Figure 5.

1 Schematic diagram of a three-phase synchronous machine

Figure 5.2 Salient pole rotor construction

Figure 5.3 Solid round rotor construction

Figure 5.4 Current paths in a round rotor

MMF Waveforms
Armature and rotor mmf and flux waveforms have nearly sinusoidal space distribution.
For balanced operation mmf wave due to stator currents stationary with respect to rotor.
Stator and rotor mmf waves shown in Figure 5.5 relative to the rotor structure.
Magnitude of stator mmf wave and its relative angular position with respect to rotor mmf wave depend
on the synchronous machine load.
Electromagnetic torque on rotor acts in a direction so as to bring magnetic fields into alignment.
If rotor field leads armature field, torque acts in opposition to rotation – machine acts as generator.
If rotor field lags armature field, torque acts in the direction of rotation - machine acts as motor.

Figure 5.5 Stator and rotor mmf Wave shapes

Direct and Quadrature Axes
Magnetic circuits and all rotor windings symmetrical with respect to both polar axis and the inter-polar
axis.
In synchronous machine characteristic analysis, two axes are defined as shown in Figure 5.1:
• Direct (d) axis, centred magnetically in centre of north pole;

• Quadrature (q) axis, 90 electrical degrees ahead of d-axis.

Position of rotor relative to stator is measured by angle θ between d-axis and magnetic axis of phase a
winding.

Figure 5.1 Schematic diagram of a three-phase synchronous machine

MATHEMATICAL DESCRIPTION OF A SYNCHRONOUS MACHINE
Following assumptions are made:
(a) Stator windings sinusoidally distributed along air-gap
(b) No appreciable variation of rotor inductances with rotor position.
(c) Magnetic hysteresis negligible.
(d) Magnetic saturation effects negligible (linear coupled circuits)
Figure 5.6 shows circuits involved in analysis of a synchronous machine.

Figure 5.6 Stator and rotor circuits of a synchronous machine

Stator circuits consist of three-phase armature windings carrying alternating currents.
Rotor circuits comprise field and amortisseur windings (damper windings).
Field winding is connected to a source of direct current.
Currents in amortisseur assumed to flow in two sets of closed circuits: one set whose flux is along d-axis
and other set whose flux is along q-axis. (i.e. two amortisseur circuit is assumed)
θ - angle by which the d-axis leads the centreline of phase a winding in the direction of rotation.
θ is continuously increasing and is related to rotor velocity ωr as follows:
θ = ωr t
Review of Magnetic Circuit Equations
Single excited circuit
Consider elementary circuit of Figure 5.7. N turns, resistance r and linear flux-mmf relationship.
According to Faraday’s law, induced voltage ei is

 - instantaneous value of flux linkage.

Terminal voltage e1 is

Figure 5.7 Single-excited magnetic circuit

Flux linkage in terms of the inductance L:
By definition inductance - flux linkage per unit current.
Therefore,

where,
Coupled circuits
Consider circuit shown in Figure 5.8, two magnetically coupled windings.
Turns N1 and N2, resistances r1 and r2, linear flux-mmf relationship.

Figure 5.8 Magnetically coupled circuits

Terminal voltages are

(5.10, 5.11)
Magnetic field determined by currents in both windings.
1, 2 - flux linkages with respective windings produced by total effect of both currents. Thus

(5.12, 5.13)
Flux linkages can be expressed in terms of self and mutual inductances whose expressions are given
below.
Self inductance - flux linkage per unit current in same winding.
Self inductances of windings 1 and 2 are,

(5.14, 5.15)
or

(5.16, 5.17)
Lm1, Lm2 - magnetizing inductance
Ll1, Ll2 - leakage inductance
Mutual inductance - flux linkage with one winding per unit current in other winding.
Mutual inductances between windings 1 and 2 are

(5.18) and (5.19)

