1) Retrograde amnesia:

Amnesia is a type of memory loss that affects your ability to make, store, and retrieve
memories. Retrograde amnesia affects memories that were formed before the onset of
amnesia. Someone who develops retrograde amnesia after a traumatic brain injury may
be unable to remember what happened in the years, or even decades, prior to that injury.

Retrograde amnesia is caused by damage to the memory-storage areas of the brain, in

various brain regions. This type of damage can result from a traumatic injury, a serious
illness, a seizure or stroke, or a degenerative brain disease. Depending on the cause,
retrograde amnesia can be temporary, permanent, or progressive (getting worse over
time).

With retrograde amnesia, memory loss usually involves facts rather than skills. For
example, someone might forget whether or not they own a car, what type it is, and when
they bought it — but they will still know how to drive.

Retrograde amnesia is usually temporally graded, which means that your most recent
memories are affected first and your oldest memories are usually spared. This is known
as Ribot’s law.

The extent of retrograde amnesia can vary significantly. Some people may only lose
memories from the year or two prior to having the injury or disease. Other people may
lose decades of memories. But even when people lose decades, they typically hang on to
memories from childhood and adolescence.

Symptoms include:

 not remembering things that happened before the onset of amnesia

 forgetting names, people, faces, places, facts, and general knowledge from before the
onset of amnesia
 remembering skills like riding a bike, playing the piano, and driving a car
 retaining older memories, especially from childhood and adolescence

Someone with this condition may or may not be able to make new memories and learn
new skills.

Retrograde amnesia can result from damage to different parts of the brain responsible for
controlling emotions and memories. These include the thalamus, which is deep in the
center of the brain, and the hippocampus, which is in the temporal lobe.

To diagnose retrograde amnesia, your doctor will need to perform a full medical exam to
look for all the possible causes of memory loss. It’s best to have a loved one help
communicate with the doctor, especially if you’re forgetting or confusing the details of
your medical history. Your doctor will need to know what medications you’re taking and
any past health problems, like seizures, strokes, or infections.

Your doctor may perform a number of different diagnostic tests, such as:

 imaging tests (CT scan or MRI scan) to look for brain injuries or abnormalities
 blood tests to check for nutritional deficiencies and infections
 a neurological examination
 cognitive tests to evaluate short- and long-term memory
 an electroencephalogram to check for seizure activity
There are no specific medications used to treat retrograde amnesia. Generally, your
treatment will focus on the underlying cause of the amnesia. For example, if you have
epilepsy, you and your doctor will work to reduce your number of seizures.
2) Brain tumor:

A brain tumor is a collection, or mass, of abnormal cells in your brain. Your skull, which
encloses your brain, is very rigid. Any growth inside such a restricted space can cause
problems.

Brain tumors can be cancerous (malignant) or noncancerous (benign). When benign or

malignant tumors grow, they can cause the pressure inside your skull to increase. This
can cause brain damage, and it can be life-threatening.

Brain tumors are categorized as primary or secondary:

 A primary brain tumor originates in your brain. Many primary brain tumors are benign.
 A secondary brain tumor, also known as a metastatic brain tumor, occurs when cancer
cells spreadTrusted Source to your brain from another organ, such as your lung or breast.

Benign vs. malignant brain tumors

Though benign brain tumors can cause many serious issues, they are not
cancerous, meaning that they grow slowly and don’t typically spread to other tissues.

They also usually have more clearly defined borders, making them easier to remove
surgically, and they don’t usually come back after removal. On the other hand, malignant
brain tumors are cancerous, grow rapidly, and can spread to other parts of your brain
or central nervous system, which can cause life-threatening complications.

Primary brain tumors originate in your brain. They can developTrusted Source from your:
 brain cells
 the membranes that surround your brain, which are called meninges
 nerve cells
 glands, such as the pituitary of pineal

Primary tumors can be benign or cancerous.

Secondary brain tumors

Secondary brain tumors make up the majority of brain cancers. They start in one part of
the body and spread, or metastasize, to the brain. The following can metastasizeTrusted
Source to the brain:

 lung cancer
 breast cancer
 kidney cancer
 skin cancer

Secondary brain tumors are always malignant. Benign tumors don’t spread from one part
of your body to another.

What are the risk factors for a brain tumor?

Family history

Only about 5 to 10 percentTrusted Source of all cancers are genetically inherited, or

hereditary. It’s rare for a brain tumor to be genetically inherited. Talk with your doctor if
several people in your family have received a brain tumor diagnosis. Your doctor can
recommend a genetic counselor for you.

Age

The risk for most types of brain tumors increases with age.

Chemical exposure

Being exposed to certain chemicals, such as those you might find in a work environment,
can increase your risk for brain cancer. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and
Health keeps a list of potentially cancer-causing chemicals found in workplaces.
Exposure to radiation

People who have been exposed to ionizing radiation have an increased risk of brain
tumors. You can be exposed to ionizing radiation through high-radiation cancer therapies.
You can also be exposed to radiation from nuclear fallout.

The nuclear power plant incidents in Fukushima and Chernobyl are examples of how
people can be exposed to ionizing radiation.

No history of chickenpox

According toa 2016 review published in Cancer Medicine, having a history of

childhood chickenpox is associated with a 21 percentTrusted Source lower risk of
developing glioma.

Symptoms of brain tumors depend on the location and size of the tumor. Some tumors
cause direct damage by invading brain tissue and some tumors cause pressure on the
surrounding brain.

You’ll have noticeable symptoms when a growing tumor is putting pressure on your brain
tissue.

