Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Industrial Emission
Treatment Technologies
Manh Hoang and Anita J. Hill
CSIRO
Australia
1. Introduction
Industrial emissions are becoming one of the most significant environmental issues facing
industries. Gaseous emissions from industrial operations can adversely affect the atmosphere
(e.g. carbon dioxide CO2, nitrous oxide N2O, volatile organic compounds VOCs, steam) and
health of people living in surrounding neighbourhoods (e.g. odour, particulates, heavy metals).
The burning of fossil fuels and biomass is the most significant source of air pollutants such
as sulphur dioxide SO2, carbon monoxide CO, nitrogen oxides NO and N2O (known
collectively as NOx), VOCs and some heavy metals. The main source of SO2 emission is
from the combustion of sulphur-containing fuels. Sulphurs are present in coal in the form of
pyrites, sulphates or organic sulphurs. In some deposits, the sulphur content can be as high
as 4%. Upon combustion, most of the sulphur is converted to SO2, with a small amount
being further oxidized to sulphur trioxide SO3. In the absence of a catalyst, the formation of
SO3 is slow; over 98% of the combusted sulphur is in the form of SO2.
The burning of fossil fuels is also the major anthropogenic source of CO2, one of the
important greenhouse gases. Coal is the world's most abundant and widely distributed
fossil fuel source. Although many alternatives to combustion of coal are being considered,
coal will remain as a principal component of the global energy mix for decades. The
International Energy Agency expects a 43% increase in its use from 2000 to 2020 (World
Nuclear Association, 2011).
Nitrous oxide N2O with a Global Warming Potential impact factor of 310 CO2 equivalent is
formed as a by-product from the production of adipic and nitric acid, and nitric acid
production is currently believed to be the largest industrial source of N2O emissions
contributing to the ozone layer depletion (US EPA, 2010).
Particulate emission is becoming one of the main causes of respiratory disease worldwide.
Sources of particulates can be natural or man-made. Some particulates occur naturally,
originating from volcanoes, bush fires, dust storms or by human activities such as the
burning of fossil fuels in power plants, vehicles, construction and various industrial
processes. Increased levels of fine particles in the air affect lung function and in some cases
can cause heart disease.
210 Municipal and Industrial Waste Disposal
Steam is the most universal energy carrier. Its application is wide spread and it can be found
in all aspects of industrial process. Water vapour is the major driver of greenhouse gas-
induced climate change (SMH, 2007). The biggest steam user is thermal power stations
where steam is used to generate electricity. The steam consumption in a typical thermal
power station of 1000MW capacity is about 2,800 t/h which translates to about 800 kg
condensate per second (Hoang, 2011). Waste steam can be found in almost every
plant/factory where steam is used; from big industrial establishments such as refineries,
power plants, chemical factories, steel makers, ore mining, to medium and small plants such
as sugar mills and food processing plants.
Odour is also one of the most significant air quality issues facing industry. As the public and
regulators are highly sensitive to nuisance odours, the release of any odorous gas/vapour
from industry, whether it may or may not represent a health risk, will result in complaints and
possibly regulatory fines. Odour is caused by emission of mixtures of chemicals from a wide
range of industrial operations, including pulp and paper, chemical manufacturing, refining,
mineral processing, paint, plastics, agrichemical manufacturing, sewage treatment, meat
works and rendering plants, food processing, and skin and hide processing at tanneries.
Prolonged exposure to foul odours usually generates undesirable reactions in the human body
such as discomfort, sensory irritation, headaches, respiratory problems, and vomiting.
Stricter environmental regulation in the industrialized countries has triggered the
introduction of cleaner technologies in the last decade. The integration of flue gas
desulphurisation, low-NOx, Integrated Gasification Combined Cycle (IGCC), and
Pressurised Fluidised Bed Combustion (PFBC) enable coal combustion to occur with higher
thermal efficiencies and lower emissions. The combustion of natural gas for electricity
generation, transportation and other applications such as industrial boilers has significantly
reduced CO2, SO2, NOx and particulate emissions. New carbon capture, storage and
sequestration technologies are at the stage of economic feasibility evaluation. Research is
focused on deploying large scale demonstration projects that provide a pathway for
industry to adopt the technologies at full scale. The three primary separation technologies
under research, development and deployment are based on liquid absorption, membranes,
and solid adsorption.
In the transport sector, the introduction of catalytic converters, reformulated fuels and the
improvement of engine performance have also led to a significant reduction in harmful
emissions.
