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(Applied Physics and Engineering 9) Dr. Hans-Georg Zimmer (Auth.) - Geometrical Optics-Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (1970)
(Applied Physics and Engineering 9) Dr. Hans-Georg Zimmer (Auth.) - Geometrical Optics-Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg (1970)
APPLIED PHYSICS
AND ENGINEERING
An International Series
Geometrical Optics
Hans-Georg Zimmer
Geometrical Optics
With 46 Figures
7082 Oberkochen
Thiersteinweg 4
Perfect Imagery
We must first consider what is meant by optical imagery and under
what conditions it can be considered perfect. The laws governing perfect
imagery will be derived and their significance discussed in detail. Every-
thing that is necessary for the understanding of the function of optical
instruments follows from these laws.
§ 2. Light Tubes
Geometrical Description
of the Light Cone used in Energy Measurements
Suppose the energy transferred by radiation is to be measured. Let the
emitter 0 be considered as two-dimensional, for example a glowing piece
of tin. It radiates light and heat in all directions, some of which reaches
the receiver P, also supposed to be two-dimensional. It could be a piece
of tin blackened with soot and placed in front of a sensitive thermometer
or thermo-element. How the emitter and receiver work is not the concern
of geometrical optics: we simply assume that they function perfectly.
But it is important that they be two-dimensional. Three-dimensional
emitters such as gas discharge lamps obey, strictly speaking, different
laws.
The volume of space connecting all points of 0 with all points of P
by straight lines will now be termed a light tube. To be fully consistent
we should have to call it a radiation tube since, in physical measurements,
we are only concerned with radiation, not with the sensation of light.
Furthermore, the measuring procedure is not confined to the radiation
we receive as light. Nevertheless, the term light tube is convenient in
practice.
Light Tubes 3
The light tube can have a very complex form which can only be
described with the help of differential calculus. However, all the funda-
mental problems of geometrical optics can be treated with the very
simplest model. This model is applicable to centred systems: emitter and
receiver are circular discs perpendicular to a straight line through their
centres. This straight line is termed the axis of the system or instrument.
This .simple case has great practical significance since the vast
majority of optical instruments are, in fact, centred systems or can be
interpreted as such. In the case of the photographic camera, the radiation
receiver (the emulsion on the film) is rectangular in form. It can never-
theless be treated as a centred system if we consider the circle through
its coruers to be the edge of the image. The theory developed in this book
presupposes centred systems even when this assumption is not explicitly
Fig. 1
marginal ray. Similarly, we define a principal ray as the line joining the
edge of 0 to the centre of P. Now we choose a point E lying on the axis
but not necessarily within the light tube. We draw normals A and B
from the point E to the marginal and principal ray respectively. The
length of these normals is taken as positive when the normal lies above
the axis, negative under it. In this way, we have defined two coordinates
for the light tube. Two further coordinates can be obtained from the
angles u and w subtended by the marginal and principal rays with the
axis. The coordinates we choose are U = sin u and W = sin w. The signs
of the angles are not chosen in agreement with the convention of analytical
geometry but exactly the opposite. In Fig. 2, u is therefore negative,
w positive. The signs are assigned in this way to give a positive refracting
power for a converging lens. It is not advisable to change this convention
since considerable confusion would result.
o
p
Marginal ray
Principol/l!Y
o
Fig. 2
§ 3. Linear Conductivity
A Measure of the Influence of the Light Tube
on the Energy Transfer
Suppose now the emitter and receiver are set in operation. The energy
which is transferred through the light tube in a given time is the total
quantity of energy, a physically meaningful definition whose technical
unit is the Watt-Second. But we are normally interested in the energy
transferred per unit of time. This is measured in Watts and is termed the
energy flow or the radiating power.
To begin with, we operate emitter and receiver under "normal con-
ditions". This means, for both sound and light radiation, that the energy
transfer takes place in air. For radiation which is strongly absorbed in
air, the normal medium is a vacuum. We now change the sizes of emitter
and receiver without changing their other characteristics, and we also
change their separation. The measured radiating power is thereby changed.
In a second series of experiments we maintain the geometrical form
of the light tube. However, we replace the normal medium between
emitter and receiver by another material which does not absorb the
energy to be transferred but changes the three-dimensional energy density
in the light tube. For sound radiation this would imply a different gas.
