Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

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Ain Shams Engineering Journal

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Development of quadruped walking robots: A review

Priyaranjan Biswal ⇑, Prases K. Mohanty
Department of Mechanical Engineering, National Institute of Technology, Arunachal Pradesh 791112, India

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Nowadays, design, development, and motion planning of a mobile robot explore research areas in the
Received 1 November 2019 field of robotics. Mobile robots have an extensive area of applications in various fields like space explo-
Revised 29 September 2020 ration, military application, industrial use, and many more. Hence, the design and development of a
Accepted 6 November 2020
mobile robot is a crucial part of the above application. Among all the mobile robot, the quadrupedal robot
Available online xxxx
is a legged robot, which is superior to wheeled and tracked robot due to its potential to explore in all the
terrain like the human and animal. In this paper, the survey concentrates on various design and develop-
Keywords:
ment approaches for the quadrupedal robot, and environment perception techniques are discussed.
Quadruped robot
Legged robot
Besides, Spot is one of the most advanced and intelligent quadrupedal robots. The performance of each
Gait quadruped robot and the future outline are provided in details.
Actuator Ó 2020 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams Uni-
Payload versity. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/
by-nc-nd/4.0/).

1. Introduction
In the last three decades, the mobile robot has made much
attention because of exploring in the complex environment, space,
rescue operation, accomplishing a task without human effort, etc.
The mobile robot can be broadly classified into three categories;
wheeled robot, tracked robot, and legged robot [1]. The robot loco-
motion system is an essential characteristic of mobile design, and
it depends not only on working space but also on a technical mea-
sure like maneuverability, controllability, terrain condition, effi-
ciency, and stability. Each system has its own advantages and
disadvantages [2,3]. The detailed comparison of the technical crite-
ria of the legged robot over wheel robot is shown in Table 1. The
Development of terrestrial locomotion of legged robot has been
continuously grown over the few decades because of more advan-
tages than wheel robot vehicles, which is observed from Table 1.
The advantages of legged locomotion depend on the postures,
the number of legs, and the functionality of the leg. Though
wheeled and tracked robots can work in plane terrain, but most
of them couldn’t work in cluttered terrain, complex and hazardous
environments. The legged robot has more potential to roam almost
all the earth surfaces in different terrains, just like the human and
an animal [4]. Animals used their legs to move fast with reliably in
different terrains with excellent locomotion and agility. Most
often, they gear up with high speed and efficiency depending on
environmental conditions. The stability and efficient gait point of
view, even the number of legs are more suitable in universal [5–
7]. The quadruped robots are the best choice among all legged
robots related to mobility and stability of locomotion. The four legs
of the robot are easily controlled, designed, and maintained as
compared to two or six legs. The biologically inspired locomotion
of running gaits is the ability to take high payload and robot bal-
ancing of quadruped robot started earlier by the researcher. To
achieve real-time speed and natural movement like a cow, dog,
cheetah, the developed control system, and dynamical gait gener-
ation of quadruped robots are required [8–10].
This paper is well-ordered as follows: the revolutions of bionic
four-footed robots and its progress are reviewed in Section 2. Sec-
tion 3 describes the recent significance of quadruped robots with
future scopes. The last part of this paper is summarized with the
conclusion and the future aspect of the four-footed robot.

⇑ Corresponding author.
E-mail address: priyaranjan.phd@nitap.ac.in (P. Biswal).
2. State-of -the -art review
Peer review under responsibility of Ain Shams University.

2.1. Early 1900s quadruped Robot

In the early 1900s, many scientists and researchers were devot-

Production and hosting by Elsevier
ing their time to research the leg mechanism of the four-footed

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.asej.2020.11.005
2090-4479/Ó 2020 THE AUTHORS. Published by Elsevier BV on behalf of Faculty of Engineering, Ain Shams University.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).

