Soil Mechanics I Tutorial For Exit Exam

Soil Mechanics – I
Tutorial for Exit Exam

www.huawei.com
By: Fenta Nebiyou

(MSc in Geotechnical
Engineering)
Outline
 Understanding and classify soils.
 Evaluate the state of stress in a soil mass.
 Calculate seepage volume through a soil mass.
 Estimate settlement magnitude of compressible
soils and soil stabilization.
1. Simple Soil Properties
Introduction
Soil : a particulate material.
 A sample of soil is made up of countless particles of a
variety of shapes and sizes.
 The particles are in contact with each other, and the
arrangement of particles is often referred to as the
“soil skeleton’’.
 Spaces exist between the particles and are referred to as
the ‘‘voids’’.
 The voids may be filled with water or a mixture of
water and air.
Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.
4
Introduction Cntd
5
Introduction Cntd
Soil : a particulate material
 The closeness of packing of the particles has a
dominant influence on the mechanical behavior of
a soil. The more densely packed the particles, the
greater will be the stiffness and strength of the soil
and the lower will be its permeability.
 In order to carry out calculations of ground
displacement and stability, it is necessary to
idealize the soil as a continuum with certain
stiffness and strength properties.

6
Phase Relations
 Weight/Mass Relationships
Gravimetric Water Content (𝝎) [%]: ratio of the mass
of water, Mw, to the mass of soil solids, Ms.
Referred to simply as water content in many literatures.

𝑀𝑤
𝜔= × 100
𝑀𝑠

7
Phase Relations Cntd
 Volume Relationships
Porosity (n) [%]: ratio of the volume of voids, Vv,
to the total volume, V.
𝑉𝑣
n= × 100
𝑉
Void Ratio (e): ratio of the volume of the voids, Vv, to

the volume of the soil solids, Vs.
𝑉𝑣
e=
𝑉𝑠

8
 Volume Relationships
Degree of Saturation (S) [%]: percentage of the void
space which contains water.
𝑉𝑤
𝑆= × 100
𝑉𝑣
Volumetric Water Content (𝜃𝑤) : ratio of the volume
of water, Vw, to the total volume of the soil, V. Also
referred to as the water porosity, nw.
𝑉𝑤
𝜃𝑤 =
𝑉

9
Weight-Volume Relationships i.e. Soil Density
Total Density (ρ) [kg/m3]: ratio of the total mass, M,
to the total volume of the soil, V. Also referred to as the
bulk density. (Current state density)
𝑀
𝜌=
𝑉
Dry Density (ρd) [kg/m3]: ratio of the mass of the soil
solids, Ms, to the total volume of the soil, V.
𝑀𝑠
𝜌𝑑 =
𝑉
Saturated Density (ρsat) [kg/m3]: density of the soil
when the voids are filled with water.
Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved. 10
Submerged Density (ρ’) [kg/m3]: effective density of
the soil when it is submerged.
𝜌 ′ = 𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 - 𝜌𝑤
NB. Unit Weight: 𝜸 = 𝝆𝒈
Table: Typical values of unit weight for soils

11
Specific Gravity (𝐺𝑠 )
• Ratio of the weight of a given volume of a material to
the weight of an equal volume of water.
• Typically varies between 2.6 and 2.8 for soils.
• Measures the heaviness of material.
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎 𝑆𝑢𝑏𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟
For soils, 𝐺𝑠 = 𝛾𝑠𝑜𝑖𝑙 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑑𝑠/𝛾𝑤
Unit weight of water, 𝛾𝑤 = 1.0 𝑔/𝑐𝑚3 = 9.81 𝑘𝑁/𝑚3

12
𝒆 𝜸
 𝒏=  𝜸𝒅 =
𝟏+𝒆 𝟏+𝝎
𝒏 𝜸 = 𝜸𝒘(𝑮𝒔 𝟏 − 𝒏 + 𝑺𝒏)
 𝒆= 
𝟏−𝒏
𝜸𝒘 (𝑮𝒔 +𝑺𝒆)
(𝜸𝒔−𝜸𝒅)  𝜸= (𝟏+𝒆)
 𝒆=
𝜸𝒅
 𝜸𝒅 = 𝜸𝒘𝑮𝒔(𝟏 − 𝒏)
 𝑺𝒆 = 𝝎𝑮𝒔
13
Relative Density (Dr)
 An index that indicates the degree of packing
between the loosest and densest possible state of
coarse-grained soils as determined by experiments:
𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒
𝐷 =
𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛
where 𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum void ratio (loosest

condition), 𝑒𝑚 𝑖 𝑛 is the minimum void ratio (densest
condition), 𝑒 is the current void ratio.
14
Grain Size Distribution
GSD information can be of value in providing initial
rough estimates of a soil’s engineering properties such as
permeability, strength, expansivity, etc.

15
Grain Size Distribution Cntd
Sieve Analysis (Mechanical
Analysis)
 The distribution of particle sizes or
average grain diameter of coarse-
grained soils-gravels and sands is
obtained by screening a known
weight of the soil through a stack
of sieves of progressively finer
mesh size.
 The determination of the size
range of particles present in a
soil, expressed as a percentage
of the total dry weight.
16
 Each sieve is identified by either a number that
corresponds to the number of square holes per linear
inch of mesh or the size of the opening.
E.g. #10 sieve has 10 apertures per linear inch
 Large sieve (mesh) openings (25.4 mm to 6.35 mm)
are designated by the sieve opening size, while
smaller sieve sizes are designated by numbers.
 The particle diameter in the screening process, often
called sieve analysis, is the maximum dimension of a
particle that will pass through the square hole of a
particular mesh.

17
 A known weight of dry soil is placed on
the largest sieve (the top sieve) & the
nest of sieves is then placed on a vibrator,
called a sieve shaker, and shaken.
 The nest of sieves is dismantled,
one sieve at a time.
 The soil retained on each sieve is
weighed, and the percentage of soil
retained on each sieve is
calculated.
18
 The results are plotted on a graph of percent of
particles finer than a given sieve size (not the percent
retained) as the ordinate versus the logarithm of the
particle sizes.
 The resulting plot is called a particle size distribution
curve or, simply, the gradation curve.
 Let Wi be the weight of soil retained on the ith sieve from the top
of the nest of sieves and W be the total soil weight.
𝑡ℎ 𝑊𝑖
% 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑖 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 = ∗ 100%
𝑊
% 𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖 𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒 = 100 − ( % 𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑 𝑜𝑛 𝑖 𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑒𝑣𝑒)

19
 Percentage retained on any sieve = 100* Wt of soil
retained/Total soil weight
 Cumulative percentage retained on any sieve =Sum of
percentage retained on all any coarser sieves.
 Percentage finer than any sieve size =100 percent minus
cumulative percentage retained.
Hydrometer Analysis
 The screening process (sieve analysis) cannot be used
for fine-grained soils—silts and clays—because of
their extremely small size.
 The common laboratory method used to determine
the size distribution of fine-grained soils is a
hydrometer test.
 Based on the process of sedimentation of soil
particles in water by gravity.
 Separation of particles of various sizes by their
velocity.
21
Grainsize Distribution Curves
 Help us “feel” the soil texture and used for the soil
classification.
 Used to define the grading specification of a drainage
filter (clogging).
 Used as a criterion for selecting fill materials of
embankments, earth-dams, road sub-base materials,
and concrete aggregates.
 Used to estimate the results of grouting and chemical
injection, and dynamic compaction.
 More important to coarse-grained soils.

