The fluoridation controversy

The long-standing debate about whether to fluoridate our drinking water continues
Fluoridation is the addition of fluorine to public water supplies with the aim of reducing
tooth decay. The fluorine, when mixed with water, becomes fluoride and the desired
concentration of fluoride in public water is approximately one part per million, depending
on the regional temperature and hence the amount of water people are likely to drink.
Many studies, such as those by McClure in 1970 through to Burt in 1983, have shown
that when children drink fluoridated water, their average rate of tooth decay seems
greatly reduced. A typical figure claimed is 50 percent reduction. This apparently
enormous benefit for children's teeth is the major argument in favor of fluoridation.
Three main grounds for opposition to fluoridation have been expressed. First,
opponents claim the benefits are exaggerated or not established. Second, there are
claims of health risks to pans of the population, for example, allergic reactions. It is also
accepted that high levels of fluoride can cause discoloration of otherwise healthy teeth.
Proponents do not consider this to be a problem in such small concentrations, whereas
opponents disagree - especially because some people drink more water and obtain
much more than the standard 1 milligram of fluoride per day. Third, fluoridation is
thought to be an infringement on individual rights because it is compulsory medication
of all members of a community.
An understanding of the fluoridation issue has important implications. If, according to
the experts, fluoridation is unquestionably a beneficial and non-hazardous measure,
then the wisdom of allowing the public to vote on, and reject it must be questioned.
Almost all studies that have been done have assumed that the scientific aspects of the
controversy are unproblematic, and they have excluded science from sociological
examination. The traditional view is that science is a special kind of knowledge, which is
established through scientific methods and objectively applied by members of a
scientific community. However, in recent years there has been a major challenge to this
picture by a sociology of science that shows how scientific knowledge is socially
negotiated, and inevitably linked to the values of the relevant parties, both scientists and
nonscientists. These challengers do not see scientific knowledge as exempt from social
inquiry.
Kuhn (1970) argued that scientific knowledge does not always develop as an orderly
process, but is characterized by periodic revolutions. in which the methods of study and
the assessment criteria change in a fragmented way. According to Kuhn, the shift from
one scientific way of thinking to another is not made solely on the basis of clear rules of
formal scientific practice, but can include social factors, though Kuhn has never
developed a full analysis of what these might be. Collins (1975) took this concept further
when he asserted that the outcome of experiments was not something whose meaning
could be immediately comprehended, but rather something for interpretation, discussion
between scientists, and reinterpretation in the light of other experiments.
One interpretation of this analysis of science is that traditional distinctions between facts
and theories, and between scientific knowledge and values, can no longer be justified.
Because social processes are involved at all stages of the creation, evaluation, and
establishing of scientific knowledge, social values may also be involved.
In the same way as many scientists who study fluoridation have overlooked social
values, sociologists have also downplayed an important part of the debate by ignoring
the number of eminent scientists who have questioned aspects of fluoridation. An
example is the study by Sutton in 1960, which analyzed the classic North American
studies of the effect of fluoridation on tooth decay, and found that each showed
significant methodological shortcomings. Sutton's detailed study throws doubt as to the
extent of reductions in tooth decay from fluoridation. Yet Sutton's book is not cited in a
single analysis of the fluoridation issue by any sociologist. In a situation of some
scientific uncertainty, differences in values are highlighted. A supporter of fluoridation
might argue. The evidence for the benefits of fluoridation is quite substantial, while the
evidence for harm is limited and dubious. I think the likely benefits outweigh the possible
dangers; hence I support fluoridation because it is the cheapest and easiest way to
make sure every child reaps the benefits. An opponent might argue, 'Though the
evidence for the benefits of fluoridation is substantial, there is some doubt about it.
Since fluoridation is not necessary for good teeth, we should forego the benefits if there
is some slight chance of harm. Some scientists claim that a small percentage of the
population could be harmed by fluoride. Therefore I oppose fluoridation of water
supplies and favor the voluntary use of fluoride tablets by those who want to take them.'
Both arguments consider the scientific evidence concerning fluoridation, but differ in
their assessments of the social benefits and costs. This difference is not between
rationality and irrationality but is a legitimate difference in values, for example, the
positive value placed on good teeth, the negative value placed on possible health risks,
and the social benefits or costs of compulsory or voluntary intake of fluorides.
From the sociological point of view, opposition to fluoridation is not necessarily
irrational. Rather, claims to rationality and to scientific authority are better seen as part
of a strategy to promote fluoridation than as incontrovertible statements of fact. Second,
social values are likely to be bound up in any decision about fluoridation, so this is not
an issue on which declarations by scientific experts ought to be considered the final
word.

Questions 1-5
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D
Write the correct letter in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet
1. The optimum amount of fluorine in fluoridated water is calculated partly according to
A how hot the area is.
B how warm the water is.
C how many dental problems there are in the community.
D how much fluorine the community chooses to have in its water.
2. One reason given by the writer for opposing fluoridation is that
A it may contribute to tooth decay
B it will be unacceptably expensive for the public.
C obligatory fluoridation takes away personal freedom.
D excessive fluoride could be added to the water by mistake.
3. The writer mentions Kuhn in order to
A provide a contrast with the view of Collins.
B support the rational nature of scientific inquiry.
C demonstrate that Kuhn did not argue his case adequately.
D show that science can be influenced by non-scientific considerations
4. What did Sutton's research discover about earlier studies in North America?
A There were failings in the way they were carried out.
B The scientists involved had achieved unique results.
C Proponents of fluoridation had not understood its long-term effects.
D Fluoridation had a greater effect on tooth decay than previously believed.
5. In the last paragraph, what does the writer say about scientists?
A They should reveal their true motivations.
B They should not decide the fluoridation policy.
C They are solely concerned with scientific truths.
D They cannot reach agreement on the fluoridation issue.
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Questions 6-9
Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer in Reading Passage?
In boxes 6-9 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement agrees with the views of the writer
NO if the statement contradicts the views of the writer
NOT GIVEN if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
6 Scientific knowledge should be kept separate from social values.
7 Many sociologists have disregarded the doubts that some scientists have concerning
fluoridation.
8 Sutton's findings have been given insufficient attention by scientists outside of North
America.
9 There are valid arguments on both sides of the fluoridation debate.
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Questions 10-14
Complete each sentence with the correct ending. A-G. below. Write the correct letter. A-
G, in boxes 10-14 on your answer sheet.
10. The traditional view of science is that 10
11. A sociological view of science argues that 11
12. Collins is of the opinion that 12
13. The writer suggests that a supporter of fluoridation may conclude that 13
14. The writer suggests that an opponent of fluoridation may conclude that 14

A the results of scientific research are not always understood at first

B if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
C people should be able to choose whether they want fluoride.
D there is insufficient proof to support a cautious approach.
E the serious damage fluoride causes far outweighs any positive effects.
F children are not the only ones who benefit from fluoridation.
G scientific knowledge is affected by the beliefs of everyone concerned.
 How the mind ages

The way mental function changes is largely determined by three factors-mental lifestyle,
the impact of chronic disease and flexibility of the mind.
Experiments have shown that younger monkeys consistently outperform their older
colleagues on memory tests. Formerly, psychologists concluded that memory and other
mental functions in humans deteriorate over time because of changes in the brain. Thus
mental decline after young adulthood appeared inevitable. The truth, however, is not
quite so simple.
Stanley Rapoport at the National Institute of Health in the United States measured the
flow of blood in the brains of old and young people as they completed different tasks.
Since blood flow reflects neural activity. Rapoport could compare which networks of
neurons were the same, the neural networks they used were significantly different. The
older subjects used different internal strategies to accomplish comparable results at the
same time,'Rapoport says. At the Georgia Institute of Technology, psychologist Timothy
Salthouse compared a group of fast and accurate typists of college age with another
group in their 60s. Both groups typed 60 words a minute. The older typists, it turned out,
achieved their speed with cunning little strategies that made them more efficient than
their younger counterparts. They made fewer finger shifts, gaining a fraction of a second
here and there. They also read ahead in the test. The neural networks involved in typing
appear to have been reshaped to compensate for losses in motor skills or other age
changes.
In fact, there's evidence that deterioration in mental functions can actually be reversed.
Neuropsychologist Marion Diamond at the University of California has shown that
mental activity maks neurons sprout new dendrites* which establish connections with
other neurons. The dendrites shrink when the mind is idle. For example,'when a rat is
kept in isolation, the animal's brain shrinks, but if we put that rat with other rats in a large
cage and give them an assortment of toys, we can show, after four days, significant
differences in its brain.'says Diamond. After a month in the enriched surroundings, the
whole cerebral cortex has expanded, as has its blood supply.'But even in the enriched
surroundings, rats get bored unless the toys are varied. Animals are just like we are.
They need stimulation,'says Diamond. A busy mental lifestyle keeps the human mind fit,
says Warner Schaie of Penn State University. ‘People who regularly participate in
challenging tasks retain their intellectual abilities better than mental couch potatoes.'
In his studies, Schaie detected a decline in mental function among individuals who
underwent lengthy stays in hospital for chronic illness. He postulated it might be due to
the mental passivity encouraged by hospital routine.
One of the most profoundly important mental functions is memory. Memory exists in
more than one form, what we call knowledge- facts- is what psychologists such as Harry
Bahrick of Ohio Wesleyan University call semantic memory. Events, conversations and
occurrences in time and space, on the other hand, make up episodic memory. It's true
that episodic memory begins to decline when most people are in their 50s, but it's never
perfect at any age.
Probing the longevity of knowledge, Bahrick tested 1,000 high school graduates to see
how well they remembered the school subject algebra. Some had completed the course
a month before, other 50 years earlier. Surprisingly, he found that a person's grasp of
algebra did not depend on how long ago he'd taken the course. The determining factor
was the duration of instruction. Those who had spent only a few months learning
algebra forgot most of it within two or three years while others who had been instructed
for longer remembered better. According to Bahrick,'the long-term residue of knowledge
remains stable over the decades, independent of the age of the person and the
memory.'
Perhaps even more important than the ability to remember is the ability to manage
memory- a mental function known as metamemory.'You could say metamemory is a
byproduct of going to school,'says psychologist Robert Kail of Purdue University,'The
question-and-answer process,especially exam taking, helps children learn and teaches
them how their memory functions.This may be one reason why the better educated a
person is, the more likely they are to perform well in many aspects of life and in
psychological assessments: A group of adult novice chess players were compared with
a group of child experts at the game. But when asked to remember the patterns of
chess pieces arranged on a board, the children won.' Because they'd played a lot of
chess, their knowledge of chess was better organized than that of the adults, and their
existing knowledge of chess served as a framework for new memory,'explains Kail.
Cognitive style, another factor in maintaining mental function, is what Schaie calls the
ability to adapt and roll with life's punches.'He measured mental flexibility with questions
and tests requiring people to carry out in an offbeat way an everyday activity they had
done millions of times. One example was asking people to copy a paragraph
substituting uppercase letters for lowercase ones. These tests seem silly, but flexible-
minded people manage to complete them,'says Schaie. The rigid person responds with
tension instead and performs poorly. Those who score highly on tests of cognition at an
advanced age are those who tested high in mental flexibility at middle age'.
On a more optimistic note, one mental resource that only improves with time is
specialized knowledge. Crystallised intelligence about one's occupation apparently does
not decline at all until at least age 75. Vocabulary is another such specialized form of
knowledge. Research clearly shows that vocabulary develops with time. Retired
teachers and journalists consistently score higher on tests of vocabulary and general
information than college students.
Questions 1-3
Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 1-3 on your answer sheet.
1. What does the writer say about the performance of older typists on the test?
A They used different motor skills from younger typists.
B They had been more efficiently trained than younger typists.
C They used more time-saving techniques than younger typists.
D They had better concentration skills than younger typists.
2. The experiment with the rats showed that
A brain structure only changed when the rats were given a familiar toy
B the rats became anxious after a lengthy period of time alone
C the rats lived longer then they were part of a social group
D the rats'brains expanded or shrank depending on the level of mental activity
3. A comparison between adults and children who played chess showed that
A the children were as capable as the adults of remembering a series of numbers
B the children had better recall of the layout of pieces
C the adults stored memories of chess moves in a more logical manner
D the adults had clearer memories of chess games they had played
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Questions 4-9
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 17-22 on your answer sheet.
Types of memory
Psychologists distinguish between two different types of memory: 4
and 5 memory. A study was conducted into people's knowledge of 6
to determine recall ability. This aspect of memory was found to be a function not of age
but rather of length of tuition.
School also helps with a brain function called 7 . This is why a more highly
educated person is generally more successful and does better in 8 tests.
Some of our mental functions remain unaffected by age or even improve. For example,
as we get older, our knowledge of 9 increases.
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Questions 10-13
Look at the following statements and the list of people below.
Match each statement with the correct person, A-E.
Write the correct letter, A-E, in boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet.
10 ABCDE The educational system makes students aware of how their memory works.
11 ABCDE Although older people may use a different mental approach when
completing a task, they can still achieve the same result as younger people
12 ABCDE Being open to new ways of doing things can have a positive impact on your
mental condition as we get older
13 ABCDE Both animals and humans need to exist in an environment full of interest.
List of People
A Stanley Rapoport
B Marion Diamond
C Warner Schaie
D Harry Bahrick
E Robert Kail

The moto car

The start of the automobile's history went all the way back to 1769 when automobiles
running on the steam engine were invented as carriers for human transport In 1806, the
first batch of cars powered by an internal combustion engine came into being, which
pioneered the introduction of the widespread modem petrol-fueled internal combustion
engine in 1885.
It is generally acknowledged that the first practical automobiles equipped with
petrol/gaso-line-powered internal combustion engines were invented almost at the same
time by different German inventors who were Working on their own. Karl Bfenz first built
the automobile in 1885 in Mannheim. Benz attained a patent for his invention on 29
January 1886, and in 1888, he started to produce automobiles in a company that later
became the renowned Mercedes-Benz.
As this century began, the automobile industry marched into the transportation market
for the wealth. Drivers at that time were an adventurous bunch; they would go out
regardless of the weather condition even if they weren’t even protected by an enclosed
body or a convertible top. Everybody in the community knew who owned what car, and
cars immediately became a symbol of identity and status. Later, cars became more
popular among the public since it allowed people to travel whenever and wherever they
wanted. Thus, the price of automobiles in Europe and North America kept dropping, and
more people from the middle class could afford them. This was especially attributed to
Henry Ford who did two crucial things. First, he set the price as reasonable as possible
for his cars; second, he paid his employees enough salaries so that they could afford
the cars made by their very own hands.
The trend of interchangeable parts and mass production in an assembly line style had
been led by America, and from 1914, this concept was significantly reinforced by Henry
Ford. This large-scale, production-line manufacture of affordable automobiles was
debuted. A Ford car would come off all assembled from the line every 15 minutes, an
interval shorter than any of the former methods. Not only did it raise productivity, but
also cut down on the requirement for manpower. Ford significantly lowered the chance
of injury by carrying out complicated safety procedures in production—particularly
assigning workers to specific locations rather than giving them the freedom to wander
around. This mixture of high wages and high efficiency was known as Fordism, which
provided a valuable lesson for most major industries.
The first Jeep automobile that came out as the prototype Bantam BRC was the primary
light 4-wheel-drive automobile of the U.S. Army and Allies, and during World War II and
the postwar period, its sale skyrocketed. Since then, plenty of Jeep derivatives with
similar military and civilian functions have been created and kept upgraded in terms of
overall performance in other nations.
Through all the 1950s, engine power and automobile rates grew higher, designs
evolved into a more integrated and artful form, and cars were spreading globally. In the
1960s, the landscape changed as Detroit was confronted with foreign competition. The
European manufacturers, used the latest technology, and Japan came into the picture
as a dedicated car-making country. General Motors, Chrysler, and Ford dabbled with
radical tiny cars such as the GM A-bodies with little success. As joint ventures such as
the British Motor Corporation unified the market, captive imports and badge imports
swept all over the US and the UK. BMC first launched a revolutionary space-friendly
Mini in 1959, which turned out to harvest large global sales. Previously remaining under
the Austin and Morris names, Mini later became an individual marque in 1969. The
trend of corporate consolidation landed in Italy when niche makers such as Maserati,
Ferrari, and Lancia were bought by larger enterprises. By the end of the 20th century,
there had been a sharp fall in the number of automobile marques.
In the US, car performance dominated marketing, justified by the typical cases of pony
cars and muscle cars. However, in the 1970s, everything changed as the American
automobile industry suffered from the 1973 oil crisis, competition with Japanese and
European imports, automobile emission control regulations* and moribund innovation.
The irony in all this was that full-size sedans such as Cadillac and Lincoln scored a
huge comeback between the years of economic crisis.
In terms of technology, the most mentionable developments that postwar era had seen
were the widespread use of independent suspensions, broader application of fuel
injection, and a growing emphasis on safety in automobile design. Mazda achieved
many triumphs with its engine firstly installed in the fore-wheel, though it gained itself a
reputation as a gas-guzzler.
The modem era also has witnessed a sharp elevation of fuel power in the modem
engine management system with the. help of the computer. Nowadays, most
automobiles in use are powered by an internal combustion engine, fueled by gasoline or
diesel. Toxic gas from both fuels is known to pollute the air and is responsible for
climate change as well as global warming.

Questions 1-6
Look at the following descriptions (Questions 1-6) and the list of automobile brands
below.
Match each description with the correct automobile brand, A-G. Write the correct letter,
A-G, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
List of Automobile Brands
A Ford
B the BMC Mini
c Cadillac and Lincoln
D Mercedes Benz
E Mazda
F Jeep
G Maserati, Ferrari, and Lancia
1 ABCDEFG began producing the first automobiles
2 ABCDEFG produced the industrialized cars that common consumers could
afford
3 ABCDEFG improved the utilization rate of automobile space
4 ABCDEFG upgraded the overall performance of the car continuously
5 ABCDEFG maintained leading growth even during an economic recession
6 ABCDEFG installed its engine on the front wheel for the first time
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Questions 7-13
Answer the questions below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for
each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 20-26 on your answer sheet.
7. What is the important feature owned by the modem engine since the 19th century? 7
8. What did a car symbolize to the rich at the very beginning of this century? 8
9. How long did Ford assembly line take to produce a car? 9
10. What is the major historical event that led American cars to suffer when competing
with Japanese imported cars? 10
11. What do people call the Mazda car which was designed under the front wheel
engine? 11
12. What has greatly increased with the computerised engine management systems in
modem society? 12
13. What factor is blamed for contributing to pollution, climate change and global
warming? 13
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Question 14
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in box 27 on your answer sheet.
14. What is the main idea of the passage?
A The influence of the cars on the environment
B The historical development and innovation in car designs
C The beginning of the modem designed gasoline engines
D The history of human and the Auto industry
 Global Warming in New Zealand 2

A
New Zealand is expected to warm by about 3°C over the next century. The northern
polar regions will be more than 6°C warmer, while the large continents – also the largest
centres of population – will be 4°C or warmer. In contrast, the Southern Ocean, which
surrounds New Zealand, may warm by only 2°C. The sea will act as an air conditioner
and in this aspect, New Zealand’s location is comparatively fortunate.
B
Any predictions are complicated by the variability of New Zealand’s climate. The annual
temperature can fluctuate as much as 1°C above or below the long-term average. The
early summer of 2006-7, for instance, was notably cool, thanks in part to the iceberg
that drifted up the east coast. A few months later, warm water from the Tasman Sea
helped make May 2007 unusually hot. These variables will continue unaffected so that,
although the general pattern will be for rising temperatures, the warming trend may not
be uniform.
C
The Ocean to the south of New Zealand will have one important effect. As the world
warms, the great bank of west winds that circle Antarctica will become stronger. This
has already been observed, and its impact on New Zealand is likely to be profound,
stronger, more frequent west winds will bring increased, sometimes catastrophic rainfall
to the west coast of the country and create drier conditions in some eastern regions that
are already drought-prone. At the same time, the general warming will spread south.
D
Furthermore, in the drier regions, the average moisture deficit – that is, the difference
between the amount of water in soils available to plants and the amount plants need for
optimum growth – will increase. Soils could go into moisture deficit earlier in the growing
season and the deficits could last longer into autumn that at present. What we think of
today as a medium-severity drought could be an almost annual occurrence by the end
of the century. One direct consequence of warmer – and shorter – winters will be a
reduction in snow cover. The permanent snow line in the mountains will rise, while snow
cover below this will be shorter-lived. The amount of snow that falls may actually
increase, however, even in some northern centres, owing to the intensification of
precipitation, Ski-field base station may eventually have to be moved upwards to be
within reach of the new snow line but there could still be plenty of the white stuff up
there.
E
There will also be a marked impact on New Zealand’s glaciers. Over the last 100 years,
the glaciers have been reduced by 35%, although since 1978 increase snowfall has
offset the effect of warming. The latest studies conducted by the National Institute for
Water and Atmospheric. Research (NIWA), however, suggest that by the end of the
century, warming over the Southern Alps could be significantly greater than over the
rest of the country.
F
Sea levels around New Zealand have risen by 25cm since the middle of the 9th century
and by 7 cm since 1990. Predictions for the coming years cover a wide range, however,
partly because of unknown rises resulting from the melting of the ice in the Arctic,
Greenland and Antarctica. In addition, sea level at any given time is affected by many
different factors, one of which is called storm surge. When a Coincides with a high tide
along low lying coastal areas, this bulge raises the tide higher than normal, creating.
Surge not unlike a slow-motion tsunami. Not only does a rise in sea level increase the
potential for his sort damage, but it also has less immediate impacts. The one
potentially grave outcome is that groundwater systems may become contaminated with
saltwater, spoiling them for the irrigation of farmland, which in turn could diminish crop
harvests. Similarly, over time, estuaries may be enlarged by erosion as tidal influences
reach further upstream, altering the contours of whole shorelines and initiating further
unforeseen consequences.
G
The impacts these changes will have on New Zealand are difficult to generalize. Human
systems are better able to adapt to change than natural ecosystems because humans
can see a problem coming and plan a response. Farmers and horticulturalists have
made considerable advances, replacing crops they grow to better suit the new
conditions. However, plant breeders will need to show considerable ingenuity if they can
overcome the acute water shortages that are forecast.
H
For natural ecosystems the rate of change is crucial. If it is low, the plants and animals
and fish will be able to ‘keep up’; if it is high, only the most adaptable species-those that
can survive in the widest range of ecological niches-are likely to survive. Species
adapted to only a narrow range of conditions or food sources will find adaptation much
more difficult. Take tuatara, for instance. Their sex is determined by the temperature at
which the eggs are incubated in warm (currently above 22 °C) condition become
predominately male – and now males already outnumber females by nearly two to one
in some island refuges. In the mountains, as the permanent snow line moves upwards,
the tolerance zones of some alpine plants and animals may simply disappear. It should
also be remembered that global warming is just that – a global phenomenon. ‘New
Zealand’s own greenhouse emissions are tiny – around 0.5% of the global total. Even if
New Zealanders were to achieve the government’s target of carbon neutrality, this
would have no discernable impact on global climate change.
I
The changes that global warming is going to bring to New Zealand during the 21st
century are going to be significant, but where the country is likely to be most vulnerable
is with respect to climate change elsewhere. New Zealand may warm more slowly than
most places, but if its major export markets undergo damaging change, the economic
impact will be severe.
Questions 1-6
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write your answers in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
1. What is the main idea of the first paragraph?
A The air condition in New Zealand will maintain a high quality because of the ocean
B The Southern Ocean will remain at a constant strength
C The continents will warm more than the point
D New Zealand will not warm as much as other countries in the next century because
it is surrounded by sea.
2. What does the writer say about New Zealand’s variable weather?
A Temperature changes of 1°C will not be seem important in future
B Variable weather will continue, unchanged by global warming
C There was an unusually small amount of variation in 2006-2007
D Summer temperatures will vary but winter ones will be consistent
3. What is the predicted impact of conditions in the ocean to the south of New Zealand?
A New Zealand will be more affected by floods and droughts
B Antarctica will not be adversely affected by warming.
C The band of west winds will move further to the south.
D The usual west wind will no longer be reliable
4. The writer mentions ‘moisture deficit’ to show?
A The droughts will be shorter but more severe
B How the growing season will become longer.
C How growing conditions will deteriorate
D That farmers should alter the make-up of soils
5. What are the implications of global warming for New Zealand’s
A Skiing may move to lower the altitude in future.
B The ski season will be later in the year than at present.
C The northern ski field will have to move to the south
D Warming may provide more snow for some ski locations
6. The writer refers to NIWA’s latest studies in the 3rd paragraph to show
A how a particular place could be affected by warming
B that the warming trend has been intensifying since 1978
C that freezing levels will rise throughout the century
D how the growth of glaciers is likely to cause damage
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Questions 7-9
Complete the summary below.
Choose NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 7-9 on your answer sheet.
Rising sea levels
The extent of future sea level rises around New Zealand is uncertain and may be
determined in the 7 ABCDEFG. Another variable is sudden rises in sea level caused by
bad weather. Higher sea levels can lead to reduced 8 ABCDEFG and result in changes
to the shape of 9 ABCDEFG.
A agriculture production
B tropical waters
C tidal waves
D polar regions
E global warming
F coastal land
G high tides
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Questions 10-14
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
In boxes 10-14 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the statement is true
NO if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
10 YESNONOT GIVEN The natural world is less responsive to challenges than
humans.
11 YESNONOT GIVEN The agricultural sector is being too conservative and resistant
to innovation.
12 YESNONOT GIVEN The global warming is slow; it will affect different regions in
different ways.
13 YESNONOT GIVEN The tuatara is vulnerable to changes in climate conditions.
14 YESNONOT GIVEN New Zealand must reduce carbon emission if global warming
is to be slowed.

