
 radiation therapy

Neurodegenerative diseases

Neurodegenerative diseases cause your brain and nerves to deteriorate over

time. They can change your personality and cause confusion. They can also
destroy your brain’s tissue and nerves.

Some brain diseases, such as Alzheimer’s disease, may develop as you age.
They can slowly impair your memory and thought processes. Other diseases,
such as Tay-Sachs disease, are genetic and begin at an early age. Other
common neurodegenerative diseases include:

 Huntington’s disease
 amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), or Lou Gehrig’s disease
 Parkinson’s disease
 all forms of dementia

Some of the more common symptoms of neurodegenerative diseasesTrusted

Source include:

 memory loss
 forgetfulness
  apathy
 anxiety
 agitation
 a loss of inhibition
 mood changes

Neurodegenerative diseases cause permanent damage, so symptoms tend to

get worse as the disease progresses. New symptoms are also likely to
develop over time.

There’s no cure for neurodegenerative diseases, but treatment can help. The
goal of treatment for these conditions it to try to reduce your symptoms and
help you maintain quality of life. Treatment often involves the use of
medications to better manage your symptoms.

Mental health disorders

Mental health disorders, or mental health conditions, are a large and diverse
group of issues that affect your behavior patterns. Some of the most
frequently diagnosed mental health disorders are:

 depression
 anxiety
 bipolar disorder
 post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
 schizophrenia

The symptoms of mental health conditions vary based on the condition.

Different people can experience the same disorder very differently. You
should talk with your doctor if you notice a change in your behavior, thought
patterns, or moods.
The two major types of treatment for mental health conditions are medication
and psychotherapy. Different methods work better for different conditions.
Many people find that a combination of the two is the most effective.

If you think you might have a mental health disorder, it’s important to talk and
work with a doctor to create a treatment plan that works for you. There are
many resources available — do not try to self-medicate.

What are the risk factors for brain disorders?

Brain disorders can affect anyone. Risk factors are different for different types
of brain disorders.

Traumatic brain injury is most commonTrusted Source in children under 4

years old, young adults between ages 15 and 25 years, and older adults ages
65 years and older, according to the U.S. Department of Health and Human
Services (HHS) and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC).

Brain tumors can affect people at any age. Your personal risk depends on
your genetics and your exposure to environmental risk factors like radiation.

Older age and family history are the most significant risk factors for
neurodegenerative diseases.

Mental health disorders are very common. The National Alliance on Mental
Illness (NAMI) reports that about 1 in 5 American adults has experienced a
mental health condition. Your risk may be higher if you:

 have a family history of mental health conditions

 have or have had traumatic or stressful life experiences
 have a history of misusing alcohol or drugs
 have or have had a traumatic brain injury

How are brain disorders diagnosed?

A primary care physician or a neurological specialist can diagnose a brain
disorder.

They will likely perform a neurological exam to check your vision, hearing, and
balance. They may also get images of your brain to help them make a
diagnosis. The most common diagnostic imaging tools are CT, MRI, and PET
scans.

Your doctor might also need to study fluid from your brain and spinal cord.
This helps them find bleeding in the brain, infection, and other abnormalities.

Mental health disorders are usually diagnosed based on an evaluation of your

symptoms and history.

What’s the long-term outlook?

The outlook for people with brain disorders depends on the type and severity
of the brain disorder. Some conditions are easily treated with medication and
therapy. For example, millions of people with mental health disorders live full,
quality lives.

Other disorders, like neurodegenerative diseases and some traumatic brain

injuries, have no cure. People with these conditions may often face permanent
changes in their behavior, mental abilities, or coordination. In these cases,
treatment centers around helping you manage the illness and retain as much
independence as possible.

Last medically reviewed on May 20, 2022

How we reviewed this article:

SOURCES
HISTORY

Our experts continually monitor the health and wellness space, and we update
our articles when new information becomes available.
 Current Version
Apr 13, 2023

Written By
Lauren Reed-Guy

Edited By
Shannon Ullman

Copy Edited By
Delores Smith-Johnson

May 20, 2022

Medically Reviewed By
Nancy Hammond, MD
VIEW ALL HISTORY
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Somatic Symptom Disorder

Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, PhD, PsyD — By Erica

Cirino — Updated on May 25, 2018
 Symptoms
 Causes
 Risk factors
 Diagnosis
 Treatment
 Complications
 Outlook
What is somatic symptom disorder?
People with somatic symptom disorder obsess over physical senses and
symptoms, such as pain, shortness of breath, or weakness. This condition has
been previously called somatoform disorder or somatization disorder. It’s
marked by the belief that you have a medical condition even if you haven’t
been diagnosed with anything, and despite reassurances from your doctor
that you have no health issue responsible for your symptoms.

This can lead to major emotional stress when your doctor and those around
you don’t believe that your symptoms are real.

What are the signs?

The main symptom of somatic symptom disorder is the belief that you have a
medical condition, which you may not actually have. These conditions range
from mild to severe and general to very specific.

