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Academic Research & Writing Skills Part 1 & 2

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 Academic Research & Writing Skills
Part I

Toni Kennedy

Manager Library & Information Services (DOCLIS) with the NSW Department of
Corrective Services

This paper, presented in two parts over two issues, will focus on the writing skills
required for communicating your re-search clearly and effectively.
Academic writing is formal writing. Many novice writers have trouble telling informal
writing apart from formal writing. They resort to informal writing, since it’s easier and
more familiar.

Essays, reports, presentations and research papers are just some examples of
documents written in the academic style. Academic writing, when used appropriately,
presents a polished and professional image. Academic writing skills encompass strong
composition, excellent grammar, and a consistent stylistic approach, providing proper
credits and references.

Are you grappling with how to communicate your research clearly and effectively?

These guidelines will explore ways of developing your skills for presenting a convincing
and cohesive argument, creating a logical structure, and achieving coherence and
cohesion between and within the text.

Part I will focus on the following:

Process Overview
Research
Search Strategy
Boolean Searching
Internet Research
Organising the Information
Taking Notes
Essay Plan/Outline
Example of Note Taking & Essay Planning Process

Process Overview

The following procedure is useful when writing an extended essay or assignment.

Task Product

ƒ Read the question and understand what you are Essay subject.
required to do. Think about the subject, the purpose
and the audience.

ƒ Think about what you know about the subject. Write Diagrams or notes.
it down in some way.

ƒ Go to the library and find relevant books or articles. Reading list.

ƒ Find the books on your reading list and study them. List of materials studied.