Please cite this article as: P. Biswal and P.K. Mohanty, Development of quadruped walking robots: A review, Ain Shams Engineering Journal, https://doi.org/
10.1016/j.asej.2020.11.005
P. Biswal and P.K. Mohanty
Table 1
Comparison between wheel robot with legged robot.
Technical Criteria Wheel Robot Legged Robot
Maneuverability X ✔
Transvers ability X ✔
controllability ✔ X
Terrain Land X ✔
Efficiency X ✔
Stability ✔ X
Cost effective ✔ X
Navigation over obstacles X ✔
robot. Chebyshev developed the first walking mechanism in 1870,
which primarily converts rotational motion to translation motion
with constant velocity based on the four-bar mechanism, as shown
in Fig. 1. The Chebyshev’s mechanism looks like the Greek letter
Lambda; therefore, the linkage is also named a lambda mechanism.
This device could walk dynamically on flat terrain only and does
not have an independent leg motion. Later, this mechanism got
incorporated into two machines MELWALK and DANTE [11].
Another walking machine named as a mechanical horse, which
is discussed by Raibert [12]. Rygg developed the mechanical horse
in 1893. Different types of links and crank were used to transmit
the power to the machine by the help of rider pedals, as shown
in Fig. 2 (a). The earliest dedicated attempt to build a locomotive
machine with independently controlled legs was made in Britain
in 1940 by Hutchinson [13], as shown in Fig. 2 (b). It was a four-
legged model, about 60 cm high, whose eight joints were con-
trolled by flexible cables which in turn controlled by an operator’s
two feet’s and hands. Later on, this concept was adopted by Gen-
eral Electric for MOSHER/WALKING TRUCK in the 1960s, as shown
in Fig. 2 (c). Similar innovations also took place for the develop-
ment of Walking Truck [14] in mid-1900s. Walking Truck quad-
ruped was developed by Mosher with the collaboration of
General Electric Corporation (G.E), while a 90H.P gas engine con-
trolled the energy of this quadruped.
2.2. Mid 1900s quadruped Robot:
The first autonomous quadruped robot in the United States was
constructed in the 1960s at the University of Southern California. It
was named ‘‘phony pony” [11], while some called it ‘‘The California
Horse,” as shown in Fig. 3 (a). Each leg of this robot had two iden-
tical rotary joints with electrically actuated and capable of produc-
ing several gait patterns like trot, walk including crawl with
plodding speed. It was also able to maintain a stationary upright
stability gait because each foot is based on an inverted T shape
or pelvic structure that provides stability in the frontal plane. By
using electric logic based on flip-flow, the quadruped performed
crawling as well as diagonal trot depending on synchronized
selected state diagram gait. Again, a giant legged locomotive
‘‘The Big Muskie” [15] was developed by Bucyrus-Brie Co. in 1969,
Fig. 1. Chebyshev Mechanism [7].
2
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as shown in Fig. 3 (b). This 13500-ton big Muskie had four
hydraulically-actuated legs with a height 160ft and boom length
310ft. The top walking speed was 0.1 mph and dismantled in 1990.
In 1976, Hirose and Kato [16] brought a significant milestone in
the development of quadrupeds, in particular, inspired by the long-
legs spider, excluding four legs, as shown in Fig. 4(a). The spider-
like quadruped robot KUMO-1 weighed 14 kg and was 1.5 m in
length.
Each leg had one driving motor and one clutch to generate
walking motion. After four years, the Pre -Ambulate Vehicle (PV-
II) was developed by Horse, as shown in Fig. 4(b). It was the fore-
father of KUMO-I, which made the history of climbing stairs on
sensor-based motion control for the first time in the world [16].
In the early 1980s, a new revolution took place in the robotics field
only due to Raibert and his co-workers at the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology (MIT) [12]. He made a planner and three-
dimensional machine that ran and hopped in as the single-legged
kangaroo, as shown in Fig. 4(c).
2.3. Early 1990s quadruped Robot:
The one-legged balance and dynamics patented principle not
only surpassed all sorts of legged systems but also went way
beyond any biological legged robot. This principle was a landmark
of walking-running indeed with motion control of dynamical sta-
bility for a four-footed robot. After PV-II, Hirose’s TITAN series
[16] was the most exceptional achievement in the development
of quadruped robotics. First, he developed TITAN-III quadruped
robot, which was the more prominent form of PV-II in which a
three-dimensional pantograph mechanism incorporated in a
legged mechanism, as shown in Fig. 5(a). It was the world’s first
climbing robot equipped with an intelligent program, toe tactile
sensor, and an attitude sensor. TITAN -IV developed in 1986 with
extra features like it can convert crawl walking to trot by gradually
increasing the speed, as shown in Fig. 5(b). Similarly, TITAN-V and
TITAN-VI developed for the other testing purpose like weight,
mechanism, dynamic walking, so forth. The walking quadruped
robot TITAN-VII [17] was designed mainly for assisting construc-
tion work at steep slope like moving scaffold, as shown in Fig. 5
(c). Among all, TITAN-VIII [18] was the most popular working
quadruped robot. It has been designed with a new tethered driving
mechanism considering Gravitational Decoupled Actuation (GDA)
with 400 m leg length and 40 kg weight, as shown in Fig. 6(a).
Similarly, TITAN-IX [19–20] is used for the humanitarian dem-
ining task, as shown in Fig. 6(b). TITAN-XI [21–22] performed the
same as TITAN-VII with extra features like bore drill on the steep
slopes, as shown in Fig. 6(c). 700 kg weighted TITAN-XI built-in
2008 with a hydraulic actuator, onboard computer, and it was run-
ning on Linux. TITAN-XII [23] quadruped robot can go over a mas-
sive obstacle and speediness 1.5 m/s with precise by external
computer and microcontroller, as shown in Fig. 7(a).
The latest walking quadruped robot of TITAN series is TITAN XIII
[24], which is a sprawling type quadruped robot, as shown in Fig. 7
(b). TITAN XIII can walk efficiently with 1.38 m/s speed and pow-
ered by a battery. The dynamic walking robot Collie-I was designed
and developed by Miura and et al. [25], as shown in Fig. 7 (c). It has
a total of 12 number of DOF with approximate dimension 15 cm
(L)
13.5 cm(W)
28 cm(H). Similarly, Collie-II developed by
Kimura et al. [26,27], and it has a total of 6 DOF and actuators on
each leg, as shown in Fig. 8 (a). These robots weighed about
7.5 kg and became unstable when the stride period exceeds 0.9 s.
In 1999, SCOUT-I and II [28,29] were designed by Buchler and
Robert at McGill University, as shown in Fig. 8(b), (c). In SCOUT-I,
each leg has only one actuated degree of freedom, and RC-
Servomotor controls the hip. In SCOUT-II quadruped robot is a lar-
ger version of 1.2 kg weighted SCOUT-I, in which stair climbing
P. Biswal and P.K. Mohanty Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig.2. (a) Mechanical Horse; (b) Hutchinson Four legged; (c) General Electric Walking Truck.

Fig. 3. (a) Phoney Pony; (b) Big Muskie.