Headaches are a common symptom of a brain tumor. You may

experience headaches that:

 are worse in the morning when waking up

 occur while you’re sleeping
 are made worse by coughing, sneezing, or exercise

You may also experience:

 vomiting
 blurred vision or double vision
 confusion
 seizures (especially in adults)
 weakness of a limb or part of the face
 a change in mental functioning

Other common symptoms include:

 clumsiness
 memory loss
 confusion
 difficulty writing or reading
 changes in the ability to hear, taste, or smell
 decreased alertness, which may include drowsiness and loss of consciousness
 difficulty swallowing
 dizziness or vertigo
 eye problems, such as drooping eyelids and unequal pupils
 uncontrollable movements
 hand tremors
 loss of balance
 loss of bladder or bowel control
 numbness or tingling on one side of the body
 trouble speaking or understanding what others are saying
 changes in mood, personality, emotions, and behavior
 difficulty walking
 muscle weakness in the face, arm, or leg

Symptoms of pituitary tumors

The following symptoms can occur with pituitary tumors:

 nipple discharge, or galactorrhea

 lack of menstruation in women
 development of breast tissue in men, or gynecomastia
 enlargement of the hands and feet
 sensitivity to heat or cold
 increased amounts of body hair, or hirsutism
 low blood pressure
 obesity
 changes in vision, such as blurry vision or tunnel vision

Diagnosis

Diagnosis of a brain tumor begins with a physical exam and a look at your medical
history.
The physical exam includes a very detailed neurological examination. Your doctor will
conduct a test to see if your cranial nerves are intact. These are the nerves that originate
in your brain.

Your doctor will look inside your eyes with an ophthalmoscope, which is an instrument
that shines a light through your pupils and onto your retinas.

This allows your doctor to check how your pupils react to light. It also allows your doctor
to look directly into your eyes to see if there’s any swelling of the optic nerve. When
pressure increases inside the skull, changes in the optic nerve can occur.

The doctor may also evaluate your:

 muscle strength
 coordination
 memory
 ability to do mathematical calculations

Your doctor may order more tests after they finish the physical exam. These could
include:

CT scan of the head

CT scans are ways for your doctor to get a more detailed scan of your body than they
could with an X-ray machine. This can be done with or without contrast.

Contrast is achieved in a CT scan of the head by using a special dye that helps doctors
see some structures, like blood vessels, more clearly.

MRI of the head

If you have an MRI of your head, a special dye can be used to help your doctor detect
tumors. An MRI is different from a CT scan because it doesn’t use radiation, and it
generally provides much more detailed pictures of the structures of the brain itself.

Angiography

This study uses a dye that’s injected into your artery, usually in the groin area. The dye
travels to the arteries in your brain. It allows your doctor to see what the blood supply of
the tumors looks like. This information is useful at the time of surgery.
Skull X-rays

Brain tumors can cause breaks or fractures in the bones of the skull, and specific X-rays
can show if this has occurred. These X-rays can also pick up calcium deposits, which are
sometimes contained within a tumor. Calcium deposits may be in your bloodstream if your
cancer has moved to your bones.

Biopsy

A small piece of the tumor is obtained during a biopsy. A specialist called a

neuropathologist will examine it. The biopsy will identify if the tumor cells are benign or
malignant. It will also determine whether the cancer originated in your brain or another
part of your body.

Treatment of brain tumors

The treatment of a brain tumor depends on:

 the type of tumor

 the size of the tumor
 the location of the tumor
 your general health

The most common treatment for malignant brain tumors is surgery. The goal is to remove
as much of the cancer as possible without causing damage to the healthy parts of the
brain.

While the location of some tumors allows for safe removal, other tumors may be located
in an area that limits how much of the tumor can be removed. Even partial removal of
brain cancer can be beneficial.

Risks of brain surgery include infection and bleeding. Clinically dangerous benign

tumors are also surgically removed. Metastatic brain tumors are treated according to
guidelines for the type of original cancer.

Surgery can be combined with other treatments, such as radiation therapy and
chemotherapy.

Physical therapy, occupational therapy, and speech therapy can help you recover after
neurosurgery.
3) Epilepsy

Epilepsy is a neurological condition that causes unprovoked, recurrent seizures. A seizure

is a sudden rush of abnormal electrical activity in your brain. Doctors diagnose epilepsy
when you have two or more seizures with no other identifiable cause.

Anyone can develop epilepsy, but onsets in young children and older adults. According
to research published in 2021, men develop epilepsy more often than women, possibly
because of higher exposure to risk factors like alcohol use and head trauma.

The two main types of seizures are:

 generalized seizures
 focal seizures

Generalized seizures affect your whole brain. Focal, or partial seizures, affect only one
part of your brain.

A mild seizure may be difficult to recognize. It may only last a few seconds, and you may
remain awake while it happens. Stronger seizures can cause spasms and uncontrollable
muscle twitches. They can last from a few seconds to several minutes and may cause
confusion or loss of consciousness. Afterward, you may have no memory of a seizure
happening.

There’s currently no cure for epilepsy, but it can be managed with medications and other
strategies.

What are the symptoms of epilepsy?

Seizures are the main symptom of epilepsy. Symptoms differ from person to person and
according to the type of seizure.

Focal (partial) seizures

A focal aware seizure (previously called simple partial seizure) does not involve loss of
consciousness. Symptoms include:

 alterations to sense of taste, smell, sight, hearing, or touch

 dizziness
 tingling and twitching of limbs
Focal unaware seizures (previously called complex partial seizures) involve loss of
awareness or consciousness. Other symptoms include:

 staring blankly
 unresponsiveness
 performing repetitive movements

Generalized seizures

Generalized seizures involve the whole brain.