Willpower
A
Although willpower does not shape our decisions, it determines whether and how long
we can follow through on them. It almost single-handedly determines life outcomes.
Interestingly, research suggests the general population is indeed aware of how
essential willpower is to their wellbeing; survey participants routinely identify a ‘lack of
willpower’ as the major impediment to making beneficial life changes. There are,
however, misunderstandings surrounding the nature of willpower and how we can
acquire more of it. There is a widespread misperception, for example, that increased
leisure time would lead to subsequent increases in willpower.
B
Although the concept of willpower is often explained through single-word terms, such as
‘resolve’ or ‘drive’, it refers in fact to a variety of behaviours and situations. There is a
common perception that willpower entails resisting some kind of a ‘treat’, such as a
sugary drink or a lazy morning in bed, in favour of decisions that we know are better for
us, such as drinking water or going to the gym. Of course this is a familiar phenomenon
for all. Yet willpower also involves elements such as overriding negative thought
processes, biting your tongue in social situations, or persevering through a difficult
activity. At the heart of any exercise of willpower, however, is the notion of ‘delayed
gratification’, which involves resisting immediate satisfaction for a course that will yield
greater or more permanent satisfaction in the long run.
C
Scientists are making general investigations into why some individuals are better able
than others to delay gratification and thus employ their willpower, but the genetic or
environmental origins of this ability remain a mystery for now. Some groups who are
particularly vulnerable to reduced willpower capacity, such as those with addictive
personalities, may claim a biological origin for their problems. What is clear is that levels
of willpower typically remain consistent over time (studies tracking individuals from early
childhood to their adult years demonstrate a remarkable consistency in willpower
abilities). In the short term, however, our ability to draw on willpower can fluctuate
dramatically due to factors such as fatigue, diet and stress. Indeed, research by
Matthew Gailliot suggests that willpower, even in the absence of physical activity, both
requires and drains blood glucose levels, suggesting that willpower operates more or
less like a ‘muscle’, and, like a muscle, requires fuel for optimum functioning.
D
These observations lead to an important question: if the strength of our willpower at the
age of thirty-five is somehow pegged to our ability at the age of four, are all efforts to
improve our willpower certain to prove futile? According to newer research, this is not
necessarily the case. Gregory M. Walton, for example, found that a single verbal cue –
telling research participants how strenuous mental tasks could ‘energise’ them for
further challenging activities – made a profound difference in terms of how much
willpower participants could draw upon to complete the activity. Just as our willpower is
easily drained by negative influences, it appears that willpower can also be boosted by
other prompts, such as encouragement or optimistic self-talk.
E
Strengthening willpower thus relies on a two-pronged approach: reducing negative
influences and improving positive ones. One of the most popular and effective methods
simply involves avoiding willpower depletion triggers, and is based on the old adage,
‘out of sight, out of mind’. In one study, workers who kept a bowl of enticing candy on
their desks were far more likely to indulge than those who placed it in a desk drawer. It
also appears that finding sources of motivation from within us may be important. In
another study, Mark Muraven found that those who felt compelled by an external
authority to exert self-control experienced far greater rates of willpower depletion than
those who identified their own reasons for taking a particular course of action. This idea
that our mental convictions can influence willpower was borne out by Veronika Job. Her
research indicates that those who think that willpower is a finite resource exhaust their
supplies of this commodity long before those who do not hold this opinion.
F
Willpower is clearly fundamental to our ability to follow through on our decisions but, as
psychologist Roy Baumeister has discovered, a lack of willpower may not be the sole
impediment every time our good intentions fail to manifest themselves. A critical
precursor, he suggests, is motivation – if we are only mildly invested in the change we
are trying to make, our efforts are bound to fall short. This may be why so many of us
abandon our New Year’s Resolutions – if these were actions we really wanted to take,
rather than things we felt we ought to be doing, we would probably be doing them
already. In addition, Muraven emphasises the value of monitoring progress towards a
desired result, such as by using a fitness journal, or keeping a record of savings toward
a new purchase. The importance of motivation and monitoring cannot be overstated.
Indeed, it appears that, even when our willpower reserves are entirely depleted,
motivation alone may be sufficient to keep us on the course we originally chose.
Questions 1-7
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
In boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this

1 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Willpower is the most significant factor in determining

success in life.
2 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN People with more free time typically have better
willpower.
3 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Willpower mostly applies to matters of diet and
exercise.
4 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The strongest indicator of willpower is the ability to
choose long-term rather than short-term rewards.
5 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Researchers have studied the genetic basis of
willpower.
6 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Levels of willpower usually stay the same throughout
our lives.
7 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Regular physical exercise improves our willpower
ability.
Show workspace

Questions 8-13
Look at the following statements (Questions 8-13) and the list of researchers below.
Match each statement with the correct person, A–D.
Write the correct letter, A–D, in boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use some letters more than once.

This researcher …
8 ABCDE identified a key factor that is necessary for willpower to function.
9 ABCDE suggested that willpower is affected by our beliefs.
10 ABCDE examined how our body responds to the use of willpower.
11 ABCDE discovered how important it is to make and track goals.
12 ABCDE found that taking actions to please others decreases our willpower.
13 ABCDE found that willpower can increase through simple positive thoughts.
List of People
A Matthew Gailliot
B Gregory M. Walton
C Mark Muraven
D Veronika Job
E Roy Baumeister
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Question 14
Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a factor in willpower?
Willpower is affected by:
A physical factors such as tiredness
B our fundamental ability to delay pleasure
C the levels of certain chemicals in our brains
D environmental cues such as the availability of a trigger

Maori Fish Hooks

A. Maori fish hooks, made from wood, bone, stone and flax, are intended to have the
best possible design and function. The hooks are designed to target specific species
with precision. In the industry of commercial long-line fishing, there are some Maori
hook designs which are making a splash.
B. When Polynesians first came New Zealand sometime within the years 1100-1300
AD, they didn’t have the technology necessary to heat and manipulate metal out of
rocks. Meanwhile, fish was the settlers’ main food source at the time, so fishermen
made their hooks and fishing gear out of wood, bone, stone and shells. Other plants
native to the island of New Zealand, like as flax (harakeke), cabbage tree (ti) and astelia
(kiekie) gave the necessary fibrous material to make fishing lines and nets of greater or
equal strength to the jute, which was being used by the Europeans at the time.
However, as a material, metal is more malleable, and can be changed into any shape,
while natural materials are limited in the shapes they can take on. The Maori fish hooks
needed to be more innovative in the ways that they dealt with these limitations.
C. Early accounts of Europeans who settled and explored New Zealand claimed that
Maori hooks, known as matau, were “odd”, “of doubtful efficacy”, “very clumsy affairs” or
“impossible looking.” Archaeologists from more recent times have also mentioned the
round hook appearing as odd, with comments such as, “shaped in a manner which
makes it very difficult to imagine could ever be effective in catching a fish.” William
Anderson, who was aboard the Resolution during Cook’s third voyage in 1777 as the
ship’s surgeon, commented that the Maori “live chiefly by fishing, making use…of
wooden fish hooks pointed with bone, but so oddly made that a stranger is at a loss to
know how they can answer such a purpose.”
D. The Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa did their own recent study on
Maori fish hooks two hundred and thirty years later, and were able to demonstrate that
the unique hook design was a matter of function. The hook’s design allowed it to catch
fish by spinning away from the direction of the point and catching their jaws, instead of
poking a hole through the fish or by being used as a lever, which some archaeologists
also suggested. It seems that the design of the Maori fish hook is, perhaps, the world’s
most efficiently and masterfully designed fish hook, likely superior to any modern metal
fish hook of today.
E. To make larger hooks, Maori used shanks made of strong wood, with stout points
made of bone or shell. They tied tree branches and saplings together to grow them into
the ideal shapes for building, then harvested the plants when they grew to the
appropriate size. They hardened wood by carefully drying it and burying underground
with fires lit above it. Human bone was often used for bone points, which they lashed
securely to a groove at the end of the shank with pre-made flax materials (muka). When
they wanted to catch larger species like sharks, groper and ling, they used composite
hook. However, average the traditional hook was usually not longer than a three finger
breadth (128 mm length).
F. To capture seabirds for food and feathers, like albatross, the islanders used slender
hooks which can be differentiated from other hooks intended to catch fish by their lighter
build and lack of an inturned point. Many of these hooks were collected by early
explorers, suggesting that the taking of seabirds with hook and line was an important
source of food and feathers for Maori. (105 mm length). Slender hooks with wide gapes
were used to capture albatross and other seabirds for food and feathers, and can be
distinguished from hooks intended to catch fish by the lighter construction and lack of an
inturned point. Early explorers collected many of these hooks which could indicated that
catching seabirds with a hook and line provided significant amounts of food and
feathers for the Maori. (105 mm length)
G. Maori adopted new materials quickly once they became available with European
explorers, sealers and whalers who began to arrive towards the end of the 1700s. At
this point, the Maori were still making their fish hooks, but now using metals and
imported materials. Wooden and flax parts of old, abandoned fish hooks decomposed
quickly as traditional hooks were cast away in favor of new ones. Tools made of luxury
materials such as ivory or greenstone may have been kept around as decorations
items, with stylized Maori fish hooks seen today as a symbol of cultural revitalization.
H. The Maori kept recreating traditional designs even as new materials poured in,
preferring hook shapes which were introduced by Pakeha into the 1800s. By following
the tradition of the rotating hook design, they remained connected with a part of their
traditional culture. In the end, though, it was only a matter of time before the amount of
mass-produced metal European hooks finally overwhelmed the area, highlighting the
difficulty of making hooks from nails, horseshoes and other metal objects, and finally the
use of the traditional designs fell out of favor.

I. By the end of the 19th and beginning of the 20th century, tourists and collectors’
demands for Maori artifacts had grown, leading manufacturers to produce large
quantities of forged hooks. These replicas were then traded with both Maoris and
Europeans to use as forgeries of the real thing, sometimes directly commissioned by
artifact dealers themselves. Fake hooks can be spotted by their cheap construction,
inconsistent materials, rudimentary lashings, odd or over-elaborate decorative carvings,
and finally, by the lack of in-turned points or angled grooves used to actually attach the
fishing line.
J. The ways that matau have changed throughout their history is somewhat symbolic of
how Maori have adapted to use European tools, materials and technology to their
purposes over time, as well as the ways that European influence and technology
contributed to, rather overtook, generally compatible Maori skills, and traditional
materials were replaced or complemented by metals and, more recently, artificial
materials. Commercial longline fishermen everywhere have begun using the circle hook
design today, one that is nearly the same as the traditional matau in both its
appearance and functionality. It seems that the advantages and improved catch rates of
this Maori technology have been recognized once more.

Questions 1-8
The reading passage has ten paragraphs labelled A-J.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter A-J in boxes 1-8 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
1 Instruction on how to recognise authentic Maori hooks from counterfeit ones
2 A description of a different type of hooks that are not used to catch fish
3 An acknowledgement that Maori design and craftsmanship are still relevant in the
modern world
4 An investigation into how the hooks functioned so effectively
5 A description of how modern technology began to dominate and eventually took over
from traditional hook construction
6 A list of raw materials used to construct hooks
7 An outline of how different styles of hooks and types of materials were employed to
catch larger fish
8 An account of how the Maori employed new technology and adapted it
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Questions 9-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the reading
passage? In boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet, write
YES – if the statement reflects the claims of the writer
NO – if the statement contradicts the claims of the writer
NOT GIVEN – if it is impossible to say what the writer thinks about this
9 YESNONOT GIVEN The early European settlers quickly understood how the Maori
fish hook worked
10 YESNONOT GIVEN The hook works by making a hole and embedding itself in the
mouth of the fish
11 YESNONOT GIVEN The Maoris catch seabirds by their feet
12 YESNONOT GIVEN There used to be a demand for Maori fish hooks and many
counterfeit ones were produced
13 YESNONOT GIVEN Today European style hooks have completely replaced the
traditional styles used by the Maoris

Education Philosophy

A
Although we lack accurate statistics about child mortality in the pre-industrial period, we
do have evidence that in the 1660s, the mortality rate for children who died within 14
days of birth was as much as 30 per cent. Nearly all families suffered some premature
death. Since all parents expected to bury some of their children, they found it difficult to
invest in their newborn children. Moreover, to protect themselves from the emotional
consequences of children’s death, parents avoided making any emotional commitment
to an infant. It is no wonder that we find mothers leave their babies in gutters or refer to
the death in the same paragraph with reference to pickles.
B
The 18th century witnessed the transformation from an agrarian economy to an
industrial one, one of the vital social changes taking place in the Western world. An
increasing number of people moved from their villages and small towns to big cities
where life was quite different. Social supports which had previously existed in smaller
communities were replaced by ruthless problems such as poverty, crime, substandard
housing and disease. Due to the need for additional income to support the family, young
children from the poorest families were forced into early employment and thus their
childhood became painfully short. Children as young as 7 might be required to work full-
time, subjected to unpleasant and unhealthy circumstances, from factories to
prostitution. Although such a role has disappeared in most wealthy countries, the
practice of childhood employment still remains a staple in underdeveloped countries
and rarely disappeared entirely.
C
The lives of children underwent a drastic change during the 1800s in the United States.
Previously, children from both rural and urban families were expected to participate in
everyday labour due to the bulk of manual hard working. Nevertheless, thanks to the
technological advances of the mid-1800s, coupled with the rise of the middle class and
redefinition of roles of family members, work and home became less synonymous over
time. People began to purchase toys and books for their children. When the country
depended more upon machines, children in rural and urban areas, were less likely to be
required to work at home. Beginning from the Industrial Revolution and rising slowly
over the course of the 19th century, this trend increased exponentially after civil war.
John Locke, one of the most influential writers of his period, created the first clear and
comprehensive statement of the ‘environmental position’ that family education
determines a child’s life, and via this, he became the father of modem learning theory.
During the colonial period, his teachings about child care gained a lot of recognition in
America.
D
According to Jean Jacques Rousseau, who lived in an era of the American and French
Revolution, people were ‘noble savages’ in the original state of nature, meaning they
are innocent, free and uncorrupted. In 1762, Rousseau wrote a famous novel Emile to
convey his educational philosophy through a story of a boy’s education from infancy to
adult-hood. This work was based on his extensive observation of children and
adolescents, their individuality, his developmental theory and on the memories of his
own childhood. He contrasts children with adults and describes their age-specific
characteristics in terms of historical perspective and developmental psychology. Johan
Heinrich Pestalozzi, living during the early stages of the Industrial Revolution, sought to
develop schools to nurture children’s all-round development. He agreed with Rousseau
that humans are naturally good but were spoiled by a corrupt society. His approach to
teaching consists of the general and special methods, and his theory was based upon
establishing an emotionally healthy homelike learning environment, which had to be in
place before more specific instructions occurred.
E
One of the best-documented cases of Pestalozzi’s theory concerned a so-called feral
child named Victor, who was captured in a small town in the south of France in 1800.
Prepubescent, mute, naked, and perhaps 11 or 12 years old, Victor had been seen
foraging for food in the gardens of the locals in the area and sometimes accepted
people’s direct offers of food before his final capture. Eventually, he was brought to
Paris and expected to answer some profound questions about the nature of human, but
that goal was quashed very soon. A young physician Jean Marc Gaspard Itard was
optimistic about the future of Victor and initiated a five-year education plan to civilise
him and teach him to speak. With a subsidy from the government, Itard recruited a local
woman Madame Guerin to assist him to provide a semblance of a home for Victor, and
he spent an enormous amount of time and effort working with Victor. Itard’s goal to
teach Victor the basics of speech could never be fully achieved, but Victor had learnt
some elementary forms of communication.
F
Although other educators were beginning to recognise the simple truth embedded in
Rousseau’s philosophy, it is not enough to identify the stages of children’s development
alone. There must be certain education which had to be geared towards those stages.
One of the early examples was the invention of kindergarten, which was a word and a
movement created by a German-born educator, Friedrich Froebel in 1840. Froebel
placed a high value on the importance of play in children’s learning. His invention would
spread around the world eventually in a verity of forms. Froebel’s ideas were inspired
through his cooperation with Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi. Froebel didn’t introduce the
notion of kindergarten until 58 years old, and he had been a teacher for four decades.
The notion was a haven and a preparation for children who were about to enter the
regimented educational system. The use of guided or structured play was a cornerstone
of his kindergarten education because he believed that play was the most significant
aspect of development at this time of life. Play served as a mechanism for a child to
grow emotionally and to achieve a sense of self-worth. Meanwhile, teachers served to
organise materials and a structured environment in which each child, as an individual,
could achieve these goals. When Froebel died in 1852, dozens of kindergartens had
been created in Germany. Kindergartens began to increase in Europe, and the
movement eventually reached and flourished in the United States in the 20th century.

Questions 1-4
Reading Passage 1 has six paragraphs, A-F.
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A and C-E from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number, i-vii, in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.
List of Headings
i The inheritance and development of educational concepts of different thinkers
ii Why children had to work to alleviate the burden on family
iii Why children are not highly valued
iv The explanation for children dying in hospital at their early age
v The first appearance of modem educational philosophy
vi The application of a creative learning method on a wild kid
vii The emergence and spread of the notion of kindergarten

1 iiiiiiivvvivii Paragraph A
Example Answer
Paragraph B ii
2 iiiiiiivvvivii Paragraph C
3 iiiiiiivvvivii Paragraph D
4 iiiiiiivvvivii Paragraph E
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Questions 5-8
Look at the following events (Questions 5-8) and the list of dates below.
Match each event with the correct date, A, B or C.
Write the correct letter, A, B or C, in boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
List of Dates
A the 18th century (1700-1799)
B the 19th century (1800-1899)
C the 20th century (1900-1999)

5 ABC the need for children to work

6 ABC the rise of the middle class
7 ABC the emergence of a kindergarten
8 ABC the spread of kindergartens around the U.S.
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Questions 9-13
Look at the following opinions or deeds (Questions 9-13) and the list of people below.
Match each opinion or deed with the correct person, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter, A, B, C or D, in boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
List of People
A Jean Jacques Rousseau
B Johan Heinrich Pestalozzi
C Jean Marc Gaspard Itard
D Friedrich Froebel

9 ABC was not successful to prove the theory

10 ABC observed a child’s record
11 ABC requested a study setting with emotional comfort firstly
12 ABC proposed that corruption was not a characteristic in people’s nature
13 ABC was responsible for an increase in the number of a type of school
 Sunny Days For Silicon

A The old saw that "the devil is in the details" characterizes the kind of needling
obstacles that prevent an innovative concept from becoming a working technology. It
also often describes the type of problems that must be overcome to shave cost from the
resulting product so that people will buy it. Emanuel Sachs of the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology has struggled with many such little devils in his career-tong
endeavor to develop low-cost, high-efficiency solar cells. In his latest effort, Sachs has
found incremental ways to boost the amount of electricity that common photovoltaics
(PVs) generate from sunlight without increasing the costs. Specifically, he has raised
the conversion efficiency of test cells made from multi-crystalline silicon from the typical
15.5 percent to nearly 20 percent—on par with pricier single-crystal silicon cells. Such
improvements could bring the cost of PV power down from the current $1.90 to $2.10
per watt to $1.65 per watt. With additional tweaks, Sachs anticipates creating within
Four years solar cells that can produce juice at a dollar per watt, a feat that would make
electricity (rum the sun competitive with that from coal-burning power plants.
B Most PV cells, such as those on home rooftops, rely on silicon to convert sunlight into
electric current. Metal interconnects then funnel the electricity out from the silicon to
power devices or to feed an electrical grid. Since solar cells became practical and
affordable three decades ago, engineers have mostly favored using single-crystal
silicon as the active material, says Michael Rogol, managing director of Germany-
based Photon Consulting. Wafers of the substance are typically sawed from an ingot
consisting of one large crystal that has been pulled like taffy out of a vat of molten
silicon. Especially at first, the high-purity ingots were left over from integrated-circuit
manufacture, but later the process was used to make PV cells themselves, Rogol
recounts. Although single-crystal cells offer high conversion efficiencies, they are
expensive to make. The alternatives- multi-crystalline silicon cells, which factories
fabricate from lower-purity, cast ingots composed of many smaller crystals—are
cheaper to make, but unfortunately they are less efficient than single-crystal cells.
C Sachs, who has pioneered several novel ways to make silicon solar cells less costly
and more effective, recently turned his focus to the details of multi-crystalline silicon cell
manufacture. The first small improvement concerns the little silver fingers that gather
electric current from the surface of the bulk silicon," he explains. In conventional
fabrication processes, cell manufacturers use screen-printing techniques ("like high-
accuracy silk-screening of T-shirts," Sachs notes) and inks containing, silver particles to
create these bus wires. The trouble is that standard silver wires come out wide and
short, about 120 by 10 microns, and include many nonconductive voids. As a result,
they block considerable sunlight and do not carry as much current as they should.
D At his start-up company—Lexington, Mass- based 1366 Technologies (the number
refers to the flux of sunlight that strikes the earth's outer atmosphere: 1.366 watts per
square meter)—Sachs is employing "a proprietary wet process that can produce thinner
and taller" wires that are 20 by 20 microns. The slimmer bus wires use less costly silver
and can be placed closer together so they can draw more current from the neighboring
active material, through which free electrons can travel only so far. At the same time,
the wires block less incoming light than their standard counterparts.
E The second innovation alters the wide, flat interconnect wires that collect current from
the silver bus wires and electrically link adjacent cells. Interconnect wires at the top can
shade as much as 5 percent of the area of a cell. "We place textured mirror surfaces on
the faces of these rolled wires. These little mirrors reflect incoming light at a lower
angle--around 30 degrees-—so that when the reflected rays hit the glass layer at Lire
top, they stay within the silicon wafer by way of total internal reflection,” Sachs explains.
(Divers and snorkelers commonly see this optical effect when they view water surfaces
from below.) The longer that light remains inside, the more chance it has to be absorbed
and transformed into electricity.
F Sachs expects that new antireflection coatings will further raise multi-crystal line cell
efficiencies. One of his firm's future goals will be a switch from expensive silver bus
wires to cheaper copper ones. And he has a few ideas regarding how to successfully
make the substitution. "Unlike silver, copper poisons the performance of silicon PVs,"
Sachs says, "so it will be crucial to include a low-cost diffusion barrier that stops direct
contact between copper and the silicon." In this business, it's always the little devilish
details that count.
G The cost of silicon solar cells is likely to fall as bulk silicon prices drop, according to
the U.S. Energy information Administration and the industry tracking firm Solarbuzz. A
steep rise in solar panel sales in recent years had led to a global shortage of silicon
because production capacity for the active material lagged behind, but now new silicon
manufacturing plants are coming online. The reduced materials costs and resulting
lower system prices will greatly boost demand for solar-electric technology, according to
market watcher Michael Rogol of Photon Consulting.
Questions 1-5
Use the information in the passage to match the people or companies (listed A-C) with
opinions or deeds below. Write the appropriate letters A-C in boxes 1-5 on your answer
sheet.
NB you may use any letter more than once
A. Emanuel Sach
B. Michael Rogol
C. Solarbuzz
1 ABC Gives a brief account of the history of the common practice to manufacture
silicon batteries for a long time.
2 ABC Made a joint prediction with another national agency.
3 ABC Established an enterprise with a meaningful name.
4 ABC Led forward in the solar-electric field by reducing the cost while raising the
efficiency.
5 ABC Expects to lower the cost of solar cells to a level that they could contend with
the traditional way to generate electricity.
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Questions 6-9
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
In boxes 6-9 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement is true
FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
6 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The Achille’s heel of single-crystal cells is the high cost.
7 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The multi-crystalline silicon cells are ideal substitutions for
single-crystal cells.
8 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Emanuel Sachs has some determining dues about the way
to block the immediate contact between an alternative metal for silver and the silicon.
9 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN In the last few years, there is a sharp increase in the
demand for solar panels.
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Questions 10-14
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No More
than Three words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your answers in
boxes 10-14 on your answer sheet.
Emanuel Sachs made two major changes to the particulars of the manufacture 10 . One
is to take a 11 in the production of finer wires which means more current
could be attracted from the 12 . The other one is to set 13
above the interconnect silver bus wires to keep the incoming sunlight by 14 .