Clean technology research for industrial emission treatment is focussed on technologies that
offer the highest efficiencies and lowest emissions. These efforts are directed at research,
development and deployment of near zero emission fuel conversion, steam utilisation and
recycling, odour reduction technologies as well as the development of renewable energy
technologies.
readiness. Tens of thousands of hours of operation under industrial conditions have been
proven for some technologies while others have only recently been demonstrated at
commercial plants.
avoiding solvent loss, and non-flammable. Their chemical structure can be designed so
that they absorb CO2 and require a low energy for the desorption of CO2 (Gurkan, 2010;
Wang, 2010).
Membranes:
Membrane based separation processes for CO2, although a less mature technology than
the aqueous amine solvent technology, have some advantages over solvent technologies
for separating gases. These advantageous aspects include a simple operation with no
moving parts, a technology that builds on existing low-cost technology that is already
proven at similar scales in other industries - e.g. desalination, an environmentally benign
separation technology without the use of hazardous chemicals, a compact and modular
technology with a small footprint, and finally a low energy technology (DOE, 2010;
Merkel, 2010). Figure 2 illustrates the small footprint of a membrane based gas separation
unit for the removal of CO2 from natural gas as compared to an amine absorption unit.
The amine absorption unit was decommissioned because the columns were corroding
over time due to the aggressive nature of the amine solution used to adsorb the CO2. The
membrane unit is dwarfed by the amine unit, although both technologies are employed to
perform the same separation.
Challenges for membrane based separation include particulate matter and its impact on
membrane lifetime, and due to the youth of this technology, there is a lack of operating
experience in the power industry. Recent demonstration trials of membrane technology by
Membrane Technology and Research Inc (MTR) have been completed in collaboration with the
Arizona Public Service Cholla power plant for PCC with the process diagram shown in Figure 3.
Fig. 1. Solvent based CO2 capture process flow diagram (adapted from Siemens, 2008).
Industrial Emission Treatment Technologies 213
Fig. 2. Comparison of footprint for solvent versus membrane process units for CO2
separation (adapted from Fleming, 2009).
Fig. 3. Membrane based CO2 capture process flow diagram (adapted from Merkel, 2010).
Performance data for the MTR Polaris™ membrane have been reported for temperatures ranging
from 25-50oC (Merkel, 2010). These recent trials have indicated that 95% of the CO2 from flue gas
214 Municipal and Industrial Waste Disposal
can be separated at a parasitic energy penalty of 15% using the Polaris™ membrane technology,
which can be compared to the estimated solvent technology parasitic energy penalty of 30%
(Merkel, 2010). A parasitic energy penalty is indicative of the additional fuel that must be burned
(to enable carbon capture) for the same power output. Current material and process efficiency
improvements for both technologies aim toward < 10% parasitic energy penalty.
Membranes made from thermally stable polymers offer attractive features such as dimensional
stability at elevated temperature, resistance to oxidation and thermal degradation, and
stability to harsh chemical environments. A new membrane based on thermally rearranged
(TR) polymers has been reported that can perform CO2 separation processes at ambient
temperatures as well as at operation temperatures as high as 230oC (Park, 2010). The gas
transport in these TR polymer membranes occurs through a pore architecture that consists of
micropores (<2 nm) that allow fast diffusion of gases connected by ultramicropores (<0.7 nm)
that are responsible for the molecular sieving. The method of creating this efficient pore
architecture in thermally stable glassy polymers is via thermal rearrangement, hence the name
TR polymer membranes. The pore architecture can be tuned for particular gas and vapour
separations, hence TR polymer membranes are currently in research and development stage
for numerous commercial applications including CO2 capture.
Solid sorbents:
Solid adsorbents utilized in chemical separation applications include molecular sieves,
activated carbons, and zeolites, all of which are porous materials with high surface area,
typically up to 3000 m2 g-1. Pressure swing adsorption (PSA) is a process that relies on
preferential adsorption of the CO2 from gas mixtures when exposed to the porous materials
at a high pressure. The pressure is subsequently reduced and the CO2 is desorbed from the
porous solid. PSA technology has relatively low energy requirements and capital costs.
Much current research focuses on the development of regenerable solid adsorbents with
chemical structures and pore architectures that are designed to increase the selectivity and
adsorption capacity for CO2 and lower the energy consumption in the sorption-desorption
cycle. Similar to the research directions in solvent absorption, solid adsorbent materials that
are responsive to physical and chemical switches other than thermal or pressure swings, e.g.
electrical, magnetic, mechanical, or light stimulation, or the presence of particular chemical
species to facilitate either uptake or release of CO2 are also under investigation.
