Professional Documents
Culture Documents
PART 12
BD 31/01
SUMMARY
November 2001
DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES BD 31/01
Summary: This document sets the Standard requirements for and gives advice on the
design of buried concrete box and portal frame structures of precast and cast
in-situ construction up to 15 metres long from abutment to abutment and with
up to 11m of fill above the roof slab.
REGISTRATION OF AMENDMENTS
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amendments amendments
November 2001
Volume 2 Section 2
Registration of Amendments Part 12 BD 31/01
REGISTRATION OF AMENDMENTS
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November 2001
DESIGN MANUAL FOR ROADS AND BRIDGES
PART 12
BD 31/01
Contents
Chapter
1. Introduction
2. Design Principles
3. Loading
4. Design
6. References
7. Enquiries
Appendices
August 2001
Volume 2 Section 2 Symbols and Definitions
Part 12 BD 31/01
FR (kN) Frictional resistance of foundation Mmax (kNm/m) Maximum “free span” moment per
base. metre in the roof of a structure due
to vertical live loads only at the
FR1, FR2 (kN) Frictional resistance of left and right serviceability limit state.
foundation bases of a portal frame.
Mf (kNm/m) Differential temperature moment for
h (mm) Thickness of roof slab. encastre roof.
hna(m) Depth from top of roof to the neutral Mroof “Relaxed” differential temperature
axis of the roof. moment in roof.
November 2001 1
Symbols and Definitions Volume 2 Section 2
Part 12 BD 31/01
R1, R2 (kN) Horizontal reactions on the left and γfL Partial safety factor that takes
right bases of a portal frame. account of the possibility of
unfavourable deviation of the loads
R* Design Resistance (Refer to from their nominal values and of the
BS5400: Part 1). reduced probability that various
loadings acting together will all
S (m) Transverse centre-line spacing of attain their nominal values
wheels. simultaneously.
S* Design Load Effects. γf3 Partial safety factor that takes
account of inaccurate assessment of
Tmax (oC) The maximum effective temperature the effects of loading, unforeseen
of the roof. stress distribution in the structure,
and variations of dimensional
Tmin (oC) The minimum effective temperature accuracy achieved in construction.
of the roof.
γm Partial safety factor that takes
Tq (kNm) Plan torque applied to foundation. account of variability in material
strength and uncertainties in the
TR (kNm) Rotational sliding resistance of
assessment of component strength.
foundation base.
δ Design angle of wall friction.
V (kN) Wheel Load.
δb Design angle of base friction.
vsc (kN/m2) Vertical Live Load Surcharge
pressure. ∆ (m) Midspan deflection of roof.
Vtot (kN) Applied Vertical Load. η Differential Temperature Reduction
Factor
Xclear (m) The clear span of a single span
structure. θ Skew angle. The acute angle
The maximum clear span in a multi between the edge of the structure
span structure. and the normal to the abutment
walls.
X (m) Effective square span of roof
measured between the centres of the φ' Effective angle of shearing
walls. resistance.
Y (m) Effective height of box side-wall φ'crit Critical state angle of shearing
measured between the centres of the resistance. (Refer to BS8002).
roof and the base slab.
φ'max Maximum value of φ' determined
Z (m) Depth below water level. from conventional triaxial test or
shear box test (Refer to BS8002).
α (per oC) Coefficient of thermal expansion of
concrete.
2 November 2001
Volume 2 Section 2 Symbols and Definitions
Part 12 BD 31/01
LL
Edge
Lt Longitudinal Joint
Lj
H h hna
D
Lj
Water hw hw
Level Xclear
Lj
Y X
Z
“Cover” means the depth of fill between ground level “Self Equilibrating Stress” means the stresses
and the top of the roof. occurring in a simply supported or continuous member
as a result of a non-linear strain diagram being imposed
on a section in which plane sections remain plane.
November 2001 3
Symbols and Definitions Volume 2 Section 2
Part 12 BD 31/01
4 November 2001
Volume 2 Section 2 Chapter 1
Part 12 BD 31/01 Introduction
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1 SUMMARY
(b) The structures covered by this document are
precast or in-situ boxes or portal frames,
This document brings up to date the design constructed of reinforced or prestressed
requirements for buried concrete box and portal frame concrete. The structures can be single or
structures of precast segmental and in-situ construction.
multi-span with roof slabs that are either
It sets the Standard requirements for these structures
integral with, or pinned to, the abutments.
and gives advice on their design. The design rules are
more comprehensive than those in BD 31/87 and have (c) Structures not covered by this document
been written taking into account comments received include:
over a period of years. Structures with depths of cover
up to 11m are included in the scope of this Standard (i) Structures with inclined abutment
which also gives the requirements for construction and walls.
installation and the procedures to be followed when
procuring these structures which permit the Contractor (ii) Structures with abutment walls that
to choose a proprietary structure that meets the are pinned at both top and bottom.
Overseeing Organisation’s requirements.
(iii) Any structure that would behave as a
mechanism when not backfilled.
1.2 EQUIVALENCE
(iv) Structures with moving bearings at
The construction of buried concrete box and portal either abutment.
frame structures will normally be carried out under
contracts incorporating the Specification for (v) Proprietary precast arch structures.
Highway Works (MCHW1). In such cases products
conforming to equivalent standards or technical (vi) Structures with piled foundations.
specifications of other states of the European
Economic Area and tests undertaken in other states (vii) Structures with walls constructed of
of the European Economic Area will be acceptable contiguous or similar piling.
in accordance with the terms of Clauses 104 and
105 in Series 100 of MCHW1. Any contract not (viii) Structures with reinforced earth
containing these Clauses must contain suitable abutments.
clauses of mutual recognition having the same
effect regarding which advice should be sought. (d) This document gives guidance on the
installed structure but does not address the
1.3 SCOPE loads imposed during construction by thrust
boring or jacking structures into place.