The beginning of intelligence

A No one doubts that intelligence develops as children grow older. Yet the concept of
intelligence has proved both quite difficult to define in unambiguous terms and
unexpectedly controversial in some respects. Although, at one level, there seem to be
almost as many definitions of intelligence as people who have tried to define it, there is
broad agreement on two key features. That is, intelligence involves the capacity not only
to learn from experience but also to adapt to one’s environment. However, we cannot
leave the concept there. Before turning to what is known about the development of
intelligence, it is necessary to consider whether we are considering the growth of one or
many skills. That question has been tackled in rather different ways by
psychometricians and by developmentalists.
B The former group has examined the issue by determining how children’s abilities on a
wide range of tasks intercorrelate, or go together. Statistical techniques have been used
to find out whether the patterns are best explained by one broad underlying capacity,
general intelligence, or by a set of multiple, relatively separate, special skills in domains
such as verbal and visuospatial ability. While it cannot be claimed that everyone agrees
on what the results mean, most people now accept that for practical purposes it is
reasonable to suppose that both are involved. In brief, the evidence in favour of some
kind of general intellectual capacity is that people who are superior (or inferior) on one
type of task tend also to be superior (or inferior) on others. Moreover, general measures
of intelligence tend to have considerable powers to predict a person’s performance on a
wide range of tasks requiring special skills. Nevertheless, it is plain that it is not at all
uncommon for individuals to be very good at some sorts of task and yet quite poor at
some others.
C Furthermore the influences that affect verbal skills are not quite the same as those
that affect other skills. This approach to investigating intelligence is based on the nature
of the task involved, but studies of age-related changes show that this is not the only, or
necessarily the most important, approach. For instance, some decades ago, Horn and
Cattell argued for a differentiation between what they termed‘fluid’ and‘crystallised’
intelligence. Fluid abilities are best assessed by tests that require mental manipulation
of abstract symbols. Crystallised abilities, by contrast, reflect knowledge of the
environment in which we live and past experience of similar tasks; they may be
assessed by tests of comprehension and information. It seems that fluid abilities peak in
early adult life, whereas crystallised abilities increase up to advanced old.
D Developmental studies also show that the interconnections between different skills
vary with age. Thus in the first year of life an interest in perceptual patterns is a major
contributor to cognitive abilities, whereas verbal abilities are more important later on.
These findings seemed to suggest a substantial lack of continuity between infancy and
middle childhood. However, it is important to realise that the apparent discontinuity will
vary according to which of the cognitive skills were assessed in infancy. It has been
found that tests of coping with novelty do predict later intelligence. These findings
reinforce the view that young children’s intellectual performance needs to be assessed
from their interest in and curiosity about the environment, and the extent to which this is
applied to new situations, as well as by standardised intelligence testing.
E These psychometric approaches have focused on children’s increase in cognitive
skills as they grow older. Piaget brought about a revolution in the approach to cognitive
development through his arguments ( backed up by observations) that the focus should
be on the thinking processes involved rather than on levels of cognitive achievement
These ideas of Piaget gave rise to an immense body of research and it would be true to
say that subsequent thinking has been heavily dependent on his genius in opening up
new ways of thinking about cognitive development. Nevertheless, most of his concepts
have had to be so radically revised, or rejected, that his theory no longer provides an
appropriate basis for thinking about cognitive development To appreciate why that is so,
we need to focus on some rather different elements of Piaget’s theorising.
F The first element, which has stood the test of time, is his view that the child is nactive
agent of learning and of the importance of this activity in cognitive development
Numerous studies have shown how infants actively scan their environment; how they
prefer patterned to non-patterned objects, how they choose novel over familiar stimuli,
and how they explore their environment as if to see how it works. Children’s questions
and comments vividly illustrate the ways in which they are constantly constructing
schemes of what they know and trying out their ideas of how to fit new knowledge into
those schemes or deciding that the schemes need modification. Moreover, a variety of
studies have shown that active experiences have a greater effect on learning than
comparable passive experiences. However, a second element concerns the notion that
development proceeds through a series of separate stages that have to be gone
through step-by-step, in a set order, each of which is characterised by a particular
cognitive structure. That has turned out to be a rather misleading way of thinking about
cognitive development, although it is not wholly wrong.
Questions 1-4
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D. Write your answers in boxes 1-4 on your answer
sheet
1. Most researchers accept that one feature of intelligence is the ability to
A change our behaviour according to our situation.
B react to others’ behaviour patterns.
C experiment with environmental features.
D cope with unexpected setbacks.
2. What have psychometricians used statistics for?
A to find out if cooperative tasks are a useful tool in measuring certain skills
B to explore whether several abilities are involved in the development of intelligence
C to demonstrate that mathematical models can predict test results for different skills
D to discover whether common sense is fundamental to developing children’s abilities
3. Why are Horn and Cattell mentioned?
A They disagreed about the interpretation of different intelligence tests.
B Their research concerned both linguistic and mathematical abilities.
C They were the first to prove that intelligence can be measured by testing a range of
special skills.
D Their work was an example of research into how people’s cognitive skills vary with
age.
4. What was innovative about Piaget’s research?
A He refused to accept that children developed according to a set pattern.
B He emphasised the way children thought more than how well they did in tests.
C He used visually appealing materials instead of traditional intelligence tests.
D He studied children of all ages and levels of intelligence.
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Questions 5-10
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In
boxes 5-10 on your answer sheet, write
YES if the sataement agrees with the information
NO if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
5 YESNONOT GIVEN A surprising number of academics have come to the same
conclusion about what the term intelligence means.
6 YESNONOT GIVEN A general test of intelligence is unlikely to indicate the level of
performance in every type of task.
7 YESNONOT GIVEN The elderly perform less well on comprehension tests than
young adults.
8 YESNONOT GIVEN We must take into account which skills are tested when
comparing intelligence at different ages.
9 YESNONOT GIVEN Piaget’s work influenced theoretical studies more than practical
research.
10 YESNONOT GIVEN Piaget’s emphasis on active learning has been discredited by
later researchers.
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Questions 11-14
Complete the summary using the list of words, A-I, below. Write your answers in boxes
11-14 on your answer sheet.
Researchers investigating the development of intelligence have shown that 11
skills become more significant with age. One good predictor of 12
intelligence is the degree to which small children are 13 about their
surroundings and how much interest they show on finding themselves in an 14
setting.
A adult
B practical
C verbal
D spatial
E inquisitive
F uncertain
G academic
H plentiful
I unfamiliar

Crisis! freshwater
A . As in New Delhi and Phoenix, policymakers worldwide wield great power over how
water resources and managed. Wise use of such power will become increasingly
important as the years go by because the world’s demand for freshwater is currently
overtaking its ready supply in many places, and this situation shows no sign of abating.
B . That the problem is well-known makes it no less disturbing: today one out of six
people, more than a billion, suffer inadequate access to safe freshwater. By 2025,
according to data released by the United Nations, the freshwater resources of more
than half the countries across the globe will undergo either stress- for example, when
people increasingly demand more water than is available or safe for use-or outright
shortages. By mid-century, as much as three-quarters of the earth’s population could
face scarcities of freshwater.
C . Scientists expect water scarcity to become more common in large part because the
world’s population is rising and many people are getting richer (thus expanding
demand) and because global climate change is exacerbating aridity and reducing
supply in many regions. What is more, many water sources are threatened by faulty
waste disposal, releases of industrial pollutants, fertilizer runoff, and coastal influxes of
saltwater into aquifers as groundwater is depleted.
D . Because lack of access to water can lead to starvation, disease, political instability,
and even armed conflict, failure to take action can have broad and grave
consequences. Fortunately, to a great extent, the technologies and policy tools required
to conserve existing freshwater and to secure more of it are known among which
several seem particularly effective. What is needed now is action. Governments and
authorities at every level have to formulate and execute plans for implementing the
political, economic, and technological measures that can ensure water security now and
in the coming decades.
E . The world’s water problems require, as a start, an understanding of how much
freshwater each person requires, along with knowledge of the factors that impede
supply and increase demand in different parts of the world. Main Falkenmark of the
Stockholm International Water Institute and other experts estimate that, on average,
each person on the earth needs a minimum of 1000 cubic meters (m3) of water. The
minimum water each person requires for drinking, hygiene, and growing food. The
volume is equivalent to two-fifths of an Olympic-size swimming pool.
F . Much of the Americas and northern Eurasia enjoy abundant water supplies. But
several regions are beset by greater or lesser degrees of “physical” scarcity-whereby
demand exceeds local availability. Other areas, among them Central Africa, parts of the
Indian subcontinent, and Southeast Asia contend with “economic” water scarcity limit
access even though sufficient supplies are available.
G. More than half of the precipitation that falls on land is never available for capture or
storage because it evaporates from the ground or transpires from plants; this fraction is
called blue-water sources-rivers, lakes, wetlands, and aquifers-that people can tap
directly. Farm irrigation from these free-flowing bodies is the biggest single human use
of freshwater resources, but the intense local demand they create often drains the
surroundings of ready supplies.

H . Lots of water, but not always where it is needed one hundred and ten thousand
cubic kilometers of precipitation, nearly 10 times the volume of Lake Superior, falls from
the sky onto the earth’s land surface every year. This huge quantity would easily fulfill
the requirements of everyone on the planet if the water arrived where and when people
needed it. But much of it cannot be captured (top), and the rest is disturbed unevenly
(bottom). Green water (61.1% of total precipitation): absorbed by soil and plants, then
released back into the air: unavailable for withdrawal. Bluewater (38.8% of total
precipitation): collected in rivers, lakes, wetlands, and groundwater: available for
withdrawal before it evaporates or reaches the ocean. These figures may not add up to
100% because of rounding. Only 1.5% is directly used by people.
I . Waters run away in tremendous wildfires in recent years. The economic actors had
all taken their share reasonably enough: they just did not consider the needs of the
natural environment, which suffered greatly when its inadequate supply was reduced to
critical levels by drought. The members of the Murray-Darling Basin Commission are
now frantically trying to extricate themselves from the disastrous results of their
misallocation of the total water resource. Given the difficulties of sensibly apportioning
the water supply within a single nation, imagine the complexities of doing so for
international river basins such as that of the Jordan River, which borders on Lebanon,
Syria, Israel, the Palestinian areas, and Jordan, all of which have claims to the shared,
but limited, supply in an extremely parched region. The struggle for freshwater has
contributed to civil and military disputes in the area. Only continuing negotiations and
compromises have kept this tense situation under control.
Questions 1-5
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In
boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE If the statement is true
FALSE If the statement is false

NOT GIVEN If the information is not given in the passage

1 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The prospect for the need for freshwater worldwide is
obscure.

2 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN To some extent, the challenge for freshwater is alleviated

by common recognition.
3 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Researchers arrive at the specific conclusion about the
water crisis based on persuasive consideration of several factors.
4 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The fact that people do not actually cherish the usage of
water scarcity.
5 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Controversy can’t be avoided for adjacent nations over the
water resource.
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Questions 6-10
The readings Passage has eleven paragraphs A-I
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter A-I, in boxes 6-10 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
6 ABCDEFGHI The uneven distribution of water around the world.
7 ABCDEFGHI other factors regarding nature bothering people who make the policies.
8 ABCDEFGHI Joint efforts needed to carry out the detailed solutions combined with
various aspects.
9 ABCDEFGHI No always-in-time match available between the requirements and the
actual rainfall.
10 ABCDEFGHI The lower limit of the amount of fresh water for a person to survive.
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Questions 11-13
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No
More than Three wordsfrom the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your
answers in boxes 11–13 on your answer sheet.

Many severe problems like starvation and military actions etc result from the storage
of water which sometimes for some areas seems 11 because of
unavailability but other regions suffer another kind of scarcity for insufficient support.
12 of the rainfall can’t be achieved because of evaporation.
Some other parts form the 13 which can be used immediately. Water to
irrigate the farmland takes a considerable amount along with the use for cities and
industries and the extended need from the people involved.

The History of the Invention of Plastics

{A} Natural polymers include such familiar substances as silk, rubber, and cotton.
Plastics are artificial polymers. Plastics are used on a daily basis throughout the world.
The word plastic is a common term that is used for many materials of a synthetic or
semi-synthetic nature. The term was derived from the Greek plastikos, which means “fit
for molding.” Plastics are a wide variety of combinations of properties when viewed as a
whole. They are used for shellac, cellulose, rubber, and asphalt. We also synthetically
manufacture items such as clothing, packaging, automobiles, electronics, aircraft,
medical supplies, and recreational items. The list could go on and on and it is obvious
that much of what we have today would not be possible without plastics.
{B} In the early part of the twentieth century, a big boom occurred in polymer chemistry
when polymer materials such as nylon and Kevlar came on the scene. Much of the work
done with polymers focuses on improvement while using existing technologies, but
chemists do have opportunities ahead. There is a need for the development of new
applications for polymers, always looking for less expensive materials that can replace
what is used now. Chemists have to be more aware of what the market yearns for, such
as products with a green emphasis, polymers that break down or are environmentally
friendly. Concerns such as these have brought new activity to the science arena and
there are always new discoveries to be made.

{C} The evolution of the chemistry behind plastics is mind-numbing, and the uses for
plastics are endless. In the Middle Ages, when scientists first started to experiment,
plastics were derived from organic natural sources, such as egg and blood proteins. It
wasn’t until the 19th and 20thcenturies that the plastics we know today were created.
Many Americans will recognize the name Goodyear, it was Charles Goodyear who
began the modern-day plastic revolution when he vulcanized rubber in 1839, paving the
way for the tire. Prior to his discovery, products made with rubber did not hold up well in
warm temperatures or climates. Rubber is only one source of plastic, however, and
three key inventors followed Goodyear’s path and took plastic from a nearly unusable
hard substance to the invaluable man-made resource it is today.
{D} The son of a brass lock manufacturer, Alexander Parkes was born in Birmingham,
England in 1813. Parkes was raised around metal fabrication. In his first job he worked
as an apprentice at Birmingham’s brass foundry, owned by Samuel S. Messengers and
Sons. Parkes switched his attention from brass work to electroplating when he went to
work for George and Henry Elkington. It was there Parkes developed his inventive spirit.
Parkes’ first patent, awarded in 1841, dealt with electroplating delicate items such as
flowers, but throughout his career Parkes reportedly held more than 80 patents on his
works with both metals and plastics.Parkes is credited with inventing the first man-made
plastic, which he patented as Parkesine in 1856. Parkes introduced this combination of
nitrocellulose and solvents to England in 1862 at the London International Exhibition.
While Parkesine itself did not prove to be a successful material in its original
formulation, it was too flammable, it laid the groundwork for successful derivative
materials from future inventors. One of those inventors being John Wesley Hyatt.
{E} What Alexander Parkes started, John Wesley Hyatt took to the next level. Hyatt was
born in Starkey, New York in 1837, and patented several hundred inventions. Hyatt’s
link to plastics comes in the form of the game of billiards. Billiard balls were originally
made of ivory, a commodity that was in steep decline in the 1800s. Most likely inspired
by the $10,000 reward being offered, Hyatt took on the challenge of finding a substitute
material to manufacture billiard balls. Hyatt’s experiments began with a combination of
Parkes’ Parkesine, a solid form of nitrocellulose, and another English inventor,
Frederick Scott Archer, discovery of liquid nitrocellulose. Hyatt combined two to create
celluloid, which he patented in 1870.

{F} Celluloid was used for numerous products, including billiard balls for Hyatt’s own
company rather than his former employer. Celluloid also produced false teeth, combs,
baby rattles, and piano keys. Despite its replacement by newer synthetic materials in
today’s marketplace, Hyatt’s patented version of celluloid is still used to produce ping-
pong balls. There is no doubt that the invention of celluloid was the next important rung
in the plastic manufacturing ladder, including the use of celluloid in film production.
{G} Much like Parkes’ invention led to Hyatt’s success, Hyatt’s celluloid influenced Leo
Baekeland. This Belgium-born chemist paved the way for George Eastman, of Eastman
Kodak, to build the photographic empire we know today. Born in 1863, Baekeland’s first
invention was Velox, a paper that allowed photographs to be taken in artificial light.
Eastman purchased the Velox process from Baekeland for a reported $750,000 in 1899.
Baekeland used that money to fund his own in-home laboratory.
{H} Baekeland moved his experiments from photography paper to synthetic resins, and
invented Bakelite, a combination of phenol and formaldehyde in 1907. Bakelite was
officially patented in 1909. Bakelite was a hard, yet moldable, plastic, and was
considered the product that led the world into the Age of Plastics. Bakelite was used in
everything from buttons to art deco furniture to television sets. While these items are
made from different types of materials today, Bakelite is still used in the production of
items such as car brakes and materials used in the space shuttle.
Questions 1-5
Use the information in the passage to match the inventors, chemists or companies
(listed A-F) with opinions or deeds below. Write the appropriate letters A-F in boxes 1-5
on your answer sheet.

(A) Alexander Parkes

(B) Charles Goodyear
(C) John Wesley Hyatt
(D) Frederick Scott Archer
(E) Leo Baekeland
(F) George Eastman

1 ABCDEF Invested a considerable amount of money in buying a technique that had a

huge impact on the success of his well-known business.

2 ABCDEF Invented a chemical formula that was successful only in a lab experimental
stage yet marked the beginning of an important era.
3 ABCDEF Had a lab sustained by his own capital.

4 ABCDEF In the motivation of an attractive financial incentive, successfully created a

succedaneum based on the work accomplished by chemists prior to him.
5 ABCDEF Established a famous business on auto parts.
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Questions 6-9
Do the following statements agree with the information given in IELTS Data Reading
Passage 230 – The History of the Invention of Plastics Reading Passage? In boxes 6-9
on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement is True

FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN If the information is not given in the passage
6 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Silk, cotton as well as plastics have something in
common.
7 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN There are sometimes conflicts between what the chemists
are trying on and what the markets are driving for.
8 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The majority of Alexander Parkes’ patents lie in two major
fields.
9 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The importance of celluloid has completely faded out of in
commercial use because of the occurrence of other alternative products.
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Questions 10-14
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No
More than Three words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your
answers in boxes 10-14 on your answer sheet.

Alexander Parkes, a well-known chemist, was brought up in an industrial city

surrounded by 10 . He began his work by learning in a 11 in his
hometown and later fostered his 12 during his time working for other
employers. He started his journey of getting over 80 patents in the field of 13
ever since then.
Although his most important invention Parkesine, made up of 14 and
regarded as the first artificial plastic did not get a big success because of some
shortcomings, Parkes had paved the road for other coming scientists in plastic
chemistry.

The sense of flavour 2

{A} Scientists now believe that human beings acquired the sense of taste as a way to
avoid being poisoned. Edible plants generally taste sweet; deadly ones, bitter. Taste is
supposed to help us differentiate food that’s good for us from food that’s not. The taste
buds on our tongues can detect the presence of half a dozen or so basic tastes,
including sweet, sour, bitter, salty, and umami (a taste discovered by Japanese
researchers, a rich and full sense of deliciousness triggered by amino acids in foods
such as shellfish, mushrooms, potatoes, and seaweed). Tastebuds offers a limited
means of detection, however, compared with the human olfactory system, which can
perceive thousands of different chemical aromas. Indeed, ‘flavor’ is primarily the smell
of gases being released by the chemicals you’ve just put in your mouth. The aroma of
food can be responsible for as much as 90% of its flavor.
{B} The act of drinking, sucking or chewing a substance releases its volatile gases.
They flow out of the mouth and up the nostrils, or up the passageway at the back of the
mouth, to a thin layer of nerve cells called the olfactory epithelium, located at the base
of the nose, right between the eyes. The brain combines the complex smell signals from
the epithelium with the simple taste signals from the tongue, assigns a flavor to what’s
in your mouth, and decides if it’s something you want to eat.

{C} Babies like sweet tastes and reject bitter ones; we know this because scientists
have rubbed various flavors inside the mouths of infants and then recorded their facial
reactions. A person’s food preferences, like his or her personality, are formed during the
first few years of life, through a process of socialization. Toddlers can learn to enjoy hot
and spicy food, bland health food, or fast food, depending upon what the people around
them eat. The human sense of smell is still not fully understood. It is greatly affected by
psychological factors and expectations. The mind filters out the overwhelming majority
of chemical aromas that surround us, focusing intently on some, ignoring others. People
can grow accustomed to bad smells or good smells; they stop noticing what once
seemed overpowering.
{D} Aroma and memory are somehow inextricably linked. A smell can suddenly evoke a
long-forgotten moment. The flavours of childhood foods seem to leave an indelible
mark, and adults often return to them, without always knowing why. These ‘comfort
foods’ become a source of pleasure and reassurance a fact that fast-food chains work
hard to promote Childhood memories of Happy Meals can translate into frequent adult
visits to McDonald’s’, like those of the chain’s ‘heavy users’, the customers who eat
there four or five times a week.
{E} The human craving for flavour has been a large unacknowledged and unexamined
force in history. Royal empires have been built, unexplored lands have been traversed,
great religions and philosophies have been forever changed by the spice trade. In 1492,
Christopher Columbus set sail in order to try to find new seasonings and thus to make
his fortune with this most desired commodity of that time. Today, the influence of flavour
in the world marketplace is no less decisive. The rise and fall of corporate empires –
soft-drink companies, snack-food companies, and fast-food chains – is frequently
determined by how their products taste.

{F} The flavor industry emerged in the mid-1800s, as processed foods began to be
manufactured on a large scale. Recognizing the need for flavor additives, the early food
processors turned to perfume companies that had years of experience working with
essential oils and volatile aromas. The great perfume houses of England, France, and
the Netherlands produced many of the first flavor compounds. In the early part of the
20th century, Germany’s powerful chemical industry assumed the lead in flavour
production. Legend has it that a German scientist discovered methyl anthranilate, one of
the first artificial flavours, by accident while mixing chemicals in his laboratory.
Suddenly, the lab was filled with the sweet smell of grapes. Methyl anthranilate later
became the chief flavoring compound of manufactured grape juice.
{G} The quality that people seek most of all in a food, its flavour, is usually present in a
quantity too infinitesimal to be measured by any traditional culinary terms such as
ounces or teaspoons. Today’s sophisticated spectrometers, gas chromatograph, and
headspace vapor analyzers provide a detailed map of a food’s flavour components,
detecting chemical aromas in amounts as low as one part per billion. The human nose,
however, is still more sensitive than any machine yet invented. A nose can detect
aromas present in quantities of a few parts per trillion. Complex aromas, such as those
of coffee or roasted meat, may be composed of gases from nearly a thousand different
chemicals. The chemical that provides the dominant flavour of bell pepper can be tasted
in amounts as low as 0.02 parts per billion; one drop is sufficient to add flavour to the
amount of water needed to fill five average-sized swimming pools
Questions 1-5
Do the following statements agree with the information given in The Passage?
In boxes 1 – 5 on the answer sheet write

TRUE if the statement is True

FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN If the information is not given in the passage
1 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The brain determines which aromas we are aware of.
2 TRUEFALSENOT GIVENThe sense of taste is as efficient as the sense of smell.
3 TRUEFALSENOT GIVENPersonal tastes in food are developed in infancy.
4 TRUEFALSENOT GIVENChristopher Columbus found many different spices on his
travels.
5 TRUEFALSENOT GIVENIn the mid-1880s, man-made flavors were originally
invented on purpose.
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Questions 6-11
Complete the sentence below. Choose ONE word from The Passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 6 – 11 on your answer sheet
It is thought that the sense of taste was 6 in order to 7 the foods which are harmless
to us from those that are not 8 . The sense of smell, which gives us the flavour we
detect in our food, helps us to take pleasure in our food. Indeed this 9 for flavour was,
in the past, the reason why so many explorers ventured to distant lands to bring back
new 10 .which were greatly sought after in Europe. Here they were used in cooking to
enhance the usual 11 and unappetizing dishes eaten by rich and poor alike.