Metal organic frameworks (MOFs) are one of the topics of current research focus. MOFs are
materials with extremely high surface areas, up to 10,000 m2g-1, and their chemistry can be
tailored to control the porosity and capacity for CO2. They are synthesized using metal
atoms or clusters linked in a periodic fashion via organic linker molecules to form crystalline
porous structures. Figure 4 illustrates the pore architecture of a class of MOF that uses
imidazolate organic linkers to achieve a pore architecture that resembles an hourglass with
large cages separated by a constriction which results from the asymmetric connectivity of
the imidazolate ring (Thornton, 2011). These frameworks are known as zeolitic imidazolate
frameworks (ZIFs) and they have been shown through modelling and experiment to offer
great promise for CO2 separations (DOE, 2010). Another characteristic of the best
performing candidate CO2 adsorbent MOFs is that they possess a high density of accessible
open metal sites (Yazaydın, 2009). Combining the ability to tailor chemistry in order to tune
the affinity for a particular gas, along with the ability to architecture the porosity of
membranes and solid adsorbents, is an area of much current research.
Industrial Emission Treatment Technologies 215
Major developers/suppliers for tertiary abatement catalysts are Krupp Uhde, ECN/CRI ,
Yara International, Du Pont, University Jagiellonski, Institute NawozÓw Sztucznych, N.E.
Chemcat. Uhde has developed and commercialised a system for the removal of N2O and
NOX from the tail gas of nitric acid plants under the trade name EnviNOx®. The system
features a tail gas reactor consisting of an iron zeolite catalyst installed directly upstream of
the tail gas turbine. The EnviNOx® catalysts are manufactured by Süd-Chemie with brand
names EnviCat®-N2O and EnviCat®-NOx.
The Uhde EnviNOx® process was first implemented in 2003 in a 1000 Mtpd dual-pressure
nitric acid plant by AMI in Linz (Austria). The tail-gas temperature is about 437°C and the
applied configuration consisted of a single reactor with two beds of iron-zeolite with
intermediate ammonia injection. The presence of nitric oxide in the inlet gas is vital to
promote the N2O decomposition. The reactor in the AMI plant is reported to operate at a
stable N2O conversion of 98% (Hevia, 2008).
The Energy Research Center of the Netherlands (ECN) has developed a combined catalytic
technology for the removal of NOx and N2O based on selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
using propane as a reducing agent in 2003. Iron and cobalt-containing zeolites are placed in
series in a single reactor operated at pressure up to 10 bar. The conversions of N2O and NOx
~ 90% were achieved; however, the economic evaluation indicated no cost advantage due to
the high dosing of propane (Schwefer, 2001b).
In 2006, ECN tested a trimetallic zeolite-based ECN catalyst prepared by CRI at a pilot scale
in a side stream of a nitric acid plant in Ijmuiden, the Netherlands. This N2O decomposition
process has been commercialised in 2007 (Brink, 2002). This catalyst requires no addition of
a reducing agent. It can be operated at temperatures of 475-525°C and at pressures of 1-12
bar, with N2O conversions of 70-95%.
Yara patented a novel ex-framework FeZSM-5 catalyst that led to remarkable performance
in simulated tail gases compared to FeZSM-5 catalysts prepared by ion exchange. The
multimetallic zeolite and Fe catalyst is used in direct catalytic N2O decomposition (Perez-
Ramirez, 2004b, 2006b).
218 Municipal and Industrial Waste Disposal
N.E. Chemcat has developed and commercialised a catalyst named DASH-30D D812. The
catalyst consists of palladium supported on alumina silica and magnesium oxide. The
catalyst has been installed in numbers of commercial plants by N.E. Chemcat and Sumitomo
Engineering including the Caprolactam production plant in Thailand in 2008 (TEI, 2009;
CDM 2002), the Pakarab Fertilizer plant in Multan, Pakistan, 2007 (CDM, 2002), the nitric
acid plant of the Kaifeng Jinkai Chemical Ind. Co., Ltd, China, 2007 (CDM, 2006a) and the
nitric acid plant of Liuzhou Chemical Industry Co., Ltd, China, 2009 (CDM, 2006b). Apart
from the above significant developments, there are number of catalyst inventions available
from the patent literatures (Russo, 2007).
NOx control technologies for combustion processes:
In combustion processes NOx is formed by the oxidation of fuels that have high nitrogen
content such as coal and residual oils. Combustion of low nitrogen content fuels such as
distillates or natural gas also produce NOx but in lesser amounts. The most common NOx
control technology for the combustion process is low-NOx burners (LNB). They can be used
separately or in combination with post-combustion control technologies such as selective non-
catalytic reduction (SNCR) or selective catalytic reduction (SCR). This technology involves the
modification of the process into a two stage combustion process: a fuel-rich zone where primary
combustion takes place and a fuel-lean zone for secondary combustion at lower temperature.