A change of temperature or gas pressure has the same effect. For light
radiation one would choose a perfect optical glass.
From these experiments, the basis of which was given by J. H. LAM-
BERT (1728-1777), we can deduce that the radiating power (/J is pro-
portional to the square of the refractive index n of the medium used in
the light tube and to the square of the quantity A W - BU characteristic
of the light tube. Thus
(/J = c n 2 (A W - BU)2, c being the constant of proportionality.
It follows that if two light tubes of different form give the same
numerical value for A W - BU, they will transfer energy in the same
medium with the same radiating power. In different media, the radiating
powers are proportional to the squares of the corresponding refractive
indices. If the first light tube has a value A W - BU twice that of the
second light tube, it will transfer energy with four times the radiating
power.
The constant of proportionality c is a measure of the power of the
emitter and should strictly be given a specific name. But not all light
tubes are centred and it was not our intention to base our measuring
technique on this particular property. Instead, we shall use the expression
c/n2 and call it the radiation density. The denominator n 2 merely signifies
a change from circular to square emitters and receivers.
6 Perfect Imagery
D )1
Fig. 3
large surface and a large range of angles. The next section shows how
this difficulty can be avoided.
§ 4. Diffraction
A Limit for the Transfer of Energy through Light Tubes
Suppose we choose the point E for the coordinate system A, B, U
and W of the light tube to be in the centre of the emitter. Then A = 0 and
the linear conductivity assumes the special form LLW = - BnU.
If we reduce the diameter of the emitter, Band LLW become correspond-
ingly smaller. If we wish to leave LLW unchanged, we must increase U to
compensate for the reduction in B. But there are limits to this process;
for the value of U = sin u cannot become greater than 1. We can increase
the refractive index up to 2.5 (diamond), but after this there is nothing
we can do that will prevent the linear conductivity being made smaller
by further reduction in the size of the emitter.
The coordinate system A, if etc. mentioned in the previous paragraph
gives fundamentally different results: it does not matter how small we
make the emitter. We can always find an angle u which gives the desired
value for - BnU, since U = tan u tends to infinity when u approaches
a right angle.
If the point E is placed in the middle of the receiver, completely
analogous conclusions follow for the expressions AnW and AnW. We
thus arrive at the following conclusion. If the first coordinate system is
the right one for the light tube, there must exist a fundamental difference
between the transfer of energy from large and small emitters. The same
applies to receivers. If, on the other hand, the system with the barred
letters is correct, no such difference can occur.
8 Perfect Imagery
up a general picture of all the processes that are possible or even conceiv-
able in connexion with perfect imagery.
In order to avoid conflict with experiment while establishing our
theory of perfect imagery, we must restrict its range of validity to exclude
disturbing diffraction effects. Since there is no natural sharp boundary,
we shall define the limit of validity according to the requirement that the
value of the linear conductivity may not be less than a Rayleigh unit,
i.e. one wavelength.
The limiting performance of optical instruments is often defined by
the resolving power, a quarter of the Rayleigh unit. There is no con-
tradiction here with the arguments above since the resolving power is not
concerned with a correct description of the energy transfer; it merely
indicates when all details of the light tube (for example, form and size
of the emitter) vanish under the diffraction pattern. If LLW lies between
one Rayleigh unit and one quarter of a unit, we can still use the theory
of perfect imagery as a rough approximation. Below the resolving power
the conclusions of the theory become definitely false.
Experimental facts formed the basis for the introduction of the three
fundamental concepts: the light tube, the linear conductivity and the
Rayleigh unit. However, we still have no formal proof that they are
correct. The theory of perfect imagery makes use of these fundamental
concepts and arrives by means of logical developments at conclusions
which far exceed the experimental knowledge implied in those concepts
but which are amply confirmed by the behaviour of optical instruments.
In this way, the basic assumptions find their justification in the final
conclusions. Aberration theory shows that they are not exactly correct
but nevertheless of great practical value. The more exact formulation of
aberration theory is from the start highly complex; but the significance
of these complicated formulae only becomes clear if we maintain the
concept of perfect imagery as a guide line. The principles of aberration
theory also represent an approximation and give only a rough criterion
for the image quality.
The theory takes account of only one property of the medium, the
refractive index. It can therefore give no information at all about polari-
zation or the special optical effects occuring in crystals.