Fig. 4. (a) Kumo-1; (b) PV-II; (c) One Legged Hopping robot.

simulations with the working model to explore dynamic gaits. A
bionic four-legged robot WRAP1 was developed by the Royal Insti-
tute of Technology, Sweden, in 1998 to study static and dynamic
locomotion in rough terrain [30]. WRAP1weighs about 60 kg and
has total 12 no. of DOFs well controlled by dedicated 6 Controller
Area Network (CAN) buses, as shown in Fig. 9(a).
2.4. Early 2000s quadruped Robot:
In the early 20th century, Patrush, and then followed by the
biomorphic quadruped TEKKEN series have developed by Kimura
3
et al. [31–33]. In Patrush, each leg has three joints, and the approx-
imate weight of the robot is 5.2 kg, as shown in Fig. 9(b). It can
walk with speed 0.6 m/s on the flat surface and controlled and
written by RT-Linux, C-language respectively. In TEKKEN series,
the developer achieved different dynamic locomotion like trot,
walk, gallop by a single mechanism, an unalterable control method
based on a neural system and central pattern generator (CPG) [34],
as shown in Fig. 9(c) and Fig. 10(a). A biologically four-legged
walking machine ‘‘BISAM” [35] was developed by a group of
researchers in Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Germany. Each
leg divided into four segments, which consist of revolute joints
P. Biswal and P.K. Mohanty Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 5. (a) TITAN III; (b) TITAN IV; (c) TITAN VII.

Fig. 6. (a) TITAN VIII; (b) TITAN IX; (c) TITAN XI.

Fig. 7. (a) TITAN XII; (b) TITAN XIII; (c) COLLIE-I.

based on ball screw actuator and a Faulhaber 12-DC servo motor
drives it. The robustness of BISAM was increased due to couple
neuro oscillators with adaptive sensor-based reflexes and also
offered future investigation mammal and reptile-like locomotion,
as shown in Fig. 10(b).
JROB-1 and JROB-2 is an inter-university research program sup-
ported by the ministry of education, Japan for scientific research in
intelligent robotics, as shown in Fig. 10(c) and Fig. 11(a) [36,37]. In
JROB design, TITAN-VIII with motor drive, color tracking vision,
vision board, interspace board, and RT-Linux adopted. Initially,
JROB developed for the experiment in a common research plat-
form. SILO4 is a four-footed walking robot designed by Industrial
Automation Institute (CSIC), Spain, in 1999, as shown in Fig. 11
(b) [38]. The main objective of the designer was to focus on motion
generative, terrain adaptation, and stability. It has a total of 12
number of DOF and mimicking the legs of an insect with electric
actuated. Experimentally, it used for developing the educational
robot and the demands from the different researchers; later creator
offered the process designed in the form of a book. To be a better
understanding of cursorial quadruped gallop gait, in a collaborative
effort of OhioState University (OSU) and Stanford University have
constructed a quadruped name as OSQ Stanford quadruped
(OSQ), as shown in Fig. 11(c) [39]. It plans to construct quadruped
with several single legs and with complete quadruped simulation.
The single-leg can walk with maximum speed at 4.15 m/s. The
Kinematically Ordered Locomotive Tetrapod (KOLT) robot is a
modified version of OSQ, as shown in Fig. 12(a). The Stanford
Dynamic Articulated Structure for High Performance (DASH) leg

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Fig. 8. (a) COLLIE-II; (b) SCOUT-I; (c) SCOUT-II.

Fig. 9. (a) WRAP1; (b) Patrush; (c) TEKKEN 2.

Fig. 10. (a) TEKKEN-4; (b) BISAM; (c) JROB-1.

Fig. 11. (a) JROB-2; (b) SILO4; (c) Single leg of OSQ.