(a) This document sets the Standard for buried
box structures and portal frames for which: 1.4 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS
(i) the depth of cover measured from the The Overseeing Organisation’s requirements for
finished ground level to the roof of environmental design shall be taken into account in
the structure is up to 11.0m designing buried box and portal structures. Volume
10 of DMRB (Environmental Design) gives advice
(ii) the length of the structure between the on the use of underpasses by multiple species of
inside faces of the outermost walls small mammals and fish. It illustrates various
(measured perpendicular to the walls) forms of culvert design to facilitate free passage of
is greater than 0.9m and up to 15.0m. these species. Often these considerations are
fundamental to the determination of the span,
headroom, cross-section invert and gradient of the
structure.
1.5 IMPLEMENTATION
2. DESIGN PRINCIPLES
(c) The Serviceability Limit State (SLS) is that 2.3 DESIGN PRINCIPLES OF
represented by the condition beyond which a FOUNDATIONS
loss of utility or cause for public concern
may be expected and remedial action Even when the structural elements are designed to
required. In particular, crack width shall be their required strength, the structure as a whole can
limited as described in Clause 4.2.1 and fail due to overloading of the soil-structure
there shall not be excessive movement at the interface or excessive soil deformations. In order
joints capable of seriously damaging the to prevent such failures occurring, two situations
carriageway above. (See Clauses 4.2.3 and shall be investigated prior to carrying out the final
4.2.4) structural design, to confirm whether or not the
proposed geometry and structural form are
(d) Design loads (Q*) are expressed as the suitable.
product of nominal loads and the partial
safety factor γfL. (a) Sliding
(e) Design load effects (S*) are expressed as the The possibility of failure of the structure by
effects of the product of the design loads sliding on its base shall be investigated at
(Q*) and the partial safety factor γf3. ULS.
(f) Design resistance (R*) is expressed as the (b) Bearing Failure and Settlement of the
nominal strength of the component divided Foundations.
by the partial safety factor γm.
The maximum net bearing pressure under
(g) The design load effects (S*) at ULS shall the base of the structure under nominal loads
not be greater than the design resistance shall be checked against the safe bearing
(R*). pressure of the foundations to ensure that
there is an adequate factor of safety against
(h) In addition, for precast segments at SLS, the bearing failure of the foundation and to
vertical deflection of the roof slab under live prevent excessive settlement and differential
loads (including foundation settlement) shall settlement.
not be greater than the limiting value given
in the Standard.
3. LOADING
3.1 PERMANENT LOADS negative arching of the fill above the roof,
increased loading will be generated on the
3.1.1 Dead Load roof slab. These effects can be greater if the
foundation is on hard material (see
The nominal dead load consists of the weight of definitions). In the absence of reliable
the materials and parts of the structure that are estimates of the effects of differential
structural elements excluding superimposed settlement between the structure and the
materials described below. adjacent ground, the superimposed dead
load intensities to be applied to the roof of a
3.1.2 Superimposed Dead Load structure with cover H shall be as follows:
(a) The nominal superimposed dead load (i) The minimum superimposed dead
consists of the weight of the soil cover and load intensity shall be taken as γH.
the road construction materials above the
structure. It shall be applied to the roof of (ii) The maximum superimposed dead
the structure as a uniformly distributed load. load intensity shall be taken as βγH
where:
(b) The possible effects of positive arching
reducing this load shall be ignored. γ is the average nominal bulk density
of the fill and surfacing and β is taken
(c) Where consolidation or settlement of the fill from Figure 3.1
adjacent to a buried structure will cause
2.2
2.1
2
For foundations on hard material only
1.9 β=1.5+0.5(H-8)/3
1.8
1.7
Values of β
1.6
β = 1.5
1.5
1.4
1.3
β=1.15+0.35(H-8)/3
1.2
β = 1.15
1.1
1
0 8 9 10 11
Cover Depth H (m)
Figure 3.1
3.1.3 Horizontal Earth Pressure (permanent) (ii) If the backfill properties are known,
the nominal values of Ka, Ko and Kp
(a) The nominal permanent horizontal earth may be calculated from BS8002:
pressures applied to the side walls of the 1994, as described in Appendix B.
structure at a depth D below ground level However, as the value of Ko
shall be taken as follows: determined using BS8002: 1994 does
not account directly for effects such
(i) For Combination 1 and 3 loads: as compaction pressure, thermal
expansion and cyclical loading (strain
A maximum earth pressure equal to ratcheting) which can lead to a
KoγD applied simultaneously on both significant increase in earth pressure,
side walls, or the default value of 0.6 should be
used for Ko (with γfL = 1.5) unless
A minimum earth pressure equal to such effects are taken into account.
0.2γD applied simultaneously on both
side walls A minimum earth pressure coefficient
of not more than 0.2 should be used
(ii) For Combination 4 loads with where earth pressures are beneficial.
traction:
(iii) Pressures in excess of Ko but not
A “disturbing” earth pressure equal to exceeding 0.5Kp may be used to resist
KaγD acting in the same direction as sliding (see Clause 4.1.2 (d) (ii) and
the horizontal live load, and Clause 4.4.2 (c)).
A “restoring” earth pressure equal to (c) Where the structure is constructed in a steep
0.6γD acting in the opposite direction trench, the critical horizontal earth pressures
to the horizontal live load may be applied by the native ground rather
than by the backfill (see Clause 5.1.1(d)).
If under the above loading the
This shall be investigated by considering
structure sways in the opposite
potential failure planes in the native ground
direction to the applied horizontal live
close to the edge of the trench.
load, this load case need not be
considered. 3.1.4 Hydrostatic Pressure
(iii) For Combination 4 loads with When appropriate, the effect of hydrostatic
skidding, centrifugal load or parapet pressure and buoyancy shall be taken into account.
collision, when relevant: The increase in pressure on the back of the walls
due to hydrostatic pressure at a depth Z metres
As (i) or (ii) above to give the most
below water level shall be taken as 10Z(1-K)
onerous effect.
kN/m2.
(b) Values of Earth Pressure Coefficients
3.1.5 Settlement
(i) If the backfill properties are not
The settlement and differential settlement of the
known but the backfill materials
sub-soil under unfactored nominal permanent loads
comply with the requirements of
shall be calculated from BS8004 using the site
Chapter 5 the following nominal
investigation data. Any differential settlement of
default values may be used:
the soil that is likely to affect the structure shall be
Kmin = 0.2 taken into account.