LNB technology affords up to 60% reduction for the combustion process (Watts, 2000).
Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR) is based on the chemical reduction of NOx
molecules into molecular nitrogen (N2) and water vapour (H2O) by a nitrogen-based
reducing agent such as ammonia or urea. In this process the reducing agent is injected into
the post-combustion flue gas stream and heat from the boiler provides the energy for the
reduction reaction.
Like SNCR, the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) is based on the reduction of NOx by a
reducing reagent except that it is catalysed by a solid catalyst. In this process, a solid catalyst
bed is installed downstream of the combustion chamber and ammonia is used as a reducing
agent. NOx reductions up to 90% can be achieved by optimising the reactor design and
operation such as ammonia dosage and mixing (Hesser, 2005).
configuration. However, the most often used absorber application is the counterflow
vertically oriented spray tower (Kamall, 2000; Srivastava, 2000; Faustine, 2008).
The major reactions occurring in wet FGD are:
i. Absorption
The primary objective of refiners before 1990 was to maximise the conversion of heavy oils
into gasoline and middle distillates. In the refining processes, the purpose of removing
sulphur is to protect the noble metal catalyst from poisoning. The restriction in harmful
substance emissions to the atmosphere has spurred the focus on the production of cleaner
products. Significant capital investments in the refining industries are necessary to produce
cleaner middle distillates to meet environmental standards. Thus another important reason
for removing sulphur is to eliminate the SO2 emission that results from burning refinery
products. In a typical industrial hydrodesulphurisation unit, the hydrodesulphurization
reaction takes place in a fixed-bed reactor at elevated temperature, 300 to 400°C, and at
pressures from 30 to 130atm (CEP, 2009). Industrial catalysts for this purpose consist of
cobalt-molybdenum or nickel-molybdenum supported on alumina.
Fig. 5. Catalytic pilot reactor at final completion (Catalytic Solutions International Pty Ltd –
Australia, 2011).
spent steam to atmosphere is not only an energy loss ─ it is at the same time an
environmental issue.
With a higher energy cost and a growing concern regarding environmental effects, it is
highly desirable to recover the energy loss by recycling the spent steam. The first step in this
process is to remove or separate the steam from other gaseous and volatile impurities.
The energy recovery from waste steam can be partially accomplished by using a heat
exchanger for multi-effect evaporation when possible or by a vapour recompression process
to make the steam usable for other purposes. For example, in addition to the
recommendation of using feedwater economisers for waste heat recovery (Steam Tip Sheet
3, 2006), the US DOE has considered the following approaches to waste steam recovery
(Steam Tip Sheet 13, 14, 29, 2006):
Send low-grade waste steam to power absorption chillers.
Use steam jet ejectors or thermocompressors to reduce venting of low pressure steam.
Use vapour recompression to recover low pressure waste steam.
Use a vent condenser to recover flash steam energy.
Vapour recompression appears to be the most advanced technique. It is comprised of (i)
thermal vapour recompression and (ii) mechanical vapour compression, with mechanical
vapour compression being the favoured option. Limitations of the current recompression
techniques include:
Additional energy is needed to boost the waste steam to higher potential.
They cannot handle “dirty” steam, i.e. steam containing impurities. The presence of air,
especially at higher volume concentrations, can affect the operation of the vapour
recompression process. The reprocessed steam still contains gases and impurities as the
process cannot eliminate them.
Industrial interest has stimulated numerous investigations into methods of separating and
recovering spent steam for both economical and environmental benefits.
Membranes are commonly used in the steam reforming process, where hydrogen is
separated from the exit gas mixture using hydrogen selective membranes. In this process, as
well as in the fuel cell context, although the membrane is in contact with the steam, it is not
used for steam separation.
RASIRC reported a range of steam processing products based on NafionTM membrane
(Spiegelman, 2009), for example:
Steam generating units where the function of the membrane is to purify the steam to a
level suitable for semiconductor industry or other special applications.
Gas drying units where water vapour is removed from a gas stream.
Humidity controlled units where water vapour is introduced into a gas stream using
membranes.
A Hewlett-Packard patent (Hewlett-Packard, 1989) “Water vapour permeable material for
drying gases” reports a method of drying a gas steam using a membrane comprised of a
fluoro-carbon polymer containing lithium sulphonate groups. The polymer is reported to be
stable under steam conditions.