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 1

 ƒ Make notes on these books and articles.
ƒ Record full details of the materials you use for the
reference list.
ƒ Organise your essay/assignment.
ƒ Type or write your first draft.
ƒ Write up your reference list using the appropriate
referencing system (possibly using software to
assist e.g. Procite, Endnote, Zotero)
ƒ Discuss your first draft informally with friends, other
members of your class and your lecturer if possible.
ƒ Revise your first draft, bearing in mind any
comments that were made in your discussions.
ƒ Produce your second draft.
ƒ Proofread your draft.
ƒ Produce a final typed version.
ƒ Check everything.
Research
When you have understood the question
or what you are expected to write, you
will need to do some reading to find out
what has been published in your field of
study. It is most unlikely that you will
find the information you need about your
topic in just one specific section of the
library. You need to think and look as
widely as you can about possible subject
areas that may be relevant to your topic.
Many sources are available in several
formats - as hard copy or on-line via the
Internet. In the last few years there has
been a great increase in the amount of
information that can be found on-line.
Using the Internet, it is possible to
search for the details of books, journal
articles and conference proceedings, as
well as for data such as statistics, maps
and diagrams. The number of journal
titles that you are able to access on-line
is growing rapidly. Internet gateways
and subject databases can also be good
starting points for your research.
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I
Notes.
Essay plan/Outline.
First draft.
Reference list
List of revisions/changes.
Second draft.
Assignment with changes
marked.
Final assignment.
Hand in.
You will probably start by looking at
secondary sources, for example
dictionaries, encyclopaedias and online
databases (indexes and full text) that
you can use to help you to find the
primary sources - the full text of
articles, books, government and
company reports, etc. that you need to
read for your essay. Use the library
computer catalogue to find useful
books, audiovisual items and journal
articles for your topic.
Search Strategy
o Have a firm concept of what it is
you are looking for - have it as a
sentence
o Are you looking for general
information or something specific?
o What type of 'document' are you
looking for - article citation, full
text article, book
o List synonyms for each concept
o Select the appropriate database –
Medline, PsychInfo etc
o Do the search, preferably using the
individual database’s advanced
2
 techniques (eg. Boolean or phrase
searching or subject headings)
o Refine the search if necessary
o If you do not find anything
relevant, try a different search
engine
Boolean Searching
Boolean logic refers to the logical
relationship among search terms. On
Internet search engines, the options for
constructing logical relationships among
search terms extend beyond the
traditional practice of Boolean searching.
Boolean logic consists of three logical
operators:
• OR
• AND
• NOT
Each operator can be visually described
by using Venn diagrams, as shown
below.
OR
e.g. college OR university
In this search, we will retrieve records in
which AT LEAST ONE of the search
terms is present. We are searching on
the terms college and also university
since documents containing either of
these words might be relevant. OR logic
is most commonly used to search for
synonymous terms or concepts.
AND
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I
e.g. cats NOT dogs
In this search, we retrieve records in
which ONLY ONE of the terms is
present. This is illustrated by the shaded
area with the word cats representing all
the records containing the word "cats".
No records are retrieved in which the
word "dogs" appears, even if the word
"cats" appears there too
Internet Research
Here are a few basic guidelines to
remember:
o Don't rely exclusively on Net
resources
o Narrow your research topic before
logging on
o Know your subject directories and
search engines
o Keep a detailed record of sites you
visit and the sites you use
o Double-check all URLs that you put
in your paper
The following points are guidelines for
evaluating specific resources you find on
the Net. The key to the whole process is
to think critically about what you find on
the Net; if you want to use it, you are
responsible for ensuring that it is
reliable and accurate.
o Authority
o Affiliation
o Audience Level
o Currency
o Content Reliability/Accuracy
3
Organising the Information
Taking Notes
Good notes should be accurate, clear
and concise. They should show the
organisation of the text, and the
relationship between the ideas. The
main reasons why note-taking is
important include:
o When you are reading or listening,
taking notes helps you concentrate.
In order to take notes - to write
something sensible - you must
understand the text.
o Taking notes helps you to make
sense of the text. It does not mean
writing down every word. You need
to actively decide what is important
and how is related to what you
have already written.
o Notes help you to maintain a
permanent record of what you have
read or listened to. This is useful
when you are including information
you have read or heard into your
essay.
When you're reading, first survey the
text to find the main points and the
subsidiary points and how they are
related. Then, reduce the points to
notes. Make sure links and relationships
between the ideas are shown. Good
notes need to be organised
appropriately. Make sure you write down
where your notes have been taken from.
It will save you time when you need to
check your facts or write a reference list.
Essay Plan/Outline
Essay outlines are meant to serve you
and no one else. When you produce your
outline, you should follow certain basic
principles. Here is an example of an
outline for an essay on Hamlet:
Thesis: Despite Hamlet's highly
developed moral nature, he becomes
morally compromised while delaying his
revenge.
I. Introduction: Hamlet's father asks
Hamlet not only to seek vengeance
but also to keep his mind
untainted.
II. Hamlet has a highly developed
moral nature.
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I
A. Hamlet is idealistic.
B. Hamlet is aware of his own
faults, whereas others are self-
satisfied.
C. Hamlet does not want to take
revenge without grounds for
acting.
III. Hamlet becomes morally
compromised while delaying.
A. The turning point in Hamlet's
moral decline is his killing of
Polonius.
B. Hamlet's moral decline
continues when he sends
Rosencrantz and Guildenstern
to their death.
C. Hamlet already began his moral
decline before the turning point
in the play, the killing of
Polonius.
1. Hamlet treats women badly.
2. Hamlet criticizes others in the
play for acting falsely to get
ahead, but in adopting the
disguise of madness he, too, is
presenting a false face to the
world.
IV. Though Hamlet becomes more
compromised the longer he delays,
killing the king would have been a
morally questionable act.
V. Conclusion: The play Hamlet
questions the adequacy of a
system of ethics based on honour
and revenge.
This is an example of a sentence
outline. Another kind of outline is
the topic outline. It consists of
fragments rather than full
sentences. Topic outlines are more
open-ended than sentence
outlines: they leave much of the
working out of the argument for
the writing stage.
Example of a Note Taking & Essay
Planning Process
The following is an example of a method
that can be used when taking notes.
1. Number all articles that you read
from 1 onwards – they don’t have
to be in any order
2. As you read the articles, make a
list of the topics within the articles
that are useful for your essay. Note
4
 the number of the article beside 4. Use the resulting topic list to
the topic. decide how you will organise the
information. This will direct you to
3. The result will be a list of topics
what articles you need to consult
with an index to the articles (i.e.
for the information on each topic
which article has information on
(see examples below).
which topic). The list will also show
which topics are the most popular.