Subtypes include:

 Absence seizures. Absence seizures used to be called “petit mal seizures.” They tend

to cause a short loss of awareness, a blank stare, and may cause repetitive movements
like lip smacking or blinking.
 Tonic seizures. Tonic seizures cause sudden stiffness in the muscles in your legs,
arms, or trunk.
 Atonic seizures. Atonic seizures lead to loss of muscle control. They’re also called
“drop seizures” because a sudden loss of muscle strength can make you fall suddenly.
 Clonic seizures. Clonic seizures are characterized by repeated, jerky muscle
movements of the face, neck, and arms.
 Myoclonic seizures. Myoclonic seizures cause spontaneous quick twitching of the
arms and legs. Sometimes these seizures cluster together.
 Tonic-clonic seizures. Tonic-clonic seizures used to be called “grand mal seizures.”
Symptoms include:
o stiffening of the body
o shaking
o loss of bladder or bowel control
o biting of the tongue
o loss of consciousness

Following a seizure, you may not remember having one, or you might feel slightly ill for a
few hours.

First aid for seizures

It’s important to note that most seizures don’t require emergency medical attention, and
you can’t stop a seizure once it’s in progress.
When you’re with somebody having a mild seizure:

 Stay with the person until their seizure ends and they’re awake.
 Once they’re awake, guide them to a safe place and tell them what happen.
 Stay calm and try to keep other people calm.
 Speak calmly.
 Check for a medical bracelet.
 Offer to help the person get home safely.

If the person is having a tonic-clonic seizure, which causes uncontrolled shaking or

jerking:

 Ease the person to the ground.

 Turn them gently onto their side to help them breathe.
 Clear any dangerous objects away from them.
 Put something soft under their head.
 If they wear glasses, remove them.
 Loosen any clothing, such as a tie, that may affect breathing.
 Time the seizure and call 911 if it lasts longer than 5 minutesTrusted Source.

When someone is having a seizure, it’s critical to never:

 hold the person down or try to stop their movements

 put anything in their mouth
 give them mouth to mouth
 offer the person food or water until they’re fully alert

Learn more about epilepsy first aid.

What causes epilepsy?

In about half of people with epilepsyTrusted Source, the cause cannot be determined, per
the WHO. A variety of factors can contribute to the development of seizures, such as:

 traumatic brain injury or other head trauma

 brain scarring after a brain injury (post-traumatic epilepsy)
 serious illness or very high fever
 stroke, which causes about halfTrusted Source of epilepsy cases in older adults when
there’s no identifiable cause, according to the CDC
 lack of oxygen to the brain
 brain tumor or cyst
 dementia, including Alzheimer’s disease
 maternal use of some drugs, prenatal injury, brain malformation, or lack of oxygen at
birth
 infectious conditions like HIV and AIDS and meningitis
 genetic or developmental disorders or neurological diseases

Epilepsy can develop at any age, but diagnosis usually occurs in early childhood or after
60 years oldTrusted Source.

What triggers an epileptic seizure?

Some people identify things or situations that trigger their seizures.

A few of the most common known triggers are:

 lack of sleep
 illness or fever
 stress
 bright lights, flashing lights, or patterns
 caffeine, alcohol or alcohol withdrawal, medications, or illegal drugs
 skipping meals, overeating, or specific food ingredients
 very low blood sugar
 head injury

Identifying triggers isn’t always easy. A single incident doesn’t always mean something is
a trigger. Often, a combination of factors triggers a seizure.

A good way to find your triggers is to keep a seizure journal. After each seizure, note the
following:

 day and time

 what activity you were involved in
 what was happening around you
 unusual sights, smells, or sounds
 unusual stressors
 what you were eating or how long it had been since you’d eaten
 your level of fatigue and how well you slept the night before

You can also use your seizure journal to determine if your medications are working. Note
how you felt just before and just after your seizure, and any side effects.

Bring the journal with you when you visit the doctor. It may be useful for your doctor if
adjusting your medications or exploring other treatments is, or becomes, necessary.

Potential complications of epilepsy

Epileptic seizures disrupt the electrical activity of your brain, which can directly or
indirectly affect many parts of your body. Potential complications of epilepsy include:

 learning difficulty (about 20 percentTrusted Source of people with epilepsy have an

intellectual disability, according to a 2018 research article)
 injury from falling during a seizure
 injury while operating an automobile or machinery
 depression
 brain damage from prolonged and uncontrolled seizures
 choking on food or saliva
 medication side effects

Each year, about 1.16 out of every 1,000 peopleTrusted Source with epilepsy experience
sudden unexpected death in epilepsy (SUDEP), according to the CDC. SUDEP is an
epilepsy-related death not caused by drowning, injury, or another known cause. Pauses
in breathing, airway obstruction, and abnormal heart rhythm are thought to contribute.

To diagnose epilepsy, other conditions that cause seizures should be ruled out. A doctor
will probably order a complete blood count (CBC) and chemistry of your blood.

Blood tests may be used to look for:

 signs of infectious diseases

 liver and kidney function
 blood glucose levels

Electroencephalogram (EEG) is the most common test used to diagnose epilepsy. It’s a
noninvasive and painless test that involves placing electrodes on your scalp to search for
abnormal patterns in your brain’s electrical activity. You may be asked to perform a
specific task during the test. In some cases, the test is performed while you sleep.

Imaging tests can reveal tumors and other abnormalities that can cause seizures. These
tests might include:

 CT scan
 MRI
 positron emission tomography (PET)
 single-photon emission computerized tomography

Epilepsy is usually diagnosed if you have seizures, but there’s no apparent or reversible
cause.