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Question 12-13
Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from Reading Passage 1 for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 12-13 on your answer sheet
12. We associate certain smells with the past as they are 12
13. Modern technology is able to help determine the minute quantities of 13 found in
food.

Volatility Kills
A . Despite gun battles in the capital of Chad, rioting in Kenya, and Galloping inflation
in Zimbabwe, the economies of sub-Saharan Africa are, as a whole, in better shape
than they were a few years ago. The World Bank has reported recently that this part of
the continent experienced a respectable growth rate of 5.6 percent in 2006 and a higher
rate from 1995 to 2005 than in previous decades. The bank has given a cautions
assessment that the region may have reached a turning point. An overriding question
for developmental economists remains whether the upswing will continue so Africans
can grow their way out of poverty that relegates some 40 percent of the nearly 744
million in that region to living on less than a dollar a day. The optimism, when inspected
more closely, maybe short-lived because of the persistence of a devastating pattern of
economic volatility that has lingered for decades.
B. “In reality, African countries grow as fast as Asian countries and other developing
countries during the good times, but afterward they see growth collapses,” comments
Jorge Arbache, a senior World Bank economist. “How to prevent collapses may be as
important as promoting growth.” If these collapses had not occurred, he observes, the
level of gross domestic product for each citizen of the 48 nations of sub -Saharan Africa
would have been third higher.

C . the prerequisites to prevent the next crash are not in place, according to a World
Bank study issued in January, Is Africa’s Recent Growth Robust? The growth period
that began in 1995, driven by a commodities boom spurred in particular by demand
from China, may not be sustainable, because the economic fundamentals- new
investment and the ability to stave off inflation, among other factors-are absent. The
region lacks the necessary infrastructure that would encourage investors to look to
Africa to find the next Bengaluru ( Bangalore ) or Shenzhen, a November report from
the bank concludes. For sub–Saharan countries rich in oil and other resources, a boom
period may even undermine efforts to institute sound economic practices.. From 1996 to
2005, with growth accelerating, measures of governance– factors such as political
stability, rule of law, and control of corruption- actually worsened, especially for
countries endowed with abundant mineral resources, the January report
notes.
D . Perhaps the most incisive analysis of the volatility question comes from Paul Collier,
a longtime specialist in African economics at the University of Oxford and author of the
recent book The Bottom Billion. He advocates a range of options that the U.S. and other
nations could adopt when formulating policy toward African countries. They include
revamped trade measures, better-apportioned aid, and sustained military intervention in
certain instances, to avert what he sees as a rapidly accelerating divergence of the
world’s poorest, primarily in Africa, from the rest of the world, even other developing
nations such India and China.
E. Collier finds that bad governance is the main reason countries fail to take advantage
of the revenue bonanza that results from a boom. moreover, a democratic government,
he adds, often makes the aftermath of a boom worse. “Instead of democracy
disciplining governments to manage these resource booms well, what happens is that
the resource revenues corrupt the normal functioning of democracy-unless you stop
( them from) corrupting the normal function of democracy with sufficient checks and
balances”, he said at a talk ion January at the Carnegie Council in New York City.

F. Collier advocates that African nations institute an array of standards and codes to
bolster governments, one of which would substitute auctions for bribes in apportioning
mineral rights and another of which would tax export revenues adequately. He cites the
Democratic Republic of the Congo, which took in $ 200 million from mineral exports in
2006 yet collected only $86000 in royalties for its treasury. “If a nation gets these points
right, ” he argues, “It’s going to develop. If it gets them wrong, it won’t.”
G . To encourage reform, Collier recommends that the G8 nations agree to accept
these measures as voluntary guidelines for multinationals doing business in Africa-
companies, for instance, would only enter new contracts through auctions monitored by
an international verification group. Such an agreement would follow the examples of the
so-called Kimberley Process, which has effectively undercut the trade in blood
diamonds, and the Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative, in which a government
must report to its citizens the revenues it receives from sales of natural resources.

H . These measures, he says, are more important than elevating aid levels, an
approach emphasized by economist Jeffrey D. Sachs of Columbia University and
celebrity activists such as Bono. Collier insists that first Angola receives tens of billions
of dollars in oil revenue and whether it gets a few hundred million more or less in aid is
really second-order.
Questions 1-4
Use the information in the passage to match the people (listed A-C) with opinions or
deeds below. Write the appropriate letters A-C in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.

NB you may use any letter more than once

A . Jeffrey D. Dachs
B . Paul Collier
C . Jorge Arbache
1 ABC An unexpectedly opposite result
2 ABC Estimated more productive outcomes if it were not for sudden economic
downturns
3 ABC A proposal for a range of recommended instructions for certain countries to
narrow the widening economic gap
4 ABC An advocate for a method used for a specific assessment
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Questions 5-9
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage ? In
boxes 5-9 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement is true

FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the
passage

5 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The instability in an economy in some African countries

might negatively impact their continuing growth after a certain level has been reached.
6 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Collier is the most influential scholar in the study of the
volatility problem.
7 TRUEFALSENOT GIVENCertain African governments levy considerable taxes on
people profiting greatly from exportation.
8 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Some African nation’s decisions on addressing specific
existing problems are directly related to the future of their economic trends.
9 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Collier regards Jeffrey D. Sachs recommended a way of
evaluating of title importance.
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Questions 10-13
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage Volatility Kills,
using No More than Three words from the Reading Passage Volatility Kills for each
answer. Write your answers in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet.

According to one research carried by the world bank, some countries in Africa may
suffer from 10 due to the lack of according preconditions. they
experienced a growth stimulated by 11 , but according to another
study, they may not keep this trend stable because they don’t have 12 which
would attract investors. to some countries with abundant resources, this fast-growth
period might even mean something devastating to their endeavor. during one
specific decade accompanied by 13 as a matter of fact, the governing
saw a deterioration.
 How war debris could cause cancer

A Could the mystery over how depleted uranium might cause genetic damage be closer
to being solved? It may be, if a controversial claim by two researchers is right. They say
that minute quantities of the material lodged in the body may kick out energetic
electrons that mimic the effect of beta radiation. This, they argue, could explain how
residues of depleted uranium scattered across former war zones could be increasing
the risk of cancers and other problems among soldiers and local people.
B Depleted uranium is highly valued by the military, who use it in the tips of armour-
piercing weapons. The material’s high density and self-sharpening properties help it to
penetrate the armour of enemy tanks and bunkers. Its use in conflicts has risen sharply
in recent years. The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) estimates that shells
containing 1700 tonnes of the material were fired during the 2003 Iraq war. Some
researchers and campaigners are convinced that depleted uranium left in the people
exposed to it. Governments and the military disagree, and point out that there is no
conclusive epidemiological evidence for this. And while they acknowledge that the
material is weakly radioactive, they say this effect is too small to explain the genetic
damage at the levels seen in war veterans and civilians.
C Organisations such as the UK’s Royal Society, the US Department of Veterans Affairs
and UNEP have called for more comprehensive epidemiological studies to clarify the
link between depleted uranium and any ill effects. Meanwhile, various testtube and
animal studies have suggested that depleted uranium may increase the risk of cancer,
according to a review of the scientific literature published in May 2008 by the US
National Research Council. The authors of the NRC report argue that more long-term
and quantitative research is needed on the effects of uranium’s chemical toxicity. They
say the science seems to support the theory that genetic damage might be occurring
because uranium’s chemical toxicity and weak radioactivity could somehow reinforce
each other, though no one knows what the mechanism for this might be.
D Now two researchers, Chris Busby and Ewald Schnug, have a new theory that they
say explains how depleted uranium could cause genetic damage. Their theory invokes
a well-known process called the photoelectric effect. This is the main mechanism by
which gamma photons with energies of about 100 kiloelectronvolts (keV) or less are
blocked by matter: the photon transfers its energy to an electron in the atom’s electron
cloud, which is ejected into the surroundings.
An atom’s ability to stop photons by this mechanism depends on the fourth power of its
atomic number - the number of protons in its nucleus - so heavy elements are far better
at intercepting gamma radiation and X-rays than light elements. This means that
uranium could be especially effective at capturing photons and kicking out damaging
photoelectrons: with an atomic number of 92, uranium blocks low-energy gamma
photons over 450 times as effectively as the lighter element calcium, for instance.
E Busby and Schnug say that previous risk models have ignored this well-established
physical effect. They claim that depleted uranium could be kicking out photoelectrons in
the body’s most vulnerable spots. Various studies have shown that dissolved uranium -
ingested in food or water, for example - is liable to attach to DNA strands within cells,
because uranium binds strongly to DNA phosphate. “Photoelectrons from uranium are
therefore likely to be emitted precisely where they will cause most damage to genetic
material,” says Busby.
Busby and Schnug base their claim on calculations of the photoelectrons that would be
produced by the interation between normal background levels of gamma radiation and
uranium in the body. “Our detailed calculations indicate that the phantom photoelectrons
are the predominant effect by far for uranium genome toxicity, and that uranium could
be 1500 times as powerful as an emitter of photoelectrons than as an alpha emitter.”
Their computer modelling results are described in a peer-reviewed paper to be
published in this month by the IPNSS in a book called Loads and Fate of Fertiliser
Derived Uranium.

G Hans-Georg Menzel, who chairs the International Commission on Radiological

Protection’s committee on radiation doses, acknowledges that the theory should be
considered, but he doubts that it will prove significant. He suspects that under normal
background radiation the effect is too weak to inflict many of the “double hits” of energy
that are known to be most damaging to cells. “It is very unlikely that individual cells
would be subject to two or more closely spaced photoelectron impacts under normal
background gamma irradiation,” he says. Despite his doubts, Menzel raised the issue
last week with his committee in St Petersburg, Russia, and says that several colleagues
“intended to collect relevant data and perform calculations to check whether there was
any possibility of a real effect in living tissues”. Organisations in the UK, including the
Ministry of Defence and the Health Protection Agency, say they have no plans to
investigate Busby’s hypothesis.
H Radiation biophysicist Mark Hill of the University of Oxford would like to see a fuller
investigation, though he suggests this might show that the photoelectric effect is not as
powerful as Busby claims. “We really need more detailed calculations and dose
estimates for realistic situations with and without uranium present,” he says. Hill’s
doubts centre on an effect called Compton scattering, which he believes needs to be
factored into any calculations. With Compton scattering, uranium is only 4.5 times as
effective as calcium at stopping gamma photons, so Hill says that taking it into account
would reduce the relative importance of uranium as an emitter of secondary electrons. If
he is right, this would dilute the mechanism proposed by Busby and Schnug.
I The arguments over depleted uranium are likely to continue, whatever the outcome of
these experiments. Whether Busby’s theory holds up or not remains to be seen, but
investigating it can only help to clear up some of the doubts about this mysterious
substance.

Questions 1-5
The reading Passage has nine paragraphs A-I.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter A-I, in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet. NB you may use any
letter more than once
1 ABCDEFGHI a famous process is given relating to the new theory.
2 ABCDEFGHI a person who acknowledges but suspects the theory.
3 ABCDEFGHI the explanation of damage to DNA.
4 ABCDEFGHI a debatable and short explanation of the way creating the problems of
soldiers.
5 ABCDEFGHI Busby’s hypothesis is not in the investigation plans of organizations.
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Questions 6-9
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
In boxes 6-9 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement is true
FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
6 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN All people believe that depleted uranium is harmful to
people’s health.
7 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Heavier elements can perform better at preventing X-rays
and gamma radiation.
8 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN By particular calculations, it is known that the main effect of
uranium genome toxicity is phantom photoelectrons.
9 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Most scientists support Mark Hill’s opinion.
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Questions 10-13
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage using no more
than two words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your answers in
boxes 23-26 on your answer sheet.
10 attaches importance to depleted uranium due to its 11
and 12 features, which are helpful in the war. However, it has ill effects in
people, and then causes organisations’ appeal to do more relative studies. According to
some scientists, we should do research about the impact of uranium’s 13
which may be enhanced with weak radioactivity.

Changes in Air
A A federal ban on ozone-depleting chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), to conform with the
Clean Air Act, is, ironically, affecting 22.9 million people in the U.S. who suffer from
asthma. Generic inhaled albuterol, which is the most commonly prescribed short-acting
asthma medication and requires CFCs to propel it into the lungs, will no longer be
legally sold after December 31,
2008. Physicians and patients are questioning the wisdom of the ban, which will have
an insignificant effect on ozone but a measurable impact on wallets: the reformulated
brand-name alternatives can be three times as expensive, raising the cost to about $40
per inhaler. The issue is even more disconcerting considering that asthma
disproportionately affects the poor and that, according to recent surveys, an estimated
20 percent of asthma patients are uninsured.

B “The decision to make the change was political, not medical or scientific,” says
pharmacist Leslie Hendeles of the University of Florida, who co-authored a 2007 paper
in the New England Journal of Medicine explaining the withdrawal and transition. In
1987 Congress signed on to the Montreal Protocol on Substances That Deplete the
Ozone Layer, an international treaty requiring the phasing out of all nonessential uses of
CFCs. At that time, medical inhalers were considered an essential use because no
viable
alternative propellant existed. In 1989 pharmaceutical companies banded together and
eventually, in 1996, reformulated albuterol with hydrofluoroalkane.

C The transition began quietly, but as more patients see their prescriptions change and
costs go up, many question why this ban must begin before generics become available.
At least one member of the FDA advisory committee, Nicholas J. Gross of the Stritch-
Loyola School of Medicine, has publicly regretted the decision, recanting his support
and requesting that the ban be pushed back until 2010, when the first patent expfres.
D Gross notes that the decision had nothing to do with the envfronment. Albuterol
inhalers contributed less than 0.1 percent of the CFCs released when the treaty was
signed. “It’s a symbolic issue,” Gross remarks. Some skeptics instead point to the
billions of dollars to be gained by the three companies holding the patents on the
available HFA-albuterol inhalers, namely Glaxo-SmithKline, Schering-Plough and Teva.
Although the FDA advisory committee recognized that the expenses would go up,
Hendeles says, it also believed that the companies would help defray the added costs
for individuals. Firms, for instance, had committed to donating a million HFA inhalers to
clinics around the country. According to Hendeles, GlaxoSmithKline did not follow
through, although Schering-Plough and Teva did. GlaxoSmithKline did not respond to
requests for comment.
E The issue now, Hendeles says, is that pharmaceutical-grade CFCs are in short
supply, and the public faces the risk of a shortage of albuterol inhalers if the FDA does
not continue promoting the production of HFA inhalers. He posits that even costs of
generics would go up as CFCs become scarcer. Gross disagrees, saying that the
inhaler shortage and the closure of CFC manufacturing plants are a result of the ban.
F The HFA inhalers also have encountered resistance because some asthmatics insist
that they do not work as well as the CFC variety. But, Hendeles says, the differences
are in the mechanics and maintenance—unlike CFC inhalers, the HFA versions must be
primed more diligently and rinsed to accommodate the stickier HFA formulation. They
also run out suddenly without the warning with a CFC inhaler, that the device is running
low. “Pharmacists may not tell people of these things, and the doctors don’t know,”
Hendeles says.
G The main public health issue in this decision may be the side effects of the
economics, not the drug chemistry. Multiple studies have shown that raising costs leads
to poorer adherence to treatment. One study discovered that patients took 30 percent
less antiasthma medication when thefr co-pay doubled. In the case of a chronic disease
such as asthma, it is particularly difficult to get people to follow regular treatment plans.
“Generally speaking, for any reason you don’t take medication, cost makes it more
likely” that you do not, comments Michael Chemew, a health policy expert at Harvard
Medical School.

H Such choices to forgo medication could affect more than just the patients themselves.
“For example,” Hendeles points out, “in a pregnant mother with untreated asthma, less
oxygen is delivered to the fetus, which can lead to congenital problems and premature
birth.” And considering that the disease disproportionately strike s the poor, what
seemed to be a good, responsible environmental decision might in the end exact an
unexpected human toll.

Questions 1-5
Use the information in the passage to match the people (listed A-C) with opinions or
deeds below. Write the appropriate letters A-C in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.
NB you may use any letter more than once
A. Nicolas J Gross
B. Michael Chernew
C. Leslie Hendeles
1 ABC Put forward that the increase in the price of drugs would contribute to the
patients’ negative decision on the treatment.
2 ABC Spoke out a secret that the druggists try to hold back.
3 ABC Pointed out that the protocol itself is not concerning the environment.
4 ABC Demonstrated that the stop of providing alternatives for CFCs would worsen
rather than help with the situation.
5 ABC In public repented of his previous backing up of the prohibition proposal.
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Questions 6-9
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In
boxes 6-9 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement is true

FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the
passage

6 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN It took almost a decade before the replacement drug for
the asthma therapy was ultimately developed by the joint effort of several drug
companies.
7 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN One of the FDA committee members had a decisive impact
on the implementation of the ban on chlorofluorocarbons.
8 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN as a matter of fact, the emitted chlorofluorocarbons in
asthma treatment took up quite an insignificant amount at the time when the pact was
reached.
9 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The HFA and CFC inhalers have something different
regarding the therapeutic effect.
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Questions 10-14
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No More
than Three words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your answers in
boxes 10-14 on your answer sheet.

American people with asthma would be impacted by 10 about

chlorofluorocarbons which would consume the ozone layer. The usually used 11
would be considered illegal because it needs the propelment of 12 . The
13 would cost the patients considerably more money. Impoverished
people are far more likely to suffer from asthma and what makes it even worse is that
some of them are in 14 condition.
Conflicting climatic phenomena co-existing on
the Mars
A On Mars, signs of wetness keep pouring in: deeply carved river valleys, vast deltas
and widespread remnants of evaporating seas have convinced many experts that liquid
water may have covered large parts of the Red Planet for a billion years or more. But
most efforts to explain how Martian climate ever permitted such clement conditions
come up dry. Bitterly cold and parched today, Mars needed a potent greenhouse
atmosphere to sustain its watery past. A thick layer of heat-trapping carbon dioxide from
volcanoes probably shrouded the young planet, but climate models indicate time and
again that C02 alone could not have kept the surface above freezing.
B Now, inspired by the surprising discovery that sulfur minerals are pervasive in the
Martian soil, scientists are beginning to suspect that C02 had a warm-up partner: sulfur
dioxide (S02). Like C02, S02 is a common gas emitted when volcanoes erupt, a
frequent occurrence on Mars when it was still young. A hundredth or even a thousandth
of a percent S02 in Mars's early atmosphere could have provided the extra boost of
greenhouse warming that the Red Planet needed to stay wet, explains geochemist
Daniel p. Schrag of Harvard University.
C That may not sound like much, but for many gases, even minuscule concentrations
are hard to maintain. On our home planet, S02 provides no significant long-term warmth
because it combines almost instantly with oxygen in the atmosphere to form sulfate, a
type of salt. Early Mars would have been virtually free of atmospheric oxygen, though,
so S02 would have stuck around much longer.
D "When you take away oxygen, it's a profound change, and the atmosphere works
really differently," Schrag remarks. According to Schrag and his colleagues, that
difference also implies that S02 would have played a starring role in the Martian water
cycle—thus resolving another climate conundrum, namely, a lack of certain rocks.

E Schrag's team contends that on early Mars, much of the S02 would have combined
with airborne water droplets and fallen as sulfurous acid rain, rather than transforming
into a salt as on Earth. The resulting acidity would have inhibited the formation of thick
layers of limestone and other carbonate rocks. Researchers assumed Mars would be
chock-full of carbonate rocks because their formation is such a fundamental
consequence of the humid, C02-rich atmosphere. Over millions of years, this rock-
forming process has sequestered enough of the carbon dioxide spewed from earthly
volcanoes to limit the buildup of the gas in the atmosphere. stifling this C02-
sequestration step on early Mars would have forced more of the gas to accumulate in
the atmosphere—another way S02 could have boosted greenhouse warming, Schrag
suggests.
F Some scientists doubt that S02 was really up to these climatic tasks . Even in an
oxygen-free atmosphere, S02 is still extremely fragile; the sun's ultraviolet radiation
splits apart S02 molecules quite readily, points out James F. Kasting, an atmospheric
chemist at Pennsylvania state University. In Easting's computer models of Earth's early
climate, which is often compared with that of early Mars, this photochemical destruction
capped S02 concentrations at one thousandth as much as Schrag and his colleagues
describe. "There may be ways to make this idea work," Kasting says. "But it would take
some detailed modeling to convince skeptics, including me, that it is actually feasible."
G Schrag admits that the details are uncertain, but he cites estimates by other
researchers who suggest that early Martian volcanoes could have spewed enough S02
to keep pace with the S02 destroyed photochemically. Previous findings also indicate
that a thick C02 atmosphere would have effectively scattered the most destructive
wavelengths of ultraviolet radiation—yet another example of an apparently mutually
beneficial partnership between C02 and S02 on early Mars.
H Kasting maintains that an S02 climate feedback could not have made early Mars as
warm as Earth, but he does allow for the possibility that S02 concentrations may have
remained high enough to keep the planet partly defrosted, with perhaps enough rainfall
to form river valleys. Over that point, Schrag does not quibble. "Our hypothesis doesn't
depend at all on whether there was a big ocean, a few lakes or just a few little puddles,"
he says. " Warm doesn't mean warm like the Amazon. It could mean warm like Iceland
— just warm enough to create those river valleys . " with S02, it only takes a little. If
sulfur dioxide warmed early Mars, as a new hypothesis suggests, minerals called
sulfites would have formed in standing water at the surface. No sulfites have yet turned
up, possibly because no one was looking for them. The next-generation rover, the Mars
Science Laboratory, is well equipped for the search. Scheduled to launch in 2009, the
rover (shown here in an artist's conception) will be the first to carry an x-ray
diffractometer, which can scan and identify the crystal structure of any mineral it
encounters.