Note Taking Example: Essay on Terrorism & Corrections

Topic Number Topic Description Article Number

1 Definitions of terrorism 1,12,15,20

2 Supermax conditions 2, 5, 33

3 Security for terrorist inmates 3, 8, 12, 20

4 Types of terrorism (domestic, international) 3, 7, 11,12, 14

5 Legislation governing terrorist inmates 6,11,21

6 Conditions for inmates in Australia 7, 9, 12, 13, 17

7 Case study of an inmate 7, 13, 16
8 Conditions for inmates overseas 8, 22, 25, 28

9 Human rights concerns 13, 25, 26, 30

Essay Plan/Outline Example Using the Note Taking Method above

1. Introduction ‰ What, how, why etc

‰ State overall position/argument in relation to the
question and/or subject

2. Point 1 ‰ Sub point A (Topic number 5)

(heading?) ‰ Sub point B (Topic number 3)
‰ Sub point C (Topic number 7)

3. Point 2 ‰ Sub point A (Topic number 1)

(heading?) ‰ Sub point B (Topic number 2)
‰ Sub point C (Topic numbers 8 & 10)

4. Point 3 ‰ Sub point A (Topic number 4)

(heading?) ‰ Sub point B (Topic number 6)
‰ Sub point C (Topic numbers 9 & 11)

5. Conclusion ‰ Restate overall position/argument

‰ Relate position/argument to points 1-3

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 5

Note:
Part II of this paper will appear in the June 2009 issue of the Australasian Journal
of Correctional Staff Development. Topics will include: Writing skills: organising
essays; Writing skills: paragraphs; Writing skills: expressing yourself; Reference
List and Useful Links.

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part I 6

 Academic Research & Writing Skills
Part II

Toni Kennedy

Toni Kennedy is the Manager Library & Information Services (DOCLIS) with the NSW
Department of Corrective Services

Continued from Part I which was published in May 2009 issue of this journal

Writing Skills: Organising Essays

Essays are organised differently according description of aspect B

to their purpose. Essays can be divided into
the following main types.

1. The descriptive essay

etc.
a. Description of object or place
b. Describing a sequence of events.
c. Describing a process
d. Describing and explaining
Conclusion
2. The argument essay
a. The balanced view
b. Describing a sequence of events
b. The persuasive essay
c. The to what extent essay.
Describing a sequence of events is simply
3. Compare and contrast essays telling a story. State clearly when events
happened or how one event caused
a. The contrast essay another. Questions may be introduced by:
b. The compare essay
c. The compare and contrast essays
Give an account of...,
Trace...,
1. The descriptive essay
Examine developments in...
a. Description of object or place Introduction
Describe essays require you to state the
appearance of something, or to state the
major characteristics of it. Note the word
state i.e. you are not asked to comment on
First situation
the subject or to give your personal point of
view on it. Questions are often introduced
by:

Describe .... then A happened

Narrate...
Tell....
Introduction
(major aspects of the subject) then B happened

description of aspect A etc.

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II


Final situation
Conclusion
c. Describing a process
This is like telling a story but here the
connections between the facts must be
clearly shown and explained. Group the
events into steps or stages.
What are the implications of...?
Discuss the causes of....
Discuss the reasons for....
When we are asked to describe or explain
causes, factors, functions or results, the
purpose is to group the facts. Similar
causes are put together, for instance the
economic causes of a situation. There are
basically two main ways to organise this
type of essay.
The question is "Describe the causes of A.
Illustrate your answer by specific
examples."

Examples of such questions are: Example 1:

Explain/What is the connection between....
Describe the procedures by which...
Introduction to causes of A

Definition of process
Main equipment/Main steps
Cause 1 + example

Step One
leads to
Effects 1

Step Two
leads to Cause 2 with example

Step Three Effects 2

Conclusion Cause 3 with examples

Summary of process

d. Describing and explaining

Effects 3
Some of the words and phrases which
introduce this type of description are:
Explain the causes/reasons....
Account for....
Analyse the causes.... Cause 4 with example
Comment on (the reasons for)....
Show that....
Show why...
Examine the effect of....
Suggest reasons for.... Effects 4
Why did...?