22
 Shape of the curve indicates the nature of the soil
tested.
 Uniformly graded or poorly graded
 Well graded
 Gap graded
 In order to determine whether a material is uniformly
graded or well graded two coefficients are used.
 Uniformity coefficient, Cu
 Coefficient of gradation(curvature
or concavity), Cc

23
 Uniformity coefficient, Cu
𝑪𝒖 = 𝑫𝟔𝟎/𝑫𝟏𝟎
 Cu < 4 - contains particles of uniform size, poorly graded
 Cu > 4 -contains wider assortment of particles, well graded
 Coefficient of gradation, Cc
𝑪𝒄 = (𝑫𝟑𝟎)𝟐/(𝑫𝟏𝟎𝑫𝟔𝟎)
• Cc is used to diagnose gap graded
• It Cc ≠ 1-3, gap graded
• Also if sudden change is slope is observed in the curve.
D60 , D30, D10= diameter of the soil particle for which 60%, 30%, 10%
(respectively) of the particles are finer

24
Poorly-grade soils: Cu<4 & steep gradation curve
Well-graded soils: Cu>4, 1<Cc<3 & flat gradation curve
Gap-graded soils: Cc<1 or Cc>3 & one or more humps
25
Soil Consistency
Soil Consistency
 Defined as the relative ease with which a soil can be
deformed. (The terms of soft, firm, or hard are used.)
 Provides a means of describing the degree and kind of
cohesion and adhesion between the soil particles as
related to the resistance of the soil to deform or
rupture.
 Consistency largely depends on soil minerals and
the water content.

26
Soil Consistency Cntd
 Physical properties of fine-grained soils greatly differ
at different water contents.
 The presence of water in fine-grained soil can
significantly affect associated engineering behavior.
 Depending on the moisture content, the behavior of
soil can be divided into four basic states,
 Solid
 Semi-solid
 Plastic
 Liquid

27

28
Atterberg Limits
Atterberg limits (consistency limits) are the moisture
contents at which soil passes from one state to the next.
 Liquid Limit (LL) is defined as the moisture content
at which soil begins to behave as a liquid material
and begins to flow.
 Plastic Limit (PL) is defined as the moisture content
at which soil begins to behave as a plastic material.
 Shrinkage Limit (SL) is defined as the moisture
content at which no further volume change occurs
with further reduction in moisture content.
29
 Shrinkage limit represents the amount of water required
to fully saturate the soil (100% saturation) and it is
useful for the determination of the swelling and
shrinkage capacity of soils.

30
Plasticity Index, PI = LL - PL
 PI is the range of water content over which the soil
exhibits plasticity.
 The greater the difference between LL and PL, the
greater the plasticity.
 Cohesionless soil has 0 PI.
Non-plastic.
 High PI and LL are
highly plastic.

31
𝛚 − 𝐏𝐋
Liquidity Index (water plasticity index), 𝐋𝐈 =
𝐏𝐈
 indicate the consistency of undisturbed soils.
𝐋𝐋−𝛚
Relative Consistency, 𝐂𝐫 =
𝐏𝐈
 indicate the proximity of its natural water content to
its PL. NB. LI + Cr = 1

32
2. Soil Classification and
Field Identification
Introduction
 A soil classification system is the arrangement of
different soils having similar properties into groups
and sub-groups based on their application.
 It provides a common language to express briefly the
general characteristics of soils.
Communicate
between engineers
Simple Classification Estimate Achieve

indices system engineering engineering
(Language) properties purposes
GSD, LL, PI
Use the accumulated
experience
34
Introduction Cntd
Classifying soils into groups with similar behavior, in
terms of simple indices, can provide geotechnical
engineers a general guidance about engineering
properties of the soils through the accumulated
experience.
 To determine the suitability of different soils for
different purposes
To develop correlations with useful soil properties
 To develop a systematic way to describe and
classify soils;

35
Textural Classification
Based on the % of sand, silt and clay size materials
(i.e. fraction of soil passing a No. 10 sieve (≤ 2mm).)
 If soil contains certain percentage of particle >2mm, a
correction is necessary.
 More suitable for describing coarse-grained soils
rather than clay soils.
Doesn’t reveal any property other than the grain size
distribution.
Doesn’t express the physical characteristics of the soil.
Mostly used for agricultural and highway engineering.

36
Textural Classification Cntd
To use the chart, for the given percentages of the three
constituents forming a soil, lines are drawn parallel to
the three sides of the equilateral triangle, as shown by
arrows in the ‘key’ of picture.
 For example, if the soil is
composed of 34 percent
sand, 26 percent silt sizes,
and 40 percent clay sizes,
the three lines so drawn
intersect at the point A
situated in the sector
designated as ‘Sandy clay’.
37
USCS-Unified Soil Classification System
 This system was first developed by Professor A.
Casagrande (1948) for the purpose of airfield
construction during World War II.
 Afterwards, it was modified by Professor Casagrande,
the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and the U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers to enable the system to be
applicable to dams, foundations, and other
construction.
Four major divisions:
i) Coarse-grained soils ii) Fine-grained soils
iii) Organic soils iv) Peat

38
USCS Cntd
 Fine-grained soil  Course-grained soil
 M = Inorganic silt  G = Gravel
 C = Inorganic clay  S = Sand
 O = Organic silt and clay  W = Well graded
 Pt = Peat  P = Poorly graded
 L = Low plasticity (LL<50%)
 H = High plasticity (LL>50%)

39
USCS Cntd

40
USCS Cntd
Plasticity Chart for USCS (PI Vs LL)
 Clays, silts and organic soils lie below the line with the
equation below and is called the ‘A-Line’.
𝑃𝐼 = 0.73 𝐿𝐿 − 20 %
 A-Line delineates the boundaries between clays
and silts and organic soils.
 The U-Line defines the upper limit of the
correlation between PI and LL.
𝑃𝐼 = 0.9 𝐿𝐿 − 8 %
The U-line indicates the upper bound for general soils.
Note: If the measured limits of soils are on the left of
U-line, they should be rechecked.
41
USCS Cntd
L H
PI
LL

25
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)
AASHTO - American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials
Used to determine the suitability of soils for earthwork,
embankments, and road bed materials.
 Classification is based on
 Grain size distribution
 Liquid limit
 Plasticity index
 8 major groups:A1~ A7 (with several subgroups) and
organic soils A8

43
AASHTO Cntd
 A characteristic called Group Index (GI), appended in
parentheses to the main group, is used to describe the
performance of a soil when used as a highway sub-
grade material.
𝐺𝐼 = 𝐹 − 35 0.2 + 0.005 𝐿𝐿 − 40 + 0.01(𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10)
where F is percent passing No.200 sieve.
 GI is reported to the nearest whole number, and if
GI<0, it is set to 0.
 GI=0 for groups A-1-1, A-1-b, A-2-4, A-2-5, and A-3.
 𝐺𝐼 = 0.01(𝐹 − 15)(𝑃𝐼 − 10) for groups A-2-6 and A-2-7.
 GI should not exceed 20 for any of groups A-
4 through A-7.

44
2 Field Identification of Soils
 Introduction
 Coarse-grained Soils
 Fine Grained Soils
 Organic Soils

45
Introduction Cntd
 Common descriptive terms and methods of
identification;
 Color  Carbonate
 Moisture  Smell
 Structure  Feel
 Shape  Consistency
 Weathering  Dilatancy
 Packing

46
Introduction Cntd
1. Color: color is not directly related to engineering
properties of soils, but is related to soil mineralogy and
texture.
 Gray and bluish: unoxidized soils
 White and cream: calcareous soils (containing
calcium carbonate)
 Red and yellow: oxidized soils
 Black and dark brown: soils containing organic
matter
2. Moisture: Appearance due to water is described as
wet, dry or moist.