Ka = 0.33
Ko = 0.6
Kp = 3.0
3.2 LIVE LOADS (c) Dispersal of Wheel and Axle loads through
the Fill
Vertical Live Loading
(i) All wheel loads shall be assumed to
3.2.1 HA and HB Carriageway Loading be uniformly distributed at ground
level over a contact area, circular or
The nominal carriageway loading shall be HA or square in shape, based on an effective
HB Loading as described in BD 37, whichever is pressure of 1.1N/mm2.
the more onerous.
(ii) Dispersion of a wheel load through
(a) HA Loading the fill may be assumed to occur both
longitudinally and transversely from
(i) Where the depth of cover (H) is 0.6m the limits of the contact area at ground
or less, HA loading shall consist of level to the level of the top of the roof
the HAUDL/KEL combination. No at a slope of 2 vertically to 1
dispersion through the fill of either horizontally as shown in Figure 3.2a.
the HAUDL or the HA knife edge Where the dispersion zones of the
load shall be applied. individual wheels overlap, they may
be combined and distributed jointly as
(ii) For cover depths exceeding 0.6m, the shown in Figure 3.2a (Zone 2). This
HAUDL/KEL combination does not applies to adjacent wheels on the
adequately model traffic loading. In same axle and to wheels on
these circumstances the HAUDL/KEL succeeding axles.
combination shall be replaced by 30
Units of HB loading, dispersed (iii) As an alternative to the method
through the fill as described in described in (ii) the effects of a wheel
paragraph (c) below. load on the structure may be derived
using Boussinesq’s theory of load
(iii) Account shall also be taken of the dispersion as given in standard text
single 100kN HA wheel load, books on soil mechanics. The
(dispersed through the fill as Boussinesq Theory states that for an
described in paragraph (c) below), infinite elastic half space the vertical
where this has a more severe effect on pressure at a horizontal distance R and
the member under consideration than a depth z from a vertical point load P
the loads described in (i) or (ii) above. applied to the surface is given by:
(b) HB Loading 3P
(i) 45 Units of HB loading shall be 2πz2
1 + R
2.5
applied on structures on Trunk Roads 2
where:
and
Wheel Wheel
load 1 load 2
Wheel Wheel
load 1 load 2
Face of headwall
Figure 3.2
3.2.2 Footway and Cycle Track Loading ensure that these are not exceeded during
construction.
(a) Footway and cycle track loading shall
consist of a load of 5kN/m2 applied over the Horizontal Live Loads
total area of the footway or cycle track
except that this load may be reduced, by a 3.2.6 Live Load Surcharge
factor of 0.8, to 4kN/m2 for elements that
carry both footway/cycle track loading and (a) A horizontal live load surcharge shall be
carriageway loading. applied in conjunction with all vertical live
loads. The nominal uniform horizontal
(b) The loading may be assumed to be dispersed pressure (psc) to be applied to the external
at a slope of two vertically to one walls of the structure shall be determined
horizontally from the edge of the load to a from the equation:
total width not greater than twice the
distance from the centre of the footway to psc = K.vsc
the nearer headwall unless a more rigorous
dispersion analysis is undertaken. where K is the value of the nominal earth
pressure coefficient from Clause 3.1.3 for
3.2.3 Accidental Wheel Loading on Edge the wall under consideration and vsc is the
Members vertical surcharge pressure applied behind
the abutments as follows:
(a) Where the elements of a structure supporting
outer verges, footways or cycle tracks are Vertical LL vsc
not protected from vehicular traffic by an
effective barrier, they shall be designed to HA Loading 10 kN/m2
sustain the local effects of the accidental 45 Units of HB 20 kN/m2
wheel loading described in BD 37. Each of 30 Units of HB 12 kN/m2
the accidental wheel loads shall be dispersed Footpath & Cycle Track 5 kN/m2
through the fill using the principles Accidental Wheel 10 kN/m2
described in Clause 3.2.1 (c) and (d) and Construction 10 kN/m2 or as
Figures 3.2a and 3.2b. otherwise
determined
(b) No other vertical live load nor dispersed
load from the adjacent carriageway need be For between 30 and 45 units of HB the value
considered in combination with the of vsc shall be linearly interpolated.
accidental wheel loading.
(b) The same value of nominal live load
3.2.4 Loading on Central Reserves surcharge with the same partial safety
factors γfL and γf3 shall be applied
On dual carriageways the portion of structure simultaneously to both external walls except
supporting the central reservation shall be designed as follows:
for full HA or HB carriageway loading.
In conjunction with Combination 4
3.2.5 Construction Traffic horizontal live loading (for traction
see Diagrams A/4, A/5 and A/6 in
Under the low cover conditions which prevail Appendix A).
during construction, the structure may be subjected
to load conditions that are more severe than those For calculating the maximum bearing
experienced in normal service. During the design pressure (see Diagram A/7 in
stage therefore, consideration should be given to Appendix A).
the type of construction traffic likely to be relevant
at different stages, and details of the live load In these cases the live load surcharge
capacities of the structure under various depths of pressure shall be applied on one face only to
cover should be recorded on the drawings to maximise the effect under consideration.
(c) It should be noted that when the minimum (f) The traction force shall be applied directly
permanent earth pressure is applied on both to the roof of the structure over the
sides of the structure (Clause 3.1.3(a)(i)) no following widths measured perpendicular to
live load surcharge shall be applied to either the direction of the traction force.
wall (see Diagram A/3a and 3b).
HA traction - a width equal to the
3.2.7 Traction notional carriageway lane width given in
BD 37
(a) The structure shall be designed to resist the
traction forces (longitudinal live loads) HB traction - a width equal to 3 + C
described in BD 37. metres.