224 Municipal and Industrial Waste Disposal
CSIRO has patented a membrane and process for steam separation and recovery based on a
hydrophilic membrane system (CSIRO, 2011a). The technology has been demonstrated at
pilot scale.
cause of emissions during the production process by using higher selective catalysts or by
the development of new catalysts to enable the replacement of environmentally harmful
inputs. Due to the ready availability of n-butane as a natural gas liquid, together with the
imposition of strict pollution control measures on atmospheric benzene emission, the
replacement of benzene by n-butane as a feedstock for maleic anhydride has been
commercialised using a vanadium phosphorous mixed oxide catalyst.
In the membrane development area, most current research and development focuses on new
membrane materials; however, research and development efforts are also directed at
controlling specific process conditions and process stream compositions in order to take
advantage of existing membrane materials, for example the use of membranes to overcome
thermodynamic limitations like azeotropes.
Membranes are selective either by pore size or by their affinity for the permeating
components. The intrinsic performance characteristics of a membrane material are its
selectivity and flux. These characteristics are controlled by the membrane material
composition, surface structure and morphology and its compatibility to industrial process
operations including the nature and chemical composition of the process stream. Large
amounts of research have been devoted to gas separations in recent years such as the
separation of hydrogen and hydrocarbons in gas recovery unit operations and high-
temperature air separation via ceramic membranes with applications in fuel cells and
oxygen-rich combustions. Advanced air separation techniques are constantly being re-
engineered with primary aims at raising overall operating efficiencies and increasing the
production capacity (EPB, 2009). In numerous industries significant energy savings could be
achieved if existing air-fueled combustions could be replaced by oxygen-fueled ones. For
this to occur, new energy efficient O2/N2 separation technologies need to be developed.
Modern transportation is an essential part of our lives. Forefront materials research has
offered significant advantages for this sector by:
improving fuel combustion efficiency,
introduction of hybrid vehicles, renewable fuels,
improving fuel cell-powered vehicle performance,
hydrogen storage, and
biofuel production.
One current area of research focus for storage materials for future transportation fuels, such
as hydrogen and methane, includes the metal organic frameworks (MOFs) discussed earlier
in section 2.1.1. Several MOFs have been commercialized by Sigma-Aldrich and
manufactured by BASF (Jacoby, 2008). MOFs suitable for hydrogen storage are being
developed for use in fuel-cell-powered automobiles. Optimising the pore architecture, heat
of adsorption, the gravimetric capacity, and operational stability of the MOFs are all key
criteria for translation of this technology from the laboratory to pilot scale and finally
deployment (Sumida, 2009).
Solar power
Wind power
Hydrogen production solar power
Biofuels
Fuels from lignocelluloses, organic wastes
Energy from waste steams at higher temperatures and pressures
There has been significant growth in photovoltaics (PV) over the past decade and the cost of
electricity from this technology continues to decrease. The increased efficiency has been
achieved primarily from advances in material development. However there are still
materials research and development challenges for PV technologies including the need to
continue to increase solar cell efficiency by improving material properties and cell designs.
This increase can be achieved by identifying or developing alternate materials e.g. organic
photovoltiacs (CSIRO, 2011b) and developing novel nanoscale surfaces to increase capture
of the full spectrum of sunlight.
Advanced materials and process research, development, and deployment are contributing to
today’s energy technologies as well as helping to meet the challenges of future energy needs.
3. Conclusion
All industries are moving toward more efficient and low or zero emission processes due to
economic benefit, regulation, and concern for health and the environment. New materials
and process technologies are playing an increasing role in emission treatment and by-
product utilisation. This chapter has focussed on technologies that offer the highest
efficiencies and lowest emissions including physical and chemical mechanisms for near-zero
emission fuel conversion and industrial commodity production such as cement or via
refinery operation, steam utilisation and recycling, and odour reduction. Candidate
technologies covered in this chapter include selective catalytic reduction techniques and
chemical separation technologies such as absorption, membrane and adsorption based
processes. Several research topics were identified for focus, ranging from fundamental
modelling and theory linked to rapid screening and optimisation to speed material and
process development through to process conditions suitable for scale-up and deployment.
Low energy, efficient, reliable, and environmentally benign emission treatment technologies
are one goal of modern process scientists and engineers, with the future holding the promise
of closed loop production.
4. Acknowledgment
It has been the authors’ privilege and pleasure to work with the Materials for Energy, Water,
and Environment team as well as our national and international collaborators. We thank our
colleagues and collaborators for their contribution to this work. We thank Irene Poon of
CSIRO Process Science and Engineering for editorial assistance.
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