WM nrera may be protected by ‘gopyri ght law (Tit lo 17 U.S. Code} Teaching Effectiveness: Developing a Climate for Music Learning by Robert Erbes, Chairperson of Music Education n State University Introduction ch into those attributes 10 eflective teaching has soles! shinuub three distinct stages sive she inception of teacher rating i esaluinon seales inthe early + Print World War TT much of hic reswancls was based on the study of I tonimon traits and_ personality s siluiey of teachers. In the period of IW H-DI7O, the effectiveness of specific trv st we limiques and methodology wee the focus of study. From this Hod an extensive body of h by Flanders influenced siteuble study of the environment lewher created in the classroom inl tts ellert on student outcomes; ieally, that of student auitude tod whievement. Contemporary weit teacher effectiveness. has wns tite to the study of teacher mpereneies and. professional isinnsmaking skills. This article 1 sunumatize much of the research, uw the field of classroom cuaenment of “climate”. The wscach from this. period has da foundation for many comemporary ends in teacher tilucavion and curriculum develop- tment and certainly represents a major ifluence in the shaping of current teaching strategie Because a significant body of research, into music teache> effectiveness does not presently exist, the author has thaw upon the studies of teaching from other academic disciplines, The value of understanding the ficwrs that constitute effective classtoom climate and the methods by which it can be maintained should be of concern to the music educator, who in meeting the everyday pressures to succeed, may often by guilty of aching for “immediate” goals and not developing a setting for lasting musical values and learning Classroom Climate Defined No_aspect of effective classroom -aching has been more closely studied by researchers than classroom climate The “climate” is defined as the emotional tone created by an atmosphere of warmth existing between twachers and their students climate is developed and aching styles that are 1 termed “direct” or “indirect”. A direct style, one that is wacher- centered and provides little student involvement, tends to produce a climate that is often characterized by less positive student attitudes. The indirect style is indicative of more teacher reinforcement and student volvement in the learning situation. One major conclusion of Flanders’ (1970) extensive research in teaching indicated that indirect teaching ihanced an atmosphere for ellective learning. Four attributes of effective teaching often reported as helpful in producing and maintaining an improved classroom climate include: (a) Teacher use of approval and disapproval, (b) Teacher use of . (€), Teacher-student interaction, and (d) Teacher ‘enthusiasm and warmth. Each of these will be discussed in terms of relevant research in teaching, The The value of under- standing the factors that constitute effective class- room climate and the methods by which it can be maintained should be of concern to the music edu- cator, who in meeting the everyday pressures to suc- ceed, may often be guilty of teaching for “immediate” goals and not developing a setting for lasting musical values and learning. Teacher Approval and Disapproval Perhaps no other teach technique is more influential to a positive or negative climate than the teacher's use of approval or disapproval of student behavior and performance. Many. studies have reported correlation between teacher approval and the effect upon studer achievement. Studies by Spaulding (1965) and Flanders (1970) indicated positive relationships existed between teacher praise or approval and reased student achievement in ‘elementary and junior high ‘hematics and reading. In his summary of studies of teacher disapproval or criticism and their relationship with suxdent achieve- Rosenshine (1968) stated that there was no evidence to support at vepare 71 wacher should avoid telling students that they are wrong, However, teachers who used excessive Griticisin appeared to have had classes ‘shuich achieved less in move subject The intensity or “Joading” of teacher etiticivm also noticeably affected student outcomes. Teacher ehavions that were non-threatening, for forms of mild disapproval did not signiticantly affect students, — but hostile and challenging _wacher oltwn significantly reduced behaviors correlated with student achievement, Taking a bit different spproach to achievement, Soar (1968) found in his study of 54 elementary Aassooms that higher levels of Student reasoning were associated with more indivect and less critical teacher influence patierns and creativity appeared to flourish with most indivect patterns. Perhaps no other teaching technique is more influential to a positive or negative climate than the teacher's use of approval or disapproval of student behavior and performance. Teacher use of approval and disapproval can also be a factor in influencing the classroom behavior of students, Ina recent stdent, Brophy (1979) reported in classes receiving, more teacher praise and less rebukes, students mor: orderly and feaebers spent less time managing the Classroom. Medley (1977) presented a synthesis of several studies on the use ‘of praise with primary grade students, by summarizing the data from these studies, he reported the following relationships bewween a pleasing learning cavironment and. the hharacteristics of the classes of effective anu inellective teachers Maintenance of a Pleasing Learning Environment Behavior of Teachers Effective Teachers L._Teys deviant, disruptive student be haviors 2 fewer teacher rebukes 3. less teacher criticism 4 vppare 4. less time spent in class manage- 5. more praise and positive motiva- Incffcetive Teachers more disruptive student behaviors more teacher rebukes more wacher criticism more time spent in class manage- less positive Teacher Use of dent Ideas Another aspect of teaching effectiveness and. classroom climate ‘often studied is the methods by which the teacher makes use of or accepts the ideas or behaviors of the studer Flanders (1970) stated that this was one of the most powerful verbal techniques used by tachers. “The technique was reflected in improved stuclent attitudes toward the teacher and ‘class content as well as to achievement scores. He described the following methods by which teachers make use of student ideas: 1. acknowledging the student's ideas by repeating the nouns nd logical commentaries ex- pressed. 