(b) The traction force shall be applied (g) In-situ boxes and portal frames are very
perpendicular to the walls of the structure effective in the lateral distribution of
for precast construction and parallel to the traction because of the in-plane rigidity of
direction of traffic for in-situ construction. their roof slabs. For in-situ structures
designed on a metre width basis, the traction
(c) HA Traction force may therefore be considered to be
distributed transversely through the structure
(i) For structures with cover not over a width of 2ET, where ET is the distance
exceeding 0.6m, the HA traction force of the centre of the traction force from the
shall be applied in accordance with nearer edge of the structure (or from the
BD 37. The loaded length for nearest longitudinal joint) but not less than
calculating the traction force shall be half the traction width given in (f) above.
overall length of the structure in the Alternatively, if consideration is given to the
direction of the force, except where lateral eccentricity of the traction force and
the most onerous effect on the the resistance to plan rotation of the
member under consideration occurs foundations and walls, the traction may be
with the structure loaded over only considered to be distributed over the full
part of its length. width Lj.
(ii) For structures with cover greater than 3.2.8 Load Effects Due to Temperature
0.6m, no traction force need be
considered in conjunction with the (a) Temperature effects may be neglected
100kN HA wheel load, but where, as where:
in Clause 3.2.1(a)(ii), HA loading is
replaced by 30 units of HB vertical (i) the cover (H) > 2m and Xclear < 0.2Lt ,
loading, this shall be applied in or,
conjunction with 30 units of HB
traction, with γfL at ULS taken as 1.1. (ii) the overall length of the structure
LL ≤ 3m.
(d) HB Traction
(b) In all other buried structures the variations
HB traction shall be applied in accordance in mean temperature (Temperature Range)
with BD 37 when one or more axles of the and temperature gradients within a section
HB vehicle are on the structure. (Differential Temperature) shall be applied
as given below. The coefficient of thermal
(e) All traction forces shall be multiplied by Kt expansion (α) shall be taken as 12 x 10-6 per
before they are applied directly to the roof °C for concrete except for concrete with
of the structure where: limestone aggregates where α may be taken
as 9 x 10-6 per °C. Interaction between the
Kt = (LL – H)/(LL – 0.6) but 1 ≥ Kt ≥ 0 backfill and the structure due to temperature
effects may be neglected (but see Clause
3.1.3(b)(ii))
TABLE 3.1
* Structures for which the maximum clear span Xclear is more than 20% of the width Lt are considered to be open to
the atmosphere and the effects of temperature are therefore taken into account in accordance with BD 37
** For fill depths greater than 0.2m the temperature differences given in Table 24 of BD 37 for 0.2m of surfacing
may be used. For roof slabs less than 600mm thick the resulting “fixed end moments” may be approximated as 0.5
times the values given in Table C1 of Appendix C.
3.2.9 Parapet Collision 3.3.2 Values of γfL to be used for the Design of
Structural Elements
The effects of parapet collision loading shall be
considered in accordance with BD 37 where such To obtain the design loads for a given load
loading is transmitted to the buried structure. combination, the relevant nominal loads described
Particular care should be taken in the design of in Clause 3.1 and 3.2 shall be multiplied by the
segmental structures to ensure that such loading corresponding value of γfL given in Table 3.2,
does not lead to the opening of joints between except that, for the applied loads causing a
segments. In most cases with segmental relieving effect on the element under
construction it will be necessary to design consideration, the value of γfL shall be taken as 1.0.
headwalls and parapets which carry large
transverse loads, such as vehicle impact or earth Where the same nominal values of horizontal earth
pressure, as independent structures which do not pressure or live load surcharge are applied
transmit these loads to precast units. simultaneously on both sides of the structure, the
same values of γfL (from Table 3.2) shall also be
3.2.10 Skidding Loads applied to the relevant loads on each side of the
structure. (See Diagrams A/1 to A/3 in Appendix
For structures with cover not exceeding 0.6m, A).
loading due to skidding forces shall be considered
in accordance with BD 37. Skidding loads do not 3.3.3 Values of γf3 to be used in the Design of
need to be considered for structures with cover Structural Elements
exceeding 0.6m.
(a) The value of γf3 at SLS shall be taken as 1.0
3.2.11 Centrifugal Loads
(b) The value to γf3 at ULS shall be taken as 1.1
For structures with cover not exceeding 0.6m, except:
loading due to centrifugal forces shall be
considered in accordance with BD 37. Centrifugal (i) for all relieving effects γf3 shall be
loads do not need to be considered for structures taken as 1.0
with cover exceeding 0.6m.
(ii) For disturbing effects at ULS, where
3.3 LOAD COMBINATIONS AND plastic methods are used in the
PARTIAL SAFETY FACTORS FOR analysis, γf3 shall be taken as 1.15, as
THE DESIGN OF THE STRUCTURAL in BS5400 Part 4.
ELEMENTS
(1)* γfL shall be increased to at least 1.20 to compensate for inaccuracies when dead loads are not accurately assessed.
(2)** γfL may be reduced to 1.2 and 1.1 for ULS and SLS respectively subject to the approval of the appropriate authority.
Loads, Load Combinations and Values of γfL for the Design of Structural Members
TABLE 3.2
3.4.1 Sliding
Dead Load
Maximum superimposed dead load
Maximum horizontal earth pressure on both
sides of the box
Hydrostatic Pressure and Buoyancy
Vertical Live Loading
Live Load surcharge on one side of the box
only
4. DESIGN
4.1 DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL (ii) For structures with shallow fill, where
ELEMENTS the dispersal zones of adjacent wheels
do not overlap (and for the single HA
4.1.1 Structural Analysis
wheel load), the above method may
(a) The structure shall be analysed as a lead to unacceptably conservative
continuous frame, with pin joints where the results. This is because no account is
walls are not continuous or fully integral taken of the lateral load-distribution
with the roof slab or base. The stiffness of properties of the structure itself. A
any corner fillets may be taken into account. more realistic distribution width for
Both ULS and SLS shall be considered. calculating the live load effect per
metre in this situation may be found
(b) For boxes, an elastic compressible support by using the Pucher Charts, or the
may be assumed below the base slab except method for the Distribution of
for structures founded on hard material (see Concentrated Loads on Slabs given in
definitions). In the former case the BS8110, or by other rigorous
foundation shall be considered to be methods. It should be noted however
“flexible” and in the latter case the that in an elastic analysis, an
foundation shall be considered to be “rigid”. individual HB wheel cannot be
(c) For portal structures, where the moments in distributed over a width significantly
the frame are sensitive to the rotational greater than the wheel spacing
stiffness of the foundations, separate because of the effects of adjacent
analyses shall be carried out for footings wheels. Also, a single dispersed wheel
where the foundation shall be considered to load which is narrower than the
be (a) “rigid” and (b) “flexible”, (see segment width (Lj) cannot be
4.1.1(b)), to ensure that the effects of the full distributed over a width wider than
range of possible foundation stiffnesses are the segment width.
