Basking in Reflected Glory

- The tendency for people to identify

Social Perception themselves with the successes of others
such that those others’ success becomes
- the process of combining, integrating,
their own.
and interpreting information about
others to gain an accurate Cutting Off Reflected Failure
understanding of them
- The tendency for people to avoid making
Attribution Process failure part of their identities by
dissociating themselves from individuals
- that is, the way people come to judge
or teams that have lost.
the underlying causes of others’
behavior Correspondent Inferences
- The process through which individuals
- Judgments about people’s dispositions,
attempt to determine the causes behind
their traits and characteristics, that
others’ behavior
correspond to what we have observed of
Personal Identity their actions.
- also might not be accurate because
- The characteristics that define a
people on the job tend to conceal some
particular individual
of their traits—especially those likely to
- such as your appearance, your
be viewed as negative.
personality, and your special skills and
interest

Social Identity

- Who a person is, as defined in terms of

his or her membership in various social
groups.
Internal causes of behavior
Social Identity Theory
- explanations based on actions for which
- recognizes that the way we perceive
the individual is responsible
others and ourselves is based on both
our unique characteristics (i.e.,personal External causes of behavior
identity) and our membership in various
groups (i.e.,social identity). - explanations based on situations over
which the individual has no control

Kelley’s Theory of Causal Attribution

- The approach suggesting that people will

believe others’ actions to be caused by
internal or external factors based on
three types of information: consensus,
consistency, and distinctiveness
Consensus Halo Effect

- the extent to which other people behave
in the same manner as the person we’re
judging. If others do behave similarly,
consensus is considered high; if they do
not, consensus is considered low
- The tendency for our overall impressions
of others to affect objective evaluations
of their specific traits; perceiving high
correlations between characteristics
that may be unrelated.

Consistency

- the extent to which the person we’re

judging acts the same way at other
times. If the person does act the same at
other times, consistency is high; if he or
she does not, then consistency is low

Distinctiveness
- the extent to which a person behaves in
the same manner in other contexts. If he
or she behaves the same way in other
situations, distinctiveness is low; if he or
she behaves differently, distinctiveness
is high
Team Halo Effect
- The tendency for people to credit teams
for their successes but not to hold them
accountable for their failures
Similar-to-me effect
- The tendency for people to perceive in
a positive light other who are believed
to be similar to themselves in any of
several different ways

Perceptual Biases

- Predispositions that people have to

misperceive others in various ways

Fundamental Attribution Error

- The tendency to attribute others’

actions to internal causes (e.g., their
traits) while largely ignoring external
factors that also may have influenced
behavior
Selective Perception
- The tendency to focus on some aspects
of the environment while ignoring
others.
First-impression Error Golem Effect

- The tendency to base our judgments of - A negative instance of the self-fulfilling

others on our initial impressions of prophecy, in which people holding low
them. expectations of another tend to lower
that individual’s performance
Self-fulfilling Prophecy

- The tendency for someone’s

expectations about another to cause
that person to behave in a manner
consistent with those expectations. This
can be either positive (see the Pygmalion
effect) or negative (see the Golem
effect) in nature.

Stereotype

- A belief that all members of specific

groups share similar traits and are prone
to behave identically

Stereotype Threat

- The uncomfortable feeling that people

have when they run the risk of fulfilling a
negative stereotype associated with a
Pygmalion Effect group to which they belong

- A positive instance of the self-fulfilling

prophecy, in which people holding high
expectations of another tend to improve
that individual’s performance

Impression Management

- Efforts by individuals to improve how

they appear to others.
 Contingencies of Reinforcement

- The various relationships between one’s

behavior and the consequences of that
behavior—positive reinforcement,
negative reinforcement, punishment,
and extinction

Performance Appraisal

- The process of evaluating employees on

various work-related dimensions. Positive Reinforcement

Learning - The process by which people learn to

perform behaviors that lead to the
- A relatively permanent change in presentation of desired outcomes
behavior occurring as a result of
experience. Negative Reinforcement/Avoidance

Operant Conditioning/Instrumental Conditioning - The process by which people learn to

perform acts that lead to the removal of
- The form of learning in which people
undesired events.
associate the consequences of their
actions with the actions themselves. Punishment
Behaviors with positive consequences
- Decreasing undesirable behavior by
are repeated; behaviors with negative
following it with undesirable
consequences are avoided.
consequences.
Law of Effect
Extinction
- The tendency for behaviors leading to
- The process through which responses
desirable consequences to be
that are no longer reinforced tend to
strengthened and those leading to
gradually diminish in strength
undesirable consequences to be
weakened. Observational Learning (modeling)

- The form of learning in which people

acquire new behaviors by systematically
observing the rewards and punishments
given to others

STEPS IN THE OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

PROCESS. For people to learn by observing
models, several processes must occur (for a
summary of these, see Figure 3.14). These are as - Formal training programs involving both
follows: on-the-job and classroom training
usually over a long period, often used for
1. The learner must pay careful attention to the
training people in the skilled trade
model; the greater the attention, the more
effective the learning will be. To facilitate Cross-cultural Training (CCT)
learning, models sometimes call attention to
- A systematic way of preparing
themselves. This is what happens when
employees to live and work in another
supervisors admonish their subordinates to “pay
country.
close attention” to what they’re doing.

2. People must have good retention of the

model’s behavior. It helps to be able to develop
a verbal description or a mental image of
someone’s actions to remember them. After all,
we cannot learn from observing behavior we
cannot remember.

3. There must be some behavioral reproduction

of the model’s behavior. Unless people are
capable of doing exactly what the models do, Corporate Universities
they will not be able to learn from observing
them. Naturally, this ability may be limited at - Centers devoted to handling a
first, but improve with practice. company’s training needs on a full-time
basis
4. Finally, people must have some motivation to
learn from the model. Of course, we don’t Executive Training Programs
emulate every behavior we see, but we focus on
- Sessions in which companies
those we have some reason or incentive to
systematically attempt to develop their
match—such as actions for which others are
top leaders, either in specific skills or
rewarded.
general managerial skills
Training
E-training
- The process of systematically teaching
- Training based on disseminating
employees to acquire and improve job-
information online, such as through the
related skills and knowledge
Internet or a company’s internal intranet
Varieties of Training Methods network

Classroom Training Principles of Learning

- The process of teaching people how to
do their jobs by explaining various job
requirements and how to meet them.
Apprenticeship Programs
- The set of practices that make training
effective, such as participation,
repetition, transfer of training, and
feedback
Participation Organizational Behavior Management (OB Mod)

- Active involvement in the process of - The practice of altering behavior in

learning; more active participation leads organizations by systematically
to more effective learning. administering rewards.

Repetition

- The process of repeatedly performing a

task so that it may be learned.

Active Learning

- A collection of learner centered

techniques in which individuals are
active participants in the learning
process

Transfer of Training
Discipline
- The degree to which the skills learned
during training sessions may be applied - The process of systematically
to performance of one’s job. administering punishments

Feedback Progressive Discipline

- Knowledge of the results of one’s - The practice of gradually increasing the

behavior. severity of punishments for employees
who exhibit unacceptable job behavior.
360-degree Feedback

- The practice of collecting performance

feedback from multiple sources at a
variety of organizational levels.