5
P. Biswal and P.K. Mohanty
is installed in the main body of KOLT [40,41]. This modified model
design is mainly concentrated on the legged locomotion in a gal-
loping gait and used to estimate energy loss in between bound trot
and gallop gait. Each leg has three number of DOF with electro-
magnetic actuation.
The School of Mechanical Engineering Sungkyunkwan Univer-
sity is then designed Multifunctional Robot for Wall Inspection-
III (MRWALLSPECT-II) for industrial utilities along with the better
capability of terrain adaptability like a walk-in plane, climb walls
with convex corner using suction pads, as shown in Fig. 12(b)
[42]. The active joints are actuated by three gear DC motor pre-
cisely. It has two controllers; one embedded by using Pentium-III
and another one is Real Time-Linux (RT-Linux).
Soon after MRWALLSPECT-III, they developed another dog type
quadruped walking robot named as Artificial Digitigrade Natural
Environment (AiDAN-I) in 2007 and followed by AiDAN-III in
2013, as shown in Fig. 12(c) and Fig. 13(a) [43,44]. Each limb of
the robot has 3 number of DOF with one passive joint. It has one
central controller and 16 sub-controllers. Each controller is embed-
ded with CAN configuration and operated by RT-Linux. Quadruped
robot qRT (I and II) proposed by Korea Institute of Industrial Tech-
nology [45], which has a two-legged and two-wheel robot with the
total number of 12 DOF, as shown in Fig. 13(b), (c). Robot qRT is a
front-drive system powered by gasoline engines with a hydraulic
linear actuator controlled by an online method. Department of
telecommunication and control, Sao Paulo University presented a
tree-climbing bio-inspired robotic platform with the primary pur-
pose of environmental research, is named as Kamanbare, as shown
in Fig. 14(a) [46]. The four-footed tree climbing robot has a total of
16 no. of DOF with a gait pattern based on the chamaeleonid family
in a controlled approach. Approximately it has 1.3 kg weight and is
controlled by a Linux operating system. Maufroy et al. [47] devel-
oped the quadruped robot ‘Koteshu’ supported by a ‘grant aid for
scientific research on priority areas’ in Japan. The design concepts
of ‘Koteshu’ are very similar to TAKEN-I quadruped robot, as shown
in Fig. 14(b). The rhythmic motion of the robot is achieved by CPG,
which control the phase modulation using each leg loading/un-
loading [48]. In 2010, Wait, and his member presented a pneumat-
ically servo actuated quadruped robot with three number of DOF in
each leg, as shown in Fig. 14(c) [49]. Simply trotting gait is imple-
mented by the designer, which follow the same trajectory as walk-
ing gait.
In the control system laboratory, Toyota Technological Institute
presented an electrically actuated quadruped robot named
Robocat-1, as shown in Fig. 15(a) [50]. In this robot, each leg has
2 no. of DOF with an overall weight of 6.85 kg. This prototype robot
successfully tested the trot-running cycle used with a control algo-
rithm for fast locomotion. Hung et al. [58] developed a quadruped
robot named HuboDog in the Department of Mechanical Engineer-
Fig. 12. (a) KOLT; (b) MRWALLSPECT-III; (c) AiDAN-I.
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Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx
ing, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST),
as shown in Fig. 15(b). The total weight of the robot is 42 kg, with
dimensions 0.8 m(L)
0.34 m(W)
0.86 m(H). Each leg has 3
members of active DOF, and all joints are driven by harmonic drive
reduction gear with a combination of Brushless DC electric motors
(BLDC motors).
Harbin Institute of Technology, Japan developed a quadruped
robot named MBBOT [59], in which all actuators are powered by
the external hydraulic pump, as shown in Fig. 15(c). Each leg of
the robot has four active joints with one passive prismatic spring
mounted with a 3-component force sensor in feet and Inertial Mea-
surement Unit (IMU). The total weight of the body is 100 kg and
able to run on the treadmill with speed 0.83 m/s. In 2013, Shanghai
Jiao Tong University developed a four-footed robot named as ’Baby
Elephant’ because of the jumbo like appearance and able to carry
the heavy load in different kinds of terrain, as shown in Fig. 16
(a) [60]. The jumbo consists of 4 serial-parallel hybrid mechanism
legs driven by a newly developed hydraulic actuator (Hy-Mo). Bei-
jing Institute of Technology, China introduced a prototype design
of a bionic quadruped based on a hydraulic system, as shown in
Fig. 16(b) [61]. The robot has a total of 16 number of DOF powered
by the gasoline engine. The robot can take backward, forward, and
turning movement smoothly. The total weight of the robot is
120 kg, and the maximum Speed of trotting in forwarding direction
3 km/h.
SCalf-1[62] developed by Shandong university in 2010, as
shown in Fig. 16(c). This robot has a total of 12 numbers of DOF,
and an identical linear hydraulic servo cylinder triggers all actua-
tors. The robot is powered by an IC engine and can run at a velocity
of 1.8 m/s with a trot pattern. In 2012, the modified SCalf-2 [63]
was introduced by the same research group and modified in the
hydraulic power system, servo controller, and also installed Inertial
Measure Unit, force sensor, etc.
2.5. Modern quadruped robot:
Semini designs hydraulic Quadruped (HyQ) [64,65] under the
supervision of Caldwell from the Advanced Robotics Department,
Italian Institute of Technology (IIT) in 2010, as shown in Fig. 17
(a). The robot has a total of 8 hydraulic actuators and 4 electric
actuators. The hydraulic quadruped robot HyQ is designed to per-
form different tasks like jumping, hopping, and running [66]. The
robot also navigated successfully on different rough terrain using
stereo vision camera and IMU [67,68]. The robot is controlled by
PC104 with real-time RT-Linux. Two improved versions of HyQ
were introduced by the same researcher named as HyQ2max and
HyQ2cetaur [69]. The following parameters like robustness, relia-
bility, joint angle and output torque, etc. are improved in HyQ2-
P. Biswal and P.K. Mohanty Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 13. (a) AiDAN-III; (b) qRT-1; (c) qRT-2.

Fig. 14. (a) Kamambare; (b) Koteshu; (c) VU quadruped.

Fig. 15. (a) Robocat-1; (b) HuboDog Platform; (c) MBBOT.

max. In HyQ2cetaur, one pair of the hydraulic arm with a total 6
DOF actuator is incorporated in HyQ2max.
In 2010, Hutter designed a medium-sized dog named Star1ETH
in the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, as shown in
Fig. 17(b)[70–72]. The series of high standard elastic actuators
are installed in star1ETH, which have similar behavior as our ten-
don and muscles to keep a large amount of energy temporarily. The
robot is incorporated with IMU, which gives the kinematic infor-
mation from the joint. Another versatile quadruped robot is
designed for the robotic system at Star1ETH Zurich called ANYmal,
as shown in Fig. 17(c) [73]. It is designed for special commercial
and industrial operations in challenging environments such as oil
and gas platforms or search and rescue operations by using its
environment perceive. The robot is driven by highly precise
actuators and capable of achieving dynamic running gait. The
weight of small size ANYmal is less than 30 kg and able to carry
the equipment like batteries, optical and thermal cameras, micro-
phones, dynamic lighting and gas detection sensor, etc.
Massachusetts Institute of Technology developed a highly effi-
cient quadruped robot named MIT Cheetah in 2013 [74]. The
researcher implemented four design principles that can reduce
energy loss-mechanism in locomotion. The total power utilized
by the robot is about 973 W, and the cost of transport (COT) is 0.5,
which is very much similar to running animals [75]. The same
institute again developed MIT Cheetah-2 in 2015, as shown in
Fig. 18(a) [76]. The researcher incorporated a novel algorithm suc-
cessfully in the robot to achieve untethered running with a wide
range of speeds from 0 to 4.5 m/s in a stable manner. The robot

7
P. Biswal and P.K. Mohanty Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 16. (a) Baby Elephant; (b) Bionic Quadruped; (c) Scalf-1.