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II


etc.
Conclusion
Example 2:
Introduction to causes of A
Causes + examples
Transition
Effects
Conclusion
2. The argument essay
There are two main methods of presenting
an argument, and in general the one you
choose will depend on exactly how the
essay title is worded.
a. The balanced view
If the essay title begins with something
like:
Give the arguments for and against....
Assess the importance of....
Examine the arguments for and against....
What are the advantages and
disadvantages of...?
Evaluate....
Critically examine the statement that....
To what extent is...true?
Or even just the word Discuss....
Then it is clear that a balanced essay is
required. That is to say you should present
both sides of an argument, without
necessarily committing yourself to any
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II
points of view, which should always be
based on evidence, until the final
paragraph. At its simplest your essay plan
will be as follows:
Introduce the argument to the reader.
e.g. why it is particularly relevant topic
nowadays
or refers directly to some comments that
have been voiced on it recently.
Reasons against the argument
Reasons in favour of the argument
After summarising the two sides,
state your own point of view,
and explain why you think as you do
b. The persuasive essay
This second type of argumentative essay
involves stating your own point of view
immediately, and trying to convince the
reader by reasoned argument that you are
right. Perhaps the essay title will begin with
something like:
Give your views on....
What do you think about...?
Do you agree that...?
Consider whether....
Or perhaps the title itself will be so
controversial that everyone will hold a
definite opinion in one direction or another.
The form of the essay will be, in outline, as
follows:
Introduce the topic briefly in general terms,
and then state your own opinion.
Explain what you plan to prove in the
essay.
Reasons against the argument.
Dispose briefly of the main objections to
 your case.

Aspect 3 - false

Reasons for your argument

the arguments to support your own view,
with evidence and examples.
etc

Conclusion - Do not repeat your point of

Conclusion
view again.
a ‘subtraction’ sum
End your essay with something memorable
e.g. a quotation or a direct question.
3. Compare and contrast essays.
c. The to what extent essay
a. The Contrast essay
In this type of essay the topic is a
Contrast or distinguish between questions
statement. It is obviously true but truth is
usually present you with two or more
never 100%. You must decide how true it
terms, instruments, concepts or procedures
is? Are there some areas where you
that are closely connected, and sometimes
disagree with the statement? If so, describe
confused. The purpose of the essay is to
how far you agree, and your points of
explain the differences between them. The
agreement and disagreement. Words used
question may be of the form:
in the question are:
Contrast....
To what extent....
Distinguish between...
How true....
What is the difference between....?
How far do you agree....?
What are the differences between....?
How are ... and ... different?
A possible answer structure is:

A suitable answer structure would be:

Introduction to problem

Introduction to differences between A and B

Aspect 1 - true

Contrast A & B in terms of first difference

Aspect 1 - false

Contrast A & B in terms of second

difference

Aspect 2 - true

Contrast A & B in terms of third difference

Aspect 2 - false

etc

Aspect 3 - true

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II

 Example 1:
Conclusion

Introduction to differences and similarities

b. The Compare essay
between A and B
Compare questions usually present you
with two or more terms, instruments,
concepts or procedures that are closely
connected, and sometimes confused. The
purpose of the essay is to explain the Difference 1
similarities between them. Words used are:
Compare....
What features do ... and ... have in
common?
Difference 2
What are the similarities between....?
How are ... and ... similar?

A suitable answer structure would be:

Difference 3

Introduction to similarities between A and B

etc.

Compare A & B
in terms of first similarity

Transition

Compare A & B
in terms of second similarity
Similarity 1

Compare A & B
in terms of third similarity Similarity 2

etc. Similarity 3

Conclusion etc.

c. The compare and contrast essay

Compare and contrast essays require you
to indicate areas in which the things to be Conclusion
compared are similar and different.
Compare and contrast....
There are two main ways to answer such
questions:

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II

Example 2:
Introduction to differences and similarities
between A and B
Aspect 1 - similarities
Aspect 1 - differences
Aspect 2 - similarities
Aspect 2 - differences
Aspect 3 - similarities
Aspect 3 - differences
etc
Conclusion
Example of a Journal Article Structure
ƒ Introduction
Topic/question: Discuss…..
Introduction Preliminary topic sentence using key word(s) from the
topic/question
What
Identify the elements/issues that will be examined
Why
Explain why this combination of elements is significant, or
why they are being examined together in this paper
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II
ƒ Point 1
ƒ Point 2
ƒ Point 3
ƒ Conclusion
Example of a Research Article
Structure
ƒ Introduction
ƒ Literature review
ƒ Methodology (Research design, subjects)
ƒ Results
ƒ Discussion
ƒ Conclusion
Writing Skills: Paragraphs
A paragraph usually contains a general idea
in one sentence, and 4 - 5 supporting
sentences which expand this idea by giving
explanation, details and/or examples to
support the main idea. Length can vary. On
the page, the paragraph is a solid block of
writing (like this!) To start a new
paragraph, you should leave a whole line
and start at the beginning of the line after.
Paragraphs are used to separate main
ideas. A new paragraph signals to the
reader that a new idea is about to be
discussed. The break between paragraphs
gives the reader time to take in each idea.
Having identified the components of your
written text, use the resulting organisation
of concepts to set up the best possible
sequence for your text. Introduce each
paragraph with a topic sentence which
introduces the topic. There is a pattern to a
series of paragraphs, which you will find in
the diagram below:
 How
Prepare your reader for what is to come, by providing a brief
outline of the way you have addressed the question, and
touching on each of your main points in turn by ascribing
them a key word or phrase
Main point Topic sentence incorporating the key word or phrase
(Heading - optional) ascribed to the single main point covered in this paragraph.
Keep this sentence short, simple, clear and strong.
Support sentences which may be more complex but must
relate in an obvious way to the single main point:
- detail(s)
- example(s)
- explanation(s)
- elaboration
- illustration(s)
Concluding sentence which 'wraps up' the examination of
this particular point and moves towards the next (though you
do not need to contrive a 'link sentence' if you paragraphs are
already logically sequenced)
Conclusion Concluding paragraph which 'wraps up' the examination of
the topic or argument.