The following three sections give the abstract theory of perfect
imagery, in other words, the formal consequences of the above definition.
Many readers will find the formulae somewhat arid because their signi-
ficance cannot readily be grasped. The abstract form. has deliberately
been chosen in order to separate the pure theory from the applications
which follow.
The Fundamental Processes of Perfect Imagery 11
Fig. 4
{ A* = A + wB B*=B
Q n*U* = nU + wnW n*W* = nW, (7.5)
to which we can give the physical significance of an "object shift". The
justification is analogous to the first case since we have simply reversed
the roles of emitter and receiver. It should be remembered that in the
theory of perfect imagery the assumption of Lambert radiation applies
equally to the receiver.
For our third set of solutions we shall make the assumption n*U*
= nU aud n*W* = nW giving
Fig. 5
The three sets of solutions object shift, pupil shift and transfer do
not introduce anything fundamentally new, for the first two processes
merely provided us with experimental evidence of the invariance of the
conductivity, while the third is geometrically obvious from the choice of
the coordinate system. But there are further solutions contained in the
equation (7.2). If we put A * = A and B* = B, we find the set of solutions
A* =A B*=B
{
(J> n*U* = nU + cpA n*W* = nW + cpB. (7.7)
This set describes those processes which we call refraction, since the
solution contains the classical lens formula. For if we divide the first
equation of the second row by A * = A we arrive at the relation
n*U* nU
A*'=A+CP' (7.8)
~I~r~,
a ..I b )1
Fig. 6
The relation
ad-bc=l (9.3)
exists between the coefficients.
In order to prove this, we will suppose that the quantities A, B, nU,
n Wand A *, B*, n*U*, n*W* are solutions of the equation LLW = LLW*
and that LLW = AnW - BnU ¥= O. We can then calculate the coeffi-
cients a, b, c, d from equations (9.1). The simple reduction
A*'nWA - B*nUA + B*AnU - A*BnU
aA +bnU= LLW
= A*AnW - BnU = A*
LLW
shows that the first equation of (9.2) is satisfied. It is just as easy to
verify the other three equations.
The reduction necessary for the proof of the relation (9.3) is somewhat
longer:
1
ad - be = LLW2 [(A*nW - B*nU)·(n*W*A - n*U*B)-
- (B*A - A*B)·(n*U*nW - n*W*nU)]
1
= LLW2 [A*nWn*W*A - B*n*W*AnU - A*n*U*BnW +
+ B*n*U*BnU - B*n*U*AnW + A*n*U*BnW +
+ B*n*W*AnU - A*n*W*BnU].
The second and seventh terms and the third and sixth terms in the
square brackets cancel out and the remaining terms can be rearranged
to give
(A*n*W* - B*n*U*) (AnW - BnU) = LLW*·LLW = LLW2,
which proves relation (9.3).
With the help of theorems 1 and 2 we can now prove the
Principal theorem of the theory of perfect imagery. Every solution of
the equation LLW = LLW* can be obtained from the combination of
refractions (J) and transfers Ll. Of course, the assumption is made here that
the linear conductivity is not equal to zero, since this is one of the funda-
mental principles of the theory.
The proof can be derived from the set of equations (8.1) which can
be expressed in the following form with A, B, nU and nW as factors:-
Alii = (1 + rp (l2)A + ((11 + (12 + (11 rp (l2)nU
nlllU'" = rp A + (1 + (11 rp)nU
Bill = (1 + rp (l2)B + ((11 + (12 + (11 rp (l2)nW (9.4)
n'"WIII = rp B + (1 + (11 rp)nW .
Summary of all the Processes of Perfect Imagery 19
These equations have the same form as (9.2) and the coefficients
satisfy the relation (9.3):
The last relation is self evident without algebraic proof, since transfers
and refractions are solutions of the equation LLW = LLW*.
It now only remains to be proved that 151, 152 and rp can be determined
in such a way that the coefficients assume definite values a, b, c, d as
given by (9.1). These equations are
This table should be read from left to right, not the reverse. The
colour sensation yellow can also occur as a "complementary colour" if the
region around 480 nm is absent from the visible range of radiation. We
shall leave the details of the theory of colour vision to the physiologists,
painters and Goethe and confine ourselves to purely physical aspects.