Fig. 17. (a) HyQ; (b) Star1ETH; (c) ANYmal.

can run on a treadmill as well as grassy and uneven terrain in a
controlled manner. The robot can jump over hurdles up to
400 mm high while running at 2.5 m/s. Boston Dynamics Corpora-
tion developed an advanced autonomous quadruped named Big
Dog 1st, funded by the USA Defence Advanced Research Project
Agency (DARPA) [78]. Each leg of the robot has four DOF, and all
hydraulic actuated behave like an animal’s flexible elements to
absorb energy and release energy from one step to another. It
can trot at speed 0.8 m/s and step onto 35° inclined surface. The
robot is powered by a gasoline engine that delivers 15 HP and car-
ries an onboard computer that contains a PC104 Pentium processor
with a real-time mobile operating system quenix (QNX). In BigDog,
fifty sensors are integrated for locomotion like joint position,
ground contact, joint force, a gyroscope, ground load, Light Detec-
tion and Ranging (LIDAR) and a stereo vision camera, etc.
In 2008, the BigDog team introduced the 2nd generation BigDog
[78] that can drive 130 m continuously without the help of an
operator, as shown in Fig. 18(b). It has the ability to travel on icy
terrain, in mud, walk through a forest and recover balance after
skidding in slope or when kicked by someone. The primary pur-
pose of this robot is that it works like a mule for U.S soldiers, but
BigDog project was discontinued due to high noise generation by

Fig. 18. (a) MIT Cheetah; (b) BigDog 2nd Generation.

8
P. Biswal and P.K. Mohanty Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

a petrol-powered engine in the in U.S combat. In December 2009,

the robot was rugged further named as a legged squad support sys-
tem (LS3), also known as Alpha Dog which is very similar to that of
his predecessor BigDog, as shown in Fig. 19(a) [79–80]. It looks like
the shape and size of a horse. The LS3 is designed especially for
military use with the ability to operate in different terrain and
environment. Its legs have 12 number of joints, and all hydraulic
actuators powered by gas and diesel engine. A stereo vision system
and LIDAR integrated to detect and generate the path itself to fol-
low the human operator through an unconstrained and dirty envi-
ronment [81]. The total reliability of the correct tracking rate is
about 98.8% in a manually labeled dataset.
The Boston dynamics introduced a LittleDog [82] quadruped
robot for walking over rough terrain locomotion, as shown in
Fig. 19(b). Each leg has 3 number of DOF plus X, Y, Z, roll, pitch,
yaw of the body, and each joint is powered by the high gain
servo motor [83]. A total of 22 number of reflection balls are
attached to the body and legs to detect the position and joint
angles. Cheetah is the fastest quadruped robot developed in
the world by Boston dynamics in 2011, as shown in Fig. 19(c)
[84]. This tethered robot can run at over 45 km/h on a high-
speed treadmill in an indoor laboratory. Boston dynamics
develop the fastest untethered quadruped robot in the world
in 2013, named Wildcat, which was funded by DARPA [85].
The total weight of the robot is 154 kg, and powered by a
methanol burning engine that drives all hydraulic actuators. It
can run at 32 km/h with careful and making balanced in an out-
door field. The robot used a variety of gait patterns for locomo-
tion like trot, gallop and bound, etc.
Boston Dynamics developed the latest dog-like untethered
quadruped robot named Spot, as shown in Fig. 20 [86]. It is a
new approach to dynamic robot control compared to BigDog and
LS3, previously released by the company. The robot dimensions
about 1.1 m
0.5 m
0.84 m(L
W
H) and can run 5.76 km/
h speed. The total weight of the robot is 30 kg, and able to carry14
kg load. All the joints are electric actuation and powered by a bat-
tery. The robot has Omni-directional walking and trotting gaits.
The Spot is inbuild with a 3D vision system with simultaneous
localization and mapping (SLAM), providing depth information,
enabling the robot its surroundings, and avoiding obstacles. Spot’s
built-in computers are fully dedicated to robot locomotion and
navigation. The robot is remotely controlled by human operators
while also navigating and performing some tasks autonomously.
The robot is bioinspired dynamic controlled, which can easily
climb, descend stairs, balance, and adjust to physical disturbance.
The Spot becomes a most light-footed robot that can work in the
office, home, and outdoor using its 5 DOF sensor arm.
Fig. 20. Spot.
The detailed completion reports for the quadruped robot is
summarized in Table 2 as per the availability of data in the pub-
lished papers.
3. Summary and future direction
3.1. Structural design
In order to compare the achievement of the previously devel-
oped quadrupedal robot, it is noticed that commonly used actua-
tors are hydraulic and electrical. In between hydraulic and
electrical actuators, the hydraulic actuating type has high output
power to weight ratio, but at the same time, the robot is relatively
increased by the weight [87]. Physical specifications and dimen-
sioning are played essential roles in designing the mechanical
structure. In the beginning, it is very tedious to specify the exact
size and weight of the robot. The robot size is influenced by the
availability component in the markets. The weight of the robot
depends on the actuation system (Hydraulic or Electrical) and all
onboard electronics equipment. On the other hand, choosing the
leg length is an essential parameter in robot design and develop-
ment. Most of the robot’s leg length is less than the size of the
robot. As over-proportionally long legs are mostly striking each
other and a high proportionally body structure requires more bal-
ance with less agile.
The complexity depends on the number of active joints present
in each leg of the robot. Each actuator sums weight to the robot,
except Hirose’ pantograph leg robot. The two-joint structure leg
is easy to control and design, commonly used in four-footed robots
like spot mini, littledog, ANYmal, etc. However, from a biological

Fig. 19. (a) LS3; (b) Little Dog; (c) Cheetah.