considered. (f) If a three dimensional model is used
(d) Moments and shears shall be obtained from consideration shall be given to the
the analysis at critical positions around the interaction of live loads in adjacent lanes as
structure. The most critical positions for described in BD 37.
shear will normally be at a distance “d” from (g) Portal frames shall be designed for the more
the inside edge of the fillets (or from the onerous effects resulting from assuming
internal corners if there are no fillets) and that:
both shear and coexisting moment shall be
calculated at these and other critical (i) the base of each wall is fully
positions, see also Clause 4.3.3. restrained against horizontal
movement,
(e) Analysis by the Unit Width Method
(ii) the base of each wall is restrained
(i) In most situations it will be adequate longitudinally by a horizontal force
to analyse the structure on a “metre not exceeding the frictional resistance
strip” basis using a two-dimensional of the footing under that wall (see
frame or similar. For structures where Clause 4.4.2).
the dispersal zones of adjacent wheels
overlap as shown in Zone 2 in Figure Where the frictional resistance of the footing
3.2a, it will normally be adequate to is adequate to restrain the wall against
base the load per metre width due to horizontal movement then only case (i) need
vertical live load on the dispersion be considered.
widths determined in accordance with
Clauses 3.2.1(c) and (d).
(i) If the line of thrust of the earth (i) Permanent loads with maximum or
pressure forces on one wall passes minimum dead load surcharge
within the middle third of the other (excluding differential settlement in
wall (that is if LLtanθ < Lj/6) this plan Stages i and ii)
twisting effect may be ignored.
(ii) Maximum or minimum horizontal
(ii) If LLtanθ ≥ Lj/6 and the applied torque earth pressures
(Tq) is greater than the frictional
resistance torque of the base (TR), (iii) The appropriate Combination 1 and 3
consideration shall be given to live loads positioned to give the most
resisting the unbalanced torque by severe effect to the element under
increasing the horizontal earth consideration.
pressure on the walls towards the
(iv) Temperature effects (Combination 3
obtuse corner. In this case, the
only)
maximum earth pressure anywhere on
the wall at ULS at depth D (excluding (b) In addition, for the “In Service” stage (Stage
live load surcharge) shall not exceed iii of Clause 4.1.3), the structure shall be
0.5γDKp and the structural elements designed for the most onerous of the
must be designed to resist this following Combination 4 effects:
increased pressure.
(i) Permanent loads with maximum or of the foundations under the application of
minimum dead load surcharge. vertical live loads at SLS shall be less than
0.015H. This limitation is required to
(ii) The Combination 4 horizontal earth prevent the occurrence of excessive
pressures described in Clause 3.1.3. movements at longitudinal joints in
(a) (ii) or (iii). structures with low covers, which can
seriously damage the overlying carriageway.
(iii) Either traction, skidding, centrifugal
or parapet collision loading. (b) Where an assessment of the live load
deflection of the roof is required, it will be
(iv) The associated Combination 4 vertical sufficiently accurate to estimate the midspan
live loads positioned to give the most deflection of the roof using the empirical
severe effect to the element under formula:
consideration.
∆ = 20Mmax X2/h3 metres
(c) For Combinations 1 and 4 with traction, the
load cases to be applied for the design of the where X is the effective span in metres, h is
structural elements are shown the overall depth of the roof in millimetres
diagrammatically in Appendix A diagrams and Mmax is the maximum “free span”
A/1 – A/5. moment in kNm/m in the roof due to vertical
live load only, at SLS. The free span
4.2 SPECIAL REQUIREMENTS AT THE moment is calculated assuming the roof slab
SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE to be simply supported over its effective
span (X).
4.2.1 Crack Control
(c) The foundation settlement at SLS shall be
In Combination 1 at SLS, crack widths shall be taken to be the nominal live load settlement
limited in accordance with BS5400 Part 4, except derived as in Clause 3.1.5.
that where the cover (H) is greater than 0.6m, the
crack width should be checked for 30 Units of HB 4.2.4 Longitudinal Joints
rather than HA loading.
(a) The structures shall be designed to
4.2.2 Early Thermal Cracking accommodate all differential movements or
to resist the forces set up by such
Early thermal cracking need not be considered for movements.
precast segmental construction where the segments
are monolithic and of 3m length (Lj) or less. For (b) In precast construction the joints between
other buried structures the requirements for the the segments shall be designed to
control of early thermal cracking are as specified accommodate the anticipated settlements.
in BS5400 Part 4, BD 28 (DMRB 1.3) and BD 37 The joints need not be designed to transfer
(DMRB 1.3), except that the horizontal steel load between the segments.
required to resist early thermal cracking need not
be placed outside the primary longitudinal (c) In most cases, where cast in-situ
reinforcement. Guidance is also given in BA 57 construction is used, the structure acting as a
(DMRB 1.3.8). deep beam is capable of accommodating
curvatures induced by differential
4.2.3 Deflection settlements and longitudinal joints should be
avoided where possible, for reasons of
(a) In precast construction, and in in-situ durability. Where, however, the predicted
structures with longitudinal joints that do movements are so large that articulation in
not comply with 4.2.4 (c)(ii), the net vertical the structure is required, the longitudinal
deflection at the midspan of the roof under joints shall be designed either:
the combined effects of the elastic deflection
of the structure and the short-term settlement
(i) to accommodate all movements resistance of the member shall be based on the area
resulting from the differential of longitudinal steel in the less heavily reinforced
settlement of the soil as well as the face.
maximum differential live load
deflection between sections which are 4.3.4 Anchorage of Longitudinal Steel
not similarly loaded, or
Designers shall pay particular attention to the
(ii) to allow for the transfer of forces provision of adequate anchorage to the
between units or sections joints. This longitudinal reinforcement in accordance with
shall be checked at both ULS and BS5400 Part 4.
