ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLS FOR WASTE INCINERATION

INTRODUCTION

Industrial pollution refers to hazardous emissions that arise from industrial activity with
potential to degrade the environment and threaten the quality of human life. In the past
decade, advancements in environmental regulations and pollutant control technology has
distinctly reduced pollutant releases from industries, notwithstanding, the European
Environment Agency (2019) made public that industrial pollutants still remain one of Europe’s
leading sources of environmental pollution. Among the numerous industrial activities that are
major sources of pollution if unchecked, is the incineration of waste.

Incineration has been largely adopted as an effective treatment method for a variety of
municipal solid wastes, medical wastes and hazardous biological and chemical wastes (DEFRA,
2012). The advantages of incineration which include reducing the volume of waste by 80-85%,
decreasing the toxicity and potential of waste to cause infections as well as generating energy
for heat and power/electricity (Chang et.al 2009), has made it the preferred industrial process
for treating waste. Statistics on waste compiled by the Department of Environment, Food and
Rural Affairs (DEFRA, 2014) reveal that it is the second largest final waste treatment method
operated in the UK. As of 2016, a total of 117 permitted incineration facilities were
operational in the UK, processing a momentous volume of 18,282,000 tonnes of waste per
year. The breakdown is as follows;

• 78 incineration (without recovery) facilities were operational with a combined

capacity of 8,474,000 tonnes/yr.
• 37 Energy from Waste (EfW) incineration facilities with a capacity of 9,808,000
tonnes/yr.
Described as “the best available residual treatment” by the Policy Connect report on UK waste
management (Feaver, 2020), the incineration of waste continues to gain the approval of
industries and governments.

THE WASTE INCINERATION PROCESS

Waste Incineration involves combusting waste at temperatures in excess of 850C in the

presence of sufficient oxygen to yield water and carbon dioxide as main products (DEFRA,
2012). The process also yields by-products such as bottom ash and fly ash from incombustible
materials as well as flue gases made up of organic and inorganic compounds. The constitution
of the by-products of largely depends on the type of waste that is combusted, the combustion
process adopted and the combustion conditions (National Research Council, 2000a).

Incineration plants are defined by the EU Waste Incineration Directive (WID) (2000) as “any
stationary or mobile technological unit and equipment dedicated to the thermal treatment
of waste with or without the recovery of heat produced by combustion” (Europa.eu, 2014).
Per this definition, several forms of incineration plants are operated in the United Kingdom,
ranging from large-scale municipal waste incinerators, non-hazardous industrial and
commercial waste incinerators to clinical waste incinerators (DEFRA, 2013) but in general, the
following procedures are incorporated into most incineration facility: waste storage and
material handling, waste separation/sorting, combustion, air pollution control, residue (ash)
handling and energy recovery. Figure 1 is a schematic presentation of the incineration process
flow.

Figure 1: Waste incineration process diagram (National Research Council, 2000a)

1. Waste Storage and Material Handling

Appropriate vehicles deliver various kinds of waste, liable to the type of plant permit, into the
tipping hall. To achieve a more managed calorific value (heating power) and to remove any
unsuitable products, the vehicles tip into a waste storage bunker where grab cranes mix the
waste in the bunker. Catch cranes then load the waste into a hopper from which it is pushed
by hydraulic rams or dropped into an inclined rocking grate and moved by gravity into the
incinerator. In certain facilities, the waste can be lifted into the feed hopper using mechanical
shovels (DEFRA, 2013)

2. Waste Separation and Sorting

An incineration facility, while less usual, may also have a waste separation area where waste
is sorted by size. In that case, various fractions of waste are sorted and processed for refining
into refuse-derived-fuel (RDF), or compost, or sent elsewhere for recycling. Ferrous and non-

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ferrous metals are collected by a separator whereas bulky plastics are extracted for recycling
(DEFRA, 2013).

3. Combustion
There are four (4) widely applied techniques in incineration plants operated in the UK namely;
Moving Grate, Fixed Grate, Fluidized Bed and Rotary Kiln (DEFRA 2013).

• MOVING GRATE: The moving grate furnace system is the most widely used
combustion system in the UK for the treatment of large volumes of Municipal Solid
Waste. The waste is gradually pushed by a mechanically actuated grate into the
combustion chamber. In summary, waste constantly approaches one end of the
furnace and at the other, ash is continually discharged. The plant and process
conditions are designed to ensure the full combustion of waste feed.