Questions 1-6
The reading Passage has seven paragraphs A-H.
Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-H, in
boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
1 ABCDEFGH A problem indirectly solved by SO2
2 ABCDEFGH A device with an astounding ability for detection
3 ABCDEFGH A potential contributor to the warmth of the Mars interacting with CO2
4 ABCDEFGH The destructive effect brought by the sunlight proposed by the
opponents
5 ABCDEFGH A specific condition on early Mars to guarantee the SO2 to maintain in
the atmosphere for a long time
6 ABCDEFGH Conflicting climatic phenomena co-existing on the Mars
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Questions 7-9
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In
boxes 7-9 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement is true

FALSE if the statement is false

NOT if the information is not given in the

GIVEN passage

7 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Schrag has provided concrete proofs to fight against the
skeptics for his view.
8 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN More and more evidences show up to be in favor of the
leading role SO2 has for the warming up the Mars.
9 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The sulfites have not been detected probably because of
no concern for them.
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Questions 10-13
Summary
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No
More than Three words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your
answers in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet.
An opinion held by Schrag’s team indicates that 10 formed from the
integration of SO2 with 11 would have stopped the built up of thick layers of
limestone as well as certain carbonate rocks. Wetness and abundance in CO2 could
directly result in the good production rocky layer of 12 . As time went by,
sufficient CO2 was emitted from the volcanoes and restricted the formation of the gas in
the afr. To stop this process made SO2 possible to accelerate 13
 The hidden lives of solitary bees

There are 275 different species of bee in Great Britain and Ireland. Apart from the
familiar honeybee and 25 species of bumblebee, the rest are known as solitary bees.
Solitary bees are unlike 'social' honeybees and bumblebees, which live in large colonies
consisting of a queen whose function is to lay the eggs, while the workers gather pollen
and nectar to feed the tiny grubs With solitary bees, there are typically just males and
females. They mate, the mate dies and the female makes a nest.
Ian Beavis is a naturalist and blogger with a mission to raise the profile of the many
solitary bees, whose pollinating services are so important, yet so little recognised,
Solitary bees inhabit gardens, parks, woodlands, fields and cliffs. In fact they represent
95% of the world's bee species. Leading wildlife illustrator Richard Lewington. best
known for his beautiful paintings of butterflies, says, 'Solitary bees are so useful to
gardeners and commercially valuable. Yet until recently they barely registered in the
public consciousness. I wanted to help publicise their vital role in our lives' The problem
with solitary bees has long been one of identification - with more than 240 species to
choose from, and no accessible guidebook, where do people start? So Richard
Lewington has spent any spare time over the past few years working on a new guide to
the bees of Great Britain and Ireland. This, amazingly, is the first book of its kind to be
published for over a century.
How do solitary bees live? A female solitary bee constructs a nest and then lays her
eggs in individual cells, lining or sealing them with various materials depending on the
species of bee - red mason bees use mud leafcutter bees use sections of leaf The
female leaves what naturalists call a 'parcel' of pollen and nectar for each other little
grubs to feed on When the female has laid all her eggs, she dies The emerging grubs
eat. grow and develop into adults the following year.
While some bees are plentiful and widespread, others have been designated as rare. Or
are very local in distribution. In 2013. Ian Beavis came across what has long been
known as one of Britain's rarest species, the banded mining bee. An impressive species
with white hairs on its face, the banded mining bee nests in the ground, typically on
steep banks. Ian Beavis explains that it always chooses bare earth because it doesn't
like having to eat through plant roots to make its nest Females feed on a variety of
plants, but seem particularly fond of yellow dandelions that bloom from spring to
autumn.
Another bee that has attracted naturalists' attention is the ivy bee. It was only identified
as a distinct species in 1993. It is one of a number of bees that have been able to
establish themselves in Britain due to the recent warmer winters. About the same size
as a with distinctive orange-yellow banding on its abdomen, it was initially thought to
feed on y on ivy, but has since been seen visiting other plants.
The discoveries about ivy bees show how rewarding the study of solitary bees can be
but it's not the only species whose habits are changing. Ian Beavis believes we can see
in solitary bees the beginning of social behaviour. He explains that many species make
their nests close to each other in huge groups, and there are some, like Andrena
scotica, where several bees use the same entrance without becoming aggressive. It's
not difficult to see how this behaviour, which could be seen as the foundation of social
behaviour, might evolve in future into worker bees sharing care of the grubs. Indeed
some of Britain's solitary bees, Lasioglossum malachurum for example, are already
demonstrating this type of social behaviour. So will all solitary bees evolve into social
insects? Not necessarily. According to Ian Beavis, there are advantages to social
behaviour but there are also advantages to nesting alone. Bees that nest socially are a
target for predators, diseases and parasites.
Pesticides can also pose a threat to solitary bees. At the University of Sussex in
England. Beth Nicholls is conducting research into the effects of certain pesticides on
the red mason bee. She explains. 'We know that pesticides harm social bees, but very
little research has been done into solitary bees.’ Honeybees fly throughout the summer,
so they may be exposed to different levels of pesticides. But if the shorter flight period of
solitary bees - the red mason bee only flies from March to May - coincides with peak
pesticide levels, that might be disastrous. If the red mason bee declines dramatically, it
could affect the fruit growing industry. According to Beth Nicholls, it is much more
efficient at pollinating orchard trees. Social bees carry pollen in ‘baskets' on their back
legs, but a female red mason bee carries it on the underside of her abdomen. This is a
messier way of transporting it, and so more pollen is transferred to other flowers. The
social bees' method is much 'tidier’, so once they have collected the pollen and tucked it
away behind their legs, it won't be dropped.
Solitary bees are all around us. We need to start paying attention to them before it’s too
late.

Questions 1-4
Choose the correct letter. A,B,C or D
Write the correct letter in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.
1. Ian Beavis and Richard Lewlngton both believe that solitary bees
A are as interesting as many butterfly species.
B have an extremely varied range of habitats,
C should be appreciated much more widely.
D are valued by many gardeners.
2. What does the writer think is surprising about the new book on bees?
A There is such a wide range of species in it.
B Some of the species in it are hard to differentiate.
C Richard Lewington chose to give up his main work to write It.
D It was so long since a guide like this had been produced.
3. Beth Nicholls explains that red mason bees
A have had more studies into their behaviour than others.
B may suffer more from pesticides than social bees,
C have an advantage because of when they fly.
D have certain similarities with honey bees.
4. Why does Beth Nicholls consider red mason bees to be valuable pollinators?
A They regularly lose some of the pollen they are carrying.
B They transport pollen with great care.
C Their pollination season is longer than that of social bees.
D The females do most of the pollen collection.
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Questions 5-8
Look at the following statements (Questions 5-8) and the list of solitary bees below.
Match each statement with the correct bee, A-E
Write the correct letter. A-E, in boxes 5-8 on your answer sheet
NB: You may use any letter more than once.
5 ABCDE Some members of this species have started to contribute more to the care of
the young
6 ABCDE This species avoids areas covered with vegetation when selecting nest sites.
7 ABCDE This species has a favourite flower that it feeds on.
8 ABCDE This species has only been found in Britain in the past few years.

List of Solitary Bees

A The banded mining bee
B The ivy bee
C Andrena scotica
D Lasrogfossum malachurum
E The red mason bee

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Questions 9-13
Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the text for each answer
Write your answers in boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet.
The life of the solitary bee
Female solitary bees make their nests with separate 9 where single eggs
are deposited. Females try to ensure the survival of all their 10 . They do
this by providing suitable food in what is referred to as a 11 . Solitarybees
use a range of substances to make their nests comfortable and secure, such as plant
material or 12 .
Although some solitary bees are common, certain species are thought to be 13 .
The different solitary bees vary widely in their distribution, some being found all over
Britain while others are much more restricted geographically.
 Economic Evolution

{A} Living along the Orinoco River that borders Brazil and Venezuela are the Yanomami
people, hunter-gatherers whose average annual income has been estimated at the
equivalent of $90 per person per year. Living along the Hudson River that borders New
York State and New Jersey are the Manhattan people, consumer traders whose
average annual income has been estimated at $36,000 per person per year. That
dramatic difference of 400 times, however, pales in comparison to the differences in
Stock Keeping Units (SKUs, a measure of the number of types of retail products
available), which has been estimated at 300 for the Yanomami and 10 billion for the
Manhattans, a difference of 33 million times.
{B} How did this happen? According to economist Eric D. Beinhocker, who published
these calculations in his revelatory work The Origin of Wealth (Harvard Business School
Press, 2006), the explanation is to be found in complexity theory. Evolution and
economics are not just analogous to each other, but they are actually two forms of a
larger phenomenon called complex adaptive systems, in which individual elements,
parts or agents interact, then process information and adapt their behaviour to changing
conditions. Immune systems, ecosystems, language, the law and the Internet are all
examples of complex adaptive systems.

{C} In biological evolution, nature selects from the variation produced by random
genetic mutations and the mixing of parental genes. Out of that process of cumulative
selection emerges complexity and diversity. In economic evolution, our material
economy proceeds through the production and selection of numerous permutations of
countless products. Those 10 billion products in the Manhattan village represent only
those variations that made it to market, after which there is a cumulative selection by
consumers in the marketplace for those deemed most useful: VHS over Betamax,
DVDs over VHS, CDs over vinyl records, flip phones over brick phones, computers over
typewriters, Google over Altavista, SUVs over station wagons, paper books over e-
books (still), and Internet news over network news (soon). Those that are purchased
“survive” and “reproduce” into the future through repetitive use and remanufacturing.
{D} As with living organisms and ecosystems, the economy looks designed—so just as
Humans naturally deduce the existence of a top-down intelligent designer, humans also
(understandably) infer that a top-down government designer is needed in nearly every
aspect of the economy. But just as living organisms are shaped from the bottom up by
natural selection, the economy is moulded from the bottom up by the invisible hand. The
correspondence between evolution and economics is not perfect, because some top-
down institutional rules and laws are needed to provide a structure within which free and
fair trade can occur. But too much top-down interference into the marketplace makes
trade neither free nor fair. When such attempts have been made in the past, they have
failed—because markets are far too complex, interactive and autocatalytic to be
designed from the top down. In his 1922 book, Socialism, Ludwig Von Mises spelt out
the reasons why most notably the problem of “economic calculation” in a planned
socialist economy. In capitalism, prices are in constant and rapid flux and are
determined from below by individuals freely exchanging in the marketplace. Money is a
means of exchange, and prices are the information people use to guide their choices.
Von Mises demonstrated that socialist economies depend on capitalist economies to
determine what prices should be assigned to goods and services. And they do so
cumbersomely and inefficiently. Relatively free markets are, ultimately, the only way to
find out what buyers are willing to pay and what sellers are willing to accept.
{E} Economics helps to explain how Yanomami-like hunter-gatherers evolved into
Manhattan-like consumer traders. In the Nineteenth century French economist Frédéric
Bastiat well captured the principle: “Where goods do not cross frontiers, armies will.” In
addition to being fierce warriors, the Yanomami are also sophisticated traders, and the
more they trade the less they fight. The reason is that trade is a powerful social
adhesive that creates political alliances. One village cannot go to another village and
announce that they are worried about being conquered by a third, more powerful village
—that would reveal weakness. Instead, they mask the real motives for alliance through
trade and reciprocal feasting. And, as a result, not only gain military protection but also
initiate a system of trade that—in the long run—leads to an increase in both wealth and
SKUs.

{F} Free and fair trade occurs in societies where most individuals interact in ways that
provide mutual benefit. The necessary rules weren’t generated by wise men in a sacred
temple or lawmakers in congress, but rather evolved over generations and were widely
accepted and practised before the law was ever written. Laws that fail this test are
ignored. If enforcement becomes too onerous, there is rebellion. Yet the concept that
human interaction must, and can be controlled by a higher force is universal.
Interestingly, there is no widespread agreement on who the “higher force” is. Religious
people ascribe good behaviour to God’s law. They cannot conceive of an orderly society
of atheists. Secular people credit the government. They consider anarchy to be
synonymous with barbarity. Everyone seems to agree on the concept that an orderly
society requires an omnipotent force. Yet, everywhere there is evidence that this is not
so. An important distinction between spontaneous social order and social anarchy is
that the former is developed by work and investment, under the rule of law and with a
set of evolved morals while the latter is chaos. The classical liberal tradition of von
Mises and Hayek never makes the claim that the complete absence of top-down rules
leads to the optimal social order. It simply says we should be sceptical about our ability
to manage them in the name of social justice, equality, or progress.
Questions 1-5
Do the following statements agree with the information given in the Reading
Passage? In boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement is true

FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the
passage
1 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN SKUs is a more precise measurement to demonstrate the
economic level of a community.
2 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN No concrete examples are presented when the author
makes the statement concerning economic evolution.

3 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Evolution and economics show a defective homolog.

4 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Martial actions might be taken to cross the borders if
trades do not work.
5 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Profit is the invisible hand to guide the market.
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Questions 6
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Question 6: What ought to play a vital role in each field of the economy?

A a strict rule
B a smart strategy

C a tightly managed authority

D a powerful legislation
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Questions 7-8
Question 7-8: Which two of the following tools are used to pretend to ask for union
according to one explanation from the perspective of economics
A an official announcement
B a diplomatic event
C the exchange of goods
D certainly written correspondence
E some enjoyable treatment in a win-win situation
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Questions 9-13
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using no
more than three words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your
answers in boxes 36-40 on your answer sheet.
In response to the search for reasons for the phenomenon shown by the huge
difference in the income between two groups of people both dwelling near the rivers,
several researchers made their effort and gave certain explanations. One attributes 9 to
the interesting change claiming that it is not as simple as it seems to be in appearance
that the relationship between 10 which is a good example of 11 in
the interaction of separate factors for the processing of information as well as the
behavioural adaptation to unstable conditions. As far as the biological transformation is
concerned, both 12 and the blend of genres from the last generation brings about the
difference. The economic counterpart shows how generating and choosing the 13
of innumerable goods moves forward the material-oriented economy.
 Digital diet

{A} Telecommuting, Internet shopping and online meetings may save energy as
compared with in-person alternatives, but as the digital age moves on, its green
reputation is turning a lot browner. E-mailing, number crunching and Web searches in
the U.S. consumed as much as 61 billion kilowatt-hours last year, or 1.5 per cent of the
nation’s electricity-half of which comes from coal. In 2005 the computers of the world
ate up 123 billion kilowatt-hours of energy, a number that will double by 2010 if present
trends continue, according to Jonathan Koomey, a staff scientist at Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory. As a result, the power bill to run a computer over its lifetime will
surpass the cost of buying the machine in the first place giving Internet and computer
companies a business reason to cut energy costs, as well as an environmental
one.

{B} One of the biggest energy sinks comes not from the computers themselves but from
the air-conditioning needed to keep them from overheating. For every kilowatt-hour of
energy used for computing in a data centre, another kilowatt-hour is required to cool the
furnace-like racks of servers.
{C} For Internet giant Google, this reality has driven efforts such as the installation of a
solar array that can provide 30 per cent of the peak power needs of its Mountain View,
Calif., headquarters as well as increased purchases of renewable energy. But to deliver
Web pages within seconds, the firm must maintain hundreds of thousands of computer
servers in cavernous buildings. “It’s a good thing to worry about server energy
efficiency,” remarks Google’s green energy czar Bill Weihl. “We are actively working to
maximize the efficiency of our data centres, which account for most of the energy
Google consumes worldwide.” Google will funnel some of its profits into a new effort,
dubbed RE<C (for renewable energy cheaper than coal, as Google translates it) to
make sources such as solar-thermal, high-altitude wind and geothermal cheaper than
coal “within years, not decades, according to Weihl. .
{D} In the meantime, the industry as a whole has employed a few tricks to save watts.
Efforts include cutting down on the number of transformations the electricity itself must
undergo before achieving the correct operating voltage; rearranging the stacks of
servers and the mechanics of their cooling; and using software to create multiple
“virtual” computers, rather than having to deploy several real ones. Such virtualization
has allowed computer maker Hewlett-Packard to consolidate 86 data centers spread
throughout the world to just three, with three backups, says Pat Tiernan, the firm’s vice
president of social and environmental responsibility.

{E} The industry is also tackling the energy issue at the computer-chip level. With every
doubling of processing power in recent years has come a doubling in power
consumption. But to save energy, chipmakers such as Intel and AMD have shifted to
so-called multicore technology, which packs multiple processors into one circuit rather
than separating them. “When we moved to multicore-away from a linear focus on
megahertz and gigahertz—and throttled down microprocessors, the energy savings
were pretty substantial,” says Allyson Klein, Intel’s marketing manager for its Ecotech
Initiative. Chipmakers continue to shrink circuits on the nanoscale as well, which means
a chip needs less electricity” to deliver the same performance, she adds.
{F} With such chips, more personal computers will meet various efficiency standards,
such as Energy Star compliance (which mandates that a desktop consume no more
than 65 watts). The federal government, led by agencies such as NASA and the
Department of Defense may soon require all their purchases to meet the Electronic
Product Environmental Assessment Tool standard. And Google, Intel and others have
formed the Climate Savers Computing Initiative, an effort to cut power consumption
from all computers by 50 per cent by 2010.

{G} Sleep modes and other power management tools built into most operating systems
can offer savings today. Yet about 90 per cent of computers do not have such settings
enabled, according to Klein. Properly activated, they would prevent a computer from
leading to the emission of thousands of kilograms of carbon dioxide from power plants
every year. But if powering down or unplugging the computer (the only way it uses zero
power) is not an option, then perhaps the most environmentally friendly use of all those
wasted computing cycles is in helping to model climate change. The University of
Oxford’s ClimatePrediction.net offers an opportunity to at least predict the
consequences of all that coal burning.
{H} CO2 Stats is a free tool that can be embedded into any Website to calculate the
carbon dioxide emissions associated with using it. That estimate is based on an
assumption of 300 watts of power consumed by the personal computer, network and
server involved- or 16.5 milligrams of CO2 emitted every second of use. “The typical
carbon footprint is roughly equivalent to 1.5 people breathing,” says physicist Alexander
Wissner-Gross of Harvard University, who co-created the Web tool.
Questions 1-6
Use the information in the passage to match the people (listed A-E) with opinions or deeds
below. Write the appropriate letters A-E in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
NB you may use any letter more than once
(A) Jonathan Koomey
(B) Allyson Klein
(C) Pat Tiernan
(D) Bill Weihl
(E) Alexander Wissner-Gross
1 ABCDE Figuring ways to optimize the utilization of energy in certain significant
departments in the company
2 ABCDE A revolutionary improvement in a tiny but quite imperative component of the
computers

3 ABCDE Targeting at developing alternative sources within the near future

4 ABCDE An astounding estimate on the energy to be consumed by computers in a
short period based on an unchangeable trend

5 ABCDE A powerful technique developed for integration of resources

6 ABCDE A failure for the vast majority of computers to activate the use of some
internal tools already available in them
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Questions 7-10
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading
Passage? In boxes 7-10 on your answer sheet, write

True if the statement is true

False if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the
passage
7 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN To chill the server does not take up the considerable
amount of energy needed for the computer.

8 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN It seems that the number of servers has a severe impact
on the speed of the internet connection.
9 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Several companies from other fields have a joint effort with
the internet industry to work on ways to save energy.
10 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Actions taken at a governmental level are to be expected
to help with savings in energy in the near future.
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Questions 11-14
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using
No More than three words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your
answers in boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet.
The 11 has also been reached to save up energy in every possible way
and the philosophy behind it lies in the fact that there is a positive correlation between
the ability to process and the need for energy. In this context, some firms have switched
to 12 which means several processors are integrated into one single circuit
to make significant energy savings. What is more, they go on to 13 on an
even more delicate level for the chips to save more energy while staying at the constant
level in terms of the 14 .

Reclaiming the future of aral sea

A The Aral Sea gets almost all its water from the Amu and Syr rivers. Over millennium
the Amu’s course has drifted away from the sea, causing it to shrink. But the lake
always rebounded as the Amu shifted back again. Today heavy irrigation for crops such
as cotton and rice siphons off much of the two rivers, severely cutting flow into their
deltas and thus into the sea. Evaporation vastly outpaces any rainfall, snowmelt or
groundwater supply, reducing water volume and raising salinity. The Soviet Union hid
the sea’s demise for decades until 1985, when leader Mikhail Gorbachev revealed the
great environmental and human tragedy. By the late 1980s the sea’s level had dropped
so much that the water had separated into two distinct bodies: the Small Aral (north)
and the Large Aral (south). By 2007 the south had split into a deep western basin, a
shallow eastern basin and a small, isolated gulf. The Large Aral’s volume had dropped
from 708 to only 75 cubic kilometers (km3), and salinity had risen from 14 to more than
100 grams per liter (g/1). The 1991 dissolution of the Soviet Union divided the lake
between newly formed Kazakhstan and Uzbekistan, ending a grand Soviet plan to
channel in water from distant Siberian rivers and establishing competition for the
dwindling resource.
B Desiccation of the Aral Sea has wrought severe consequences. Greatly reduced river
flows ended the spring floods that sustained wetlands with freshwater and enriched
sediment. Fish species in the lakes dropped from 32 to 6 because of rising salinity and
loss of spawning and feeding grounds (most survived in the river deltas). Commercial
fisheries, which caught 40,000 metric tons of fish in 1960, were gone by the mid-1980s;
more than 60,000 related jobs were lost. The most common
remaining lake occupant was the Black Sea flounder, a saltwater fish introduced in the
1970s, but by 2003 it had disappeared from the southern lakes because salinity was
more than 70 g/1, double that of a typical ocean. Shipping on the Aral also ceased
because the water receded many kilometers from the major ports of Aralsk to the north
and Moynak in the south; keeping increasingly long channels open to the cities became
too costly. Groundwater levels dropped with falling lake levels, intensifying
desertification.
C The receding sea has exposed and dried 54,000 square kilometers of seabed, which
is choked with salt and in some places laced with pesticides and other agricultural
chemicals deposited by runoff from area farming. Strong windstorms blow salt, dust and
contaminants as far as 500 km. Winds from the north and northeast drive the most
severe storms, seriously impacting the Amu delta to the south—the most densely
settled and most economically and ecologically important area in the region. Afrbome
sodium bicarbonate, sodium chloride and sodium sulfate kill or retard the growth of
natural vegetation and crops—a cruel irony given that irrigating those crops starves the
sea. Health experts say the local population suffers from high levels of respiratory
illnesses, throat and esophageal cancer, and digestive disorders caused by breathing
and ingesting salt-laden air and water. Liver and kidney ailments, as well as eye
problems, are common. The loss of fish has also greatly reduced dietary variety,
worsening malnutrition and anemia, particularly in pregnant women.
D Returning the entire Aral Sea to its 1960s state is unrealistic. The annual inflow from
the Syr and Amu rivers would have to be quadrupled from the recent average of 13
km3. The only means would be to curtail irrigation, which accounts for 92 percent of
water withdrawals. Yet four of the five former Soviet republics in the Aral Sea basin
(Kazakhstan is the exception) intend to expand irrigation, mainly to feed growing
populations. Switching to less water- intensive crops, such as replacing cotton with
winter wheat, could help, but the two primary irrigating nations, Uzbekistan and
Turkmenistan, intend to keep cotton to earn foreign currency. The extensive irrigation
canals could be greatly improved; many are simply cuts through sand, and they allow
enormous quantities of water to seep away. Modernizing the entire system could save
12 km3 a year but would cost at least $16 billion. The basin states do not have the
money or the political will. Kazakhstan has nonetheless tried to partially restore the
northern Aral.
E We expect salinities in the Small Aral to settle at three to 14 g/1, depending on
location. At these levels many more indigenous species should return, although the
saltwater kambala would disappear from most places. Further restoration is possible.
For example, if irrigation improvements raised the average annual inflow from the Syr to
4.5 km3, which is entirely feasible, the lake’s level could stabilize at about 47 meters.
This change would bring the shoreline to within eight kilometers of Aralsk, the former
major port city, close enough to allow recovery of an earlier channel that connected the
city to the receding waters. The channel would give large commercial fishing vessels
access to the sea, and shipping could restart. Marshlands and fish populations would
improve even more because of a further reduction in salinity. Outflow to the southern
lakes could also increase, helping then restoration. Such a plan would require a much
longer and higher dike, as well as reconstruction of the gate facility, and it is not clear
that Kazakhstan has the means or desire to pursue it. The country is, however, now
discussing more modest proposals to bring water closer to Aralsk.
F The Large Aral faces a difficult future; it continues to shrink rapidly. Only a long,
narrow channel connects the shallow eastern basin and the deeper western basin, and
this could close altogether. If countries along the Amu make no changes, we estimate
that at current rates of groundwater in and evaporation out, an isolated eastern basin
would stabilize at an area of 4,300 square kilometers (km2). But it would average only
2.5 meters deep. Salinity would exceed 100 g/1, possibly reaching 200 g/1; the only
creatures that could live in it would be brine shrimp and bacteria. The western basin’s
fate depends on ground- water inflow, estimates for which are uncertain. Someone has
noted numerous fresh- water springs on the western cliffs. The most reliable
calculations indicate that the basin would settle at about 2,100 km2. The lake would still
be relatively deep, reaching 37 meters in spots, but salinity would rise well above 100
g/1.
Questions 1-6
The reading Passage has seven paragraphs A-F.
Which paragraph contains the following information? Write the correct letter A-F, in boxes 1-6 on
your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
1 ABCDEF A mission impossible
2 ABCDEF An extremely worrying trend for one main part of Aral Sea
3 ABCDEF An uncompleted project because of political reasons
4 ABCDEF A promising recovery in the future
5 ABCDEF A strongly affected populated district
6 ABCDEF The disclosure of a big secret
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Questions 7-9
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In
boxes 7-9 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement is true
FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
7 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN In response to the increasingly growing number in the
population, not all nations near the Aral Sea consider plans which will enhance the
severity of the problems the Aral Sea is faced with.
8 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The willingness for Kazakhstan to take the restoration
action to save the Small Aral Sea is somehow not certain.
9 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The western basin seems to have a destined future
regardless of the influx of the groundwater.
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Questions 10-13
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No
More than Three wordsfrom the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your
answers in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet.
The 10 produced by the floodwaters, which were ceased because of the
decrease in 11 of the Aral Sea, are main sources to keep the survival of
the wetlands. The types of fishes living in it experienced a devastating tragedy out of the
increase in 12 and decrease in spots for 13 with a good
example of the extinction of a specific fish. What is more, fisheries and shipping
suffered greatly from these vast changes.