47
Introduction Cntd
3. Structure:
 Homogeneous: Color and texture feel the same
throughout
 Non-homogeneous: Color and texture vary
4. Shape: Angular, sub-angular, sub-rounded, rounded,
flaky
5. Weathering: Fresh, decomposed, weathered
6. Carbonate: Effervesces with acid. Add a small

amount of hydrochloric acid and check ifsoil
effervesces. If it does, it contains carbonate

48
Introduction Cntd
7. Smell: Organic soils give off a strong odor that
intensifies with heat. Non-organic soils have a subtle
odor with the addition of water.
8. Feel: Use feel to distinguish between sand, silt and
clay
 Sand: has gritty feel
 Silt: has rough feel similar to fine sandpaper
 Clay: feels smooth and greasy. It sticks to
fingers when wet and is powdery when dry

49
Introduction Cntd
9. Consistency
 Very stiff: Finger pressure barely dents soils, but it cracks
under significant pressure
 Stiff: Finger pressure dents soil
 Firm: Soil can be molded using strong finger pressure
 Soft: Easily molded by finger
 Very soft: Soil flows between fingers when fist is closed
10. Dilatancy: Place small amount of the soil in your palm
and shake horizontally. Then strike it with the other
hand. If the surface is slurry and water appears, the soil
probably has a large amount of silt.

50
Introduction Cntd
11. Packing: Coarse-grained soils are described as:
 Very loose: collapses with slight disturbance; open
structure
 Loose: Collapses upon disturbance; open structure
 Medium dense: Indents when pushed firmly
 Dense: Barely deforms when pushed by feet or by
stomping
 Very dense: Impossible to depress with stomping

51
3. Soil Water, Permeability
& Seepage
Soil Water Cntd
Classification of
Soil Moisture
 Adsorbed
 Capillary
 Structural
 Gravitational

53
Soil Water Cntd
Adsorbed Water: water held on the surface of soil
particles by forces of adsorption.
 Soil particles under natural conditions normally have
net electrical charge at their surface.
 Water molecue as a single unit may be considered
electrically neutral. However, its construction is such
that the centers of the positive and negative charges
of its individual components do not exactly coincide.
As a result, it has in effect two poles, like a small bar
magnet.

54
Soil Water Cntd
Capillary Water – water retained in a soil mass due to
the capillary phenomenon which enables dry soil to
draw water to elevation above the water table and
enables a draining soil to retain water above the
atmospheric line.
Removed by air drying. The
movement and retention of

water above the ground water
table is similar in many respects
to the rise and retention of water
in capillary tube.
55
Soil Water Cntd
Gravitational Water: Completely free to move through
or drain from soil under the influence of gravity.
 The flow of gravitational water is caused by the action
of gravity which tends to pull water downward to a
lower elevation.
 The gravitational pull acts to overcome resistance
to movement or flow of water which is due to viscous
drag along the side walls of pore spaces in the case of
soil.

56
Permeability
 Facility with which water flows through soil.
 Measure of how easily a fluid (e.g., water) can pass
through a porous medium (e.g., soils).

 Soil is permeable due to the existence of voids
between soil grains that are interconnected and allow
flow from points of higher potentials towards points
of lower potentials (energy).
Loose soil
- easy to flow
- high permeability water
Dense soil
- difficult to flow
Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved. - low permeability 28
Permeability Cntd
Applications
 Design of pumping systems for dewatering of
excavations.
 Estimating of seepage losses through and under
earth dams.
 Stability analyses of earth dams
 Stability of earth retaining structures.
 Design of clay liners (geotextiles, geo-membranes,
Geo-grids, Geo-cells) and cut off walls.

58
Permeability Cntd
𝑝 𝑣2
Bernoulli‘s equation for total head: 𝐻 = 𝑍 + +
𝛾𝑤 2𝑔
𝑝
In soils where velocity of flow is very low, 𝐻 = 𝑍 +
𝛾𝑤
𝑝𝐴 𝑝𝐵
ℎ = 𝐻𝐴 − 𝐻𝐵 = 𝑍𝐴 + − 𝑍𝐵 +
𝛾𝑤 𝛾𝑤

59
Permeability Cntd
Hydraulic Gradient – loss of head per unit length of flow.
ℎ
𝑖=
𝐿
H A  HB
i water
lAB
B
A
length AB, along the

stream line

60
Permeability Cntd
Darcy‘s Law
𝑣 = 𝑘𝑖
𝑣 = discharge velocity, which is the quantity of
water flowing in unit time through a unit gross cross-
sectional area at right angles to the direction of flow.
𝑘=hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of permeability)
𝑞 = 𝑣𝐴 = 𝑘𝑖𝐴
Darcy’s law given is true for laminar flow
through the void spaces.

61
Permeability Cntd
Laboratory Methods Constant Head Test
 used to determine the hydraulic conductivity of
coarse- grained soils.
 Water is allowed to flow through
a cylindrical sample of soil under
a constant head (h).
 The outflow (Q) is collected in a
graduated cylinder at a
convenient duration (t).
∆𝐻 ℎ
∆𝐻 = ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑖 = =
𝐿 𝐿

62
Permeability Cntd
 The flow rate through the soil is 𝑞𝑧 = 𝑄/𝑡 , where Q
is the total quantity of water collected in the
measuring cylinder over time t.
𝑞𝑧 𝑄𝐿
𝑘𝑧 = =
𝐴𝑖 𝑡𝐴ℎ
where 𝑘𝑧 is the hydraulic conductivity in the vertical

direction and A is the cross-sectional area.

39
Permeability Cntd
Laboratory Methods Falling Head Test
-used for fine-grained soils because the flow of water
through these soils is too slow to
get reasonable measurements
from the constant-head test.
 A compacted soil sample or a
sample extracted from the field is
placed in a metal cylinder.
 Porous stones are positioned at the
top and bottom faces of the sample
to prevent its disintegration and to
allow water to percolate through it.
64
Permeability Cntd
Field Methods Pumping Tests
 One common method of determining the hydraulic
conductivity in the
field is by pumping
water at a constant flow
rate from a well and
measuring the decrease
in groundwater
level at observation
wells.

65
Permeability Cntd
Permiability in Stratified Soil Layers
 Flow parallel to soil layers  hydraulic gradient is the same.
 Flow normal to soil layers  velocity in each layer is the same.