How is epilepsy treated?

Treatment for epilepsy may help you have fewer seizures or stop seizures completely.

Your treatment plan will be based on:

 the severity of your symptoms

 your health
 how well you respond to therapy

Some treatment options include:

 Anti-epileptic (anticonvulsant, antiseizure) drugs. Anti-epileptic medications can

help reduce the number of seizures you have. In some people, they may eliminate
seizures. To be most effective, the medication must be taken exactly as your doctor
prescribed.
 Vagus nerve stimulator. This device is surgically placed under the skin on your chest
and electrically stimulates the nerve that runs through your neck to prevent seizures.
 Ketogenic diet. According to the Epilepsy Foundation, more than half of children who
do not respond to medications benefit from the ketogenic diet, which is a high fat and low
carbohydrate diet.
 Brain surgery. The area of the brain that causes seizure activity can be removed or
altered if you and your healthcare team determine it’s the right treatment for your
condition.

Research into new treatments is ongoing. 

Medications for epilepsy

The first-line treatment for epilepsy is antiseizure medication. These drugs are designed
to help reduce the frequency and severity of seizures. They cannot stop a seizure that’s
already in progress, and they are not a cure for epilepsy.

These medications are absorbed by your stomach. They then travel through your
bloodstream to your brain. They affect neurotransmitters in a way that reduces the
electrical activity that leads to seizures.

There are many antiseizure drugs on the market. Your doctor can prescribe a single drug
or a combination of drugs, depending on your type of seizure.

Early treatment with medication can help reduce seizure frequency and the chances of
serious complications. Epilepsy surgery, meanwhile, is considered curative in most cases.

Approximately 30 percentTrusted Source of people with partial epilepsy and 25 percent of

people with generalized epilepsy have seizures that don’t respond well to medication.

If medication fails, your doctor may recommend surgery or vagus nerve stimulation.

Two types of brain surgery can cut down on or eliminate seizures. One type, called
resection, involves removing the part of the brain where seizures originate.

When the area of the brain responsible for seizures is too vital or large to remove, the
surgeon can perform a disconnection. This involves interrupting the nerve pathway by
making cuts in the brain. This keeps seizures from spreading to other parts of the brain.

Dozens of other avenues of research into the causes, treatment, and potential cures for
epilepsy are ongoing.

Although there’s no cure at this time, the right treatment can result in a dramatic
improvement in your condition and your quality of life.

4) Tore Tendons:
Tendons are the soft, band-like tissues that connect muscles to bone. When the muscles
contract, the tendons pull the bones and cause the joints to move.
A tendon tear commonly refers to tiny tears in the tissue in and around the tendon caused
by a muscle's inability to optimally absorb shock, load and/or force. They can occur in
almost any area of the body where a tendon connects a bone to a muscle. The most
common places are:

 Ankle
 Elbow
 Shoulder
 Hip
 Knee
 Base of thumb

While tendon tears seem to happen suddenly, they’re usually a result of many tiny tears
to the tendon that have happened over time usually due to overuse or being
overstretched.

Tendon Tear Symptoms

When tendon damage occurs, movement may be seriously limited. Typical symptoms of
tendon tears include:

 A snap or pop at the affected area

 Severe and excruciating pain
 Immediate bruising
 Pain and discomfort that worsens with tendon use
 A “crunchy” sound or feeling (crepitus) with tendon use
 Severe weakness
 Reduced range of motion
 Inability to bear weight, especially in Achilles Tendon Tear
 Increased pain and stiffness at night or early morning
 Inflammation with tenderness, redness and feeling of warmth

Tendon Tear Risk Factors

Anyone can get tendon tears, but they’re more common in adults, especially those over
40 years old. As tendons age, they tolerate less stress, are less elastic and are easier to
tear. Others at risk include anyone involved with heavy lifting and other manual labor.
Tendon tears in the elderly are often caused by a medical condition, like gout or a thyroid
disorder.

In younger generations, tendon tears usually occur due to trauma as a result of sports, an
accident or a motorbike crash. Excessive use of steroids also makes tendons weak and
can result in tendon tears.

Treatment
Treatment depends on individual pain thresholds and tissue repair rates, as well as the
extent of the damage. They can range from daily range-of-motion exercises to surgery in
order to repair tissues. 

5) Warts:

These small, noncancerous growths appear when your skin is infected with one of the
many viruses of the human papillomavirus (HPV) family. The virus triggers extra cell
growth, which makes the outer layer of skin thick and hard in that spot. While they can
grow anywhere you have skin, you're more likely to get one on your hands or feet. The
type of wart depends on where it is and what it looks like.
Children are more prone to warts because they get a lot of cuts. Still, anyone can get
warts. People with autoimmune disease or weakened immune systems, including the
elderly, are more susceptible to the virus that causes warts.

What are the types of warts?

Wart types vary depending on the affected body part. Types include:

 Hands: These warts are called common warts because they are the most common
type.
 Face: Flat warts affect the face and forehead.
 Feet: Plantar warts appear on the soles of the feet. These warts look like calluses with
tiny black dots in the center. They are often painful and form in clusters.
 Genitals: Warts that form on the penis, vagina or rectum are called genital warts.
These warts are a type of sexually transmitted infection. You get genital warts through
sexual contact with an infected person.
 Periungual and subungual: These warts form under or around fingernails and
toenails.

SYMPTOMS AND CAUSES

When the human papillomavirus (HPV) enters a cut in the skin, it causes a skin infection
that forms warts. Warts are very contagious. The virus can spread from person to person
or from different parts of the body through:

 Direct contact with a wart.