SLS.
4.3.5 Reinforcement Details at Corners
4.3 ASPECTS OF REINFORCEMENT
DESIGN (a) For Opening Moments (tension on the inside
face)
4.3.1 Primary Longitudinal Reinforcement
(vertical, perpendicular to the walls or parallel to (i) Where the bending moment applied to the
the edges of the structure). corner of a buried structure causes that
corner to open, the resolved component of
The longitudinal reinforcement shall be provided the compressive and tensile bending forces
to resist the moments and shears determined from in the members on either side of the corner
the analysis in accordance with BS5400 Part 4. produce a tensile force along the diagonal of
the corner which tends to split the outer
4.3.2 Transverse Reinforcement in the Soffit of section of the corner from the main
the Roof structure, as illustrated in Figure 4.1. As a
result, the use of many conventional
Where the dispersed width of the applied load is reinforcement details can lead to the flexural
less than the distance between joints (Lj), strength of the corner being significantly
transverse reinforcement shall be provided in the less than the strength of the adjacent
soffit of the roof to resist the transverse bending members. These effects shall be taken into
caused by the local wheel effect. In this case, in the account in designing corner reinforcement.
absence of a rigorous analysis, sufficient transverse
soffit reinforcement shall be provided per metre to The behaviour of opening corners is
resist a moment equal to half the longitudinal described by Somerville and Taylor, Nilsson
sagging moment per metre caused by the vertical and Losberg, Jackson and Noor (see Clause
live load at ULS. 6.4). A method for the design of corner
reinforcement for opening moments is given
Where the dispersed width of the applied load is in Appendix D.
greater than or equal to Lj, the transverse
reinforcement shall be in accordance with Clause
4.3.6.
(√2)Fc
A B
Fc
Crack
M
B Flexural crack
Fs
(√2)Fs
Fc M Fs
(b) For Closing Moments (tension on the they extend at least an anchorage
outside face) length beyond the end of the fillet.
Where the area of the horizontal and
(i) Where the applied moments tend to vertical hairpin bars differ, the smaller
close a corner, the area of tension area should be used in the calculation.
reinforcement provided around the
outside of the corner to resist the peak (iii) Care should be taken to ensure that
corner moment may been determined the bearing stress inside the bend of
on the assumption that the effective the corner bar does not exceed the
depth of the section, dcnr, is the limits allowed in BS5400 Part 4 (see
effective depth of the smaller adjacent Clause D.4 in Appendix D). For this
member plus half the nominal fillet purpose the mean radius of the bend
size. may be increased to a value not
exceeding dcnr. If a radius in excess of
(ii) Where a Type 2 corner detail is this value is required to satisfy the
provided as shown in Figure D/1b in bearing stress requirements, then the
Appendix D, the area of the outside size of the fillet or the area of tensile
legs of either the vertical or the reinforcement should be increased.
horizonal hairpin bars (but not both)
may be considered as contributing to
the moment of resistance providing
The minimum area of reinforcement to be provided (a) Fatigue due to repeated live loading need
in the structural members shall be the greatest of not be considered for structures where the
any of the following: cover depth (H) is more than one metre. For
other structures the requirements are
Longitudinal steel on any 0.15% of the net section contained in BS5400 Part 4 as amended by
tension face. per face Interim Advice Note IA.5.
Transverse steel on any 0.12% of the net section (b) For cover depths greater than 0.6m the
tension face. per face effective stress range in unwelded
Transverse steel on the soffit 0.15% of the net section
reinforcing bars under Load Combination 1
of the roof when the cover but see Clause 4.3.2. for the SLS shall be checked for 30 units HB
is less than 600mm. loading instead of HA loading.
Vertical steel on an internal Enough vertical steel to (c) The fatigue strength of tack welded
vertical face. resist a moment of not reinforcing bars shall be checked in
less than 0.8Y3 kNm/m accordance with BA 40 (DRMB 1.3.4).
at ULS
4.4 DESIGN OF FOUNDATIONS
Any face. Early thermal cracking
steel in accordance with 4.4.1 Requirements
BD 28 (DMRB 1.3),
except that transverse Consideration of sliding, global settlement and
early thermal cracking differential settlement is required to confirm
steel is not required in whether or not the proposed geometry and
members where Lj does
structural form are suitable.
not exceed 3m.
4.4.2 Sliding
4.3.7 Cover to Reinforcement
(a) Requirements
(a) The nominal cover to reinforcement to be
used for precast segments shall be in Checks are required to ensure that the
accordance with Table 13 in BS5400 Part 4. structure as a whole does not fail by sliding
when subject to traction forces and/or skew
(b) The nominal cover to be used for cast in-situ
effects. Furthermore, where the structure is
structures shall be based on Table 13 in
supported on a number of individual
BS5400 plus 10mm as specified in BD 57 foundations, as opposed to a single
(DMRB 1.3.7).
combined base slab, each individual
foundation is required to remain stable (see
(c) Where the concrete is cast directly against
paragraph (c) below).
the ground (as opposed to on blinding) the
nominal cover shall be based on Table 13 in
(b) Sliding Resistance
BS 5400 Part 4 plus a further 40mm.
This is a ULS check. The loads and partial
(d) For cast in-situ concrete, where the surface
load factors to be applied are as given in
is subject to flowing water the cover shall be
Clause 3.4.1 and Diagram A/6a in Appendix
increased by a further 10mm to allow for
A for box structures and Diagram A/6b for
erosion.
portal frames.
The friction force (FR) that can be developed exceeding 0.5Kp, may be used if the
on the base can be determined from BS8002 structural elements are designed to carry the
as follows: effects of these increased pressures.
5.3 FILLING AND COMPACTION waterproofing system, and the laying of the
waterproofing system are contained in
Backfilling for either trench or embankment MCHW1 Clause 2005.
condition shall be in accordance with Clause 610
(Fill to Structures) of MCHW1 except that Classes (b) For precast construction only, all other
7A and 7B shall not be used. The backfilling concrete surfaces of the box structure in
material shall be used to a height of 500mm above contact with soil, backfill, or bedding shall
the structure or to the carriageway formation level, be waterproofed in accordance with the
whichever is lower. requirements for Below Ground Concrete
Surfaces. The Overseeing Organisation’s
5.4 REINFORCED AND PRESTRESSED requirements for waterproofing these
CONCRETE surfaces are contained in MCHW1 Clauses
2004 and 2006.
