1

1. Introduction
2. Acknowledgement
3. Bibliography
4. History of the Photoelectric Effect
R5. Photoelectric Effect
5.1Discovery of the Photoelectric Efect
5.2 Explanation of the Photoelectric Effect
5.3 Einstein's Explanation
5.4 Experimental Verification
5.5 Formulas Related to the Photoelectric Effedt
6. Subtopics of the Photoelectric Effect
6.1 Work Function
6.2 Threshold Frequency
6.3 Einstein's Photoelectric Equation
6.4 Stopping Potential
6.5 Photoelectric Current
6.6 Lawvs of the Photoelectric Effect
7. Conclusion
 I would like to express my sincere gratitude
to all those who have contributed to this project
on the photoelectriceffect. Iwould like to thank
my teachers, colleagues, and the authors of the
resources used. Your guidance and support have
been invaluable in the completion of this work.
9 History of the Photoelectric Effect:

The photoelectric effect is a phenomenon

that refers to the emission of electrons from
a material surface when it is illuminated by light.
This effect has a significant historical background
and has been studied by many scientists over the
years.

In the late 19th century, the German physicist

Heinrich Hertz observed that a spark jumped
more easily between two electrodes when they
were exposed to ultraviolet light. This observation9,
hinted at the existence of a connection betweenN
light and the emission of electrons from a
metal surface.
 Sir. Heinrich Hertz

Photoelectric
effect

177V 207eV
400en

Potassium - 2eV needed to eject eiectron

Electron emission due to light

 In 1902,Philipp Lenard conducted
experiments to investigate the eftect further.
ieobserved that the maximum kinetic energy
Sf the emitted electrons depended on the
frequency of incident light rather than its intensity
This crucial finding laid the foundation
for the development of the photoelectric eftect.
 The basic idea behind the photoelectric
effect is that when light shines on a
material, it can transfer energy to the
electrons within that material. If the
energy of the light is sufficient, it can
provide enough energy to the electrons
to overcome the binding forces that hold
them within the material, causing the
electrons to be ejected from the surface.
These ejected electrons are known as
photoelectrons.

The key formula related to the photoelectric

effect is known as the Einstein's photoelectric
equation:

E= hf -p
 The Theory of Light
Before Einstein no one really
understood how light really worked. It
was a wave, particles, quanta..... no
one really new.

Light did not follow Newtonians

physics.

n 1905 Eiastein put out a paper that

decared light, Iravels as both a wave
and as particles called quanta, mostly
because it has to.

In 191l, he finally gets a job as a

Professor of Physics at the German
Univerity.

Einstein's Quantum Theory of Light

(Wave-Particle Duality of Light )
Einstein adapted
Planck's Quantum Theory

E=hv
Photon Excited
Electron

Atom

" We live in aQuantum Universe, one

built out of tiny, discrete chunks of
energy and matter. "
f / t Pay Albert Einstein
 Explanation of the Photoelectric Efiect:

The photoelectric effect can be explained

tising the wave-particle duality of light.
S, According to this concept, light behaves
koth as a wave and as a particle called
a photon. When light falls on ametal surface,
it interacts with the electrons in the material

Subtopics related tothe Photoelectric Effect

1Work Function

|2 Threshold Frequency

3 Einstein's Photoelectric Equation

|4 Stopping Potential

5Photoelectric Current

'6Laws of the Photoelectric Effect

 (1): Work Function:

The work function (O) of a metal

K refers to the minimum energy required
for an electron to escape the metal surface.
It is unique to each metal and is a measure
of the metal's ability to emit electrons in
the presence of light.

Formula: = hf- BE

Where: is the work function,

h is Planck's constant, f is the frequency
of incident light, and BE is the binding
energy of the electron in the metal.
 UV light

Electrons
emitted
Metal from plate
plate

6.olevy
Work function exp
Se
P
5.5
Te ReBe GeA
5.0 Ru Ni
Pb
FeMo, S ,RLA,
NHgb RhCo
4.5 In BAgTMCs
4.0 Zr

3.5

3.0 Ca
Ba
2.5 Sr Na
R
2.0

Photons
Electrons
Fected from
the Surfsce

Sodum Metal

ora
 (2): Threshold Frequency:

The threshold frequency (o) is the

minimum frequency of light required
Nfor the photoelectric effect to occur in
a particular metal. Below this frequency,
no electrons are emitted, regardless of the
light intensity.

Formula: fo = /h

Where: fo is the threshold frequency

is the work function, and his
Planck's constant.
 ww
V-6.22 x 10 m/s
J50 nm
700 nm
Vm, 236 x 10 ms 400 nm

No oigcrors
ocod Wetal

variations of photoelectric effect f

or different lights

(3) Einstein's Photoelectric Equation:

Albert Einstein proposed a mathematical

equation to explain the photoelectric effect.
This equation relates the kinetic energy (KE)
of the emitted clectrons to the frequency ()
of incident light and the work function ()
of the material.

Formula: KE = hf- ¢
Where: KE is the kinetic energy of the
electron, h is Planck's constant, fis the
frequency of incident light, and
is the work function.
 (4) .Stopping Potential:

The stopping potential (Vo) is the minimum

potential difference that needs to be applied
across a metal surface to stop the emitted
electrons from reaching a collector plate.
It is directlyproportional to the kinetic
energy of the electrons.

Formula: V, = KE/e
Where: V, is the stopping potential,
KE is the kinetic energy of the electron, and
e is the charge of an electron.

l(s)Photoelectric Current:

The photoelectric current ([) refers to the

flow of electrons emitted from a metal surface

when it is illuminated by light. It is directly

it is directly proportional to the intensity of
incident light and depends on other factors such
as the work function and the number of available
electrons.

Formula: I= neA
Where: I is the photoelectric current, n is the
number of emitted electrons per second, e is the
charge of an electron, and A is the area of the
metal surface.

n i np
g hotons
larget (anode)
incomin

emitted photoelectrons
photocathode
adjust retarding polential
to pravent photoelectrons
from reaching target

voltage source

Emmisison of Photoelectron
(6) Laws of the Photoelectric Effect:

There are some important laws associated with

the photo electric effect

The intensity of incident light affects the

number of emitted electrons, but not their
maximum kinetic energy.
- The maximum kinetic energy of emitted
ncident light and is independent of its
intensity

Conclusion:

The photoelectric effect is a fundamental

phenomenon in physics that has revolutioned
our understanding of light and the behavior
of electrons. Its study has led to significant,
advancements in the fields of quantum physics
and modern optics. Understanding the subtoplcs
is important.
 Bibliography:

1. D.S. Mathur, "Concepts of Physics," S. Chand

R Publications.

2. R.P. Feynman, R.B. Leighton, M. Sands,

"The Feynman Lectures on Physics,"
Addison-Wesley Longman.

3. HC. Verma, "Concepts of Physics,"

Bharati Bhawan Publishers.