The eye is markedly different from a physical radiation receiver. It
does not register the quantity of radiation entering it from outside or
the average value of the energy flow. It compares brightness, by which
we mean radiation density, values of which are measured in units which
are not independent of the wavelength. This is necessary because the
sensitivity of the eye is a function of wavelength. But there are consider-
able variations between the eyes of different observers. An international
to V(.t}
O+,~~~~~~~~~~l?
400 500 600 700 nm
violet· blue· green ·yel/ow· red
Fig. 7
A further unit in use is the apostilb (asb) defined by 31416 asb = 1 sb.
It is practical for defining the brightness of diffusely reflecting sources of
finite area or for twilight or night vision; for the human eye can adapt
itself to the large range of brightness from 20 sb down to 10-10 sb, i.e.
down to about 3.10-6 asb. Everyone of us has noticed that it is possible
to look at a fluorescent lamp but not at the filament of an incandescent
lamp, and certainly not at the sun. We shall content ourselves here with
these brief comments on photometry and light measurements as distinct
from physical radiation measurements.
In the physical description of vision, the observed object is considered
to be the emitter. The receiver is the hole in the iris which we call the
"pupil". Its apparent radius seen from outside lies between 1 mm and
4 mm. A typical mean value for the pupil radius in daylight vision is
1.5 mm. What size must the emitter have in order that the linear conduc-
tivity of the light tube be just one Rayleigh unit? The wavelength is taken
to be 554 nm = 0.000554 mm since the eye is particularly sensitive to
radiation of this wavelength. The emitter is taken to be at infinity so
that its size is defined by the angle w. The smallest value for geometrical
imagery is then described by the relation
LLW= 1 R.E.
In the plane of the pupil B = 0, in air n = 1, so that
AW = 0.000554 mm
W = 0.000554 mm = 0.00037 .
1.5mm
This corresponds to an angle of about 1.3', a value agreeing well with
experimental results which show that we can recognize details with an
angular diameter of 2.6' when suitably illuminated. This can readily be
24 Perfect Imagery
is much smaller, the limit being an angular field of about 30° on each side
of the direction of view.
If the field of view in an optical instrument is restricted to less than
20° on either side of the axis, the observer has the feeling that he is
looking through a tube. But it is worthwhile to construct eyepieces with
a field of more than 30° to the axis because we are used to having a
region of sharp vision surrounded by a larger field in which structures
and movements can be perceived.
For the schematic eye defined in this way with a fixed head position
we have nW = l'sin 30° = 0.5. If we place the reference point E in the
middle of the pupil, then B = 0 and A = 1.5. It follows that the linear
conductivity is given by
LLW = AnW - BnU = 1.5 x 0.5 mm = 0.75 mm .
This value is important when the question is raised whether the light
tube of an instrument can be adapted to the eye.
distance of the lens from the eye becomes comparable with the distance
of the object. This particular point will not be discussed further here.
The object shift caused by a spectacle lens or a magnifying glass is
determined by the refracting power rp. It has the dimensions of a reci-
procallength and can therefore be expressed as mm-i or m-i . The latter
unit is called a dioptre (dpt). Another convention is to use the reciprocal
of the refracting power which is called the focal length f and is expressed in
mm or m. A lens or lens group with the refracting power rp = 0.01 mm-i
1
= 10 m-i = 10 dpt has a focallengthf= 0.01 mm = 100 mm = 0.1 m.
For some purposes the first system is more practical, for others the second.
It is easier to picture a focal length but calculations can be carried out
better with refracting powers.
What is the magnifying power of a spectacle lens or a magnifying
glass? Strictly speaking, there is no magnification since the lens should
really be placed in the plane of the pupil. If this were possible, the eye
would see the object under exactly the same angle with and without the
lens. This is made clear by Fig. 4 if the roles of emitter and receiver are
reversed. 0 and 0* are to be considered as the eye pupil. An object at p*
cannot be seen clearly since it is too close to the eye. An object shift
brings it to P in the range of accommodation of the eye.
The definition of the magnifying power N for a magnifying glass is
based on a convention. It is
250mm
N = - - , - = 250 mm·rp
in which f and rp are the focal length and refracting power respectively
of the magnifying glass.