9
P. Biswal and P.K. Mohanty Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 2
Summary of published performance reports of quadruped robots.

Name of the Robot D (m) G V (m/ W (kg) PL DOF Fr f A

s) (kg)
GE Walking Truck [5] 4
3
3.3(L
W
H) – 1.39 1300 220 3/ – 0.35 Hy
leg
PHONY PONY [11] – Crawl, Walk, Trot, Creep – 50 – 2/ – – E
leg
BIG MUSKIE [15] 94
48 (L
H) – 0.04 13.5
105 – 4/ – – Hy
leg
KUMO-I [16] 1.5 (l) Walk – 14 – 1/ – – E
leg
PV-II [16] 0.9 (L),1(H) Walk 0.02 10 2 3/ 5 – E
4.5
10
leg
TITAN-XIII [24] 0.21
0.55
0.34 (L
W
H) Sprawling 0.9 5.65 5 3/ – 4.2 E
leg
COLLIE-II [25] 0.35
0.38 (L
H) Trot, Pace 0.25 0.15 – 6/ – 0.7 E
leg
SCOUT -I [28] 0.2(L) Walk, Run – 1.2 – 1/ E
leg
SCOUT-II [29] 0.55
0.48
0.27 (L
W
H),0.32(l) Bound 1.3 23.7 – 2/ 0.53 2.3 E
leg
WRAP-I [30] – Trot, Crawl 0.2 60 – 3/ – – E
leg
BISAM [35] 0.7(H) Stable walk – 23 – 4/ – – E
leg
JROB-I [36] – Trot- walking – 31.5 28 3/ – – E
leg
JROB-II [37] – Trot- walking – 29.1 – 3/ – – E
leg
SILO4 [38] 0.31
0.31
0.3 (L
W
H),0.24(l) Periodic and non-periodic 0.55 30 15 3/ 0.0003 1.77 E
gait leg
TEKKEN-II [32] 0.3 (L), 0.25 (l) Trot 0.7 4.3 – 4/ 0.37 2.3 E
leg
TEKKEN-III [33] – Trot, Walk 0.7 10 – 4/ – – E
leg
TEKKEN-IV [33] 0.3 (L), 0.264 (l) Trot, Walk 0.5 9.7 – 4/ 0.099 1.67 E
leg
KOLT [41] 1.75
0.6
0.8 (L
W
H),0.7(l) Trot 1.1 75 – 3/ 0.18 0.63 E
leg
MRWALL-SPECT [42] – Crawl 0.008 – – 3/ – – E
leg
Air hopper [58] 1.29
1.2
0.6 (L
W
H) – – 34.6 – 4/ – – P
leg
AiDAN-III [44] 0.3(l) Trot, Walk 0.33 12.3 3 3/ 0.04 – E
leg
qRT-I [45] 1
0.5
1(L
W
H) Trot 1.3 60 40 3/ – 1.3 Hy
leg
qRT-II [45] 1
0.5
1(L
W H) Trot 1.3 60 40 3/ – 1.3 Hy
leg
KAMAMBARE [46] 0.25
0.26 ~ 0.74
19 (L
W
H) Chameleon Mode – 1.3 – 4/ – – E
leg
PATRUSH [31] 0.36
0.24
0.33 (L
W
H) Trot 0.6 5.2 – 3/ – 1.67 E
leg
KOTETSU [47] 0.34
0.19 ~ 0.25
0.35 (L
W
H) Walk 0.2 5.2 – 3/ – 0.58 E
leg
VU Quadruped [49] 0.46
0.64
0.38 (L
W
H) Walk- Trot 0.23 6.9 9.1 3/ – 0.5 P
leg
ROBO CAT-I [50] 0.34
0.3
0.23 (L
W
H) Trot running – 6.8 – 2/ – – E
leg
PAW[51] 0.49
0.24 ~ 0.36
0.16 (L
W
H) Bound 1.2 15.7 – 1/ 0.7 2.4 E
l = 0.21 leg
RUSH [52] 0.3
0.2
0.2, (L
W
H)l = 0.2 Bound 0.9 4.3 – 1/ 0.41 3 E
leg
CHEETAH- CUB [53] L = 0.205, l = 0.158 Trot 1.42 1.1 – 2/ 1.3 6.92 E
leg
QUADRUPED [54] 1.05
0.35
0.95 (L
W
H) l = 0.66 Trot 2.2 38 – 3/ 0.88 2.09 E
leg
AIBO RES-210A[55] L = 0.289, l = 0.129 Walk 0.294 1.4 – 3/ 0.07 1.01 E
leg
NUDT QUADRUPED 1.2
0.5
0.6 (L
W
H) Trot 0.83 60 – 4/ – 0.7 Hy
[56] leg
JINPOONG [57] 1.1
0.4
1.2 (L
W
H) Walk – 120 60 4/ – – Hy
leg
MBBOT [59] – Trot 2 100 – 4/ – – Hy
leg
BABY ELEPHAN [60] 1.2
0.6
1 (L
W
H) Trot 0.5 130 100 3/ – 0.41 Hy