 Touching something contaminated with the virus, such as towels, doorknobs and
shower floors.
 Sexual intercourse (genital warts).
 Nail biting and cuticle picking.
 Shaving

Warts vary in appearance. They may look:

 Dome-shaped.
 Flat.
 Rough.
 Skin-colored, brown, grey or black.

DIAGNOSIS AND TESTS

Your doctor can diagnose warts simply by looking at the bumps. Sometimes, your doctor
may take a sample of the skin growth (biopsy) to test for HPV.

MANAGEMENT AND TREATMENT

Warts often go away on their own after your immune system fights off the virus. Because
warts can spread, cause pain and be unsightly, your doctor may recommend treatment.
Options include:
 At-home wart removal: Over-the-counter (OTC) wart removal medications, such as
Compound W®, contain salicylic acid. This chemical dissolves warts one layer at a time.
These products come in liquid, gel and patch form. You may need to apply the medication
every day for several months to get rid of the wart completely.
 Freezing: During a procedure called cryotherapy, your doctor applies liquid nitrogen to
freeze the wart. After freezing, a blister forms. Eventually, the blister and wart peel off.
You may need several treatments.
 Immunotherapy: For stubborn warts that don’t respond to traditional treatments,
immunotherapy helps your immune system fight the virus. This process involves a topical
chemical, such as diphencyprone (DCP). DCP causes a mild allergic reaction that makes
the wart go away.
 Laser treatment: Your doctor uses laser light to heat and destroy tiny blood vessels
inside the wart. The process cuts off blood supply, killing the wart.
 Topical medicine: Your doctor may apply a liquid mixture containing the chemical
cantharidin. A blister forms under the wart and cuts off its blood supply. You must return
to your doctor’s office in about a week to have the dead wart removed.

What are the complications of warts?

Most warts go away without any significant problems. Sometimes warts cause issues,
such as:

 Cancer: HPV and genital warts are linked to several different cancers, including anal
cancer, cervical cancer and throat (oropharyngeal) cancer. You can lower your risk of
genital warts by getting the HPV vaccine and using condoms.
 Disfigurement: People with weakened immune systems may develop unappealing
clusters of warts on the hands, face and body.
 Infection: Infections can occur if you pick or cut a wart. Breaks in the skin allow
bacteria to enter.
 Pain: Most warts don’t hurt. But plantar warts can grow inward into the foot and be
painful to walk on. You may feel as if there’s a pebble under the skin.

PREVENTION

There’s really no way to prevent warts. However, you can lower your risk of picking up the
virus or stop warts from spreading by taking these steps:

 Avoid shaving over a wart.

 Break the habit of biting your nails or picking at cuticles.
 Don’t share towels, washcloths, clothing, nail clippers, razors or other personal items.
 Don’t touch another person’s wart.
 Get the HPV vaccine and use condoms to prevent genital warts.
 Keep your feet dry to prevent the spread of plantar warts.
 Try not to scratch, cut or pick at a wart.
 Wear flip-flops or shoes when using a public locker room, pool area or showers.
6) Parkinson’s disease:

Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurological disorder. The first signs are problems
with movement.

Smooth and coordinated bodily muscle movements are made possible by dopamine, a
substance in the brain. Dopamine is produced in a part of the brain called the “substantia
nigra.”

In Parkinson’s, the cells of the substantia nigra start to die. When this happens, dopamine
levels are reduced. When they have dropped 60 to 80 percent, symptoms of Parkinson’s
start to appear.

Symptoms of Parkinson’s disease

Some of the early symptoms of Parkinson’s can begin several years before motor
problems develop. These earliest signs include:

 decreased ability to smell (anosmia)

 constipation
 small, cramped handwriting
 voice changes
 stooped posture

The four major motor problems seen are:

 tremor (shaking that occurs at rest)

 slow movements
 stiffness of arms, legs, and trunk
 problems with balance and tendency to fall

Secondary symptoms include:

 blank facial expression

 a tendency to get stuck when walking
 muffled, low-volume speech
 decreased blinking and swallowing
 tendency to fall backward
 reduced arm swinging when walking
 Parkinsonian gait, which is the tendency to take shuffling steps while walking

Other associated symptoms may include:

 flaky white or yellow scales on oily parts of the skin, known as seborrheic dermatitis
 increased risk of melanoma, a serious type of skin cancer
 sleep disturbances including vivid dreams, talking, and movement during sleep
 depression
 anxiety
 hallucinations
 psychosis
 problems with attention and memory
 difficulty with visual-spatial relationships

Early signs of Parkinson’s disease may go unrecognized. Your body may try to alert you
to the movement disorder many years before movement difficulties begin with these
warning signs.

Parkinson’s disease?

Parkinson’s disease is a progressive neurological disorder. The first signs are problems
with movement.

Smooth and coordinated bodily muscle movements are made possible by dopamine, a
substance in the brain. Dopamine is produced in a part of the brain called the “substantia
nigra.”

In Parkinson’s, the cells of the substantia nigra start to die. When this happens, dopamine
levels are reduced. When they have dropped 60 to 80 percent, symptoms of Parkinson’s
start to appear.