66
Permeability Cntd
Flow parallel to soil layers
 The flow through the soil mass as a whole is equal to
the sum of the flow through each of the layers.
 Consider a unit width (in the y direction) of flow
𝑞𝑥 = 𝐴𝑣 = 1 × 𝐻𝑜 𝑘𝑥(𝑒𝑞)𝑖
= 1 × 𝑧1 𝑘𝑥1𝑖 + 1 × 𝑧2 𝑘𝑥2𝑖 +. . . + 1 × 𝑧𝑛 𝑘𝑥𝑛𝑖
where 𝐻𝑜 is the total thickness of the soil mass, 𝑘𝑥(𝑒𝑞) is the
equivalent permeability in the horizontal direction, 𝑧1 𝑡𝑜 𝑧𝑛 are
the thickness of the first to the nth layers, 𝑘𝑥1 to 𝑘𝑥𝑛 are the
horizontal hydraulic conductivities og the first to the nth layer.
1
𝑘𝑥(𝑒𝑞) = 𝑧1𝑘𝑥1 + 𝑧2𝑘𝑥2 + … + 𝑧𝑛𝑘𝑥𝑛
𝐻𝑜

67
Permeability Cntd
Flow normal to soil layers
 The head loss in the soil mass is the sum of the
head losses in each layer.
∆𝐻 = ∆ℎ1 + ∆ℎ2 + … + ∆ℎ𝑛
where ∆𝐻 is the total head loss, ∆ℎ1 to ∆ℎ𝑛 are the head losses in
each of the n layers..
∆𝐻 ∆ℎ1 ∆ℎ2 ∆ℎ𝑛
𝑘𝑧(𝑒𝑞) = 𝑘𝑧1 = 𝑘𝑧2 = . . . = 𝑘𝑧𝑛
𝐻𝑜 𝑧1 2 𝑧𝑛
where 𝑘𝑧(𝑒𝑞) is the equivalent hydraulic conductivity in the
vertical direction and 𝑘𝑧1 to 𝑘𝑧𝑛 are the vertical hydraulic
conductivities of the first to the nth layer.
𝐻𝑜
𝑘𝑧(𝑒𝑞) = 𝑧
1 + 𝑧2
+ . . . + 𝑧𝑛
𝑘𝑧1 𝑘𝑧2 𝑘𝑧𝑛
68
Seepage
Introduction
 Seepage: flow of
water through the
soil pores under
pressure gradient.
 Flow is not one
directional only and
is not uniform over
the entire area
perpendicular to the
flow.

69
Seepage Cntd
 Laplace‘s equation expresses the condition that the
changes of hydraulic gradient in one direction are
balanced by changes in the other directions.
The assumptions in Laplace’s equation are:
 Darcy’s law is valid.
 Shear stresses are neglected.
 The soil is homogeneous and saturated.
 The soil and water are incompressible (no volume
change occurs).
 Irrotational flow (vorticity) is negligible.

70
Seepage Cntd
 The solution of any differential equation requires
knowledge of the boundary conditions which are
complex for most “real” structures. As a result, it is
difficult to obtain an analytical solution or closed-
form solution for these structures.
 We have to resort to approximate solutions, which we
can obtain using numerical methods such as finite
difference, finite element, and boundary element.
 One is an approximate method called flownet sketching;
a simple and flexible method which conveys a picture of
the flow regime.

71
Seepage Cntd
 Stream line is simply the path of a water molecule.
From upstream to downstream, total head steadily
decreases along the stream line.
hL
datum
concrete dam
TH = hL TH = 0
soil
Impervious
Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved. strata 66
Seepage Cntd
 Equipotential line is simply a contour of constant total
head.
hL
datum
concrete dam
TH = hL TH = 0
TH=0.8 hL
soil
Impervious strata

73
Seepage Cntd
 Flow Net - anetwork of selected stream lines and
equipotential lines.
concrete dam
Curvilinear
square
90º
soil
Impervious strata

74
Seepage Cntd
A flow net must meet the following criteria:
1. The boundary conditions must be satisfied.
2. Flow lines (which represent flow paths of
particles of water) must intersect equipotential
lines at right angles.
3. The area between flow lines and equipotential
lines must be curvilinear squares.
4. The quantity of flow through each flow
channel(which area between two flow lines) is
constant.

75
Seepage Cntd
5) The head loss between each consecutive
equipotential line is constant.
6) A flow line cannot intersect another flow line (i.e. flow
cannot occur across flow lines.)
7) An equipotential line cannot intersect another
equipotential line.
8) The velocity of flow is normal to the equipotential
line.
9) Flowlines and equipotential lines are orthogonal
(perpendicular) to each other.
10) The difference in head between two equipotential
lines is called the potential drop or head loss.
76
Seepage Cntd
Quantity of Seepage (Q)
Nf # of flow channels
Q  khL ….per unit length normal to the plane

Nd
# of equipotential drops
hL head loss from upstream to downstream
concrete
dam
Impervious strata

77
Seepage Cntd
Heads at Point X
Total head = hL - # of drops from upstream x h
Elevation head = - z hL
Pressure head = Total head – Elevation head

Nd
hL
datum
TH = hL Concrete TH = 0
Dam
z
h X
Impervious
Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved. strata 79
Seepage Cntd
Piping in Granular Soils
 At the downstream, near the dam, the
h
exit hydraulic gradient; iexit 
l
hL
datum
concrete
l
dam
h = total head drop
Soil
Impervious strata

79
Seepage Cntd
If iexit exceeds the critical hydraulic gradient (ic), firstly
the soil grains at exit get washed away.
This phenomenon progresses towards the upstream,
forming a free passage of water (“pipe”).
𝛾′ 𝐺𝑠 − 1 𝛾𝑤 = 𝐺𝑠 − 1
𝑖𝑐𝑟 = =
𝛾𝑤 1 + 𝑒 𝛾𝑤 1+𝑒
hL
datum
concrete
dam
no soil; all water
soil
Impervious
strata 83
Critical Hydraulic Gradient
o The critical hydraulic gradient (ic), is given by
o If exit gradient is greater than critical hydraulic gradient:
Consequences:
no stress to hold granular soils together
 soil may flow 
“boiling” or “piping” = EROSION
Seepage Cntd
Piping is a very serious problem. It leads to downstream
flooding which can result in loss of lives.
Therefore, provide adequate safety factor against piping.
ic
Fpiping 
iexit
concrete Typically 5-6

dam
soil
Impervious strata
82
Seepage Cntd
Filters
 Used for facilitating drainage and preventing fines
from being washed away.
 Used in earth dams and retaining walls.
Granular filter
Filter Materials:
 Granular soils
 Geotextiles
Two major criteria:
 Retention
 Permeability

83
4. Soil Compaction
Introduction
🖸 In Geotechnical engineering practice, the soils at a given site
are often less than desirable for the intended purpose. It
may be:
 Weak (strength)
 Highly compressible
 Have a high permeability
Solution
 Relocate the project
 Articulate design for structure members
 Stabilize or improve the properties of the soil
The third alternative may be in most cases the most economical
alternative. There are different techniques for improvement of
soils.
We will consider in this course only compaction.
Introduction
 Soil compaction is the densification reduction in
void ratio of a soil through the expulsion of air.
 Soil improvement is the alteration of any property of
a soil to improve its engineering performance such as
strength, reduced compressibility, reduced
permeability, or improved ground water condition.
 This may be either a temporary process to permit the
construction of a facility or may be a permanent
measure to improve the performance of the completed
facility.

86
Introduction
Let’s re-examine the equation for dry unit weight, that is,
𝐺𝑠 𝛾 𝐺𝑠
𝛾𝑑 = 𝛾𝑤 = = 𝛾𝑤
1+𝑒 1+𝜔 1 + 𝜔𝐺𝑠/𝑆
 How can one increase the dry unit weight?
 Examination of the equation reveals that we have to
reduce the void ratio; that is, 𝜔/𝑆 must be reduced
since Gs is constant.
 The theoretical maximum dry unit weight is
obtained when 𝑆 = 1 (𝑆 = 100%); that is,
𝑒𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜔𝐺𝑠

87
Introduction
Compaction
 Application of energy to soil to reduce the void ratio.
 Densification-reduction in void ratio of a soil
through the expulsion of air.
 Achieved by the process of increasing the unit
weight of soil by forcing the soil solids into dense
state and reducing the air void.
 Its purpose is to produce a soil having physical
properties appropriate for a particular project.
 It’s the most popular and least expensive method of
improving soils.
88
Introduction Cntd
 Many types of earth construction, such as dams,
retaining walls, highways, and airport, require man-
placed soil, or fill.
 The dense state is achieved through the reduction of
the air voids in the soil, with little or no reduction
(or increment) in the water content.