10
P. Biswal and P.K. Mohanty Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Table 2 (continued)

Name of the Robot D (m) G V (m/ W (kg) PL DOF Fr f A

s) (kg)
leg
BIONIC QUADRUPED 1.2
0.38
1 (L
W
H) Trot 0.83 120 – 4/ – 0.7 Hy
[61] leg
SCALF-I [62] 1
0.4
0.68 (L
W
H) Trot 1.8 123 80 3/ – 1.8 Hy
leg
HyQ [65] 1
0.5
0.98 (L
W
H),0.68(l) Trot 2 80 – 3/ 0.6 2 Hy/
leg E
Star1ETH [70] 0.6(L),0.49(l) Bound 1 23 25 3/ 0.21 1.6 E
leg
ANY mal [73] – Free gait 1 30 10 3/ – – E
leg
MIT cheetah I [74] – Trot-running 6.1 33 – 2/ – – E
leg
Quadro [58] 0.9(L) – 0.2 35 3 – – 0.23 E
HUBODOG [58] 0.8 (L), 0.6 (l) Trot 0.55 42 24 3/ 0.05 0.69 E
leg
Big Dog 1 [58] 1
0.3
0.8 (L
W
H) Trot 1.8 90 50 4/ – 1.8 Hy
Run leg
Big Dog 2 [58] 1.1
0.3
1 (L
W
H) Bound 3.5 109 154 4/ – 3.18 Hy
leg
LS3 [81] 1.7(H) Trot – 590 181 3/ – – Hy
leg
LittleDog [84] 0.3 (L) 0.25 2.85 3/ – 0.84 E
leg
Cheetah [85] 1.7(H) Gallop 12.5 – – 3/ – – –
Run leg
Wild cat [86] 1.17(H) Trot, bound 8.8 154 3/ – – Hy
Gallop, leg
SPOT [87] 1.1
0.5
0.84 (L
W
H) – 1.6 30 14 3/ – – E
leg

D: Dimension(m); L: Length(m); W: Width(m); H: Height(m); l: Leg Length(m); G: Gait; v: Speed(m/s); W: Weight(kg); PL: Pay Load(kg); DOF: Degree of Freedom; A: Actuator,
m: meter, m/s: meter per second, Normalized Speed(NS) : Speed/Body length, Payload Capacity(PLC) (%) =Payload
Weight
, Normalized Work Capacity(NWC) : Normalized Speed
Payload
Capacity, f r : Froude No ¼ v 2 =2gl;Hy: Hydraulic, E: Electric , F :Stride per Second.

point of view, toed animals, such as tigers, leopards, lions, and
wolves, have a three-joint structure in their legs, which imparts
excellent advantages in running speed and energy efficiency. Ter-
restrial animals use symmetric gaits (usually the walk and trot)
at low speeds, whereas asymmetric gaits at high speeds. In sym-
metric gait, the feet have the same phase difference, so that left
and right feet are set down at an equal interval of time. In asym-
metric gaits, the trailing foot is set down immediately before the
short interval, and the leading foot is set down immediately after
the interval. The trailing foot should exert a small decelerating
impulse, followed by a larger accelerating impulse [88]. In this
way, positive and negative work done by each leg can be balanced.
In principle, each leg behaves as a passive spring, storing up strain
energy in its muscles and then returning it in an elastic coil. MIT
Cheetah robot adopted the three-part structure, which achieved a
6 m/s running speed and cross obstacles with high energy
efficiency.
3.2. Actuators:
Mechanical leg motion involves repeated dynamic events such
as impact, rapid leg swing, and high force interaction with uncer-
tain terrain. Designing actuator systems for high dynamic legged
robots has always been one of the major challenges in robotics
research. The selection of a robot actuator for each joint is most
important after defining the nature of the leg structure and the
number of joints present. Most of the quadruped robots actuated
by a single type actuator; commonly, they are electrical, hydrauli-
cally, or pneumatic. Assembly of each actuation gives its advantage
and disadvantages. The most appropriate actuator is to be selected
depending on the primary function and requirements. For HYQ
quadruped robot, the hybrid actuation (Hydraulic and Electrically)
11
was used to increase their robustness and efficiency. The charac-
teristics of hydraulic drive quadruped robots, such as Scalf-1. LS3
and BigDog, are to produced large carrying capacity and locomo-
tion in outdoor applications. However, it requires all hydraulic
setup, which makes the entire structure more complex. ANYmal
is a quadrupedal robot driven by special compliant and precisely
torque controllable actuators; the system is capable of dynamic
running and high-mobile climbing [89]. Moreover, most of the
quadruped robots have developed with electric actuators such as
ANYmal, Spot, and Littledog for indoor applications.
3.3. Gait analysis
Gait is the synchronize pattern of leg locomotion. The quad-
ruped animal can follow various leg motions such as walk, run, gal-
lop, trot, amble, bound, pace, half bound, transverse galloping, etc.
The fundamental distinction between walk and running gait is that
walk gait has a duty factor more than 0.5, and running gait has a
duty factor less than 0.5. In walk gait, at one stage both the pair
of feet on the ground simultaneously, but in running gait, both
the feet of the pair off the ground. Asymmetrical gait, in which
each pair of the leg has the same duty factor and with a 0.5 phase
difference. Thus, amble, trot, pace, and human walking and run-
ning are symmetric gaits. As large animals are increased their
speed by regulating their stride length (SL) while the small animal
focuses on stride frequency. The robot running with high stride fre-
quency is more stable but less efficient. The trot pattern is the most
commonly used gait practically and straightforwardly. In the trot
gait, the leg swinging time and support phase of each leg is identi-
cal. Among all, ANYmal robot consists of free gait mode, where the
leg sequence does not follow a particular pattern. The Froude num-
ber (f r ) is used to analyze and measure the dynamic locomotion of
P. Biswal and P.K. Mohanty Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx

Fig. 21. The comparison performances of Normalized Speed (a) Normalized Speed of Electrical Robot; (b) Normalized Speed of Hydraulic Robot.

Fig. 22. The comparison performances of Payload Capacity (a) Payload Capacity of Electrical Robot; (b) Payload Capacity of Hydraulic Robot.