Symptoms of Parkinson’s disease

Some of the early symptoms of Parkinson’s can begin several years before motor
problems develop. These earliest signs include:

 decreased ability to smell (anosmia)

 constipation
 small, cramped handwriting
 voice changes
 stooped posture

The four major motor problems seen are:

 tremor (shaking that occurs at rest)

 slow movements
 stiffness of arms, legs, and trunk
 problems with balance and tendency to fall

Secondary symptoms include:

 blank facial expression

 a tendency to get stuck when walking
 muffled, low-volume speech
 decreased blinking and swallowing
 tendency to fall backward
 reduced arm swinging when walking
 Parkinsonian gait, which is the tendency to take shuffling steps while walking

Other associated symptoms may include:

 flaky white or yellow scales on oily parts of the skin, known as seborrheic dermatitis
 increased risk of melanoma, a serious type of skin cancer
 sleep disturbances including vivid dreams, talking, and movement during sleep
 depression
 anxiety
 hallucinations
 psychosis
 problems with attention and memory
 difficulty with visual-spatial relationships

Early signs of Parkinson’s disease may go unrecognized. Your body may try to alert you
to the movement disorder many years before movement difficulties begin with these
warning signs.

Treatments for Parkinson’s disease

Treatment for Parkinson’s relies on a combination of:

 lifestyle changes
 medications
 therapies

Adequate rest, exercise, and a balanced diet are important. Speech therapy, occupational
therapy, and physical therapy can also help improve communication and self-care.

In almost all cases, medication will be required to help manage the various physical and
mental health symptoms associated with the disease.

Drugs and medication used to treat Parkinson’s disease

A number of different drugs can be used to treat Parkinson’s.

Surgical interventions are reserved for people who do not respond to medication, therapy,
and lifestyle changes.

Diagnosing Parkinson’s disease

There’s no specific test for diagnosing Parkinson’s. Diagnosis is made based on health
history, a physical and neurological exam, as well as a review of signs and symptoms.

Imaging tests, such as a CAT scan or MRI, may be used to rule out other conditions.
A dopamine transporter (DAT) scan may also be used. While these tests do not confirm
Parkinson’s, they can help rule out other conditions and support the doctor’s diagnosis.

Parkinson’s heredity

Researchers believe both your genes and the environment may play a role in whether
you get Parkinson’s. How much of an impact they have, however, is unknown. Most
cases occur in people with no apparent family history of the disease.

Hereditary cases of Parkinson’s are rare. It’s uncommon for parents to pass Parkinson’s
to a child.

According to the National Institutes of Health, only 15 percent of people with Parkinson’s
have a family history of the disease. See what other genetic factors may influence your
risk for developing Parkinson’s.
Is there a cure for Parkinson’s?

There’s currently no cure for Parkinson’s, a disease that is chronic and worsens over
time. More than 50,000 new cases are reported in the United States each year. But there
may be even more, since Parkinson’s is often misdiagnosed.

It’s reported that Parkinson’s complications was the 14th major cause of deathTrusted
Source in the United States in 2016.

7) Leukemia:

Leukemia is a cancer of the blood cells. There are several broad categories of blood cells,
including red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets. Generally,
leukemia refers to cancers of the WBCs.

WBCs are a vital part of your immune system. They protect your body from invasion by:

 bacteria
 viruses
 fungi
 abnormal cells
 foreign substances

In leukemia, the WBCs do not function like normal WBCs. They can also divide too
quickly and eventually crowd out normal cells.

WBCs are mostly produced in the bone marrow, but certain types of WBCs are also made
in the:

 lymph nodes
 spleen
 thymus gland

Once formed, WBCs travel through your bloodstream and lymphatic vessels to fight
infection in the body’s tissues.

symptoms of leukemia?

The symptoms of leukemia may include:

 excessive sweating, especially at night (called “night sweats”)
 fatigue and weakness that do not go away with rest
 unintentional weight loss
 bone pain and tenderness
 painless, swollen lymph nodes (especially in the neck and armpits)
 enlarged liver or spleen
 red spots on the skin, called petechiae
 bleeding easily and bruising easily
 fever or chills
 frequent infections

Leukemia can also cause symptoms in organs that have been infiltrated or affected by the
cancer cells. For example, if the cancer spreads to the central nervous system, it can
cause:

 headaches
 nausea and vomiting
 confusion
 loss of muscle control
 seizures

How the cancer spreads depends on the type of leukemia and how aggressive it is.

Leukemia can also spread to other parts of your bodyTrusted Source, including the:

 lungs
 gastrointestinal tract
 heart
 kidneys
 testicles

Causes

Researchers do not know what exactly causes leukemia. However, there are some risk
factors for developing this cancer. Some of these risk factors include:

 previous chemotherapy or radiation for other types of cancers

 genetic disorders like Down syndrome
 other blood cancer disorders
 repeated exposure to the chemical benzene, which is found in cigarette smoke

Treating leukemia

Leukemia is usually treated by a hematologist-oncologist. These are doctors who

specialize in blood disorders and cancer. The treatment depends on the type and stage of
the cancer. It also depends on the patient’s overall health and other medical conditions.

Some forms of leukemia grow slowly and do not need immediate treatment. However,
treatment for leukemia usually involves one or more of the followingTrusted Source:

 Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill leukemia cells. Depending on the

type of leukemia, you may take either a single drug or a combination of different drugs.
 Radiation therapy. Radiation therapy uses high-energy radiation to damage leukemia
cells and inhibit their growth. Radiation can be applied to a specific area or to your entire
body.
 Stem cell transplantation. A stem cell transplant replaces diseased bone marrow with
healthy bone marrow, either your own (called autologous transplantation) or from a donor
(called allogeneic transplantation). This procedure is also called a bone marrow
transplant.
 Biological or immune therapy. Biological or immune therapy uses treatments that
help your immune system recognize and attack cancer cells.
 Targeted therapy. Targeted therapy uses medications that take advantage of
vulnerabilities in cancer cells. For example, imatinib (Gleevec) is a targeted drug that’s
commonly used against CML.