The Overseeing Organisation’s requirements for
reinforced and prestressed concrete are contained (c) For in-situ construction all other concrete
in Series 1700 of MCHW1. The concrete mix shall surfaces in contact with soil or backfill shall
be Grade 40 or higher. In Scotland, all structural be waterproofed in accordance with the
concrete above foundation level shall be air requirements for Below Ground Concrete
entrained. Further guidance is given in Series Surfaces as given in MCHW1 Clauses 2004
NG1700 of Notes for Guidance on the and 2006.
Specification for Highway Works MCHW2.
Detailed guidance on the assessment of ground 5.6 PERMEABLE DRAINAGE LAYER
aggressivity to concrete is given in Part 1 of BRE
Special Digest SD1 “Concrete in aggressive A permeable drainage layer in accordance with
ground” (2001). The ground to be assessed should Clause 513 (Permeable Backing to Earth Retaining
include the surrounding ground, the groundwater, Structures) of MCHW1 shall be provided adjacent
the general embankment fill and the backfill to all vertical buried concrete faces of box
material, and any contained water or effluent to be structures which do not carry water or effluent. A
carried by the structure. Detailed guidance on the perforated drainage pipe, not less than 150mm
specification of concrete for foundations in diameter, with adequate facilities for rodding shall
aggressive ground is given in parts 2 and 3 of BRE be incorporated at the bottom of the drainage layer.
Special Digest SD1. Provision is made in the This drainage pipe shall be connected to a positive
Digest for the use of various cement and cement outfall. All drainage to comply with the
combinations in conjunction with aggregates of requirements of MCHW1, Series 500.
differing carbonate content. The Digest also
recommends additional protective measures for 5.7 JOINTS
concrete where ground water is mobile and sulfate
concentrations are high. (a) Joints in structures which are to be
maintained in a dry condition internally,
5.5 WATERPROOFING such as subways, shall be made watertight
through the use of a continuous waterstop or
(a) For both precast and in-situ construction, the by placing a suitable hydrophillic swellable
top surface, and the top of the adjoining waterstop or compression sealant strip in the
vertical external surfaces to a level of joints and/or pointing internally with
200mm below the soffit of the top slab, shall elastomeric or bitumen-based sealant where
be protected with a suitable bridge deck the units are of sufficient size to allow entry.
waterproofing system in accordance with In the case of precast segmental units sealant
MCHW1 Series 2000. The Overseeing strips shall be placed in the joints prior to
Organisation’s requirements for the the butting of adjacent box segments. These
waterproofing system are contained in provisions are also applicable when
MCHW1 Clause 2003, the preparation of groundwater is to be protected from any
the concrete surfaces to receive the leakage of the effluent carried by the
structure or where the leakage of water or
6. REFERENCES
BD 37: Loads for Highway Bridges (DMRB 1.3) BRE Special Digest SD1. Concrete in aggressive
ground. (2001).
BD 57: Design for Durability (DMRB 1.3.7)
Jackson, N. “Design of Reinforced Concrete Opening
BA 40: Fatigue Strength of Tack Welded Reinforcing Corners”, The Structural Engineer, Vol. 73, No. 13,
Bars (DMRB 1.3.4) pp209-213, 1995.
BA 57: Design for Durability (DMRB 1.3.8) Jackson, N. “Design of Reinforced Concrete Corners
with Diagonals”, The Structural Engineer, Vol. 75, Nos.
Volume 2: Section 1 Substructures 23 & 24, pp417-420, 1997.
BD 74: Foundations: Use of BS8004: 1986 (DMRB Nilsson, I.H.E and Losberg, A., “Design of Reinforced
2.1.8) Concrete Corners and Joints Subjected to Bending
Moments”, ASCE National Structural Engineering
Volume 10: Environmental Design Convention, New Orleans, US, April 14-18, 1975.
6.2 MANUAL OF CONTRACT DOCUMENTS Noor, F.A. [1977], “Ultimate Strength and Cracking of
FOR HIGHWAY WORKS Wall Corners”, Concrete, Vol. 11, No. 7. pp 31-35,
1977.
Volume 0: Section 2 Implementing Standards Pucher, A., “Influence Surfaces of Elastic Plates”,
Springer-Verlag Wien, New York, 1977.
SD4: Procedures for Adoption of Proprietary
Manufactured Structures (MCHW 0.2.4) Somerville, G. and Taylor, H.P.J., “The Influence of
Reinforcement Detailing on the Strength of Concrete
Volume 1: Specification for Highway Works Structures”, The Structural Engineer, Vol. 50, No. 1,
(MCHW1) HMSO 1998 with revisions to 2001 January 1972, pp 7-19, and discussion in The Structural
Engineer, Vol. 50, No. 8, August 1972, pp 309-321.