Fig. 23. The comparison performances of Normalized Work Capacity (a) Normalized Work Capacity of Electrical Robot; (b) Normalized Work Capacity of Hydraulic Robot.

different patterns of a quadruped robot. According to Alexander mv 2

FroudeNumberðf r Þ ¼ =mg ¼ v 2 =gl
[90], the animal of varying size uses gait pattern in their locomo- l
tion with the same Froude number, which is a dimensionless num-
ber related to inertia force to gravitational force. The Froude
where ’v’ is running speed, ’g’ is a gravitational force, and ’l’ is the
number can be defined as follows:
distance from hip joint to ground or characteristic length. The
12
P. Biswal and P.K. Mohanty
Cheetah-Cub achieved a running trot with a flight phase with the
highest Froude number f r ¼ 1:3 and 6.9 body length per second.
3.4. Performance report
The mechanical performance of the developed quadruped robot
can be evaluated by NWC (Normalizing Work Capacity), which is
suggested by Binnard [91]. The comparison performances of pub-
lished quadruped robots are shown in Figs. 21–23. NWC gives rela-
tion a directly proportional between NS (Normalized Speed) and
PLC (Payload Capacity). The normalized speed is the ratio of max-
imum speed and body length, whereas, payload capacity is the
ratio of the weight of the robot to the payload. As per the Binnard’s
insinuation, TITAN-XIII, which is driven by an electric actuator, has
an NS, PLC, and NWC of 4.4, 88% and 387%, respectively. Similarly,
SCALF-1 is operated by a hydraulic actuator, has an NS, PLC, and
NWC of 1.8, 65% and 117% respectively. From Fig. 21 and Fig. 22,
it is observed that TITAN-XIII and SCALF-1 gives better-
normalized speed compared to their higher PLC. Fig. 23 shows that
TITAN-XIII and SCALF-1 are the most efficient in terms of mechan-
ical performance in an electrical and hydraulic quadruped robot,
respectively.
3.5. Future scope
Based on the review, it is clear that the last one decade has
moved the area to a new level, at the same time, has opened
new research area for fundamental and topics with new opportu-
nities. However, Boston Dynamics’ Spot, Star1ETH, and SCALF-1
have created milestones in the robotics field; some of the future
research themes include the following.
1. A high-level task and adaption are required not only to grasp
the object but also to solve constraints in the real-world envi-
ronment. Next-generation robotics should have the ability to
get experience itself by performing tasks regularly. Most of
the robots are developed and optimized for a specific job or goal
to fulfill the objective. It means the particular theory is required
that supports the ‘‘joint evolution” of complex systems to solve
a real-world environmental problem.
2. The future work of a mobile robot is to be produced a cognitive
robot which is concerned with a robot with intelligent behavior.
The different high technologies are needed to develop high per-
formance in the quadruped system. Cognitive robotics aims to
design and to realize mobile robots by providing about how
to behave in response to complex tasks in a real environment.
3. The more researches on wheel-leg hybrid drive system are
required so that it can combine the advantages of both forms
of motion like it will move in rough-terrain and roll in a flat
surface.
4. Presently, new trends are going on, which led by artificial intel-
ligence, autonomous driving, networking, cooperative work,
friendly human–robot interfaces, and emotion expression and
perception. Furthermore, these news trends are applied to dif-
ferent fields such as health care, industry, distribution of goods,
and service robotics.
5. Due to the wide variety of robot applications, hardware control,
software, understanding of failure modes, as well as safety, reli-
ability, and performance, have remained open challenges.
4. Conclusions
The objective of this article is to provide a compact text that
facilitates a global view of quadruped robots while synthesizing
the given evidence. The main focus areas associated in this field
are locomotion, structural design, gait analysis, and actuator. The
13
Ain Shams Engineering Journal xxx (xxxx) xxx
state of the art, performances, and novel applications are dissemi-
nated through the article, and the most recent bibliography are
given for those readers who want to make a dip into this area.
After decades of development, the quadruped robots have made
significant progress, but there is still a big gap compared with the
four-footed animal. In the above survey on quadruped robots, it
has been concluded that machines, that are like animals have
served mankind only due to the advanced technology and the qual-
ity of design. The quadruped robots are made to perform in practi-
cal applications like mine inspection, space exploration, fire-
fighting or where navigation is required in an unconstrained envi-
ronment. The following points are summarized from the literature
survey of quadrupedal robots.
(1) The robustness of the mobile robot is increased due to high
precise joint actuators and controller. Joint actuators play a
significant role in accounting for the complexity, cost, and
weight of robots. It is very essentially to ensure that the joint
actuators have a high torque output to the weight ratio. In
hydraulic and pneumatic actuating types have a high output
power to weight ratio, fast response and easy
implementation.
(2) It is also well known that quadruped mammals can be
selected their synchronized pattern of leg movement (e.g.,
walking, galloping, trotting) according to speed. The quad-
ruped robots are more favorable to incorporate Artificial
Intelligence (AI) due to their mobility and stability of
locomotion.
(3) The current mobile robot systems are limited by the visual
perception system. The features like recognize, memorizes,
and learn from the environment should be focused to imple-
ment to help the mobile robot for more autonomy.
(4) The human-robot interaction may be required in the form of
physical and social or emotional. The physical interaction of
human-robot will help directly physical handicraft or use as
service robotics for daily assistance.
(5) After the long decade of research into the legged robot field,
the MIT Cheetah, Bigdog, and Spot are the class of medium-
sized quadrupedal robots developed by the researcher. A few
years down the line, ‘‘novel kind of quadruped robots”, that
will serve people in their personal life and also do useful
work at home.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing finan-
cial interests or personal relationships that could have appeared
to influence the work reported in this paper.
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