Writing Skills: Expressing Yourself
1. Practise using your own words in
good English to express your
thoughts.
2. Decide on a particular idea that you
have in your mind eg:
o your research topic
(investigative)
o a technical concept
(scientific)
o an observation about a person or
event (detached)
o your views on a current issue
(critical)
o your memories of an experience
(experiential)
o your feelings about a certain
incident (personal)
3. Start writing immediately. Write only
for yourself. Do not be concerned
about grammar or structure, at this
stage. Think of this as brainstorming
- in sentences rather than
diagrammatically. You can re-order
the thoughts later, but now it is
important to give words to what you
are thinking. Write only until you
feel you have no more to say right
now.
4. If you have trouble with this stage
try talking onto a tape recorder,
then use any portions of the tape
Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II
that you feel expresses your idea
well, or closely.
5. Practise looking (or listening for)
your most clearly expressed ideas.
What is it that makes them clear?
What makes them communicate?
Try this feature again next time.
6. Read over what you have written.
Keep the best and cross out the
rest. Re-order the points if
necessary. Go from step 2 again to
fill in any gaps in the logical
sequence of your idea.
7. Now you are ready to finally
structure, edit, and polish your
writing according to its purpose. For
example:
ƒ Personal journal entry
(informal, unstructured)
ƒ Academic journal article
(formal, logical structure)
ƒ Report (formal, informative
sequence)
ƒ Essay (formal, critical
argument )
ƒ Thesis (different chapter,
different purpose)
ƒ Review of literature (formal
summary, critique and
juxtaposition)
 This is also a useful series of steps to go
through if you are preparing a talk or
presentation. Either write or use a cassette
recorder. The value of this exercise is that,
by putting your own words to an idea you
reach a more thorough understanding of
the idea, and can more easily express it
again when required.
There are many ways of writing a list of
references, which will vary according to the
rules of the institution or journal that you
are writing for. Some examples include the
American Psychological Association (APA),
Harvard and Vancouver.

A Variation for Non-English Speaking Useful Links

Writers http://www.ncistudent.net/StudySkills/Writi
Try the above steps using your own ngSkills/Introduction.htm
language, if other than English. Take notice
of the differences in the process for each http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm
language. What exactly do you do in your http://www.utoronto.ca/writing/advise.html
mind when looking for words in each
http://www.utm.utoronto.ca/library/instruction/r
language? Once you have an idea of your
esearchinternet.html
own thinking methods, you will have better
control over using words to express
yourself in both languages.

Reference List

At the end of all pieces of academic writing,

you need a list of materials that you have
used or referred to. This usually has a
heading: references but may be
bibliography or works cited depending on
the conventions of the system you use.

The object of your writing is for you to say

something for yourself using the ideas of
the subject, for you to present ideas you
have learned in your own way. The
emphasis should be on working with other
people’s ideas, rather than reproducing
their words. The ideas and people that you
refer to need to be made explicit by a
system of referencing. This consists of a list
of materials that you have used at the end
of the piece of writing and references to
this list at various points throughout the
essay. The purpose of this is to supply the
information needed to allow the reader user
to find the sources used for the essay.
Therefore, at the end of your assignment
you need a list of the materials you have
used - a bibliography or a reference list.

Academic Research & Writing Skills Part II

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