89
Introduction Cntd
Principles of Compaction
 Compaction of soils is achieved by reducing the
volume of voids.
 It is assumed that the compaction process does not
decrease the volume of the solids or soil grains.
uncompacted compacted uncompacted compacted

90
Introduction Cntd
Principles of Compaction
 The degree of compaction of a soil is measured by
the dry unit weight of the skeleton.
 The dry unit weight correlates with the degree of
packing of the soil grains.
𝐺𝑆 𝛾𝑤
 Recall that; 𝛾𝑑 = 1 + 𝑒
 The more compacted a soil is:
 the smaller its void ratio (e) will be.
 the higher its dry unit weight  d will be.

91
Introduction Cntd
 Due to compaction,
loose structure of the
soil mass will become Loose Angular Dense Angular
denser.
Very loose rounded Loose Rounded Dense Rounded

92
Laboratory Compaction Cntd…
Proctor Compaction Test: deliver a standard amount
of mechanical energy (compactive effort) to determine
the maximum dry unit weight of a soil.
Proctor showed that;
 There exists a defined relationship between the soil
moisture content and the degree of dry density to
which a soil may be compacted.
 For a specific amount of compactive energy applied
on the soil there is one moisture content termed
Optimum Moisture Content (OMC) at which a
particular soil attains Maximum Dry Density.
93
Results Compaction Curve
 Each data point on the curve
represents a single compaction
test, and usually 4 or 5 individual
compaction tests are required to
Dry Density ()
Maximum dry Completely determine the
unit weight (d, max) compaction curve.
  At least two specimens wet and
  two specimens dry of optimum,
and water contents varying by
 about 2%.
  Typical values of maximum dry

density are around 1.6 to 2.0
Kg/m3.
 Typical optimum water contents
Optimum water content (OMC) are between 10% and 20%.
Water Content (w)
94
Standard Proctor Test
REMARKS
1. Each data point on the curve represent a single
compaction test.
2. Four or five tests are required
3. The curve is unique for:

-A given soil type
-Method of compaction
-(constant) compactive effort
4. d(max) is only a maximum for a specific compactive
effort and method of compaction. This does not
necessarily reflect the maximum dry unit weight that
can be obtained in the field.
Standard Proctor Test
6. Increasing the compactive effort tends to increase the
maximum dry density, as expected, but also decrease the
OMC. (This is why the curve never be to the right of zero air
curve).
7. In practice less amount of water is used but higher
compactive effort or vise versa.
8. For clay soils d(max) tends to decrease as plasticity increases.
9. The approximation to field is not exact because the lab. test is

a dynamic impact type, whereas field compaction is
essentially a kneading-type compaction.
10.In the field, compactive effort is the number of passes or

“coverage” of the
roller of a certain type and weight on a given volume of soil.
Results
The peak point of the compaction curve:
 The point with the maximum dry density d max.
 Corresponding to the maximum dry density d max is a
water content known as the optimum water content
wopt (also known as the optimum moisture content, OMC).
 Note that the maximum dry density is only a
maximum for a specific compactive effort and
method of compaction. This does not necessarily
reflect the maximum dry density that can be
obtained in the field.
97
Results
Below wopt (dry side of optimum): as the water content
increases, the particles develop larger and larger water
films around them, which tend to “lubricate” the
particles and make them easier to be moved about and
reoriented into a denser configuration.
At wopt: the density is at the maximum, and it does not
increase any further.
Above wopt (wet side of optimum): water starts to
replace soil particles in the mold, and since w << s the
dry density starts to decrease.

98
Modified Proctor Test
 In the early days of compaction, because construction equipment
was small and gave relatively low compaction densities, a
laboratory method that used a small amount of compacting
energy was required.
 As construction equipment and procedures were developed
which gave higher densities, it became necessary to increase the
amount of compacting energy in the laboratory test.
 Developed for projects involving heavy loads such as airways
and highways
 It uses greater level of compaction and produces higher densities.
 It is adapted by AASHTO and ASTM.
99
Standard Proctor Test Modified Proctor Test

 Mold size: 944 cm3 (1/30 ft3)  Mold size: 944 cm3 (1/30 ft3)
 305 mm (12 in) height of  457 mm (18 in) height of
drop drop
 24.4 N (5.5 lb) hammer  44.5 N (10 lb) hammer

 3 layers  5 layers
 25 blows/layer  25 blows/layer

100

101
Theoretical  d (max )
The maximum d (max) is obtained when no air in the voids (i.e. s =100%)
Gs
d  w
1 e
but, wGs  se
for, S  100% e  wGs
Gs w
 z av  w  1
1 wGs G
w
s
Where zav = zero air void unit weight.
 The relationship between zav and w can be obtained as shown in the figure across.
 Compaction curve is always to the left of the zero-air-void curve.
No matter how much water is added, the soil never
becomes completely saturated by compaction.
Zero Air Voids Line
 The “Zero Air Voids” line represents the Maximum Soil Density at
which all of the air voids have been eliminated.
 Air voids are filled with water.
 It is the maximum possible soil density for that soil at any specified
moisture content.
 To plot zero air void line

Where G = specific gravity of the soil
γw =unit weight of water 9.81 kN/m3 (or density 1.0 g/cm3)
S=degree of saturation
For zero-air-voids or 100% saturation, S = 1.
Interpretation of Compaction Test
 For construction specification of soil improvement by
compaction usually call for a minimum of 95% Proctor
maximum dry unit weight.
𝛾𝑑(𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑)
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, 𝑅𝐶 =
𝛾𝑑(𝑚𝑎𝑥)
 This level of compaction can be attained at two water
contents;
 Before the attainment of maximum dry unit weight – dry of optimum
 After the attainment of maximum dry unit weight – wet of optimum
 Normally the former one is used.
 The latter one is used for projects where soil volume changes
from changes in moisture condition are intolerable.
104

105
Field Compaction
Introduction
 The soil mass is compacted in layers called lifts.
 The stress imparted by compactors, especially static
compactors, decreases with lift depth. Consequently,
the top part of the lift is subjected to greater stresses
than the bottom and attain a higher degree of
compaction.
 Lower lift thickness is preferable for uniform
compaction.
 Different types of materials will require different lift
thickness and a suitable type of field compactors.

106
Field Compaction
 Compaction is accomplished by;
Static vertical force
 Applied by a dead weight that imparts pressure and/or
kneading action to the soil mass.
 E.g. sheep foot rollers, grid rollers, rubber-tired rollers,
drum rollers, loaders and scrapers.
Vibratory vertical force
 Applied by engine-driven systems with rotating
eccentric weights or spring/piston mechanisms that impart
a rapid sequence of blows to the soil surface.
– E.g. vibrating plate compactors, vibrating rollers and
vibrating sheepfoot rollers.
107
Field Compaction
 Factors Affecting Field Compaction
Soil type
Moisture content
Thickness of lift
Intensity of pressure applied by the
compacting equipment
Area over which the pressure is applied
Number of roller passes.

108
Field Compaction Cntd…
Control Parameters
 Dry density and water content correlate well with
the engineering properties, and thus they are
convenient construction control parameters.
 Since the objective of compaction is to stabilize
soils and improve their engineering behavior, it
is important to keep in mind the desired
engineering properties of the fill, not just its dry
density and water content. This point is often
lost in the earthwork construction control.