The basis of this definition is the relation proved in § 8 between an
object shift Q and a refraction if> in the plane of the receiver:
(nW)2
rp= w LLW ·
In the special case of the eye pupil we have n = 1 and B = 0 so that
W
rp=w-X.
For the normal range of accommodation we have an object shift of
u* - u A (1 1) A
Wo = -W-- = IV 250 mm - -;;;; = W. 250 mm·
Th·· hi d b h
IS IS ac eve yt e
refracting power
W 1
rpo = Wo -X = 250 mm = 4 dpt
and is produced in the eye by a change in shape of the eye lens situated
immediately behind the pupil.
The Telescope and the Microscope 27
0'
"I ...... ...... ,
p
I ' ,
...... ,0·
L2
'--v--/
LT Eyepiece
Objective
Fig. 8
corresponding increase in pupil size. For the naked eye, an increase in the
diameter of the pupil beyond 3 mm gives no improvement in the resolution
of fine detail. The reason for this lies in the construction and function of
the eye. This difficulty is overcome by the use of an optical instrument,
a telescope, which produces an enlarged image of the eye pupil. This
enlarged image serves as receiver for the radiation. The principle of such
an instrument is shown in Fig. 8.
28 Perfect Imagery
15 rnm/8 = 1.875 mm. This is rather more than the radius 1.5 mm of
the eye pupil in daylight. This excess is deliberate and takes account of
vision in twilight. The angle of view of the eye W* = 0.5 = sin 30°
corresponds to a field angle of
W = 0.5/8 = 0.0625 = sin 3.5°
for the instrument. We can thus only observe an angular field of 7° with
this telescope but can recognize fine detail of angular diameter one eighth
of 2.6', i.e. about 20".
The simple opera glass has a design which is basically different from
that shown in Fig. 8. Its objective diameter is not the determining factor
in its resolution. We shall deal with this instrument in § 18.
The basic principle in the design of the telescope, as shown in Fig. 8,
is also used in the microscope, but the objective is specially designed for
the observation of very near objects. Suppose a magnifying glass of
strong refracting power is placed in front of the telescope. Compared with
a magnifying glass directly in front of the eye, this system has the
advantage that the dimensions of the lenses are technically feasible from
a manufacturing point of view. For a given desired object shift w we would
need a magnifying glass with refracting power rp* = w : : if it were
placed directly in front of the eye, but placed in front of the telescope
with a magnification of k times we only need the refracting power rp = w ~
(12.2)
30 Perfect Imagery
for the refracting power of the eyepiece. With the definition 250 mm'lf = N
for its magnifying power it follows that
A* = _ n'U'·250mm
N
and from (12.2)
A* = _ nU·250mm
(12.3)
p·N .
If, for example, we take an objective 40/0.65 and a 10 x eyepiece,
then {J = - 40, nU = 0.65 and N = 10 so that
A* = 0.65·250mm = 041
40.10 . mm.
The exit pupil of this microscope is much smaller than the eye pupil
in daylight vision. The resolving power is therefore only limited by the
design of the instrument and not by the eye. Microscopists usually choose
total magnifications of the instrument between 500 and 1000 times the
numerical aperture at the object. The corresponding values for the pupil
radius A * are from 0.5 mm to 0.25 mm, Le. from one third to one sixth of
the radius of the daylight eye pupil. Smaller values than this are not
advisable since the natural inhomogeneities of the eye become noticeable.
Larger pupils P* are only possible if the total magnification is reduced;
but this reduces the angular size of the image since the linear conductivity
of modem microscopes seldom exceeds - n'U'B' = 0.03 x 15 mm =
0.45 mm. The effect of increasing the exit pupil of the instrument to the
size of the daylight eye pupil is to reduce the useful visual field angle W*
below the value 0.3 = sin 17.5° with the result that the observer has the
feeling that he is looking into a tube.
If, on the other hand, the exit pupil of the instrument is smaller than
the eye pupil, extended objects which can also be seen with the naked
eye appear darker in the microscope. There are two quite different
reasons why this must be so. Firstly, radiated energy is absorbed in the
glass and reflected at the lens surfaces. These effects do not really belong
to the field of geometrical optics and can be substantially reduced bv the
The Telescope and the Microscope 31
choice of suitable glasses and anti-reflexion films. But even if they could
be entirely removed there still remains a loss in brightness. This second
effect arises from the fact that the radiated power per uuit of angle of
vision registered by the eye at constant radiation density is proportional
to the square of the pupil aperture.