• FIXED GRATE: This technique involves a sequence of three steps with a series of rams
pushing the waste. The first step is a process of drying and initial combustion, the
second step is where the intermediary combustion takes place and the third grate is
for the last burn-out of carbon.

• FLUIDIZED BED: The combustion of waste using a fluidized bed (FB) technique, as
widely applied to sewage sludge, requires pre-sorting of waste content prior to
processing in the furnace to extract heavy and inert items, such as metals. The
combustion is a single stage process which takes place within a chamber lined with a
granular bubbling bed of an inert material, for instance, coarse sand or silica. The bed
is 'fluidized' by hot air mixed with recycled flue gas blown at a high flow rate vertically
through the waste material.

• ROTARY KILN: Incineration in a rotary kiln typically consists of a kiln and a separate
secondary combustion chamber in a two-step operation. The first combustion
chamber is the kiln which rotates either partially of fully and is angled from the feed
entry point downwards. As the kiln rotates, waste tumbles downward into the
secondary furnace and is well exposed to the heat and oxygen for combustion to take
place.

EMISSIONS, POLLUTANTS AND EFFECTS

Process emissions

As previously inferred, depending on the waste being burnt, the method of operation, and
the combustion conditions, the types and concentrations of pollutants released from each
incineration process varies. The US National Research Council (2000a) state that these
contaminants are obtained from one or a combination of the three sources listed below;

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 • they or their precursors are present in the waste feed,
• produced due to incomplete oxidation in the combustion phase, or
• generated by flue gas cooling reformation reactions.
The emissions of primary importance are substances containing nitrogen, sulphur, halogens
(such as chlorine) and heavy metals because of their possible impact on human health and
the environment. COx, NOx, SOx, HCl, lead, mercury, chromium, cadmium, arsenic, PCBs,
dioxins and furans, and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) are all particular compounds
of concern that are proven to be produced from waste incineration (Sharma et al., 2013)

1. Acid precursors
NOx, SOx and HCl are gases that form acids when they dissolve in water or condense in the
atmosphere. NOx from incineration is produced from two major occurrences in the
incineration process. The reaction of nitrogen and oxygen in combustion air forms thermal
NOx while the oxidation of chemically bound nitrogen in the waste stream forms fuel NOx
(Sorum, 2001). Whereas the formation of thermal NOx is dependant on the temperature,
residence time and oxygen conditions of the incineration process, fuel NOx is influenced by
localized oxygen concentrations (EPA, 1999).

SOx and HCl are formed as a result of the presence of sulphur and chlorine in combusted
waste stream. In municipal solid waste incineration, sulphur present in waste paper and
rubber as well as plastics and salt products containing chlorine are typical sources of SOx and
HCl, respectively (Belevi and Moench, 2000). The Chlorine released combines with hydrogen
or moisture to form HCL while sulphur is oxidized to form SO2 (Wang et. al, 1999).

Peters et. al (1999) reveals that the inhalation of SOx compounds in ambient air results in the
destabilization of normal heart beats and have the potential to cause heart attacks. High
human exposure to SO2 results in suffocation, coughing, wheezing, reduction in lung function,
the occurrence of some lung diseases and even premature death (Pope et al, 1995, Bascom
et. al, 1996, Kelsall et. al). Recent research shows that SO2 may have a direct impact on plants
by destroying chlorophyll however, further clarification on is required (Swain and Padhi,
2015).

Generally, pulmonary function in humans is weakened when exposed to high amounts of NO2
(>1500mg/m3) but some people have been found to have less tolerance to concentrations as
low as 550ug/m3 (Bernstein et. al, 2004). Direct exposure to even low NO2 levels is proven to
trigger asthma attacks (Chauhan and Johnston, 2003, Dinakar, 2004, Galloway and
Whelpdale, 1980).

The hydration of HCl, SO2 and NO2 in the atmosphere forms Hydrochloric acid, Sulphuric acid
(H2SO4) and Nitrous (HNO2)/ Nitric (HNO3) acids respectively. These are key components in
acidic precipitations (rains, snow, hail, fog) which damage buildings, interfere with vegetation
growth, leach nutrients from soil and causes skin cancer (Singh and Agrawal, 2007).