109
Field Compaction Cntd
 Relative compaction or percent compaction

𝜌𝑑−𝑓𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
𝑅. 𝐶. = × 100%
𝜌 𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑜𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟𝑦
 Correlation between relative compaction (𝑅. 𝐶. )
and relative density (𝐷𝑟 )
𝑅. 𝐶. = 80 + 0.2𝐷𝑟
 NB.This is a statistical result based on 47 soil

samples. Typically 𝑅. 𝐶. = 90%~95% is required.
110
5. Soil Improvement
Methods of soil improvement
• Removal and replacement
• Precompression
• Vertical drains
• In-situ densification
• Grouting
• Stabilization using admixtures
• Reinforcement
Removal and replacement
• One of oldest and simplest methods is simply to remove and
replace the soil
• Soils that will have to be replaced include contaminated
soils or organic soils
• Method is usually practical only above the groundwater
table
Precompression
• Simply place a surcharge fill on top of the soil that requires
consolidation
• Once sufficient consolidation has taken place, the fill can be
removed and construction takes place
• Surcharge fills are typically 10-25 feet thick and generally produces
settlement of 1 to 3 feet.
• Most effective in clay soil
Advantages of precompression
• Requires only conventional earthmoving equipment
• Any grading contractor can perform the work
• Long track record of success
Disadvantages of precompression
• Surcharge fill must extend horizontally at least 10 m beyond
the perimeter of the planned construction, which may not be
possible at confined sites
• Transport of large quantities of soil required
• Surcharge must remain in place for months or years, thus
delaying construction
Vertical Drains
• Vertical drains are installed under a surcharge load to accelerate the
drainage of impervious soils and thus speed up consolidation
• These drains provide a shorter path for the water to flow through to
get away from the soil
• Time to drain clay layers can be reduced from years to a couple of
months
Wick Drains
• Geosynthetics used as a
substitute to sand columns
• Installed by being pushed or
vibrated into the ground
• Most are about 100 mm wide
and 5 mm thick
In-situ densification
• Most effective in sands
• Methods used in conventional earthwork are only effective
to about 2 m below the surface
• In-situ methods like dynamic deep compaction are for soils
deeper than can be compacted from the surface
Dynamic vs. Vibratory
Vibroflotation
• Probe includes the vibrator mechanism and water jets
• Probe is lowered into the ground using a crane
• Vibratory eccentric force induces densification and water jets assist
in insertion and extraction
• Vibratory probe compaction is effective if silt content is less than 12-
15% and clay is less than 3%
• Probes inserted in grid pattern at a spacing of 1.5 to 3 m
Vibroflotation
Relative
Ground Type
Effectiveness
Sands Excellent
Silty Sands Marginal to Good
Silts Poor
Clays Not applicable
Mine Spoils Good (if granular)
Depends upon nature
Dumped Fill
of fill
Garbage Not Applicable
Grouting
• Defined as the injection of a special liquid or slurry material
called grout into the ground for the purpose of improving
the soil or rock
• Types of grouts
– Cementitious grouts
– Chemical grouts
Grouting methods
• Intrusion grouting
– Consists of filling joints or fractures with grout
– Primary benefit is reduction in hydraulic conductivity
– Used to prepare foundation and abutments for dams
– Usually done using cementitious grouts
• Permeation grouting
– Injection of thin grouts into the soil
– Once the soil cures, becomes a solid mass
– Done using chemical grouts
– Used for creating groundwater barriers or preparign
ground before tunneling
Grouting methods
• Compaction grouting
– When low-slump
compaction grout is injected
into granular soils, grout
bulbs are formed that
displace and densify the
surrounding loose soils.
– Used to repair structures that
have excessive settlement
Grouting methods
• Jet grouting
– Developed in Japan
– Uses a special pipe with horizontal jets that inject grout
into the ground at high pressures
– Jet grouting is an erosion/replacement system that
creates an engineered, in situ soil/cement product
known as Soilcretesm. Effective across the widest range
of soil types, and capable of being performed around
subsurface obstructions and in confined spaces, jet
grouting is a versatile and valuable tool for soft soil
stabilization, underpinning, excavation support and
groundwater control.
Stabilization using admixtures
• Most common admixture is Portland Cement
• When mixed with soil, forms soil-cement which is comparable to a
weak concrete
• Other admixtures include lime and asphalt
• Objective is to provide artificial cementation, thus increasing
strength and reducing both compressibility and hydraulic
conductivity
• Used to reduce expansion potential of clays
• Used in surface mixing applications
Reinforcement
• Soil is stronger in compression than in
tension
• To improve strength in tension,
geosynthetics placed in soil for soil
reinforcement
Reinforced earthwall construction
Soil Nailing
• The fundamental concept
of soil nailing consists of
reinforcing the ground by
passive inclusions, closely
spaced, to create in-situ a
coherent gravity structure
and thereby to increase the
overall shear strength of the
in-situ soil and restrain its
displacements.
6. Soil Compressibility &
Settlement Analysis
Introduction Cntd…
Why should soil compressibility be studied?
 Ignoring soil compressibility may lead to unfavorable
settlement and other engineering problems.
Embankment and building constructed on

soft ground (highly compressible soil)
Crack
Soft ground
 Settlement is one of the aspects that control the design of

structures.
Why soils compressed?
Every material undergoes a certain amount of strain
when a stress is applied.
A steel rod lengthens when it is subjected to tensile
stress, and a concrete column shortens when a
compressive load is applied.
The same thing holds true for soils which undergo
compressive strains upon loading. Compressive strains
are responsible for settlement of the structure.
What distinguish soils from other civil engineering
materials is the fact that the deformation of soils is
largely unrecoverable (i.e. permanent). Therefore simple
elasticity theory like elasticity cannot be applied to soils.
What makes soil compressed?
 In soils voids exist between particles and the voids
may be filled with a liquid, usually water, or gas,
usually air. As a result, soils are often referred to as a
three-phase material or system (solid, liquid and gas).
Stress increase
 Solid (mineral particles)
 Gas (air),
 Liquid (usually water)
Settlement
 What? total vertical deformation at soil surface
resulting from the load.
 Causes of soil movement
• Downward: load increase or lowering water table
• Upward: temporary or permanent excavation
 Points of interest:
How much?
How fast?