Diagnosing leukemia

Leukemia may be suspected if you have concerning symptoms or certain risk factors. A
doctor will begin by looking at your complete history and performing a physical
examination.

However, leukemia cannot be fully diagnosed by a physical exam. Instead, doctors

will make a diagnosis using:

 blood tests
 biopsies
 imaging tests

A diagnosis is typically confirmed using a bone marrow biopsy and aspiration.

Tests

There are a number of different tests that can be used to diagnose leukemia. A complete
blood count determines the numbers of RBCs, WBCs, and platelets in the blood. Looking
at your blood under a microscope can also determine if the cells have an abnormal
appearance.

Tissue biopsiescan be taken from the bone marrow or lymph nodes to look for evidence
of leukemia. These small samples can identify the type of leukemia and its growth rate.
Biopsies of other organs, such as the liver and spleen, can show if the cancer has spread.

Staging

Once leukemia is diagnosed, it will be staged. Staging finds out how much the cancer has
spread and progressed, and it helps a doctor determine your outlook.

AML and ALL are staged based on how cancer cells look under a microscope and the
type of cells involved. ALL and CLL are staged based on the WBC count at the time of
diagnosis. The presence of immature white blood cells, or myeloblasts, in the blood and
bone marrow is also used to stage AML and CML.

Assessing the progression

A number of other testsTrusted Source can be used to determine the progression of the

disease:

 Flow cytometry examines the DNA of the cancer cells and determines their growth
rate.
 Liver function tests show whether leukemia cells are affecting the liver.
 Lumbar puncture is performed by inserting a thin needle between the vertebrae of your
lower back. This allows your doctor to collect spinal fluid and determine if the cancer has
spread to the central nervous system.
 Imaging tests, such as X-rays, ultrasounds, and CT scans, help doctors look for any
damage to other organs that’s caused by the leukemia.

Treating leukemia

Leukemia is usually treated by a hematologist-oncologist. These are doctors who

specialize in blood disorders and cancer. The treatment depends on the type and stage of
the cancer. It also depends on the patient’s overall health and other medical conditions.
Some forms of leukemia grow slowly and do not need immediate treatment. However,
treatment for leukemia usually involves one or more of the followingTrusted Source:

 Chemotherapy. Chemotherapy uses drugs to kill leukemia cells. Depending on the

type of leukemia, you may take either a single drug or a combination of different drugs.
 Radiation therapy. Radiation therapy uses high-energy radiation to damage leukemia
cells and inhibit their growth. Radiation can be applied to a specific area or to your entire
body.
 Stem cell transplantation. A stem cell transplant replaces diseased bone marrow with
healthy bone marrow, either your own (called autologous transplantation) or from a donor
(called allogeneic transplantation). This procedure is also called a bone marrow
transplant.
 Biological or immune therapy. Biological or immune therapy uses treatments that
help your immune system recognize and attack cancer cells.
 Targeted therapy. Targeted therapy uses medications that take advantage of
vulnerabilities in cancer cells. For example, imatinib (Gleevec) is a targeted drug that’s
commonly used against CML.

Diagnosing leukemia

Leukemia may be suspected if you have concerning symptoms or certain risk factors. A
doctor will begin by looking at your complete history and performing a physical
examination.

However, leukemia cannot be fully diagnosed by a physical exam. Instead, doctors

will make a diagnosis using:

 blood tests
 biopsies
 imaging tests

A diagnosis is typically confirmed using a bone marrow biopsy and aspiration.

Tests

There are a number of different tests that can be used to diagnose leukemia. A complete
blood count determines the numbers of RBCs, WBCs, and platelets in the blood. Looking
at your blood under a microscope can also determine if the cells have an abnormal
appearance.
Tissue biopsiescan be taken from the bone marrow or lymph nodes to look for evidence
of leukemia. These small samples can identify the type of leukemia and its growth rate.
Biopsies of other organs, such as the liver and spleen, can show if the cancer has spread.

Staging

Once leukemia is diagnosed, it will be staged. Staging finds out how much the cancer has
spread and progressed, and it helps a doctor determine your outlook.

AML and ALL are staged based on how cancer cells look under a microscope and the
type of cells involved. ALL and CLL are staged based on the WBC count at the time of
diagnosis. The presence of immature white blood cells, or myeloblasts, in the blood and
bone marrow is also used to stage AML and CML.

Assessing the progression

A number of other testsTrusted Source can be used to determine the progression of the

disease:

 Flow cytometry examines the DNA of the cancer cells and determines their growth
rate.
 Liver function tests show whether leukemia cells are affecting the liver.
 Lumbar puncture is performed by inserting a thin needle between the vertebrae of your
lower back. This allows your doctor to collect spinal fluid and determine if the cancer has
spread to the central nervous system.
 Imaging tests, such as X-rays, ultrasounds, and CT scans, help doctors look for any
damage to other organs that’s caused by the leukemia.
8) alopecia areata:

 Alopecia areata is a condition that causes your hair to fall out in patches. These
patches may connect and then become more noticeable. The condition develops when
your immune system attacks the hair follicles causing hair loss.
 This kind of hair loss is very common, affecting nearly 7 million people in the United
States, according to the National Alopecia Areata Foundation (NAAF). It can affect people
of any ethnicity, sex, or age. Alopecia areata may begin in childhood or adulthood. It is
also different for each person.