Lighting up the lies

A Last year Sean A. Spence, a professor at the school of medicine at the University of
Sheffield in England, performed brain scans that showed that a woman convicted of
poisoning a child in her care appeared to be telling the truth when she denied
committing the crime. This deception study, along with two others performed by the
Sheffield group, was funded by Quickfire Media, a television production company
working for the U.K.’s Channel 4, which broadcast videos of the researchers at work as
part of a three-part series called “Lie Lab.” The brain study of the woman later appeared
in the journal European Psychiatry.
B Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) purports to detect mendacity by
seeing inside the brain instead of tracking peripheral measures of anxiety—such as
changes in pulse, blood pressure or respiration —measured by a polygraph. Besides
drawing hundreds of thousands of viewers, fMRI has pulled in entrepreneurs. Two
companies—Cephos in Pepperell, Mass., and No Lie MRI in Tarzana, Calif.—claim to
predict with 90 percent or greater certitude whether you are telling the truth. No Lie MRI,
whose name evokes the casual familiarity of a walk-in dental clinic in a strip mall,
suggests that the technique may even be used for “risk reduction in dating” .
C Many neuroscientists and legal scholars doubt such claims—and some even question
whether brain scans for lie detection will ever be ready for anything but more research
on the nature of deception and the brain. An fMRI machine tracks blood flow to
activated brain areas. The assumption in lie detection is that the
brain must exert extra effort when telling a lie and that the regions that do more work get
more blood. Such areas light up in scans; during the lie studies, the illuminated regions
are primarily involved in decision making.
D To assess how fMRI and other neurocience findings affect the law, the Mac- Arthur
Foundation put up $10 million last year to pilot for three years the Law and
Neuroscience Project. Part of the funding will attempt to set criteria for accurate and
reliable lie detection using fMRI and other brain-scanning technology. “I think it’s not
possible, given the current technology, to trust the results,” says Marcus Raichle, a
neuroscientist at the Washington University School of Medicine in St. Louis who heads
the project’s study group on lie detection. “But it’s not impossible to set up a research
program to determine whether that’s possible.” A major review article last year in the
American Journal of Law and Medicine by Henry T. Greely of Stanford University and
Judy Illes, now at the University of British Columbia, explores the deficiencies of existing
research and what may be needed to move the technology forward. The two scholars
found that lie detection studies conducted so far (still less than 20 in all) failed to prove
that fMRI is “effective as a lie detector in the real world at any accuracy level.”
Most studies examined groups, not individuals.Subjects in these studies were healthy
young adults—making it unclear how the results would apply to someone who takes a
drug that affects blood pressure or has a blockage in an artery. And the two researchers
questioned the specificity of the lit-up areas; they noted that the regions also correlate
with a wide range of cognitive behaviors, including memory, self- monitoring and
conscious self-awareness.
The biggest challenge for which the Law and Neuroscience Project is already funding
new research—is how to diminish the artificiality of the test protocol. Lying about
whether a playing card is the seven of spades may not activate the same areas of the
cortex as answering a question about whether you robbed the comer store. In fact, the
most realistic studies to date may have come from the Lie Lab television programs. The
two companies marketing the technology are not waiting for more data. Cephos is
offering scans without charge to people who claim they were falsely accused if they
meet certain criteria in an effort to get scans accepted by the courts. Allowing scans as
legal evidence could open a potentially huge and lucrative market. “We may have to
take many shots on goal before we actually see a courtroom,” says Cephos chief
executive Steven
Laken. He asserts that the technology has achieved 97 percent accuracy and that the
more than 100 people scanned using the Cephos protocol have provided data that have
resolved many of the issues that Greely and Illes cited.
G But until formal clinical trials prove that the machines meet safety and effectiveness
criteria, Greely and Illes have called for a ban on non-research uses. Trials envisaged
for regulatory approval hint at the technical challenges. Actors, professional poker
players and sociopaths would be compared against average Joes. The devout would go
in the scanner after nonbelievers. Testing would take into account social setting. White
lies—“no, dinner really was fantastic”—would have to be compared against untruths
about sexual peccadilloes to ensure that the brain reacts identically.
H There potential for abuse prompts caution. “The danger is that people’s lives can be
changed in bad ways because of mistakes in the technology,” Greely says.
“The danger for the science is that it gets a black eye because of this very high profile
use of neuroimaging that goes wrong.” Considering the long and controversial history of
the polygraph, gradualism may be the wisest course to follow for a new diagnostic that
probes an essential quality governing social interaction.
Questions 1-7
Use the information in the passage to match the people (listed A-D) with opinions or
deeds below. Write the appropriate letters A-D in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.
NB you may use any letter more than once
A Henry T. Greely &Judy Illes
B Steven Laken
c Henry T. Greely
D Marcus Raichle
1 ABCD The possibility hidden in a mission impossible
2 ABCD The uncertain effectiveness of functional magnetic resonance imaging for
detecting lies
3 ABCD The hazard lying behind the technology as a lie detector
4 ABCD The limited fields for the use of lie detection technology
5 ABCD Several successful cases of applying the results from the lie detection
technology
6 ABCD Cons of the current research related to lie-detector tests
7 ABCD There should be some requested work to improve the techniques regarding lie
detection
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Questions 8-10
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
In boxes 8-10 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement is true
FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN if the information is not given in the passage
8 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The lie detection for a convicted woman was first
conducted by researchers in Europe.
9 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The legitimization of using scans in the court might mean a
promising and profitable business.
10 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN There is always something wrong with neuroimaging.
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Questions 11-13
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No
More than Three words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your
answers in boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet.
It is claimed that functional magnetic resonance imaging can check lies by observing
the internal part of the brain rather than following up 11 to evaluate the
anxiety as 12 does. Audiences as well as 13 are fascinated
by this amazing lie-detection technology.
 Light pollution

{A} If humans were truly at home under the light of the moon and stars, we would go
into darkness happily, the midnight world as visible to us as it is to the vast number of
nocturnal species on this planet. Instead, we are diurnal creatures, with eyes adapted to
living in the sun’s light. This is a basic evolutionary fact, even though most of us don’t
think of ourselves as diurnal beings any more than we think of ourselves as primates or
mammals, or Earthlings. Yet it’s the only way to explain what we’ve done to the night:
We’ve engineered it to receive us by filling it with light.
{B} This kind of engineering is no different than damming a river. Its benefits come with
consequences—called light pollution—whose effects scientists are only now beginning
to study. Light pollution is largely the result of bad lighting design, which allows artificial
light to shine outward and upward into the sky, where it’s not wanted, instead of
focusing it downward, where it is. Ill-designed lighting washes out the darkness of night
and radically alters the light levels and light rhythms—to which many forms of life,
including ourselves, have adapted.

{C} Now most of humanity lives under intersecting domes of reflected, refracted light, of
scattering rays from overlit cities and suburbs, from light-flooded highways and
factories. Nearly all of nighttime Europe is a nebula of light, as is most of the United
States and all of Japan. In the south Atlantic the glow from a single fishing fleet squid
fishermen during their prey with metal halide lamps—can be seen from space, burning
brighter, in fact, than Buenos Aires or Rio de Janeiro.
{D} We’ve lit up the night as if it were an unoccupied country when nothing could be
further from the truth. Among mammals alone, the number of nocturnal species is
astonishing. Light is a powerful biological force, and in many species, it acts as a
magnet, a process being studied by researchers such as Travis Longcore and
Catherine Rich, co-founders of the Los Angeles-based Urban Wildlands Group. The
effect is so powerful that scientists speak of songbirds and seabirds being “captured” by
searchlights on land or by the light from gas flares on marine oil platforms, circling and
circling in the thousands until they drop. Migrating at night, birds are apt to collide with
brightly lit tall buildings; immature birds on their first journey suffer disproportionately.
{E} Insects, of course, cluster around streetlights, and feeding at those insect clusters is
now ingrained in the lives of many bat species. In some Swiss valleys, the European
lesser horseshoe bat began to vanish after streetlights were installed, perhaps because
those valleys were suddenly filled with light-feeding pipistrelle bats. Other nocturnal
mammals—including desert rodents, fruit bats, opossums, and badgers-forage more
cautiously under the permanent full moon of light pollution because they’ve become
easier targets for predators.

{F} Some birds—blackbirds and nightingales, among others—sing at unnatural hours in

the presence of artificial light. Scientists have determined that long artificial days— and
artificially short nights induce early breeding in a wide range of birds. And because a
longer day allows for longer feeding, it can also affect migration schedules. One
population of Bewick’s swans wintering in England put on fat more rapidly than usual,
priming them to begin their Siberian migration early. The problem, of course, is that
migration, like most other aspects of bird behaviour, is a precisely timed biological
behaviour. Leaving early may mean arriving too soon for nesting conditions to be right
{G} Nesting sea turtles, which show a natural predisposition for dark beaches, find
fewer and fewer of them to nest on. Their hatchlings, which gravitate toward the
brighter, more reflective sea horizon, find themselves confused by artificial lighting
behind the beach. In Florida alone, hatchling losses number in the hundreds of
thousands every year. Frogs and toads living near brightly lit highways suffer nocturnal
light levels that are as much as a million times brighter than normal, throwing nearly
every aspect of their behaviour out of joint, including their nighttime breeding choruses.
{H} Of all the pollution we face, light pollution is perhaps the most easily remedied.
Simple changes in lighting design and installation yield immediate changes in the
amount of light spilt into the atmosphere and, often, immediate energy savings.
{I} It was once thought that light pollution only affected astronomers, who need to see
the night sky in all its glorious clarity. And, in fact, some of the earliest civic efforts to
control light pollution—in Flagstaff, Arizona, half a century ago—were made to protect
the view from Lowell Observatory, which sits high above that city. Flagstaff has
tightened its regulations since then, and in 2001 it was declared the first International
Dark Sky City. By now the effort to control light pollution has spread around the globe.
More and more cities and even entire countries, such as the Czech Republic, have
committed themselves to reducing unwanted glare.
{J} Unlike astronomers, most of us may not need an undiminished view of the night sky
for our work, but like most other creatures we do need darkness. Darkness is as
essential to our biological welfare, to our internal clockwork, as light itself. The regular
oscillation of waking and sleep in our lives, one of our circadian rhythms—is nothing
less than a biological expression of the regular oscillation of light on Earth. So
fundamental are these rhythms to our being that altering them is like altering gravity.
Questions 1-6
The reading Passage has ten paragraphs A-J.
Which paragraph contains the following information?

Write the correct letter A-J, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.
1 ABCDEFGHIJ A reason that contributes to light pollution.
2 ABCDEFGHIJ A city has lessened light pollution successfully.
3 ABCDEFGHIJ The importance of darkness.
4 ABCDEFGHIJ The popularity of light pollution in the world.
5 ABCDEFGHIJ Methods to reduce light pollution.
6 ABCDEFGHIJ The reason why we have changed the night.
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Questions 7-8
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C, or D.

Write your answers in boxes 7-8 on your answer sheet.

Question 7: How does light pollution influence creatures?
A by bad lighting design
B by changing the cities and suburbs creatures are used to
C by changing the directions of light
D by changing the light creatures are used to
Question 8: Some aspects of animals’ lives are affected by unwanted light, EXCEPT:
A Migration
B Reproduction
C Natural life span
D Feeding
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Questions 9-13
Light pollution has affected many forms of life. Use the information in the passage to
match the animals with the relevant information below. Write the appropriate letters A-G
in boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet.
9 ABCDEFG Songbirds
10 ABCDEFG Horseshoe bat
11 ABCDEFG Nightingales
12 ABCDEFG Bewick’s swans
13 ABCDEFG Sea turtles

(A) eat too much and migrate in advance.

(B) would not like to sing songs at night.
(C) is attracted by the light and then a crash happens.
(D) suffers from food shortages because of
competitors.
(E) have become easier targets for predators.
(F) be active at unusual times.
(G) have trouble inbreeding.

New ways of teaching history

{A} In technology and the media-driven world, it’s becoming increasingly difficult to get
our students’ attention and keep them absorbed in classroom discussions. This
generation, in particular, has brought a unique set of challenges to the educational
table. Whereas youth are easily enraptured by high-definition television, computers,
Pods, video games, and cell phones, they are less than enthralled by what to them are
obsolete textbooks and boring classroom lectures. The question of how to teach history
in a digital age is often contentious. On the one side, the old guard thinks the
professional standards history is in mortal danger from flash-in-the-pan challenges by
the digital that is all show and no substance. On the other side, the self-styled
“disruptors” offer overblown rhetoric about how digital technology has changed
everything while the moribund profession obstructs all progress in the name of outdated
ideals. At least, that’s a parody (maybe not much of one) of how the debate proceeds.
Both supporters and opponents of the digital share more disciplinary common ground
than either admits.
{B} When provided with merely a textbook as a supplemental learning tool, test results
have revealed that most students fail to pinpoint the significance of historical events and
individuals. Fewer still are able to cite and substantiate primary historical sources. What
does this say about the way our educators are presenting information? The quotation
comes from a report of a 1917 test of 668 Texas students. Less than 10 per cent of
school-age children attended high school in 1917; today, enrollments are nearly
universal. The whole world has turned on its head during the last century but one thing
has stayed the same: Young people remain woefully ignorant about history reflected
from their history tests. Guess what? Historians are ignorant too, especially when we
equate historical knowledge with the “Jeopardy” Daily Double. In a test, those
specializing in American history did just fine. But those with specialities in medieval,
European and African history failed miserably when confronted by items about Fort
Ticonderoga, the Olive Branch Petition, or the Quebec Act–all taken from a typical
textbook. According to the testers, the results from the recent National Assessment in
History, like scores from earlier tests, show that young people are “abysmally ignorant”
of their own history. Invoking the tragedy of last September, historian Diane Ravitch
hitched her worries about our future to the idea that our nation’s strength is endangered
by youth who do poorly on such tests. But if she were correct, we would have gone
down the tubes in 1917!
{C} There is a huge difference between saying “Kids don’t know the history we want
them to know” and saying “Kids don’t know history at all.” Historical knowledge burrows
itself into our cultural pores even if young people can’t marshal it when faced with a
multiple-choice test. If we weren’t such hypocrites (or maybe if we were better
historians) we’d have to admit that today’s students follow in our own footsteps. For too
long we’ve fantasized that by rewriting textbooks we could change how history is
learned. The problem, however, is not the content of textbooks but the very idea of
them. No human mind could retain the information crammed into these books in 1917,
and it can do no better now. If we have learned anything from history that can be
applied to every time period, it is that the only constant changes. The teaching of
history, or any subject for that matter, is no exception. The question is no longer
whether to bring new technologies into everyday education; now, the question is which
technologies are most suitable for the range of topics covered in junior high and high
school history classrooms. Fortunately, technology has provided us with opportunities to
present our Civil War lesson plans or our American Revolution lesson plans in a variety
of new ways.
{D} Teachers can easily target and engage the learners of this generation by effectively
combining the study of history with innovative multimedia. PowerPoint and
presentations, in particular, can expand the scope of traditional classroom discussion by
helping teachers to explain abstract concepts while accommodating students’ unique
learning styles. PowerPoint study units that have been pre-made for history classrooms
include all manner of photos, prints, maps, audio clips, video clips and primary sources
which help to make learning interactive and stimulating. Presenting lessons in these
enticing formats helps technology-driven students retain the historical information they’ll
need to know for standard exams.
{E} Whether you’re covering Revolutionary War lesson plans or World War II lesson
plans, PowerPoint study units are available in formats to suit the needs of your
classroom. Multimedia teaching instruments like PowerPoint software are getting
positive results the world over, framing conventional lectures with captivating written,
auditory and visual content that helps students recall names, dates and causal
relationships within a historical context.

{F} History continues to show us that new times bring new realities. Education is no
exception to the rule. The question is not whether to bring technology into the
educational environment. Rather, the question is which technologies are suitable for
U.S. and world history subjects, from Civil War lesson plans to World War II lesson
plans. Whether you’re covering your American Revolution lesson plans or your Cold
War lesson plans, PowerPoint presentations are available in pre-packaged formats to
suit your classroom’s needs.
{G} Meanwhile, some academic historians hold a different view on the use of
technology in teaching history. One reason they hold is that not all facts can be
recorded by film or videos and literature is relatively feasible in this case. Another
challenge they have to be faced with is the painful process of learning a new technology
like the making of PowerPoint and the editing of audio and video clips which is also
reasonable especially to some elderly historians.
Questions 1-7
Reading this passage has eight paragraphs, A-G
Choosing the correct heading for paragraphs A-G from the list of heading below

Write the appropriate number, i -x, in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

(i) unavoidable changing facts to be considered when picking up technology means

(ii). A debatable place where the new technologies stand in for history teaching
(iii) Hard to attract students in traditional ways of teaching history
(iv) Display of the use of emerging multimedia as teaching tools

(V) Both students and professionals as candidates did not produce decent results
(vi) A good concrete example illustrated to show how multimedia animates the history
class

(vii) The comparisons of the new technologies applied in history class

(viii) Enormous breakthroughs in new technologies
(ix) Resistance of using new technologies from certain historian
(X) Decisions needed on which technique to be used for history teaching instead of
improvement in the textbooks

1 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx Paragraph A

2 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx Paragraph B
3 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx Paragraph C
4 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx Paragraph D
5 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx Paragraph E
6 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx Paragraph F
7 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx Paragraph G
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Questions 8-10
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage? In
boxes 8-10 on your answer sheet, write

YES if the statement agrees with the writer

NO if the statement does not agree with the writer
NOT GIVEN if there is no information about this in the
passage
8 YESNONOT GIVEN Modern people are better at memorizing historical information
compared with their ancestors.
9 YESNONOT GIVEN New technologies applied in history teaching are more vivid for
students to memorize the details of historical events.
10 YESNONOT GIVEN Conventional ways like literature are gradually out of fashion as
time goes by.
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Questions 11-13
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using no more
than three words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your answers in
boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet.

Contemporary students can be aimed at without many difficulties by integrating

studying history with novels 11 . Conventional classroom discussion is
specially extended by two ways to assist the teachers to interpret 12 and at the
same time retain students’ distinct learning modes. PowerPoint study units prepared
beforehand comprising a wide variety of elements make 13 learning feasible.
Combined classes like this can also be helpful in taking required tests.

Exploring british village 2

{A} The Neolithic longhouse was a long, narrow timber dwelling built by the first farmers
in Europe beginning at least as early as the period 5000 to 6000 BC. The origin of the
name blackhouse is of some debate. It could be less than 150 years old and may have
been synonymous with inferior. On Lewis, in particular, it seems to have been used to
distinguish the older blackhouses from some of the newer white-houses (Scottish
Gaelic: taigh-geal, Irish: tí geal, tí bán), with their mortared stone walls. There may also
be some confusion arising from the phonetic similarity between the ‘dubh’ , meaning
black and taghadh meaning thatch. The houses in Scotland were built high rather than
wide; however, some were built small and wide.
{B} The buildings were generally built with double-wall dry-stone walls packed with
earth and wooden rafters covered with a thatch of turf with cereal straw or reed. The
floor was generally flagstones or packed earth and there was a central hearth for the
fire. There was no chimney for the smoke to escape through. Instead, the smoke made
its way through the roof. The blackhouse was used to accommodate livestock as well as
people. People lived at one end and the animals lived at the other with a partition
between them.

{C} It is estimated that there are over ten thousand villages in Britain, yet defining the
term ‘village’ isn’t as simple as it may at first sound. When does a hamlet become a
village? And when does a village become a town?
{D} Strictly speaking the term ‘village’ comes from the Latin ‘villaticus’, which roughly
translates as ‘a group of houses outside a villa farmstead’. Today a village is
understood as a collection of buildings (usually at least 20) that is larger than a hamlet,
yet smaller than a town, and which contains at least one communal or public building.
This is most commonly the parish church, though it can be a chapel, school, public
house, shop, post office, smithy or mill. Villagers will share communal resources such
as access roads, a water supply, and usually a place of worship
{E} A hamlet is a smaller grouping of buildings that don’t necessarily have any public or
service buildings to support it. A significant difference is that it won’t have a parish
church like a village does, and most hamlets contain only between three and twenty
buildings.

{F} The point at which a village becomes a town is difficult to determine and is probably
best defined by those who live there. However, since the Middle Ages, the term ‘town’
has been a legal term that refers to the fact that the community has a borough charter.
The situation is confused by the fact that there are many town-like suburban
communities calling themselves villages (for example, Oxton Village in Birkenhead), as
well as designed suburban ‘villages’ such as those built under the Garden Village
Movement.
{G} The 2001 census shows us that approx 80% of people in England live in an urban
environment, with under 7% living in rural villages (the remainder live in rural towns or
outside concentrated settlements). This is the exact opposite of the situation two
centuries ago, when under 20% of the population lived in the town, and the majority
lived in rural villages. As late as 1851 agriculture remained the largest single source of
employment in Britain, yet today under 3% of us work on the land.
{H} It is essential to remember that villages were created and have evolved because of
particular combinations of geographical, commercial, economic and social factors. They
expand, decline, move and fluctuate with the times. This article introduces some of the
common forms of the village to be found in Britain.

The Medieval Village

{I} When we think of a British village we probably imagine a settlement of traditional
cottages around a village green with a church and ancient manor house as a backdrop.
This common form of the village has its roots in the medieval period when many villages
started out as a cluster of agricultural dwellings

{J} Today farmsteads tend to be scattered about the landscape, but back in the
medieval period those working on the land tended to live in small nucleated settlements
(villages) and worked ‘open-field’ agriculture where land wasn’t enclosed. In fact, over
much of Britain in the period up to 1800, it would have been unusual to have seen a
farm or cottage outside of a settlement boundary.
{K} By the time that the Domesday Book was written in 1086 most of the good
agricultural land in Britain was already under cultivation, and England was a densely
populated country. Two centuries later nucleated settlements were to be found over
much of Britain, typically consisting of well-organised village settlements sitting within
open fields.
{L} Over lowland Britain on good soil you would typically find a settlement every couple
of miles, and the communities would use the open agricultural land around where they
lived. The average village would have its church, manor house, and cottage tenements
all clustered together, and the open land around would usually be divided into thin
strips. In some villages, you can still see the remnants of medieval strip field systems
around the periphery of the settlement. There would often be meadows, pasture and
woodland held ‘in common, and only the lord of the manor would have his own, private
land or ‘demesne’. In the medieval village, virtually everyone would have earned their
living on the territory, hence the community had to be relatively self-sufficient.

{M} ‘Green Villages’ were a common village form, where houses clustered around a
central green of common land. They are often the remnants of planned settlements
introduced after the Norman Conquest in the 19th century. It is suggested that this
arrangement allowed for easier defence, especially compared to the village form most
common before the Normans, which was simple clusters of farms. However there is
also evidence of ‘village’ greens in Anglo-Saxon settlements, and even at Romano-
British sites.
{N} The village green was soon adopted as the main social space within a village, as
well as its focal point alongside the church or chapel. Village greens often take a
triangular form, usually reflecting the fact that the village was at the meeting of three
roads. The continuing importance of the village green to modern-day communities is
reflected in the fact that this is usually where the war memorial is seen, as well as
village notice boards, where local cricket matches are played, and where public
benches are placed. The Open Spaces Society states that in 2005 there were about
3,650 registered greens in England and about 220 in Wales.
Questions 1-7
Reading passage has seven paragraphs, A-G
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A and C-G from the list below.
Write the correct number, i-x, in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet.

List of heading

(i). Questions arise to be answered.

(ii). Contrast data between present and past.
(iii). Initial response of association on the village.
(iv). Origin of a certain ancient building.
(v). Inner structure of the building.
(vi). Layout of the village to persist in micro-environment.
(vii). Terms of the village explained.
(viii). Definition of village type.
(ix). Difference between village and town.
(X). Elements need to be considered in terms of the
village.

1 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx paragraph A
2 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx paragraph B
3 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx paragraph C
4 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx paragraph D
5 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx paragraph E
6 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx paragraph F
7 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx paragraph G
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Questions 9-13
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No
More than one word from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your answers
in boxes 8-13 on your answer sheet.
Village Green layout and Extending

Impression of British Village usually takes forms of old-styled 8 with church

and manor house. However, records in 9 indicated that England was
already a cultivated and populated country in the 11th century. During medieval times,
farmers literally could support themselves and the community, therefore, needed to be
10 in general.
Green village was usually 11 of dwellings after the invasion from Norman,
and it was gathered mainly for the purpose of 12 Village Green’s 13
shape had a connection with its location among the roads, and nowadays it still can be
seen in some public venues such as memorial and sports sites.