13
5
Causes of settlement
 Settlement of a structure resting on soil may be caused by two
distinct kinds of action within the foundation soils:-
I. Settlement Due to Shear Stress (Distortion Settlement)
 In the case the applied load caused shearing stresses to
develop within the soil mass which are greater than the
shear strength of the material, then the soil fails by sliding
downward and laterally, and the structure settle and may tip
of vertical alignment.
 This is what we referred to as Bearing Capacity.
II. Settlement Due to Compressive Stress (Volumetric Settlement)
 As a result of the applied load a compressive stress is
transmitted to the soil leading to compressive strain.
 Due to the compressive strain the structure settles.
 This is important only if the settlement is excessive otherwise it
is not dangerous.
Mechanisms of compression
• Deformation of soil particles or grains
• Relocations of soil particles
• Expulsion of water or air from the void spaces
Components of settlement
 Settlement of a soil layer under applied load is the sum of
two broad components or categories:
1. Elastic settlement (or immediate) settlements
 Elastic or immediate settlement takes place instantly at the
moment of the application of load due to the distortion (but no
bearing failure) and bending of soil particles (mainly clay).
 It is not generally elastic although theory of elasticity is applied
for its evaluation.
 It is predominant in coarse-grained soils.
2. Consolidation settlement
Consolidation settlement is the sum of two parts or types:
A. Primary consolidation settlement
 In this the compression of clay is due to expulsion of water from
pores.
 The process is referred to as Primary Consolidation and the
associated settlement is termed Primary Consolidation
Settlement.
 Commonly they are referred to simply as Consolidation And
Consolidation Settlement.
B. Secondary consolidation settlement
 The compression of clay soil due to plastic readjustment of
soil grains and progressive breaking of clayey particles and
their interparticles bonds is known as Secondary Consolidation
or Secondary Compression, and the associated settlement is
called Secondary Consolidation Settlement.
 The total settlement of a foundation can be expressed as:
St  S e  S c  S s
Where;
ST = Total settlement
Se = Elastic or immediate settlement
Sc = Primary consolidation settlement
Ss= Secondary consolidation settlement
Total settlement S T
Primary
Immediate Secondary
consolidation
settlement consolidation or creep
settlement
 The total soil settlement S T may contain one or more of these types:
Immediate Primary Secondary

settlement consolidation consolidation or
settlement creep
Due to distortion or Decrease in voids Due to gradual
elastic deformation volume due to squeeze changes in the
with no change in of pore-water out of the particulate structure of
water content soil the soil
Occurs in saturated Occurs very slowly,
Occurs rapidly fine grained soils long after the primary
during the (low coefficient of consolidation is
application of load permeability) completed
Time dependent Time dependent
Quite small quantity
in dense sands, Only significant Most significant in
gravels and stiff in clays and silts saturated soft clayey and
clays organic soils and peats
Consolidation Settlement Cntd…
 Consolidation is the process of gradual reduction in volume
change of fully saturated low permeability soils due to the slow
drainage (expulsion) of pore water from the voids.
Fundamentals of consolidation
 When a soil layer is subjected to a compressive stress, it will exhibit
a certain amount of compression. This compression is achieved
through :
 Rearrangement of the soil solids
 Bending of particles
 Extrusion of the pore air and/or water
 If the soil is dry, its voids are filled with air, rearrangement of
soil particles can occur rapidly.
 If soil is saturated, its voids are filled with incompressible water
which must be extruded from the soil mass before soil grains can
rearrange themselves.
 In coarse soils any volume change resulting from a
change in loading occurs immediately; increases in pore
pressures are dissipated rapidly due to high
permeability.
 In fine soils the soil is undrained as the load is applied.
Slow seepage occurs and the excess pore pressures
dissipate slowly, and consolidation settlement occurs.
 In coarse soils the settlement takes
place instantaneously.
 In fine soils settlement takes far much Coarse Soils
more time to complete. Why?
Settlement
 So, consolidation settlement: is
decrease in voids volume as pore-water
Fine soils
is squeezed out of the soil.
Time (months or years)
 In soils of high permeability consolidation process
occurs rapidly, so the settlement is immediate and the
theory of elasticity is applied for its evaluation as has
been discussed previously.
 However, in fine-grained soil the process requires along
time interval for its completion and the nature of
settlement is more difficult to analyze.
 Gradual reduction in volume = = gradual reduction in
void ratio, “e”.
 Therefore we have to know the change in “e” in
order to know settlement.
 “e” is our internal variable that through it we can follow
the change in soil volume.
Settlement Process
 Initially, all external load is transferred into excess
pore water (excess hydrostatic pressure).
 No change in the effective stress in the soil
 Gradually, as water squeezed out under pressure
gradient, the soil skeleton compress, take up the load,
and the effective stress increase.
 Eventually, excess hydrostatic pressure becomes zero
and the pore water pressure is the same as hydrostatic
pressure prior to loading.

14
4
Consolidation process – Spring analogy
i. At equilibrium under overburden stress
Consolidation process- Spring analogy
ii. Under Load (t = 0)  Soil is loaded by stress increment
s.
 Valve is initially closed.
 As water is incompressible and
valve is closed, no water is out, no
movement of piston.
 Stress is (s ) is transferred to
water.
 Pressure gauge reads an excess
pore pressure (u) such that:
u = s
u = uo + u
No
From the principle of effective stresses: Settlement
s’ = s – u Then s’ = 0
iii. Under Load (0 < t < ∞)
 To simulate fine grained cohesive
soil, where permeability is slow,
valve is slightly opened.
 Water slowly leave the chamber.
 As water flows out excess pore

pressure (u) decreases, and load
is transferred to the spring.
 Settlement is observed.
From the principle of effective stresses:

u < s s’ = s – u u < s Then s’ > 0
u = uo + u
iv. End of consolidation (t = ∞ ) • At the end of consolidation, no further
water is squeezed out, excess pore
pressure is zero.
• Pore water pressure is back to

hydrostatic.
u = 0
u = uo
• The spring (soil) is in equilibrium with
applied stress.
• Final (ultimate) settlement is reached.

All stresses are
transferred to soil
From the principle of effective stresses:

s’ = s – u u = 0 Then s’ = s
Short-term and long-term stresses
 Consider the case where a layer of saturated clay of thickness H
that is confined between two layers of sand is being subjected to
an instantaneous increase of total stress of Δσ.
 Due to a surcharge q applied at the GL, the stresses and pore
pressures are increased at point A and, they vary with time.
q The load q applied on the saturated
soil mass, is carried by pore water in
s the beginning.
A u
s’
As the water starts escaping from the
saturated clay
voids, the excess water pressure gets
gradually dissipated and the load is
shifted to the soil solids which
increases the effective stress.
Short-term and long-term stresses
 s, the increase in total stress remains the same during
consolidation, while effective stress s ’ increases.
 u the excess pore-water pressure decreases (due to drainage)
transferring the load from water to the soil.
 Excess pore pressure (u) is the difference between the current pore
pressure (u) and the steady state pore pressure (uo). u = u - uo
s
uniformly distributed pressure u
q
s’
s
s
A u s’
s’ q
u
Saturated clay Time

Short-term and
long-term stresses
Variation of total stress [σ],
pore water pressure [u], and
effective stress [σ′] in a clay
layer drained at top and
bottom as a result of an added
stress, Δσ.
Remark:
 If an additional load is
applied, the cycle just
described will be repeated
and further settlement will
develop.
Calculation of 1-D Consolidation Settlement
• A simplification for solving consolidation
problems, drainage and deformations are y x
assumed to be only in the vertical direction. z
q kPa
GL
Sand z
Water squeezed out
Reasonable
saturated clay simplification if
the surcharge is of
Sand large lateral
extent
The consolidation settlement can be

determined knowing: - Initial void ratio e0.
- Thickness of layer H
- Change of void ratio e
It only requires the evaluation of e
H -e Relation
H
Average vertical strain =
Ho
q kPa
GL q kPa
H
GL
Ho
Saturated clay
Saturated clay
e = eo
e = eo - e
Time = 0+ Time = 
154
H -e Relation
Consider an element where Vs = 1 initially.
e
eo
Time = 0+ Time = 
e
Average vertical strain =
1  eo 155
H -e Relation
Equating the two expressions for average vertical strain,
Consolidation Change in void ratio

settlement
H e

Ho 1  eo
Initial void ratio
Initial thickness of
clay layer
156
Coefficient of volume compressibility
~ denoted by mv
~ is the volumetric strain in a clay element per