 Hair loss: Common causes and treatment

 Alopecia areata may occur on your scalp and in some cases, your eyebrows,
eyelashes, and face, as well as other parts of your body. It can also develop slowly and
recur after years between instances.
 When hair loss involves all the hair on your body, the condition is called alopecia
universalis. When your hair does grow back, it’s possible you might experience hair loss
again. The extent of hair loss and regrowth varies from person to person.
 There’s currently no cure for alopecia areata, but there are positive things you can
keep in mind about the condition and your outlook.
 According to the National Alopecia Areata Foundation, this kind of hair loss does not
always become a lifelong condition. The hair follicles themselves are alive, so hair can
often be regrown.
 There are also treatments that may help your hair grow back more quickly and that can
prevent future hair loss, as well as unique ways to cover up the hair loss. Resources are
also available to help you cope with stress that can be related to hair loss.

Treatment

There’s no known cure for alopecia areata, but there are treatments that you can try that
might be able to slow down future hair loss or help hair grow back more quickly.

The condition is difficult to predict, which means it may require a large amount of trial and
error until you find something that works for you. It’s also important to remember that
treatment isn’t always successful. Some people may continue to have hair loss, even with
treatment.

Medical treatments

Topical agents

You can rub medications into your scalp to help stimulate hair growth. A number of
medications are available, both over the counter (OTC) and by prescription

Injections

Steroid injections are a common option for mild, patchy alopecia to help hair grow back
on bald spots. Tiny needles inject the steroid into the bald area.

The treatment has to be repeated every 1 to 2 months to regrow hair. It does not prevent
new hair loss from occurring.

Oral treatments

Cortisone tablets are sometimes used for extensive alopecia, but due to the possibility of
side effects, you should discuss this option with a doctor.
Laser and Light therapy

Light therapy is also called photochemotherapy, which uses a light sensitizer, or

phototherapy, which uses specific wavelengths of ultraviolet light for their healing effects.
Laser treatment delivers specific doses of radiation to encourage new hair growth. Both
therapies are considered safe and effectiveTrusted Source.

Natural treatment

Some people with alopecia areata choose alternative therapies to treat the condition.
However, it’s important to know that these are all experimental. They have not been
tested in clinical trials, and there is no solid medical or scientific evidence to show that
they’re effective.

Natural and alternative treatments include acupuncture, aromatherapy, vitamins and

supplements (including zinc and biotin), essential oils and other oils (such as coconut, tea
tree, and castor oil), onion juice rubbed onto the scalp, and probiotics.

There is some evidence that changes to diet may have a positive effectTrusted Source on
alopecia areata.

Causes of alopecia areata

Alopecia areata is an autoimmune condition. An autoimmune condition develops when

the immune system mistakes healthy cells for foreign substances. Normally, the immune
system defends your body against foreign invaders, such as viruses and bacteria.

However, if you have alopecia areata, your immune system mistakenly attacks your hair
follicles. Hair follicles are the structures from which hairs grow. When the follicles become
smaller and stop producing hair, it leads to hair loss.

Researchers don’t know the exact cause of this condition. Some possible risk
factors have been identified, including:

 genetics, such as a close family member with alopecia areata

 having certain health conditions, such as Down’s Syndrome, thyroid disease, or
vitiligo
 vitamin D deficiency

There is also a condition known as nivolumab-induced alopecia areata. This occurs in

people who are being treated with the cancer drug nivolumab. In these cases, hair loss is
a sign that the drug is working.
Symptoms of alopecia areata

The main symptom of alopecia areata is hair loss. Hair usually falls out in patches on the
scalp. These patches are often several centimeters or less.

Hair loss might also occur on other parts of the face, like the eyebrows, eyelashes, and
beard, as well as other parts of the body. Some people lose hair in a few places. Others
lose it in multiple spots.

You may first notice clumps of hair on your pillow or in the shower. If the spots are on the
back of your head, someone may bring it to your attention. However, other health
conditions can also cause hair to fall out in a similar pattern. Hair loss alone is not used to
diagnose alopecia areata.

In rare cases, some people may experience more extensive hair loss. This is usually an
indication of another type of alopecia, such as:

 alopecia totalis, which is the loss of all hair on the scalp

 alopecia universalis, which is the loss of all hair on the entire body

Doctors might avoid using the terms “totalis” and “universalis” because some people may
experience a degree of hair loss between the two conditions. For example, it’s possible to
lose all hair on the arms, legs, and scalp, but not on the chest.

9) Mononucleosis:
Infectious mononucleosis (mono) is often called the kissing disease. The virus that
causes mono (Epstein-Barr virus) is spread through saliva. You can get it through kissing,
but you can also be exposed by sharing a glass or food utensils with someone who has
mono. However, mononucleosis isn't as contagious as some infections, such as the
common cold.

You're most likely to get mononucleosis with all the signs and symptoms if you're a teen
or young adult. Young children usually have few symptoms, and the infection often goes
undiagnosed.

If you have mononucleosis, it's important to be careful of certain complications such as an

enlarged spleen. Rest and enough fluids are keys to recovery.

Symptoms

Signs and symptoms of mononucleosis may include:

 Fatigue
 Sore throat, perhaps misdiagnosed as strep throat, that doesn't get better after
treatment with antibiotics
 Fever
 Swollen lymph nodes in your neck and armpits
 Swollen tonsils
 Headache
 Skin rash
 Soft, swollen spleen
The virus has an incubation period of about four to six weeks, although in young children
this period may be shorter. The incubation period refers to how long before your
symptoms appear after being exposed to the virus. Signs and symptoms such as a fever
and sore throat usually lessen within a couple of weeks. But fatigue, enlarged lymph
nodes and a swollen spleen may last for a few weeks longer.