Life code: unlocked!

{A} On an airport shuttle bus to the Kavli Institute for Theoretical Physics in Santa
Barbara, Calif., Chris Wiggins took a colleague’s advice and opened a Microsoft Excel
spreadsheet. It had nothing to do with the talk on biopolymer physics he was invited to
give. Rather the columns and rows of numbers that stared back at him referred to the
genetic activity of budding yeast. Specifically, the numbers represented the amount of
messenger RNA (MRNA) expressed by all 6,200 genes of the yeast over the course of
its reproductive cycle. “It was the first time I ever saw anything like this,” Wiggins recalls
of that spring day in 2002. “How to make sense of all this data?”

{B} Instead of shirking from this question, the 36-year-old applied mathematician and
physicist at Columbia University embraced it-and now six years later he thinks he has
an answer. By foraying into fields outside his own, Wiggins has drudged up tools from a
branch of artificial intelligence called machine learning to model the collective protein-
making activity of genes from real-world biological data. Engineers originally designed
these tools in the late 1950s to predict output from input. Wiggins and his colleagues
have now brought machine learning to the natural sciences and tweaked it so that it can
also tell a story-one not only about input and output but also about what happens inside
a model of gene regulation, the black box in between.
{C} The impetus for this work began in the late 1990s, when high-throughput techniques
generated more mRNA expression profiles and DNA sequences than ever before,
“opening up a completely different way of thinking about biological phenomena,”
Wiggins says. Key among these techniques were DNA microarrays, chips that provide a
panoramic view of the activity of genes and their expression levels in any cell type,
simultaneously and under myriad conditions. As noisy and incomplete as the data were,
biologists could now query which genes turn on or off in different cells and determine
the collection of proteins that give rise to a cell’s characteristic features, healthy or
diseased.
{D} Yet predicting such gene activity requires uncovering the fundamental rules that
govern it. “Over time, these rules have been locked in by cells,” says theoretical
physicist Harmen Bussemaker, now an associate professor of biology at Columbia.
“Evolution has kept the good stuff.” To find these rules, scientists needed statistics to
infer the interaction between genes and the proteins that regulate them and to then
mathematically describe this network’s underlying structure-the dynamic pattern of gene
and protein activity over time. But physicists who did not work with particles (or planets,
for that matter) viewed statistics as nothing short of an anathema. “If your experiment
requires statistics,” British physicist Ernest Rutherford once said, “you ought to have
done a better experiment.”

{E} But in working with microarrays, “the experiment has been done without you,”
Wiggins explains. “And biology doesn’t hand you a model to make sense of the data.”
Even more challenging, the building blocks that makeup DNA, RNA, and proteins are
assembled in myriad ways; moreover, subtly different rules of interaction govern their
activity, making it difficult, if not impossible, to reduce their patterns of interaction to
fundamental laws. Some genes and proteins are not even known. “You are trying to find
something compelling about the natural world in a context where you don’t know very
much,” says William Bialek, a biophysicist at Princeton University. “You’re forced to be
agnostic.” Wiggins believes that many machine-learning algorithms perform well under
precisely these conditions. When working with so many unknown variables, “machine
learning lets the data decide what’s worth looking at,” he says.
{F} At the Kavli Institute, Wiggins began building a model of a gene regulatory network
in a yeast-the set of rules by which genes selectively orchestrate how vigorously DNA is
transcribed into mRNA. As he worked with different algorithms, he started to attend
discussions on gene regulation led by Christina Leslie, who ran the computational
biology group at Columbia at the time. Leslie suggested using a specific machine-
learning tool called a classifier. Say the algorithm must discriminate between pictures
that have bicycles in them and pictures that do not. A classifier sifts through labeled
examples and measures everything it can about them, gradually learning the decision
rules that govern the grouping. From these rules, the algorithm generates a model that
can determine whether or not new pictures have bikes in them. In gene regulatory
networks, the learning task becomes the problem of predicting whether genes increase
or decrease their protein-making activity.

{G} The algorithm that Wiggins and Leslie began building in the fall of 2002 was trained
on the DNA sequences and mRNA levels of regulators expressed during a range of
conditions in yeast-when the yeast was cold, hot, starved, and so on. Specifically, this
algorithm-MEDUSA (for motif element discrimination using sequence agglomeration) -
scans every possible pairing between a set of DNA promoter sequences, called motifs,
and regulators. Then, much like a child might match a list of words with their definitions
by drawing a line between the two, MEDUSA finds the pairing that best improves the fit
between the model and the data it tries to emulate. (Wiggins refers to these pairings as
edges.) Each time MEDUSA finds a pairing, it updates the model by adding a new rule
to guide its search for the next pairing. It then determines the strength of each pairing by
how well the rule improves the existing model. The hierarchy of numbers enables
Wiggins and his colleagues to determine which pairings are more important than others
and how they can collectively influence the activity of each of the yeast’s 6,200 genes.
By adding one pairing at a time, MEDUSA can predict which genes ratchet up their RNA
production or clamp that production down, as well as reveal the collective mechanisms
that orchestrate an organism’s transcriptional logic.

Questions 1-6
The reading passage has seven paragraphs, A-G
Choose the correct heading for paragraphs A-G from the list below.

Write the correct number, i-x, in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet.

List of Headings

(I) The search for the better-fit matching between the model and the gained figures to
foresee the activities of the genes

(II) The definition of MEDUSA

(III) A flashback of commencement for a far-reaching breakthrough

(IV) A drawing of the gene map

(V) An algorithm used to construct a specific model to discern the appearance of
something new by the joint effort of Wiggins and another scientist
(VI) An introduction of a background tracing back to the availability of mature
techniques for detailed research on genes
(VII) A way out to face the challenge confronting the scientist on the deciding of
researchable data.

(VIII) A failure to find out some specific genes controlling the production of certain
proteins
(IX) The use of a means from another domain for reference
(X) A tough hurdle on the way to find the law governing the activities of the genes

Example: Paragraph A III

1 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx Paragraph B
2 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx Paragraph C
3 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx Paragraph D
4 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx Paragraph E
5 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx Paragraph F
6 iiiiiiivvviviiviiiixx Paragraph G
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Questions 7-9
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? In
boxes 7-9 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement is True

FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN If the information is not given in the passage
7 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Wiggins is the first man to use DNA microarrays for the
research on genes.
8 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN There is almost no possibility for the effort to decrease the
patterns of interaction between DNA, RNA, and proteins.
9 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Wiggins holds a very positive attitude on the future of
genetic research.
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Questions 10-13
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No
More than three words from the Reading Passage for each answer. Write your answers
in boxes 10-13 on your answer sheet.

Wiggins states that the astoundingly rapid development of techniques concerning the
components of genes aroused the researchers to look at 10 from a totally new
way. 11 is the heart and soul of these techniques and no matter what
the 12 were, at the same time they can offer a whole picture of the genes’
activities as well as 13 in all types of cells. With these techniques,
scientists could locate the exact gene which was on or off to manipulate the production
of the proteins.

The success of cellulose

{A} Not too long ago many investors made the bet that renewable fuels from bio-mass
would be the next big thing in energy. Converting corn, sugarcane, and soybeans into
ethanol or diesel-type fuels lessens our nation’s dependence on oil imports while cutting
carbon dioxide emissions. But already the nascent industry faces challenges. Escalating
demand is hiking food prices while farmers clear rainforest habitats to grow fuel crops.
And several recent studies say that certain biofuel-production processes either fail to
yield net energy gains or release more carbon dioxide than they use.

{B} A successor tier of start-up ventures aims to avoid those problems. Rather than
focusing on the starches, sugars, and fats of food crops, many of the prototype
bioethanol processes work with lignocellulose, the “woody” tissue that strengthens the
cell walls of plants, says University of Massachusetts Amherst chemical engineer
George W. Huber. Although cellulose breaks down less easily than sugars and starches
and thus requires a complex series of enzyme-driven chemical reactions, its use opens
the industry to nonfood plant feedstocks such as agricultural wastes, wood chips, and
switchgrass. But no company has yet demonstrated a cost-competitive industrial
process for making cellulosic biofuels.
{C} So scientists and engineers are working on dozens of possible biofuel-processing
routes, reports Charles Wyman, a chemical engineer at the University of California,
Riverside, who is a founder of Mascoma Corporation in Cambridge, Mass., a leading
developer of cellulosic ethanol processing.” There’s no miracle process out there,” he
remarks. And fine-tuning a process involves considerable money and time. “The oil
companies say that it takes 10 years to fully commercialize an industrial processing
route,” warns Huber, who has contributed some thermochemical techniques to another
biomass start-up, Virent Energy Systems in Madison, Wis.
{D} One promising biofuel procedure that avoids the complex enzymatic chemistry to
break down cellulose is now being explored by Coskata in Warrenville, Ill., a firm
launched in 2006 by high-profile investors and entrepreneurs (General Motors recently
took a minority stake in it as well). In the Coskata operation, a conventional gasification
system will use heat to turn various feedstocks into a mixture of carbon monoxide and
hydrogen called syngas, says Richard Tobey, vice president of Engineering and R&D.
The ability to handle multiple plant feedstocks would boost the flexibility of the overall
process because each region in the country has access to certain feedstocks but not
others.

{E} Instead of using thermochemical methods to convert the syngas to fuel- a process
that can be significantly more costly because of the added expense of pressurizing
gases, according to Tobey – the Coskata group chose a biochemical route. The group
focused on five promising strains of ethanol-excreting bacteria that Ralph Tanner, a
microbiologist at the University of Oklahoma, had discovered years before in the
oxygen-free sediments of a swamp. These anaerobic bugs make ethanol by voraciously
consuming syngas.
{F} The “heart and soul of the Coskata process,” as Tobey puts it, is the bioreactor in
which the bacteria live. “Rather than searching for food in the fermentation mash in a
large tank, our bacteria wait for the gas to be delivered to them,” he explains. The firm
relies on plastic tubes, the filter-fabric straws as thin as human hair. The syngas flows
through the straws, and water is pumped across their exteriors. The gases diffuse
across the selective membrane to the bacteria embedded in the outer surface of the
tubes, which permits no water inside. “We get an efficient mass transfer with the tubes,
which is not easy,” Tobey says. “Our data suggest that in an optimal setting we could
get 90 percent of the energy value of the gases into our fuel.” After the bugs eat the
gases, they release ethanol into the surrounding water. Standard distillation or filtration
techniques could extract the alcohol from the water.

{G} Coskata researchers estimate that their commercialized process could deliver
ethanol at under $1 per gallon-less than half of today’s $2-per-gallon wholesale price,
Tobey claims. Outside evaluators of Argonne National Laboratory measured the input-
output “energy balance” of the Coskata process and found that, optimally, it can
produce 7.7 times as much energy in the end product as it takes to make it.
{H} The company plans to construct a 40,000-gallon-a-year pilot plant near the GM test
track in Milford, Mich., by the end of this year and hopes to build a full-scale, 100-
million-gallon-a-year plant by 2011. Coskata may have some company by then;
Bioengineering Resources in Fayetteville, Ark., is already developing what seems to be
a similar three-step pathway in which syngas is consumed by bacteria isolated by
James Gaddy, a retired chemical engineer at the University of Arkansas. Considering
the advances in these and other methods, plant cellulose could provide the greener
ethanol everyone wants.

Questions 1-6
Use the information in the passage to match the people (listed A-D) with opinions or
deeds below. Write the appropriate letters A-D in boxes 1-6 on your answer sheet. NB
you may use any letter more than once
(A) George W. Huber
(B) James Gaddy
(C) Richard Tobey
(D) Charles Wyman

1 ABCD A key component to gain success lies in the place where the organisms
survive.

2 ABCD Engaged in separating fixed procedures to produce ethanol in the homologous

biochemical way.
3 ABCD Assists to develop certain skills.
4 ABCD It needs arduous efforts to achieve highly efficient transfer.
5 ABCD There is no shortcut to expedite the production process.

6 ABCD A combination of chemistry and biology can considerably lower the cost
needed for the production company.
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Questions 7-10
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage 1? In
boxes 7-10 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement is True

FALSE if the statement is false
NOT GIVEN If the information is not given in the passage
7 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN A shift from conventionally targeted areas of the vegetation
to get ethanol takes place.
8 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN It takes a considerably long way before a completely
mature process is reached.
9 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The Coskata group sees no bright future for the cost
advantage available in the production of greener ethanol.
10 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Some enterprises are trying to buy the shares of Coskata
group.
Show workspace

Questions 11-13
Summary
Complete the following summary of the paragraphs of Reading Passage, using No
More than Three words from the Reading Passage for each answer.
Write your answers in boxes 11-13 on your answer sheet.

Tobey has noticed that the Coskata process can achieve huge success because it
utilizes 11 as the bioreactor on whose exterior surface the bacteria
take the syngas going through the coated 12 . To produce the ethanol into
the water outside which researchers will later 13 by certain techniques.
The figures show a pretty high percentage of energy can be transferred into fuel which
is actually very difficult to achieve.

Tool for ancient writing

{A} With time, the record-keepers developed systematized symbols from their drawings.
These symbols represented words and sentences but were easier and faster to draw
and universally recognized for meaning. The discovery of clay made portable records
possible (you can’t carry a cave wall around with you). Early merchants used clay
tokens with pictographs to record the quantities of materials traded or shipped. These
tokens date back to about 8,500 B.C. With the high volume and the repetition inherent
in record keeping, pictographs evolved and slowly lost their picture detail. They became
abstract figures representing sounds in spoken communication. The alphabet replaced
pictographs between 1700 and 1500 B.C. in the Sinaitic world. The current Hebrew
alphabet and writing became popular around 600 B.C. About 400 B.C. the Greek
alphabet was developed. Greek was the first script written from left to right. From Greek
followed the Byzantine and the Roman (later Latin) writings. In the beginning, all writing
systems had only uppercase letters, when the writing instruments were refined enough
for detailed faces, lowercase was used as well (around 600 A.D.)
{B} The earliest means of writing that approached pen and paper as we know them
today was developed by the Greeks. They employed a writing stylus, made of metal,
bone, or ivory, to placemarks upon wax-coated tablets. The tablets are made in hinged
pairs, closed to protect the scribe’s notes. The first examples of handwriting (purely text
messages made by hand) originated in Greece. The Grecian scholar, Cadmus invented
the written letter – text messages on paper sent from one individual to another.

{C} Writing was advancing beyond chiselling pictures into stone or wedging pictographs
into wet clay. The Chinese invented and perfected ‘Indian Ink’. Originally designed for
blacking the surfaces of raised stone-carved hieroglyphics, the ink was a mixture of soot
from pine smoke and lamp oil mixed with the gelatin of donkey skin and musk. The ink
invented by the Chinese philosopher, Tien-Lcheu (2697 B.C.), became common by the
year 1200 B.C. Other cultures developed inks using natural dyes and colours derived
from berries, plants, and minerals. In early writings, different coloured inks had ritual
meanings attached to each colour.
{D} The invention of inks paralleled the introduction of the paper. The early Egyptians,
Romans, Greeks, and Hebrews, used papyrus and parchment papers. One of the oldest
pieces of writing on papyrus known to us today is the Egyptian “Prisse Papyrus” which
dates back to 2000 B.C. The Romans created a reed-pen perfect for parchment and ink,
from the hollow tubular stems of marsh grasses, especially from the jointed bamboo
plant. They converted bamboo stems into a primitive form of a fountain pen. They cut
one end into the form of a pen nib or point. A writing fluid or ink filled the stem,
squeezing the reed forced fluid to the nib
{E} By 400 A.D. a stable form of ink developed, a composite of iron salts, nutgalls, and
gum, the basic formula, which was to remain in use for centuries. Its colour when first
applied to paper was a bluish-black, rapidly turning into a darker black and then over the
years fading to the familiar dull brown colour commonly seen in old documents. Wood-
fiber paper was invented in China in 105 A.D. but it only became known about (due to
Chinese secrecy) in Japan around 700 A.D. and was brought to Spain by the Arabs in
711 A.D. Paper was not widely used throughout Europe until paper mills were built in
the late 14th century

{F} The writing instrument that dominated for the longest period in history (over one
thousand years) was the quill pen. Introduced around 700 A.D., the quill is a pen made
from a bird feather. The strongest quills were those taken from living birds in the spring
from the five outer left wing feathers. The left wing was favoured because the feathers
curved outward and away when used by a right-handed writer. Goose feathers were
most common; swan feathers were of a premium grade being scarcer and more
expensive. For making fine lines, crow feathers were the best, and then came the
feathers of the eagle, owl, hawk, and turkey.
{G} There were also disadvantages associated with the use of quill pens, including a
lengthy preparation time. The early European writing parchments made from animal
skins required much scraping and cleaning. A lead and a ruler made margins. To
sharpen the quill, the writer needed a special knife (origins of the term “pen-knife”.)
Beneath the writer’s high-top desk was a coal stove, used to dry the ink as fast as
possible.
H Plant-fiber paper became the primary medium for writing after another dramatic
invention took place: Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press with replaceable
wooden or metal letters in 1436. Simpler kinds of printing e.g. stamps with names used
much earlier in China, did not find their way to Europe. During the centuries, many
newer printing technologies were developed based on Gutenberg’s printing machine
e.g. offset printing.

{I} Articles written by hand had resembled printed letters until scholars began to change
the form of writing, using capitals and small letters, writing with more of a slant and
connecting letters. Gradually writing became more suitable to the speed the new writing
instruments permitted. The credit of inventing Italian ‘running hand’ or cursive
handwriting with its Roman capitals and small letters, goes to Aldus Manutius of Venice,
who departed from the old set forms in 1495 A.D. By the end of the 16th century, the old
Roman capitals and Greek letterforms transformed into the twenty-six alphabet letters
we know today, both for upper and lower-case letters. When writers had both better inks
and paper, and handwriting had developed into both an art form and an everyday
occurrence, man’s inventive nature once again turned to improving the writing
instrument, leading to the development of the modern fountain pens

Questions 1-2
What two features do record retention possess in nature?
A Easier and faster
B Capaciousness
C portable
D convenient
E Iterance
Show workspace

Question 3
What hurts the technique of producing wooden paper from popularity for a long time?
A Scarcity
B Complexity
C Confidentiality by the inventors
D High cost
Show workspace

Questions 4-10
The reading Passage has eleven paragraphs A-I.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter A-I, in boxes 4-10 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
4 ABCDEFGHI the working principle of the primitive pens made of plant stems
5 ABCDEFGHI a writing tool commonly implemented for the longest time
6 ABCDEFGHI liquid for writing firstly devised by Chinese
7 ABCDEFGHI majuscule scripts as the unique written form originally
8 ABCDEFGHI the original invention of today’s correspondences
9 ABCDEFGHI the mention of two basic writing instruments being invented
coordinately
10 ABCDEFGHI a design to safeguard the written content
Show workspace

Questions 11-13
Answer the s below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for
each answer.
11 What makes it not so convenient to use the quill pens? 11
12 When did one more breakthrough occur following the popularity of paper of plant
fibres? 12
13 What inventions were the results of human’s creative instinct of developing writing
tools? 13

Paul Nash

{A} Paul Nash, the elder son of William Nash and his first wife, Caroline Jackson, was
born in London on 11th May 1889. His father was a successful lawyer who became the
Recorder of Abingdon. According to Ronald Blythe: “In 1901 the family returned to its
native Buckinghamshire, where the garden of Wood Lane House at Iver Heath, and the
countryside of the Chiltern Hills, with its sculptural beeches and chalky contours, were
early influences on the development of the three children. Their lives were
overshadowed by their mother’s mental illness and Nash himself was greatly helped by
his nurse who, with some elderly neighbors, introduced him to the universe of plants.”
{B} Nash was educated at St. Paul’s School and the Slade School of Art, where he met
Dora Carrington. Unlike some of his contemporaries at the Slade School, Nash
remained untouched by the two post-impressionist exhibitions organized by Roger Fry
in 1910 and 1912. Instead, he was influenced by the work of William Blake. He also
became a close friend of Gordon Bottomley, who took a keen interest in his career.

{C} Nash had his first one-man show, of ink and wash drawings, at the Carfax Gallery in
1912. The following year he shared an exhibition at the Dorian Leigh Gallery with his
brother, John Nash. Myfanwy Piper has added: “Nash had a noteworthy sense of order
and of the niceties of presentation; his pictures were beautifully framed, drawings
mounted, his studio precisely and decoratively tidy, and oddments which he collected
were worked up into compositions.”
{D} Paul Nash was strongly attracted to Dora Carrington: He later recalled:
“Carrington… was the dominating personality, I got an introduction to her and eventually
won her regard by lending her my braces for a fancy-dress party. We were on the top of
a bus and she wanted them then and there.”
{E} On the outbreak Nash considered the possibility of joining the British Army. He told
a friend: “I am not keen to rush off and be a soldier. The whole damnable war is too
horrible of course and I am all against killing anybody, speaking off-hand, but besides all
that I believe both Jack and I might be more useful as ambulance and red cross men,
and to that end we are training. Nash enlisted in the Artists’ Rifles. He told Gordon
Bottomley: “I have joined the Artists’ London Regiment of Territorials, the old Corps
which started with Rossetti, Leighton, and Millais as members in 1860. Every man must
do his bit in this horrible business so I have given up painting. There are many nice
creatures in my company and I enjoy the burst of exercise – marching, drilling all day in
the open air about the pleasant parts of Regents Park and Hampstead Heath.”

{F} In March 1917 he was sent to the Western Front Nash, who took part in the
offensive at Ypres, had reached the rank of lieutenant in the Hampshire Regiment by
1916. Whenever possible, Nash made sketches of life in the trenches. In May 1917 he
was invalided home after a non-military accident. While recuperating in London, Nash
worked from his sketches to produce a series of war paintings. This work was well-
received when exhibited later that year. As a result of this exhibition, Charles
Masterman, head of the government’s War Propaganda Bureau (WPB), and the advice
of Edward Marsh and William Rothenstein, it was decided to recruit Nash as a war
artist. In November 1917 in the immediate aftermath of the battle of Passchendaele
Nash returned to France.
{G} Nash was unhappy with his work as a member of the War Propaganda Bureau. He
wrote at the time: “I am no longer an artist. I am a messenger who will bring back word
from the men who are fighting to those who want the war to go on forever. Feeble,
inarticulate will be my message, but it will have a bitter truth and may burn their lousy
souls.” However, as Myfanwy Piper has pointed out: “The drawings he made then, of
shorn trees in ruined and flooded landscapes, were the works that made Nash’s
reputation. They were shown at the Leicester Galleries in 1918 together with his first
efforts at oil painting, in which he was self-taught and quickly successful, though his
drawings made in the field had a more immediate public impact.
{H} In 1919 Nash moved to Dymchurch in Kent, beginning his well-known series of
pictures of the sea, the breakwaters, and the long wall that prevents the sea from
flooding Romney Marsh. This included the Winter Sea and Dymchurch Steps. Nash
also painted the landscapes of the Chiltern Hills. In 1924 and 1928 he had successful
exhibitions at the Leicester Galleries. Despite this popular acclaim in 1929, his work
became more abstract. In 1933 Nash founded Unit One, the group of experimental
painters, sculptors, and architects.

{I} During the Second World War Nash was employed by the Ministry of Information and
the Air Ministry and paintings produced by him during this period include the Battle of
Britain and Totes Meer. His biographer, Myfanwy Piper, has argued: “This war disturbed
Nash but did not change his art as the last one had. His style and his habits were
formed, and in the new war, he treated his new subjects as he had treated those he had
been thinking about for so long. His late paintings, both oils, and watercolors are
alternately brilliant and somber in color with the light of setting suns and rising moons
spreading over wooded and hilly landscapes. “Paul Nash died at 35 Boscombe Spa
Road, Bournemouth, on 11th July 1946.