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 2. Heavy Metals
Studies show that the predominant types of heavy metals that can be found in waste are Cr,
Cu, Pb, Ni, Hg and Zn (Shim et. al, 2005, Haiying et. al, 2010). Heavy metals found in any waste
stream are not destroyed by incineration but either end up as part of the bottom ash or are
converted to their vapor phase, depending on how volatile they are (Barton et. al, 1990,
Jakob, 1995). The vapourized heavy metals, for example mercury, have the tendency to
condense as flue gas cools and adsorb onto the surfaces of particles. Heavy metals emissions
are generally influenced by the concentration of metals in the waste feed, the feed load rate,
their vapour pressures, thermal conditions in the combustion chamber (Hiraoka and Takeda,
1980, Gerstle and Albrinck, 1982) and even moisture levels in the waste feed ( Li et. al, 2010).

The effects of inhalation of heavy metals by humans and animals have been extensively
researched. They are known to cause a variety of fatal diseases including cancer (Linak and
Wendt, 1993). Additionally, these metals contaminate both water and soil and when ingested
by aquatic life and absorbed by plants, result in toxic effects like inhibition of growth and
death (Lepp, 2012, Asati et. al, 2016).

3. Dioxins and Furans

Dioxins and Furans are a chemical community of 210 toxic, raw, chlorinated micro-pollutants,
some of which may be present fly ash and emissions of flue gas from waste incineration
(Cunliffe et. al, 2009). Whiles there remain some uncertainty in the formation mechanism of
dioxins and furans from waste incineration (Fullana et. al, 2004 , Ryu et.al, 2005, Willhem et.
al, 2001,) it is known that its formation occurs either as a homogenous reaction at the
temperature range of 500C – 800C or as a heterogenous reaction at the temperature range
of 200C - 400C (Stanmore, 2004, McKay, 2002)

Fugitive emissions

The most prevalent fugitive pollutants at waste incineration facilities are vapours from tank
pipes, pump seals, and valves used in liquid waste treatment as well as dust and odors from
waste tipping and waste feeding processes in solid waste treatment. Fugitive dust can also
occur from bottom-ash pits and fly ash hoppers.

Particulate Matter and other residues

Particulate matter comprise of inorganic ash from mineral matter and metallic species as well
as carbonaceous soot formed from incomplete combustion. These materials are conserved in
the combustion process and leave the combustion chamber as bottom ash or fly ash. Bottom
ash is the remnant of solid waste after the burning process. It consists of unburned organic
material (char), glass, ceramics, large metal parts, and fine inorganic particles. Fly ash is a
composite of fine particles that may or may not exit the chamber of the furnace and is
suspended in combustion gases (Barros, 2018). Chang et. Al (2009) affirms that heavy volatile

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metals and metal additives, acid precursors and organic chemicals from waste combustion
are able to condense or be absorbed into ashes therefore increasing its toxicity.

Studies conducted by Clancy et. al (2002), Chen et.al (2004) and Pope et. Al (2009) show that
exposure to significant amounts of particulate matter can culminate in damaging respiratory
health and reducing life expectancy. In addition, it has serious impacts like reducing soil pH,
contaminating water, damaging aquatic species, and interfering with vegetation growth
depending on the pollutants it carries (Lokeshappa and Dikshit 2012, Dragovic et. al, 2013,
Raja et. al, 2015).

TRANSPORTATION AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROLS

Transportation

The US National Research Council (200b) affirms that emissions to the atmosphere remain
the primary pathway for pollutants to enter the environment from a waste incineration plant.
Waste incineration plant workers and people living close to a facility may be exposed directly
by inhalation or indirectly through the ingestion of food contaminated by accumulation of the
pollutants in soil and vegetation or the ingestion of water and fish after it has been exposed
to pollutants (Van Hook, 1978). Because of the ability of some compounds known as
‘persistent organic pollutants-POPs’ to remain in the atmosphere for a long period of time
(Wania and Makay, 1993), other individuals, distant from the facility still risk exposure to
incineration pollutants. Typical among the POPs are, dioxins, which Lohman and Seigneur
(2001) report to travel over 100km away from municipal waste incineration plants. Figure 2
shows the key pollutant transport media and human exposure pathways. The schematic
adapted by Cangialosi et al., (2008) affirms the claim by National Research Council (2000b)
that food chain (ingestion) is main pathway for human exposure to emissions from waste
incineration.