If P is the permeance of mutual flux path,

(5.20, 5.21)
Using above equations we can write
(5.22)
So, flux linking windings 1 and 2 in terms of self and mutual inductances:

(5.23, 5.24)
Equations 5.10 and 5.11 for voltage and Equations 5.23 and 5.24 for flux linkage give performance
equations of linear static coupled circuits of Figure 5.8.
In this form of representation, self and mutual inductances of windings are used as parameters.
Inductance represents proportionality between a flux linkage and a current. It is directly
proportional to permeance of associated flux path.
Basic Equations of a Synchronous Machine
The same general form of equations derived in previous section applies to coupled circuits of Figure 5.6.

Fig. 5.6 Stator and rotor circuits of a synchronous

machine
Mutual and self inductances of stator circuits vary with rotor position and complicates synchronous
machine equations.
Variations in inductances caused by variations in permeance of magnetic flux path due to non-uniform
air-gap.
It is pronounced in a salient pole machine.
In a round rotor machine there are differences in two axes due mostly to large number of slots
associated with field winding.
Flux produced by a stator winding follows a path through stator iron, across air-gap, through rotor iron,
and back across air-gap.
Variations in permeance of this path as a function of rotor position approximated as
(5.25)
α - angular distance from d-axis along periphery as shown in Figure 5.9.
Double frequency variation is produced, since permeances of north and south poles are equal.

Figure 5.9 Variation of permeance with rotor position

Short circuit equations
Voltage equations of the three phases are

(5.26, 5.27, 5.28)

Flux linkage in phase a winding at any instant is

(5.29)
All inductances in Equation 5.29 are functions of rotor position and are thus time-varying.
Stator self-inductances laa
laa = ratio of flux linking phase a winding to current ia, with currents in all other circuits equal to zero.
Directly proportional to permeance, which has a second harmonic variation.
laa maximum for =0°, minimum for =90°, maximum again for =l80°, and so on.
mmf of phase a has a sinusoidal distribution in space with its peak centred on phase a axis.
Peak amplitude of mmf wave is equal to Naia (Na - effective turns per phase).
It can be resolved into two sinusoidally distributed mmfs, one centred on d-axis and other on q-axis
(Figure 5.10).
 Figure 5.10 Phase a mmf Wave and its components
Peak values of two component waves are

(5.30, 5.31)
Reason for resolving mmf into d- and q-axis components is that each acts on specific air-gap geometry
of defined configuration.
Air-gap fluxes per pole along two axes are

(5.32, 5.33)
Pd, Pq - permeance coefficients of d- and q-axis.
Total air-gap flux linking phase a is

(5.34)
Self-inductance lgaa of phase a due to air-gap flux is

(5.35)
Total self-inductance laa, is given by adding to the above leakage inductance La1, which represents
leakage flux not crossing air-gap:

(5.36)
Windings of phases b and c are identical to that of phase a and are displaced from it by 120° and 240°
respectively, so

(5.37, 5.38)
Variation of laa with  is shown in Figure 5.11.

Figure 5.11 Variation of self-inductance of a stator phase

Stator mutual inductances
Mutual inductance between any two stator windings also exhibits a second harmonic variation because
of rotor shape.
Mutual inductance lab can be found by evaluating air-gap flux linking phase b when only phase a is
excited.
As we wish to find flux linking phase b due to mmf of phase a,  is replaced by in Equation 5.34.

(5.39)
Mutual inductance between phases a and b due to the air-gap flux is

(5.40)
Including very small amount of mutual flux around ends of windings which does not cross air-gap, it
becomes

(5.41)
Similarly,

(5.42)
It is seen that .
Variation of mutual inductance between phases a and b as a function of  is illustrated in Figure 5.12.