Additional characteristics include:

 symptoms that aren’t related to any known medical condition

 symptoms that are related to a known medical condition, but are much
more extreme than they should be
 constant or intense anxiety about a possible illness
 thinking that normal physical sensations are signs of illness
 worrying about the severity of mild symptoms, such as a runny nose
 believing your doctor hasn’t given you a proper examination or
treatment
 worrying that physical activity will harm your body
 repeatedly examining your body for any physical signs of illness
 not responding to medical treatment or being very sensitive to
medication side effects
 experiencing a disability more severe than what’s generally associated
with a condition

People with somatic symptom disorder genuinely believe they have a medical
condition, so it can be hard to distinguish somatic symptom disorder from a
real medical condition that needs treatment. However, somatic symptom
disorder tends to cause an obsessive concern over symptoms that often get in
the way of daily life.

What causes it?

Researchers aren’t sure about the exact cause of somatic symptom disorder.
However, it seems to be associated with:

 genetic traits, such as pain sensitivity

 having negative affectivity, a personality trait that involves negative
emotions and poor self-image
 difficulty dealing with stress
 decreased emotional awareness, which can make you focus more on
physical issues than emotional ones
 learned behaviors, such as getting attention from having an illness or
increasing immobility from pain behaviors

Any of these traits, or a combination of them, can contribute to somatic

symptom disorder.

Who gets it?

Over the years, researchers have identified some possible risk factors that
might increase your risk of having somatic symptom disorder. These include:

 having anxiety or depression

 being diagnosed with or recovering from a medical condition
 having a high risk of developing a serious medical condition, due to
family history, for example
 previous traumatic experiences

How is it diagnosed?
Before diagnosing you with somatic symptom disorder, your doctor will start
by giving you a thorough physical examination to check for any signs of a
physical illness.

If they don’t find any evidence of a medical condition, they’ll likely refer you to
a mental health professional, who will start by asking questions about your:

 symptoms, including how long you’ve had them

 family history
 sources of stress
 history of substance abuse, if applicable

They might also ask you to fill out a questionnaire about your symptoms and
lifestyle. A mental health professional will focus more on how you think about
your symptoms, rather than the actual symptoms themselves.

You’ll likely be diagnosed with somatic symptom disorder if you:

 experience one or more physical symptoms that cause distress or

interfere with your everyday activities

 have excessive or endless thoughts about how serious your symptoms

are, causing you to give too much time and energy to evaluating your
health

 continue to experience symptoms for six months or more, even if these

symptoms change over time

How is somatic symptom disorder treated?

Treating somatic symptom disorder usually involves therapy, medication, or a
combination of both, to improve your quality of life and relieve anxiety over
your physical health.

Psychotherapy
Psychotherapy, also called talk therapy, is a good first step in treating somatic
symptom disorder. Cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) is a particularly helpful
form of psychotherapy for somatic symptom disorder. It involves working with
a therapist to identify negative or irrational thoughts and patterns.

Once you’ve identified these thoughts, your therapist will work with you to
come up with ways to work through them and more effectively respond to
stressful situations. You’ll also learn different ways to manage anxiety about
your health, as well as any other mental health conditions, such
as depression.

Medications

Antidepressant medications can also help with somatic symptom disorder and
reduce anxiety. They tend to work best when combined with some form of
psychotherapy. If your doctor does suggest medication, you may only need to
take it temporarily. As you learn new coping tools in therapy, you may be able
to gradually reduce your dosage.

It’s important to know that many antidepressants cause side effects when you
first start taking them. If you have somatic symptom disorder, make sure your
doctor goes over all of the possible side effects with you so they don’t cause
more anxiety. Keep in mind that you may have to try a few medications before
you find one that works for you.

Are there any complications?

Left untreated, somatic symptom disorder can lead to some complications for
both your overall health and lifestyle. Constant worrying about your health can
make daily activities very difficult.

People with this disorder often have a hard time maintaining close
relationships. For example, close friends and family members may assume
you’re lying for malicious reasons.
 Frequent doctor’s visits about your symptoms can also lead to high medical
costs and problems maintaining a regular work schedule. All of these
complications can cause added stress and anxiety on top of your other
symptoms.

Living with somatic symptom disorder

Having somatic symptom disorder can feel extremely overwhelming, but with
the right therapist, and in some cases the right dose of medication, you can
improve your quality of life. If you’re not sure where to start, check out this list
of mental health resources.

Your symptoms might never go away completely, but you can learn how to
effectively manage them so they don’t consume your daily life.

Last medically reviewed on February 6, 2018

How we reviewed this article:

SOURCES

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Organic Brain Syndrome

Medically reviewed by Timothy J. Legg, PhD, PsyD — By Lydia

Krause — Updated on September 4, 2018
 Symptoms
 Causes
 Risk Factors
 Diagnosis
 Treatment
 Outlook
What Are Neurocognitive Disorders?
Neurocognitive disorders are a group of conditions that frequently lead to
impaired mental function. Organic brain syndrome used to be the term to
describe these conditions, but neurocognitive disorders is now the more
commonly used term.