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Figure 2: Schematic presentation of emissions transport from waste incineration (Cangialosi
et al., 2008)

Environmental Controls

1. Legislations and process guidance

Previously, all waste incineration plants in the United Kingdom adhered to the Waste
Incineration Directive (WID) 2000. For all industrial combustion processes operated in the EU,
this Directive provided the most strict pollution controls. The UKs obligation to fulfill the
requirements of the directive was translated into the Waste Incineration (England and Wales)
Regulations 2002. Currently, all the requirements of the waste incineration regulations are
enshrined in the EU Industrial Emissions Directive (2010) which aims to reduce hazardous
industrial emissions in the EU region by applying best available pollution control techniques
and setting emission limits for critical pollutants including sulphur dioxide, nitrogen oxide and
nitrogen dioxide, hydrogen chloride, hydrogen fluoride, gaseous and vaporous organic
substances expressed as total organic carbon, carbon monoxide, dust, heavy metals, dioxins
and furans (Europa.eu, 2010). In the UK, the Environment Agency is the enforcing body of the
Industrial Emissions Directive through the Environmental Permitting (England and Wales)
Regulations (2012) which requires all industrial processes to be permitted and regulated with
regards to environmental performance. In addition several statutory process guidance notes
which lay out the best available techniques for emissions control in some combustion and

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incineration activities are made available by the Department for Environment, Food and Rural
Affairs (DEFRA).

2. Control technology
There are many specialized devices that are designed for industry use to collect and capture
specific environmental pollutants from flue gases generated during combustion. These
devices known as Air pollution control devices (APCDs) range from water spray towers, spray
dryer absorbers, bag filters, selective catalytic reactors (Song et.al 2004) and others shown in
table 1, adapted from the Best Available Techniques (BAT) Reference Document for Waste
Incineration compiled by Neuwahl et. al (2018).

Target Pollutant APCD Reduction %

SOx Wet scrubber or Dry 50 - 90
Multicyclone
HCL Wet or Semi-dry Scrubber 75 - 90

NOx Selective Catalytic Reactor 10 - 60

Heavy metals Dry Scrubber and 70 - 95
Electrostatic Precipitator
Dioxins and Furans Activated carbon and Fabric 50 – 99.9
Hose Filter
Fly Ash Electrostatic precipitator 95 – 99.9
and fabric hose filter
Table 1. Typical processes and devices used in cleaning flue gas in municipal waste
incineration plants

Modern incineration plants are also designed to operate the tipping halls, waste storage areas
and combustion chambers under negative pressure to reduce the escape of fugitive dusts,
vapors and particulate matter (DEFRA, 2013)

3. Pollution prevention
In spite of these brilliant technologies, the most efficient action to take in preventing pollution
will be to drastically minimize the occurrence of pollutant precursors in the waste stream
(National Research Council, 2000c) by reducing the volume of waste containing such
precursors. This can be achieved by promoting the use of products that do not contain heavy
metals and other pollutant precursors as well as developing goods and packaging using
minimal quantities of precursors or substituting with less harmful precursors. For example
using less toxic metal replacements as pigments and plastic stabilizers will effectively reduce
rate of heavy metal pollution from incineration.

Majority of EU-28 countries have proven to be committed to recycling, with some countries
recycling up to 68% of their municipal solid wastes as at 2017 (European Environment Agency,
2019b). While this is promising, targeted promotion of the recycling of wastes with high

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toxicity will further reduce the volume of pollutants in incinerator waste streams. For
example, hazardous flue gas components arising from heavy metals, chlorine and sulphur in
plastics, paper, batteries, fluorescent tubes and thermostats can be efficiently reduced when
these wastes are strictly recycled instead.

These preventive actions are the application of the first three preferred waste management
options (that is; prevention, re-use and recycling) in the waste management hierarchy set
out in the EU Waste Framework Directive 2008 (Directive 2008/98/EC).

SUMMARY

With rapid ongoing adaptation of energy from waste incineration in the UK, the main
concerns remain the pollutants that arise from this waste treatment process. Historically, Sox,
Nox, heavy metals, dioxins, furans and other organic pollutants have drawn the most
attention, because of their significant impact on the environment and human health
regardless of distance from where they are emitted. The enforcement of industrial emissions
regulations and application of APCDs have markedly reduced the emissions of these
pollutants but eliminating or reducing the occurrence of pollution precursors in incineration
waste streams through redesign of products, reuse and recycling of potentially toxic waste,
prove to be the most efficient environmental controls for pollution from waste incineration.

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