unit increase in stress no units
change in volume

original volume V
i.e.,
mv  V
s
kPa-1 or MPa-1 kPa or MPa
157
Consolidation Cntd…
One-dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
 1-D field consolidation can be simulated in laboratory.
 Data obtained from laboratory testing can be used to
predict magnitude of consolidation settlement.
Wide foundation Simulation of 1-D field consolidation in Lab
GL
Sand or
Drainage layer porous stone
Undisturbed soil
specimen metal ring
(oedometer)
Saturated clay Dia = 50-75 mm
Height = 20-30 mm
Field
Lab
One-dimensional Laboratory Consolidation Test
 The one-dimensional consolidation test was first suggested by
Terzaghi.
 It is performed in a consolidometer (sometimes referred to as
oedometer). The schematic diagram of a consolidometer is
shown below.
Consolidometer or Oedometer
Dial gauge Load
Water
Porous stone
Soil specimen Specimen ring
e – log sv’ plot
- from the above data
loading
void ratio
sv’ increases &
e decreases
unloading
sv’ decreases &
e increases (swelling)
log sv’
160
Virgin Consolidation Line [Normal
Consolidation Line (NCL)]
original
state
virgin consolidation line
eo
void ratio
eo, svo’
sp’ log sv’

svo’
161
Loading
Presentation of
void ratio
Results s’ increases & e decreases
e – s’ plot
Unloading
s’ decreases &
e increases (swelling)
s’
 The figure above is usually termed the compressibility curve
 It is more convenient to express the stress-stain relationship for
soil in consolidation studies in terms of void ratio and unit
pressure instead of unit strain and stress used in the case of most
other engineering materials.
Coefficient of Compressibility av
 av is the slope of e - s’ plot, or av = -de/ds’ (m2/kN)
 There is a linear relationship between the decrease of the voids
ratio e and the increase in the pressure (stress). Mathematically,
 av decreases with increases in effective stress

 Because the slope of the curve e - s’ is constantly changing, it is
somewhat difficult to use av in a mathematical analysis, as is
desired in order to make settlement calculations.
Compression and recompression (swelling) indices
Cr
1
void ratio
Cc ~ compression index
Cc
Cr ~ recompression index 1
(or swelling index)
Cr
1
log sv’
164
Compression and Swell Indices
 The main limitation of using av and mv in describing soil
compressibility is that they are not constant.
 To overcome this shortcoming the relationship between e and sv’
is usually plotted in a semi logarithmic plot as shown below.
Cc ~ compression index
void ratio Cc 
e1
s 2
log
s 1
e1 Cc
1 Cs ~ Swell index
e2
Cs 
e2 Cs s 3
log
s 4
s’4 s’3 s’1 s’2 log s’

Normally Consolidated Clay (N.C. Clay)
 A soil is NC if the present effective pressure to which it is
subjected is the maximum pressure the soil has ever been
subjected.
 The branches bc and fg are NC state of a soil.
Over Consolidated Clays (O.C. Clay)
 A soil is OC if the present effective
pressure to which it is subjected to is
less than the maximum pressure to
Void ratio, e
which the soil was subjected to in the
past.
 The branches ab, cd, df, are the
OC state of a soil.
The maximum effective past pressure

is called the preconsolidation pressure.
Effective pressure, s’ (log scale)
Preconsolidation pressure
 The stress at which the transition or “break” occurs in the
curve of e vs. log s’ is an indication of the maximum vertical
overburden stress that a particular soil sample has sustained in
the past.
 This stress is very

important in
geotechnical engineering
and is known as
Preconsolidation
Pressure.
sc’
Degree of consolidation
o The progress of consolidation after sometime t and at any depth z
in the consolidating layer can be related to the void ratio at that
time and the final change in void ratio.
o This relationship is called the DEGREE or PERCENT of
CONSOLIDATION.
o Because consolidation progress by the dissipation of excess pore
water pressure, the degree of consolidation at a distance z at any
time t is given by:
𝑬𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆 𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒔𝒊𝒑𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒅
𝑼𝒛 =
𝑰𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒆𝒙𝒄𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝒑𝒐𝒓𝒆 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
……($)
Substituting the expression for excess pore water pressure, i.e.
into Eq. ($) yields

2
Uz = 1- …… ($$)
• The above equation can be used to find the degree of

consolidation at depth z at a given time t.
• At any given time excess pore water pressure uz varies with
depth, and hence the degree of consolidation Uz also varies.
• If we have a situation of one-way drainage Eq. ($$) is still be
valid, however the length of the drainage path is equal to the
total thickness of the clay layer.
Isochrones
Variation of Uz with Tv
and z/Hdr
Remarks
 From the figure it is possible to find the amount or degree of
consolidation for any real time after the start of loading and at
any point in the consolidating layer.
 All you need to know is the Cv for the particular soil deposit, the
total thickness of the layer, and boundary drainage conditions.
 These curves are called isochrones because they are lines of equal
times.
 With the advent of digital computer the value of Uz can be readily
evaluated directly from the equation without resorting to chart.
Length of the drainage path, Hdr
 During consolidation water escapes from the soil to the surface or to a
permeable sub-surface layer above or below (where u = 0).
 The rate of consolidation depends on the longest path taken by a drop of
water. The length of this longest path is the drainage path length, Hdr
Hdr Hdr Hdr

Permeable layer H Clay Hdr
Hdr
L
• Typical cases are:
– An open layer, a permeable layer both above and below (Hdr = H/2)
– A half-closed layer, a permeable layer either above or below (Hdr = H)
– Vertical sand drains, horizontal drainage (Hdr = L/2)
Recap
𝑼𝒛 =
Uz = 1- 2
Average degree of consolidation
 The average degree of consolidation for the entire depth of
clay layer is,
2H uo
 1  dr
   u z dz …… (&)
 2 H dr  0
U  1
uo
Area under the
Substituting the expression of uz
2 Hdr pore pressure
given by
curve
Into Eq. (&) and integrating, yields

Variation of U with Tv
𝑺𝒄(𝒕) = 𝑼(𝒕) 𝑺𝒄
Sc(t) = Settlement at any time, t
Sc = Ultimate primary consolidation settlement of the layer.
Summary
o Because consolidation progress by the dissipation of excess pore water
pressure, the degree of consolidation at a distance z at any time t is given by:
𝑼𝒛 =
2H
 1  dr
   u z dz
 2 H dr  0
U  1
uo
2
Uz = 1- Average Degree
Degree of of consolidation
consolidation
Approximate relationships for U vs TV
 Many correlations of variation of U with Tv have been proposed.
 Terzaghi proposed the followings:
Average degree of consolidation, U (%)

𝟒𝑻𝒗
or 𝑼 = 𝝅
or 𝑇 −1.781 Time factor, Tv

− 𝑣0.933
𝑈 = 100 − 10
Do not forget, this is the

theoretical relationship
Thank you!!

Soil Mechanics I Tutorial For Exit Exam

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Soil Mechanics I Tutorial For Exit Exam

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Soil Mechanics – I

Tutorial for Exit Exam

By: Fenta Nebiyou

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Referred to simply as water content in many literatures.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Void Ratio (e): ratio of the volume of the voids, Vv, to

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

where 𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum void ratio (loosest

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Simple Classification Estimate Achieve

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

6. Carbonate: Effervesces with acid. Add a small

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

movement and retention of

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

through a porous medium (e.g., soils).

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

length AB, along the

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

where 𝑘𝑧 is the hydraulic conductivity in the vertical

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2009 Huawei Technologies Co., Ltd. All rights reserved.