Questions 1-4
Choose the correct letter, A-G?
Write your answers in boxes 1-4 on your answer sheet.
What four statements are correct concerning Nash’s story?
A He did not make an effort after becoming a high-ranking official in the army.
B He had a dream since his childhood.
C He once temporarily ceased his painting career for some reason.
D He was not affected by certain shows attractive to his other peers.
E He had cooperation in art with his relative.
F Some of his paintings were presented in a chaotic way.
G His achievement after being enlisted in the army did not as much attention as his
previous works.
Show workspace

Questions 5-10
The reading Passage has eleven paragraphs A-I.
Write the correct letter A-I, in boxes 5-10 on your answer sheet.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
NB You may use any letter more than once.
5 ABCDEFGHI a charming lady in Nash’s eyes
6 ABCDEFGHI Nash’s passion for following particularly appreciated artists
7 ABCDEFGHI Nash’s works with contrast elements
8 ABCDEFGHI the true cause for Nash to join the military service
9 ABCDEFGHI the noticeable impact on Nash’s growth exerted from the rearing
environment
10 ABCDEFGHI high praise for Nash’s unique taste of presenting his works
Show workspace

Questions 11-13
Answer the questions below.
Choose NO MORE THAN THREE WORDS AND/OR A NUMBER from the passage for
each answer.
Question 11:- Because of a popular display of Nash’s works created in the army, what
did his leader designate him as? 11
Question 12:- How did Nash learn oil painting? 12
Question 13:- What change took place for Nash’s painting style in the late second
decade of the twentieth century? 13
 Toddlers Bond With Robot

(A) Will the robot revolution begin in nursery school? Researchers introduced a state-of-
the-art social robot into a classroom of 18- to 24-month-olds for five months as a way of
studying human-robot interactions. The children not only came to accept the robot, but
treated it as they would a human buddy - hugging it and helping it - a new study says.
"The results imply that current robot technology is surprisingly close to achieving
autonomous bonding and socialization with human toddlers," said Fumihide Tanaka, a
researcher at the University of California, San Diego

(B) The development of robots that interact socially with people has been difficult to
achieve, experts say, partly because such interactions are hard to study. "To my
knowledge, this is the first long-term study of this sort," said Ronald Arkin, a roboticist at
the Georgia Institute of Technology, who was not involved with the study. "It is
groundbreaking and helps to forward human-robot interaction studies significantly," he
said.

(C) The most successful robots so far have been storytellers, but they have only been
able to hold human interest for a limited time. For the new study, researchers introduced
a toddler-size humanoid robot into a classroom at a UCSD childhood education center.
Initially the researchers wanted to use a 22-inch-tall model, but later they decided to use
another robot of the QRIO series, the 23-inch-tall (58-centimeter-tall) machine was
originally developed by Sony. Children of toddler age were chosen because they have
no preconceived notions of robots, said Tanaka, the lead researcher, who also works
for Sony. The researchers sent instructions about every two minutes to the robot to do
things like giggle, dance, sit down, or walk in a certain direction. The 45 sessions were
videotaped, and interactions between toddlers and the robot were later analyzed.

(D) The results showed that the quality of those interactions improved steadily over 27
sessions. The tots began to increasingly interact with the robot and treat it more like a
peer than an object during the first 11 sessions. The level of social activity increased
dramatically when researchers added a new behavior to QRIO's repertoire: If a child
touched the humanoid on its head, it would make a giggling noise. The interactions
deteriorated quickly over the next 15 sessions, when the robot was reprogrammed to
behave in a more limited, predictable manner. Finally, the human-robot relations
improved in the last three sessions, after the robot had been reprogrammed to display
its full range of behaviors. "Initially the children treated the robot very differently than the
way they treated each other," Tanaka said. "But by the end they treated the robot as a
peer rather than a toy."

(E) Early in the study some children cried when QRIO fell. But a month into the study,
the toddlers helped QRIO stand up by pushing its back or pulling its hands. “The most
important aspect of interaction was touch”, Tanaka said. “At first the toddlers would
touch the robot on its face, but later on they would touch only on its hands and arms,
like they would with other humans”. Another robotlike toy named Robby, which
resembled QRIO but did not move, was used as a control toy in the study. While
hugging of QRIO increased, hugging of Robby decreased throughout the study.
Furthermore, when QRIO laid down on the floor as its batteries ran down, a toddler
would put a blanket over his silver-colored "friend" and say "night-night."

(F) "Our work suggests that touch integrated on the time-scale of a few minutes is a
surprisingly effective index of social connectedness," Tanaka says. "Something akin to
this index may be used by the human brain to evaluate its own sense of social well-
being." He adds that social robots like QRIO could greatly enrich classrooms and assist
teachers in early learning programs. Hiroshi Ishiguro - robotics expert at Osaka
University in Japan - says, "I think this study has clearly reported the possibilities of
small, almost autonomous humanoid robots for toddlers. Nowadays robots can perform
a variety of functions that were thought to be incident to people only - in short time we’ll
have electronic baby-sitters and peer-robots in every kindergarten," said Ishiguro, who
was not involved with the study but has collaborated with its authors on other projects.

(G) Now this study has taken a new direction - the researchers are now developing
autonomous robots for the toddler classroom. "I cannot avoid underlining how great
potential it could have in educational settings assisting teachers and enriching the
classroom environment," Tanaka said. However, some scientists don’t share his
opinion.
(H) Arkin, the Georgia Tech roboticist, said he was not surprised by the affection
showed by the toddlers toward the robot. "Humans have a tremendous propensity to
bond with artifacts with any or all sort, whether it be a car, a doll, or a robot," he said.
But he also cautioned that researchers don't yet understand the consequences of
increased human-robot interaction. "Just studying how robots and humans work
together can give us insight into whether this is a good thing or a bad thing for society,"
Akrin said. "What are the consequences of introducing a robot artifact into a cadre of
children? How will that enhance, or potentially interfere with, their social development?
It might make life easier for the teacher, but we really don't understand the long-term
impact of having a robot as a childhood friend, do we?"

Questions 1-7
Reading Passage 3 has eight paragraphs, A-H.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-H, in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet. You may use any letter
more than once.
1. Changes in toddler-robot interactions quality. 1 ABCDEFGH
2. Comparison of two different robots. 2 ABCDEFGH
3. The fact that previous robots could maintain people’s interest only for a short time. 3
ABCDEFGH
4. The importance of touch. 4 ABCDEFGH
5. The new direction of the study. 5 ABCDEFGH
6. Technical parameters of the introduced robot. 6 ABCDEFGH
7. The significance and novelty of the conducted study. 7 ABCDEFGH
Show workspace

Questions 8-12
Connect each of the statements below with the name of scientist who expressed it.
Answer A, B, or C to questions 8-12.

A Fumihide Tanaka

B Ronald Arkin

C Hiroshi Ishiguro

8. Robots will perform duties of baby-sitters in the nearest future. 8 ABC

9. By the end of the study children treated the robot as a living creature rather than a
toy. 9 ABC
10. The long-term impact of having a robot as a childhood friend can be negative. 10
ABC
11. The conducted study is the first major study of this sort. 11 ABC
12. Robots can be used in classrooms and assist teachers. 12 ABC
Show workspace

Questions 13-15
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 13-15 on your answer sheet.

13. the study, researchers introduced a toddler-size humanoid robot that was
A 58-inch-tall
B 22-inch-tall
C 23-inch-tall
D 45-inch-tall

14. The researchers sent instructions to the robot to perform different actions EXCEPT
A laugh
B dance
C sit down
D crawl

15. The toddlers began to increasingly interact with the robot during
A the first 11 sessions
B the next 15 sessions
C the first 27 sessions
D the last 15 sessions
 Toddlers Bond With Robot

(A) Will the robot revolution begin in nursery school? Researchers introduced a state-of-
the-art social robot into a classroom of 18- to 24-month-olds for five months as a way of
studying human-robot interactions. The children not only came to accept the robot, but
treated it as they would a human buddy - hugging it and helping it - a new study says.
"The results imply that current robot technology is surprisingly close to achieving
autonomous bonding and socialization with human toddlers," said Fumihide Tanaka, a
researcher at the University of California, San Diego

(B) The development of robots that interact socially with people has been difficult to
achieve, experts say, partly because such interactions are hard to study. "To my
knowledge, this is the first long-term study of this sort," said Ronald Arkin, a roboticist at
the Georgia Institute of Technology, who was not involved with the study. "It is
groundbreaking and helps to forward human-robot interaction studies significantly," he
said.

(C) The most successful robots so far have been storytellers, but they have only been
able to hold human interest for a limited time. For the new study, researchers introduced
a toddler-size humanoid robot into a classroom at a UCSD childhood education center.
Initially the researchers wanted to use a 22-inch-tall model, but later they decided to use
another robot of the QRIO series, the 23-inch-tall (58-centimeter-tall) machine was
originally developed by Sony. Children of toddler age were chosen because they have
no preconceived notions of robots, said Tanaka, the lead researcher, who also works
for Sony. The researchers sent instructions about every two minutes to the robot to do
things like giggle, dance, sit down, or walk in a certain direction. The 45 sessions were
videotaped, and interactions between toddlers and the robot were later analyzed.

(D) The results showed that the quality of those interactions improved steadily over 27
sessions. The tots began to increasingly interact with the robot and treat it more like a
peer than an object during the first 11 sessions. The level of social activity increased
dramatically when researchers added a new behavior to QRIO's repertoire: If a child
touched the humanoid on its head, it would make a giggling noise. The interactions
deteriorated quickly over the next 15 sessions, when the robot was reprogrammed to
behave in a more limited, predictable manner. Finally, the human-robot relations
improved in the last three sessions, after the robot had been reprogrammed to display
its full range of behaviors. "Initially the children treated the robot very differently than the
way they treated each other," Tanaka said. "But by the end they treated the robot as a
peer rather than a toy."

(E) Early in the study some children cried when QRIO fell. But a month into the study,
the toddlers helped QRIO stand up by pushing its back or pulling its hands. “The most
important aspect of interaction was touch”, Tanaka said. “At first the toddlers would
touch the robot on its face, but later on they would touch only on its hands and arms,
like they would with other humans”. Another robotlike toy named Robby, which
resembled QRIO but did not move, was used as a control toy in the study. While
hugging of QRIO increased, hugging of Robby decreased throughout the study.
Furthermore, when QRIO laid down on the floor as its batteries ran down, a toddler
would put a blanket over his silver-colored "friend" and say "night-night."

(F) "Our work suggests that touch integrated on the time-scale of a few minutes is a
surprisingly effective index of social connectedness," Tanaka says. "Something akin to
this index may be used by the human brain to evaluate its own sense of social well-
being." He adds that social robots like QRIO could greatly enrich classrooms and assist
teachers in early learning programs. Hiroshi Ishiguro - robotics expert at Osaka
University in Japan - says, "I think this study has clearly reported the possibilities of
small, almost autonomous humanoid robots for toddlers. Nowadays robots can perform
a variety of functions that were thought to be incident to people only - in short time we’ll
have electronic baby-sitters and peer-robots in every kindergarten," said Ishiguro, who
was not involved with the study but has collaborated with its authors on other projects.

(G) Now this study has taken a new direction - the researchers are now developing
autonomous robots for the toddler classroom. "I cannot avoid underlining how great
potential it could have in educational settings assisting teachers and enriching the
classroom environment," Tanaka said. However, some scientists don’t share his
opinion.

(H) Arkin, the Georgia Tech roboticist, said he was not surprised by the affection
showed by the toddlers toward the robot. "Humans have a tremendous propensity to
bond with artifacts with any or all sort, whether it be a car, a doll, or a robot," he said.
But he also cautioned that researchers don't yet understand the consequences of
increased human-robot interaction. "Just studying how robots and humans work
together can give us insight into whether this is a good thing or a bad thing for society,"
Akrin said. "What are the consequences of introducing a robot artifact into a cadre of
children? How will that enhance, or potentially interfere with, their social development?
It might make life easier for the teacher, but we really don't understand the long-term
impact of having a robot as a childhood friend, do we?"
Questions 1-7
Reading Passage 3 has eight paragraphs, A-H.
Which paragraph contains the following information?
Write the correct letter, A-H, in boxes 1-7 on your answer sheet. You may use any letter
more than once.
1. Changes in toddler-robot interactions quality. 1 ABCDEFGH
2. Comparison of two different robots. 2 ABCDEFGH
3. The fact that previous robots could maintain people’s interest only for a short time. 3
ABCDEFGH
4. The importance of touch. 4 ABCDEFGH
5. The new direction of the study. 5 ABCDEFGH
6. Technical parameters of the introduced robot. 6 ABCDEFGH
7. The significance and novelty of the conducted study. 7 ABCDEFGH
Show workspace

Questions 8-12
Connect each of the statements below with the name of scientist who expressed it.
Answer A, B, or C to questions 8-12.

A Fumihide Tanaka

B Ronald Arkin

C Hiroshi Ishiguro

8. Robots will perform duties of baby-sitters in the nearest future. 8 ABC

9. By the end of the study children treated the robot as a living creature rather than a
toy. 9 ABC
10. The long-term impact of having a robot as a childhood friend can be negative. 10
ABC
11. The conducted study is the first major study of this sort. 11 ABC
12. Robots can be used in classrooms and assist teachers. 12 ABC
Show workspace

Questions 13-15
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write the correct letter in boxes 13-15 on your answer sheet.

13. the study, researchers introduced a toddler-size humanoid robot that was
A 58-inch-tall
B 22-inch-tall
C 23-inch-tall
D 45-inch-tall

14. The researchers sent instructions to the robot to perform different actions EXCEPT
A laugh
B dance
C sit down
D crawl

15. The toddlers began to increasingly interact with the robot during
A the first 11 sessions
B the next 15 sessions
C the first 27 sessions
D the last 15 sessions
A. Most modern navigation, such as the Global Positioning System (GPS), relies
primarily on positions determined electronically by receivers collecting information from
satellites. Yet if the satellite service’s digital maps become even slightly outdated, we
can become lost. Then we have to rely on the ancient human skill of navigating in three
dimensional space. Luckily, our biological finder has an important advantage over GPS:
we can ask questions of people on the sidewalk, or follow a street that looks familiar, or
rely on a navigational rubric. The human positioning system is flexible and capable of
learning. Anyone who knows the way from point A to point B-and from A to C-can
probably figure out how to get from B to C, too.
B. But how does this complex cognitive system really work? Researchers are looking at
several strategies people use to orient themselves in space: guidance, path integration
and route following. We may use all three or combinations thereof, and as experts learn
more about these navigational skills, they are making the case that our abilities may
underlie our powers of memory and logical thinking. For example, you come to New
York City for the first time and you get off the train at Grand Central Terminal in midtown
Manhattan. You have a few hours to see popular spots you have been told about:
Rockefeller Center, Central Park, and the Metropolitan Museum of Art. You meander in
and out of shops along the way. Suddenly, it is time to get back to the station. But how?

C. If you ask passersby for help, most likely you will receive information in many
different forms. A person who orients herself by a prominent landmark would gesture
southward: “Look down there. See the tall, broad MetLife Building? Head for that- the
station is right below it.” Neurologists call this navigational approach “guidance”,
meaning that a landmark visible from a distance serves as the marker for one’s
destination.
D. Another city dweller might say: “What places do you remember passing? … Okay.
Go toward the end of Central Park, then walk down to St. Patrick’s Cathedral. A few
more blocks, and Grand Central will be off to your left.” In this case, you are pointed
toward the most recent place you recall, and you aim for it. Once there you head for the
next notable place and so on, retracing your path. Your brain is adding together the
individual legs of your trek into a cumulative progress report. Researchers call this
strategy “path integration.” Many animals rely primarily on path integration to get
around, including insects, spiders, crabs and rodents. The desert ants of the genus
Cataglyphis employ this method to return from foraging as far as 100 yards away. They
note the general direction they came from and retrace their steps, using the polarization
of sunlight to orient themselves even under overcast skies. On their way back they are
faithful to this inner homing vector. Even when a scientist picks up an ant and puts it in a
totally different spot, the insect stubbornly proceeds in the originally determined
direction until it has gone “back” all of the distance it wandered from its nest. Only then
does the ant realize it has not succeeded, and it begins to walk in successively larger
loops to find its way home.

E. Whether it is trying to get back to the anthill or the train station, any animal using path
integration must keep track of its own movements so it knows, while returning, which
segments it has already completed. As you move, your brain gathers data from your
environment-sights, sounds, smells, lighting, muscle contractions, a sense of time
passing-to determine which way your body has gone. The church spire, the sizzling
sausages on that vendor’s grill, the open courtyard, and the train station-all represent
snapshots of memorable junctures during your journey.
F. In addition to guidance and path integration, we use a third method for finding our
way. An office worker you approach for help on a Manhattan street comer might say:
“Walk straight down Fifth, turn left on 47th, turn right on Park, go through the walkway
under the Helmsley Building, then cross the street to the MetLife Building into Grand
Central.” This strategy, called route following, uses landmarks such as buildings and
street names, plus directions straight, turn, go through—for reaching intermediate
points. Route following is more precise than guidance or path integration, but if you
forget the details and take a wrong turn, the only way to recover is to backtrack until you
reach a familiar spot, because you do not know the general direction or have a
reference landmark for your goal. The route following navigation strategy truly
challenges the brain. We have to keep all the landmarks and intermediate directions in
our head. It is the most detailed and therefore most reliable method, but it can be
undone by routine memory lapses. With path integration, our cognitive memory is less
burdened; it has to deal with only a few general instructions and the homing vector.
Path integration works because it relies most fundamentally on our knowledge of our
body’s general direction of movement, and we always have access to these inputs.
Nevertheless, people often choose to give route-following directions, in part because
saying “Go straight that way!” just does not work in our complex, man made
surroundings.

G. Road Map or Metaphor? On your next visit to Manhattan you will rely on your
memory to get present geographic information for convenient visual obviously
seductive: maps around. Most likely you will use guidance, path integration and route
following in various combinations. But how exactly do these constructs deliver concrete
directions? Do we humans have, as an image of the real world, a kind of road map in
our heads? Neurobiologists and cognitive psychologists do call the portion of our
memory that controls navigation a “cognitive map”. The map metaphor is are the easiest
way to inspection. Yet the notion of a literal map in our heads may be misleading; a
growing body of research implies that the cognitive map is mostly a metaphor. It may be
more like a hierarchical structure of relationships.

Questions 1-5
Use the information in the passage to match the category of each navigation method
(listed A-C) with correct statement.
Write the appropriate letters A-C in boxes 1-5 on your answer sheet.
NB You may use any letter more than once.
A. guidance method
B. path integration method
C. route following method

1 ABC Split the route up into several smaller parts.

2 ABC When mistakes are made, a person needs to go back.
3 ABC Find a building that can be seen from far away.
4 ABC Recall all the details along the way.
5 ABC Memorize the buildings that you have passed by.
Show workspace

Questions 6-8
Choose the correct letter, A, B, C or D.
Write your answers in boxes 6-8 on your answer sheet.
6. According to the passage, how does the Cataglyphis ant respond if it is taken to a
different location?
A changes its orientation sensors to adapt
B releases biological scent for help from others
C continues to move according to the original orientation
D gets completely lost once disturbed
7. What did the author say about the route following method?
A dependent on directions to move on
B dependent on memory and reasoning
C dependent on man-made settings
D dependent on the homing vector
8. Which of the following is true about the “cognitive map” in this passage?
A There is no obvious difference between it and a real map.
B It exists in our heads and is always correct.
C It only exists in some cultures.
D It is managed by a portion of our memory.
Show workspace
Questions 9-13
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
In boxes 9-13 on your answer sheet, write

TRUE if the statement agrees with the information

FALSE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this
9 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Biological navigation is flexible.
10 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Insects have many ways to navigate that are in common
with many other animals.
11 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN When someone follows a route, he or she collects
comprehensive perceptual information in the mind along the way.
12 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN The path integration method has a higher requirement of
memory compared with the route following method.
13 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN When people find their way, they have an exact map in
their mind.

Wood: a valuable resource in New Zealand’s

economy
During the settlement of New Zealand by European immigrants, natural timbers played
a major role. Wood was easily accessible and relatively cheap. A tradition of wooden
housed arose, supported by the recognition that they were less likely to collapse
suddenly during earthquakes, a not infrequent event in this part of the world. But in
addition to demand from the domestic market, there was also a demand for forest
products from overseas.
Early explores recognised the suitability of the tall, straight trunks of the kauri for
constructing sailing vessels. The kauri is a species of coniferous tree found only in small
areas of the southern hemisphere. So from the early 1800s, huge amounts of this type
of wood were sold to Australia and the UK for that purpose. For a period, the forestry
industry was the country’s major export earner but the rate of harvest was
unsustainable and, by the beginning of the 2O'n century, indigenous timber exports
were rapidly declining.
From the 1940s, newly established plantations of an imported, species of tree called
radiate pine supplied timber and other wood products in increasing quantities. By the
1960s, plantation- grown timber was providing most of the the basis of paper.
Pulp: wood which is crushed until soft enough to country's sawn timber needs,
especially for construction. Today, less than two per cent of timber is cut from
indigenous forest, and almost ail of that is used for higher- value end uses, such as
furniture and fittings. As the pine industry developed, it became apparent that this type
of wood was also well suited for many uses. It makes excellent pulp*, and is frequently
used for post, poles, furnishings and moldings, particleboard, fiberboard, and for
plywood and' engineered' wood products. Pine by- products are used in the chemical
and pharmaceutical industries and residues are consumed for fuel. This amazing
versatility has encouraged the development of an integrated forest- products industry
which is almost unique in the world.
Exporters of wood products have largely targeted the rapidly growing markets of South
and East Asia and Australia. 80 percent of exports by value go to only five markets:
Japan, Korea, China, the United States and Australia. The product mix remains heavily
based on raw materials, with logs, sawn wood, pulp and paper comprising 75 per cent
of export value. However, finished wood products such as panels and furniture
components are exported to more than 50 countries.
In New Zealand itself, the construction industry is the principal user of solid wood
products, servicing around 20000 new house starts annually. However, the small size of
New Zealand's population (just over four million), plus its small manufacturing and
remanufacturing base, limit the forestry industry's domestic opportunities. For the last
few years local wood consumption has been around only four million cubic metres.
Accordingly, the development of the export market is the key to the industry's growth
and contribution to the national economy in decades to come.
In 2004, forestry export receipts were about 11 per cent of the country's total export
income, their value having increased steadily for ten years, until affected by the
exchange fluctuations and shipping costs of recent years. The forestry industry is New
Zealand's third largest export sector, generating around $ 3.3 billion annually from logs
and processed wood products. But it is generally agreed that it is operating well below
its capacity and, with the domestic market already at its peak, almost all of the extra
wood produced in future will have to be marketed overseas. That presents a major
marketing challenge for the industry.
Although the export of logs will continue to provide valuable earnings for forest owners,
there is broad acceptance that the industry mu3t be based on valuable earnings or
forest owners, there is broad acceptance that the industry must be based on value-
added products in future. So the industry is investigating various processing.
Infrastructure and investment strategies with a view to increasing the level of local
manufacturing before export. The keys to factors, better international marketing, product
innovation, internationally competitive processing, better infrastructure, and a suitable
political, regulatory and investment environment. The industry claim that given the right
conditions, by 2025 the forestry sector could be the country's biggest export earner,
generating $20 billion a year and employing 60000 people
One competitive advantages that New Zealand has is its ability to source large
quantities of softwood from renewable forests. Consumers in several key wood markets
are becoming more worried about sustainability, and the industry is supporting the
development of national standards as well as the recognition of these
internationally. However, New Zealand is not the only country with a planation- style
forestry industry. Chile, brazil, Argentina, South Africa and Australia all have extensive
plantings of fast growing species ( hardwood and softwood), and in the northern
hemisphere, Scandinavian countries have all expanded their forest or controlled their
use in the interests of future production.
Finally, in addition to completion from other wood producers, New Zealand faces
competition from goods such as wood substitutes. These include stool framing for
houses. This further underlines the necessity for globally competitive production and
marketing strategies.

Pulp: wood which Is crushed until soft enough to form the basis of paper.

Questions 1-6
Do the following statements agree with the information given in Reading Passage?
In boxed 1-6 on your answer sheet, write
TRUE if the statement agree with the information
FALE if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN if there is no information on this.
1 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Setlters realised that wooden houses were more
dangerous than other types of structure
2 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN During the 1800s, New Zealand exported wood for
use in boat- building.
3 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Plantation- grown wood is generally better for
construction than native- forest wood.
4 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Cottipaie to oUiei types of wood, pine lias a nanow
range of uses.
5 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN Demand for housing in New Zealand is predicted to
fall in the next few years.
6 TRUEFALSENOT GIVEN In furure. the expansion of New Zealand’s wood
industry will depend on its exports.