Volume 2: Notes for Guidance on the Specification
for Highway Works (MCHW2) HMSO 1998 with
revisions to 2001
7. ENQUIRIES
All technical enquiries or comments on this Standard should be sent in writing as appropriate to:
Director of Engineering
Department for Regional Development
Roads Service
Clarence Court
10-18 Adelaide Street G W ALLISTER
Belfast BT2 8GB Director of Engineering
DL Structure
γfL = 1.15 or Box Structures
1.2
γf3 = 1.1
Diagram A/1a
DL Structure
γfL = 1.15 or Portal Frames
1.2
γf3 = 1.1
R1 R2
LLSC Earth Earth LLSC
K = 0.6 K = 0.6 K = 0.6 K = 0.6
γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.5 Default values γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.5
γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1
K = Ko K = Ko K = Ko K = Ko
γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.2 BS 8002 coefficients γfL = 1.2 γfL = 1.5
γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1
Diagram A/1b
Diagram A/1
No Live Load
γfL = 1.0, γf3 = 1.0 200 mm
Minimum SDL γfL = 1.0, γf3 = 1.0
(γH per m2)
DL Structure
γfL = 1.0 Box Structures
γf3 = 1.0
Diagram A/2a
No Live Load
γfL = 1.0, γf3 = 1.0 200 mm
Minimum SDL
γfL = 1.0, γf3 = 1.0
(γH per m2)
DL Structure
γfL = 1.0 Portal Frames
γf3 = 1.0
R1 R2
LLSC Earth Earth LLSC
K = 0.6 K = 0.6 K = 0.6 K = 0.6
γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.5 Default values γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.5
γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1
K = Ko K = Ko K = Ko K = Ko
γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.2 BS 8002 coefficients γfL = 1.2 γfL = 1.5
γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1
Diagram A/2b
Diagram A/2
DL Structure
γfL = 1.15 or Box Structures
1.2
γf3 = 1.1
Earth Earth
K = 0.2 K = 0.2
γfL = 1.0 Default values γfL = 1.0
γf3 = 1.0 γf3 = 1.0
K = 0.2 K = 0.2
γfL = 1.0 BS 8002 coefficients γfL = 1.0
γf3 = 1.0 γf3 = 1.0
Diagram A/3a
DL Structure
γfL = 1.15 or Portal Frames
1.2
γf3 = 1.1
R1 R2
Earth Earth
K = 0.2 K = 0.2
γfL = 1.0 Default values γfL = 1.0
γf3 = 1.0 γf3 = 1.0
K = 0.2 K = 0.2
γfL = 1.0 BS 8002 coefficients γfL = 1.0
γf3 = 1.0 γf3 = 1.0
Diagram A/3b
Diagram A/3
DL Structure
γfL = 1.15 or Box Structures
1.2
γf3 = 1.1
Diagram A/4a
DL Structure
γfL = 1.15 or Portal Frames
1.2
γf3 = 1.1
R1 R2
LLSC Earth Earth
K = 0.33 K = 0.33 K = 0.6
γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.5 Default values γfL = 1.0
γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.0
K = Ka K = Ka K = 0.6
γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.2 BS 8002 coefficients γfL = 1.0
γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.0
Diagram A/4b
Diagram A/4
Live Load associated with Traction in most onerous position: γfL = 1.0, γf3 = 1.0
DL Structure
γfL = 1.0 Box Structures
γf3 = 1.0
Diagram A/5a
Live Load associated with Traction in most onerous position: γfL = 1.0, γf3 = 1.0
DL Structure
γfL = 1.0 Portal Frames
γf3 = 1.0
R1 R2
LLSC Earth Earth
K = 0.33 K = 0.33 K = 0.6
γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.5 Default values γfL = 1.0
γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.0
K = Ka K = Ka K = 0.6
γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.2 BS 8002 coefficients γfL = 1.0
γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.0
Diagram A/5b
Diagram A/5
Live Load associated with Traction in most onerous position : γfL = 1.0 γf3 = 1.0
DL Structure
γfL = 1.0
γf3 = 1.0 Box Structures
Friction
Buoyancy: γfL = 1.1, γf3 = 1.1
LLSC Earth Earth
K = 0.33 K = 0.33 Kr < 1.5 See clause 4.4.2 (c)
γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.5 Default values γfL = 1.0
γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.0
K = Ka K = Ka Kr < 0.5Kp See clause 4.4.2 (c)
γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.2 BS 8002 coefficients γfL = 1.0
γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.0
Diagram A/6a
Live Load associated with Traction in most onerous position : γfL = 1.0 γf3 = 1.0
DL Structure
γfL = 1.0
Portal Frames
γf3 = 1.0
R1 £ FR1 R2 £ FR2
Buoyancy: γfL = 1.1, γf3 = 1.1
LLSC Earth Earth
K = 0.33 K = 0.33 Kr < 1.5 See clause 4.4.2 (c)
γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.5 Default values γfL = 1.0
γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.0
K = Ka K = Ka Kr < 0.5Kp See clause 4.4.2 (c)
γfL = 1.5 γfL = 1.2 BS 8002 coefficients γfL = 1.0
γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.1 γf3 = 1.0
Diagram A/6b
SLIDING
Diagram A/6
Maximum SDL
All loads are “nominal”
(βγH per m2)
DL Structure
Box Structures
Buoyancy
LLSC Earth Earth
K = Ko K = Ko BS 8002 coefficients K = Ko
Diagram A/7a
Maximum SDL
All loads are “nominal”
(βγH per m 2)
DL Structure
Portal Frames
R1 £ FR1 R2 £ FR2
Buoyancy
LLSC Earth Earth
K = Ko K = Ko BS 8002 coefficients K = Ko
Diagram A/7b
Diagram A/7
Ko is given by:
Ko = 1 – sin φ'
TABLE C1
If the fixed end moment restraints are then relaxed, the For other structures the differential temperature
resulting nominal moments in single span integral moments should be calculated from Mf using moment
structures may conservatively be taken as follows: distribution, or by other rigorous methods.
where λ = 0.5 (h/hw)3 (Y/X) Where Xclear < 0.2Lt the moments and shears found from
the above analyses should be multiplied by the
Base Slab: Mbase = -Mroof/2 reduction factor η given in Table 3.1 and Clause 3.2.8.
Horizontal
hairpin Horizontal
bar hairpin bar
Vertical hairpin
bar
B Fillet bar A
SECTION AA SECTION BB
Dimension A*
(Full anchorage)
* If the outer leg of the U-bar or “hairpin” is used to contribute to the tension steel of the closing corner moment
the location of the end of the leg, E, is determined by Dimension A (as Clause 4.3.5 (b)(iv)). Otherwise, E is
determined by Dimension B (as Clause D.2).
A B
Fc Fsv
C Fsh
B
Fsf
Fillet bar
La
Main bars
Laf
df
The figure shown is a Type 2 corner detail but the design procedure is the same for a Type 1 detail. The
compression face of the effective corner is assumed to lie along BB.
Fsh is the tensile force in the horizontal bars at point C determined in accordance with Clause D.4
Fsv is the tensile force in the vertical bars at point C determined in accordance with Clause D.4
The moment of resistance of the members should also be checked at the ends of the fillet