2 modifying the ideas by 1 phrasing them or conceptual ing them in the teacher's own words, 3. applying the ideas by using them to reach an inference or take the next step ina logical nalysis of a problem. 4. comparing the ideas by draw- ing a relationship between them and ideas expressed car~ lier by the student or teacher 5. Summarizing what was said by an individual student ov a group of students. Another aspect of teaching effectiveness and classroom climate often studied is the methods by which the teacher makes use of or accepts the ideas or behaviors of the students. In a study of 58 elementary level teachers, Amidon and Giammatico (1967) teported that those teachers rated superior by their supervisors ae were accepting of student~ initiated ideas. and tended w encourage those ideas and build upon them in their teaching. The technique ccan also be extended by the teacher's acknowledging and holding up as model a. student behavior o: performance that is appropriate and positive. This approach is highly Teinforcing to those students “used "as the models of exemplary behavior In a udy of 53 elmentary level teachers, Amidon and Giammatteo (1967) reported that those teachers rated superior by their supervisors were more accepting of student-initi- ated ideas and tended to encourage those ideas and build upon them in their teaching. Teacher-Student Interact The exchange of verbal behavior betiwcen teachers and students isoben referred to as classroom “interaction Much of the research in teaching since 1950 has involved the study of this interaction and the resulting student outcomes; specifically, student attitude and achicvement. intersetio research requires the use of observational techniques that chat the Mow of teacher and student behavior as they occur, but does noc record the quality of intensity of the dialogue. Ina major study of secondary level social studies. and mathematics teachers, Flanders (196), four elements of waching techniques fram whieh students Tearned more and in which achievement and attitudes were superior: (a) First the teacher wasable to move easily between verbal techniques that were direct 10 those that supported and. encouraged student initiative, (b) The teacher was able to control spontaneous verbal Behaviors and react to classroom situations quickly, (c) The teacher understood the role and effectiveness of his or her verbal techniques, and id) The teacher watsa sensitive observer of classroom conditions and behavioss In those classrooms of the teachers who were found less effective was little variation in the notedEE i vwrhal techniques and thei inability wo influence theactions of the students though verbal techniques. was vide. Throe additional studies by Lashiet (1965), Pankravz (1966), and Fist (1967) indicated results that significant improvement was found in. soul attitude and achievement as a sult of a more interactive or indirect teat hing style. These conclusions were subvuntiated bythe interaction teach in elementary classrooms by Powell (1968) and Weber (1968). ‘Teacher Enthusiasm and Warmth The attribute of “teacher enhusiasin’™ hasbeen central 10 escanch in teaching effectiveness for several decades. The characteristies of © often been teacher enthusiasin ha identilied as those physical tovernents oF gestures and verbal techniques that hold the interest of students. Studies by Solomon (1963) aunt Coats and Smidehens (1966) Supported the contention that student ichievement was enhanced by teachers ‘who exhibited obvious enthusiasm as means of developing a_ positive ‘assioom climate, The other attribute tw this category, “teacher warmth", way the focus of a significant study of Torrance and Parent (1966) with sevonilary level mathematics teachers, Those using warm in their teaching were naed highly by students on the characteristics of helping students injoy class, use of praise, interesting teaching, fendliness, and fairness. In ildition, students were more attentive al attempted to be more cooperative ding clas, The attribute of “teacher enthusiasm” has been central to research in teaching effectiveness for several decades. The characteristics of teacher enthusiasm have often been identified as those physical movements or gestures and ‘thal techniques that hold the interest of students. Summary Based on this brief summary of research, the reader can conclude that a positive classroom climate is important in enhancing the student’s auitudes toward the teacher and school and in promoting desirable student behavior. It is only a natural outcome that the student attitudesand behaviors would eventually be reflected in improved. student achievement. Teachers should not assume that indirect teaching ultimately means a climate that is permissive, but that structure and order to the classroom is also vital to effective teaching. Pethaps a key to effective teaching is the flexible use or movement between indirect teaching behaviors that will encourage the student to interact with the teacher or class and those teaching behaviors that will lead to thedevelopment of student skills im the classroom or rehearsal Whatever the teaching behavior selected, a climate for effective music learning should be an ultimate goal of the music educator. Leonhard and House (1972, p.317) perhaps best summarize ‘this goal by their statement, “To establish an atmosphere conductive to free and friendly discussion, the teacher should give concrete evidence of valuing and giving consideration to ideas expressed by pupils..." “The teacher should also look for and encourage initiative, leadership, and the ability of pupils to think for themscives about REFERENCES, Amidon, Band Giamvnatien, M. The verbal vias of superior elementary teachers In EJ) Amidon and J. Hough [Eas Interaction Analyas: ‘Theary, Research, and “Application. Reading. Mass Auldison-Wesky Publishing Company Brophy. JF. Teacher behavior and its eect, Jinarnal of Fdrcational Peychology. 199, 715-750, Goats, W.D- and Smidehens,U. Audience recall ssa function ofspeakerdynamisin. Journal Of Education Poychology, 1966, 37.189 ro Flanders, N.A. Some relationships between teacher influence, ‘pupal atitudes. and achievement. In B,J. Bidile and. W.) 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