Neurocognitive disorders most commonly occur in older adults, but they can
affect younger people as well. Reduced mental function may include:

 problems with memory

 changes in behavior
 difficulty understanding language
 trouble performing daily activities

These symptoms may be caused by a neurodegenerative condition, such as

Alzheimer’s disease or dementia. Neurodegenerative diseasescause the brain
and nerves to deteriorate over time, resulting in a gradual loss of neurological
function. Neurocognitive disorders can also develop as a result of brain
trauma or substance abuse. Healthcare providers can usually determine the
underlying cause of neurocognitive disorders based on the reported
symptoms and the results of diagnostic tests. The cause and severity of
neurocognitive disorders can help healthcare providers determine the best
course of treatment.

The long-term outlook for people with neurocognitive disorders depends on

the cause. When a neurodegenerative disease causes the neurocognitive
disorder, the condition often gets worse over time. In other cases, decreased
mental function may only be temporary, so people can expect a full recovery.

What Are the Symptoms of Neurocognitive

Disorders?
The symptoms of neurocognitive disorders can vary depending on the cause.
When the condition occurs as a result of a neurodegenerative disease, people
may experience:

 memory loss
 confusion
 anxiety

Other symptoms that may occur in people with neurocognitive disorders

include:

 headaches, especially in those with a concussion or traumatic brain

injury
 inability to concentrate or focus
 short-term memory loss
 trouble performing routine tasks, such as driving
 difficulty walking and balancing
 changes in vision

What Causes Neurocognitive Disorders?

The most common cause of neurocognitive disorders is a neurodegenerative
disease. Neurodegenerative diseases that can lead to the development of
neurocognitive disorders include:

 Alzheimer’s disease
 Parkinson’s disease
 Huntington’s disease
 dementia
 prion disease
 multiple sclerosis
In people under age 60, however, neurocognitive disorders are more likely to
occur after an injury or infection. Nondegenerative conditions that may cause
neurocognitive disorders include:

 a concussion
 traumatic brain injury that causes bleeding in the brain or space around
the brain
 blood clots
 meningitis
 encephalitis
 septicemia
 drug or alcohol abuse
 vitamin deficiency

What Are the Risk Factors for Neurocognitive

Disorders?
Your risk of developing neurocognitive disorders partly depends on your
lifestyle and daily habits. Working in an environment with exposure to heavy
metals can greatly increase your risk for neurocognitive disorders. Heavy
metals, such as lead and mercury, can damage the nervous system over time.
This means that frequent exposure to these metals puts you at an increased
risk for decreased mental function.

You’re also more likely to develop neurocognitive disorders if you:

 are over age 60

 have a cardiovascular disorder
 have diabetes
 abuse alcohol or drugs
 participate in sports with a high risk of head trauma, such as football
and rugby
How Are Neurocognitive Disorders Diagnosed?
Neurocognitive disorders aren’t caused by a mental disorder. However, many
of the symptoms of neurocognitive disorders are similar to those of certain
mental disorders, including schizophrenia, depression, and psychosis. To
ensure an accurate diagnosis, healthcare providers will perform various
diagnostic tests that can differentiate symptoms of neurocognitive disorders
from those of a mental disorder. These tests often include:

 cranial CT scan: This test uses a series of X-ray images to create

images of the skull, brain, sinuses, and eye sockets. It may be used to
examine the soft tissues in the brain.
 head MRI scan: This imaging test uses powerful magnets and radio
waves to produce detailed images of the brain. These pictures can
show signs of brain damage.
 positron emission tomography (PET) scan: A PET scan uses a special
dye that contains radioactive tracers. These tracers are injected into a
vein and then spread throughout the body, highlighting any damaged
areas.
 electroencephalogram (EEG): An EEG measures the electrical activity
in the brain. This test can help detect any problems associated with this
activity.

How Are Neurocognitive Disorders Treated?

Treatment for neurocognitive disorders varies depending on the underlying
cause. Certain conditions may only require rest and medication.
Neurodegenerative diseases may require different types of therapy.

Treatments for neurocognitive disorders may include:

 bed rest to give injuries time to heal

 pain medications, such as indomethacin, to relieve headaches
  antibiotics to clear remaining infections affecting the brain, such as
meningitis
 surgery to repair any severe brain damage
 occupational therapy to help redevelop everyday skills
 physical therapy to improve strength, coordination, balance, and
flexibility

What Is the Long-Term Outlook for People with

Neurocognitive Disorders?
The long-term outlook for people with neurocognitive disorders depends on
the type of neurocognitive disorder. Neurocognitive disorders such as
dementia or Alzheimer’s present a challenging outlook. This is because there
is no cure for those conditions and mental function steadily gets worse over
time.

However, the outlook for people with neurocognitive disorders, such as a

concussion or infection, is generally good because these are temporary and
curable conditions. In these cases, people can usually expect to make a full
recovery.

Last medically reviewed on January 28, 2016

How we reviewed this article:

SOURCES

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