Figure 5.12 Variation of mutual inductance between stator windings

Mutual inductance between stator and rotor windings
With variations in air-gap due to stator slots neglected, rotor circuits see a constant permeance.
Therefore, the situation in this case is not one of variation of permeance; relative motion between the
windings.
When a stator winding is lined up with a rotor winding, flux linking two windings is maximum and
mutual inductance is maximum.
When two windings are displaced by 90°, no flux links two circuits and mutual inductance is zero.
With a sinusoidal distribution of mmf and flux waves,

(5.44, 5.45, 5.46)

We now have expressions for all inductances that appear in stator voltage equations.
Substituting expressions for these inductances into Equation 5.29, we obtain

(5.29)

(5.47)
Similarly,

(5.48)
and
 (5.49)
Rotor circuit equations
Rotor circuit voltage equations are

(5.50)
Rotor circuits see constant permeance because of cylindrical structure of stator.
So, self-inductances of rotor circuits and mutual inductances between each other do not vary with rotor
position.
Only rotor to stator mutual inductances vary periodically with θ as given by Equations 5.44, 5.45 and
5.46.
Rotor circuit flux linkages may be expressed as follows:

(5.53, 5.54, 5.55)

THE dq0 TRANSFORMATION
Equations 5.26 to 5.28 and Equations 5.47 to 5.49 associated with stator circuits, together with
Equations 5.50 to 5.55 associated with rotor circuits, completely describe electrical performance of a
synchronous machine.
These equations contain inductance terms which vary with θ which in turn varies with time, t.
This introduces considerable complexity in solving machine and power system problems.
A much simpler form leading to a clearer physical picture is obtained by appropriate transformation of
stator variables.
In Equations 5.53 to 5.55 stator currents combine into convenient forms in each axis.
This suggests transformation of stator phase currents into new variables as follows:

(5.56, 5.57)
Constants kd and kd are arbitrary and their values may be chosen to simplify numerical coefficients in
performance equations.
In most of the literature on synchronous machine theory, kd and kd are taken as 2/3.
For balanced sinusoidal conditions (with kd = kd = 2/3), peak values of id and iq are equal to peak value
of the stator current as shown below.
For the balanced condition,

Substituting in Equation 5.56 gives

For peak value of id to be equal to Im, kd should equal 2/3.

Similarly from Equation 5.57, for the balanced condition

A third component must be defined so that three-phase currents are transformed into three variables.
Since id and iq together produce a field identical to that produced by original set of phase currents, third
component must produce no field in air-gap.
A convenient third variable is zero sequence current i0, associated with symmetrical components:

(5.58)
Under balanced conditions ia+ib+ic=0 and, therefore, i0 =0.
Transformation from abc phase variables to dq0 variables can be written in following matrix form:

(5.59)
Inverse transformation is given by

(5.60)
Above transformations also apply to stator flux linkages and voltages.
Stator flux linkages in dq0 components
Using expressions for (Equations 5.47, 5.48 and 5.49), transforming flux linkages and
currents into dq0 components (Equation 5.59), we obtain following expressions:
Defining following new inductances

(5.61, 5.62, 5.63)

the flux linkage equations become

(5.64, 5.65, 5.66)

dq0 components of stator flux linkages are seen to be related to components of stator and rotor currents
through constant inductances.
Rotor flux linkages in dq0 components
Substitution of expressions for id, iq in Equations 5.53 to 5.55 gives

(5.67, 5.68, 5.69)

Again, all inductances are seen to be constant, i.e., they are independent of rotor position.
Note: saturation effects are not considered here.
i0 does not appear in rotor flux linkage equations, because zero sequence components of armature
current do not produce net mmf across air-gap.
Stator voltage equations in dq0 components
Equations 5.26 to 5.28 are basic equations for phase voltages in terms of phase flux linkages and
currents.
By applying the dq0 transformation of Equation 5.59, following expressions in terms of transformed
components of voltages, flux linkages and currents result:

(5.70 – 5.72)
θ - angle between axis of phase a and the d-axis.
pθ - angular velocity of rotor, ωr.
Above equations have a form similar to those of a static coil, except for terms.
Result from transformation from a stationary to a rotating reference frame, represent the fact that a flux
wave rotating in synchronism with rotor will create voltages in stationary armature coil.
- speed voltages (due to flux change in space)
- transformer voltages (due to flux change in time).
Speed voltage terms are dominant components of stator voltage.
Under steady-state conditions, transformer voltage terms are zero; there are many transient conditions
where transformer voltage terms can be dropped.
Electrical power and torque
Instantaneous three-phase power output of stator is

Eliminating phase voltages and currents in terms of dq0 components,

(5.73)
Under balanced operation, e0 =i0=0 and expression for power is given by

Using Equations 5.70 to 5.72 to express voltage components in terms of flux linkages and currents, by
recognizing ωr as the rotor speed dθ/dt, and rearranging, we have

(5.74)
Air-gap torque Te is obtained by dividing power transferred across air-gap (i.e., power corresponding to
speed voltages) by rotor speed in mechanical radians per second.
Physical interpretation of dq0 transformation
Combined mmf wave due to currents in three armature phases travels along periphery of stator at a
velocity of ωs rad/s.
This is also velocity of the rotor.
Therefore, for balanced synchronous operation, armature mmf wave appears stationary with respect to
rotor and has a sinusoidal space distribution.
Sine function can be expressed as a sum of two sine functions.
mmf due to stator windings can be resolved into two sinusoidally distributed mmf waves stationary with
respect to rotor, one has its peak over d-axis and other has its peak over q-axis.
id may be interpreted as instantaneous current in a fictitious armature winding which rotates at the same
speed as rotor, and remains in such a position that its axis always coincides with d-axis.
Value of the current in this winding is such that it results in the same mmf on d-axis as do actual phase
currents flowing in armature windings.
A similar interpretation applies to iq, except that it acts on q-axis.
mmfs due to id and iq stationary with respect to rotor and act on paths of constant permeance.
Therefore, corresponding inductances Ld and Lq are constant.
For balanced steady-state conditions, phase currents may be written as follows:

(5.76, 5.77, 5.78)

where ωs =2πf is angular frequency of stator currents.
Using the dq0 transformation,

(5.79, 5.80. 5.81)

For synchronous operation, rotor speed ωr, is equal to angular frequency ωs of stator currents. Hence,

Therefore,
For balanced steady-state operation, id and iq are constant. i.e., alternating phase currents in abc
reference frame appear as direct currents in dq0 reference frame.
dq0 transformation may be viewed as a means of referring stator quantities to rotor side.
Analogous to referring secondary side quantities in transformer to primary side by means of turns ratio.
Analysis of synchronous machine equations in terms of dq0 variables is considerably simpler than in
terms of phase quantities, for following reasons:
• Dynamic performance equations have constant inductances.
• For balanced conditions, zero sequence quantities disappear.
• For balanced steady-state operation, stator quantities have constant values.
• For other modes of operation they vary with time. Stability studies involve slow variations having
frequencies below 2 to 3 Hz.
• Parameters associated with d- and q-axes may be directly measured from terminal tests.
PER UNIT REPRESENTATION
Per unit system used to remove arbitrary constants and simplify mathematical equations so that they
may be expressed in terms of equivalent circuits.
Per Unit System for Stator Quantities
Universal practice is to use machine ratings as base values for stator quantities.
Stator currents and voltages have been expressed as instantaneous values; where they were sinusoidal
quantities, they have been expressed in terms of peak values and sinusoidal functions of time and
frequency.
Let us choose following base quantities for stator (denoted by subscript s):

Base values of remaining quantities are automatically set and depend on above.
Per Unit Stator Voltage Equations

Equation 5.70,

Dividing throughout by and noting that we get

(5.82)
Expressed in per unit notation,

(5.83)
Unit of time is seconds.
Time can also be expressed in per unit (or radians) with the base value equal to the time required for the
rotor to move one electrical radian at synchronous speed:

(5.84)
With time in per unit, Equation 5.83 may be written as

(5.85) (5.70)

Comparing Equation 5.70 and Equation 5.85 -- form of original equation is unchanged, when all
quantities involved are expressed in per unit.
Similarly, the per unit forms of Equations 5.71 and 5.72 are

(5.86, 5.87)
The per unit time derivative appearing in the above equations is given by

(5.88)
Per Unit Rotor Voltage ,Equations

From Equation 5.50, dividing throughout by per unit field voltage equation
may be written as ,

(5.89)
Similarly, per unit forms of Equations 5.51 and 5.52 are

(5.90, 5.91)
Above equations show form of rotor circuit voltage equations.
Stator Flux Linkage Equations
Per unit forms of Equations 5.64, 5.65 and 5.66 may be written as

(5.92, 5.93, 5.94)

Rotor Flux Linkage Equations
Similarly, in per unit form Equations 5.67, 5.68 and 5.69 become

(5.98, 5.99, 5.100)

Per Unit System for Rotor
Rotor circuit base quantities will be chosen so as to make flux linkage equations simple by satisfying
following:

(a) Per unit mutual inductances between different windings are to be reciprocal, for example .
(b) All per unit mutual inductances between stator and rotor circuits in each axis are to be equal; for
example, .
Per Unit Power and Torque
From Equation 5.73, instantaneous power at machine terminal is

Dividing by base three-phase expression for per unit may be written as

(5.115)

Similarly, with base per unit form of Equation 5.75 is

(5.117)
Complete set of electrical equations in per unit
In per unit

Considerations:
i) Two q-axis amortisseur circuits (subscripts 1q and 2q are used (in place of kq))
ii) One d-axis amortisseur circuit (identified by subscript 1d).
Since all quantities are in per unit, superbar notation is dropped.
Per unit stator voltage equations:

(5.120, 5.121, 5.122)

Per unit rotor voltage equations:

(5.123 - 5.126)
Per unit stator flux linkage equations:

(5.127 – 5.129)
Per unit rotor flux linkage equations:

(5.130 – 5.133)
Per unit air-gap torque:
(5.l34)
For stability analysis, machine equations are normally solved with all quantities expressed in per unit,
with the exception of time.
Usually time t is expressed in seconds, in which case the per unit p in Equations 5.120 to 5.126 is
replaced by .
EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS FOR DIRECT AND OUADRATURE AXES
Equations 5.120 to 5.133 can be used directly to determine synchronous machine performance.
It is a common practice to use equivalent circuits to provide a visual description of machine model.
First consider only the d-axis flux linkage. Figure 5.13 shows an equivalent circuit which represents d-
axis stator and rotor flux linkage equations 5.l27, 5.130 and 5.l31. Currents appear as loop currents.

Figure 5.13 The d-axis equivalent circuit illustrating relationship

Similar equivalent circuit can be developed for q-axis flux linkage and current relationships.
Rotor circuit per unit leakage inductances:

(5.135 – 5.138)
Equivalent circuits representing complete characteristics are shown in Figure 5.14.

Figure 5.14 Complete d- and q-axis equivalent circuits

In d-axis equivalent circuit, Lfld-Lad represents flux linking both field winding and amortisseur, but not
the armature.
Common practice is to neglect this series inductance on grounds that flux linking damper circuit is very
nearly equal to that linking the armature, because damper windings are near air-gap.
For short-pitched damper circuits and solid rotor iron paths, this approximation is not strictly valid.
In q-axis, there is no field winding and amortisseurs represent overall effects of damper windings and
eddy current paths.
It is reasonable to assume that armature and damper circuits all link a single ideal mutual flux
represented by Laq.
d- and q-axis equivalent circuits are further simplified by neglecting resistances as shown in Figure
5.15.

Figure 5.15 Commonly used simplified equivalent circuits