The conditions governing the brightness of very small objects which
cannot be resolved in the instrument are fundamentally different. The
rules of geometrical optics break down here. Instead of an image, we see
a diffraction pattern whose size depends only upon the effective pupil
diameter. If the exit pupil of the instrument is not smaller than the eye
pupil, the diffraction pattern seen by means of the instrument has the
same size as that seen by the eye alone. Given a telescope magnification
r = k, the area of the entrance pupil of the telescope is k2 times that of
the eye pupil. But the radiated power received is proportional to the area
of the entrance pupil so that the diffraction pattern in the telescope
appears k 2 times brighter than it does to the naked eye.
If brightness losses through absorption and reflexion are neglected,
the sky appears to have the same brightness through an 8 x 30 binocular
as it does to the naked eye with a pupil of not more than 1.875 mm radius.
But the stars are 82 = 64 times as bright and can thus be much more
readily seen than with the naked eye.
If the radius of the eye pupil is a-times larger than that of the exit
pupil of the instrument, then the diffraction pattern seen in the instru-
ment is a-times larger than that seen directly by the eye. The radiated
power received by the entrance pupil of the instrument is distributed
over a larger area. Theoretically, the same loss of brightness occurs as
for extended objects. In fact, this can only be observed when the radius
of the exit pupil has been reduced to about a quarter or a fifth of that of
the eye pupil. It is not possible to give an exact value as the effect depends
on the physiological nature of the eye. It is used to increase the contrast
between diffraction objects and background so that details of low inten-
sity can be more readily seen. This is the reason why it is usual in astro-
nomical and microscopical observations to work with "excess magnifica-
tion", that is, with an exit pupil smaller than the eye pupil.
The resolving power of the microscope at the plane of the object is
given by BnU = 0.25 R.E. With a fixed wavelength, as nU is increased,
smaller and smaller objects can be resolved. U = sin u cannot exceed 1;
in practice it rarely exceeds 0.9. The resolution is improved if the object
is not observed in air (n = 1) but immersed in a medium of higher refrac-
tive index. The commonest immersion liquids are water (n = 1.33) or
special oils (n = 1.52). Monobromnaphthalene (n = 1.68) and methylene
iodide (n = 1.74) are only used in special cases.
32 Perfect Imagery
0,
0;
Fig. 9
:~;" Lens
Fig. 10
Lens as
pup/7 Image in the
fi7m plane
Fig. 11
formed by the marginal ray from the edge of the exit pupil to the centre
of the elementary area in the film plane. A typical case is shown in Fig. 11
in which an infinitely distant object (U = 0) is imaged by a thin lens
in the plane of the pupil. It follows that it is not the absolute size of the
stop which is of fundamental importance in a camera, but the angle u'
it subtends at the film plane. The space between objective and film
contains air so that n' = 1.
The speed of a photographic objective is defined by its largest "rela-
tive aperture" 2t. The quantity 2h defines more exactly the diameter
of its entrance pupil. For u = 0, we have h = A as the perpendicular to
the marginal ray and rp = If/the refracting power of the objective. Hence,
from equation (9.1)
n'U'nW - n'W'nU n'U'
rp = LLW =--x- fornU = 0.
normal stop numbers and the corresponding values of 2 n'U'. The factor 2
has no special significance in photography. The field angle is usually
given as 2W rather than W.
Apart from the bracketed intermediate value 3.5, two successive stop
numbers differ by the factor V-Z = 1.41. This is convenient, since the
intensity of irradiation in the image of extended objects is proportional
to the square of n'U' and is therefore halved by a change from any stop
number to the next higher number, doubled by a change to the next
lower number. If the radiation density is to remain unaltered, we require
an exposure time twice as long and half as long respectively.
Table 3
2 n 'u' 2A
=T+ n'W' 2 U
nW n . (14.1)
intensity is not a function of the object plane if W' = 0, that is, if the
exit pupil is placed at infinity. This is technically possible but is of no
significance in practical photography.
Modern miniature camera objectives have a focal length f = SO mm,
i.e. a refracting power rp = 0.02 mm-I = 20 dpt and a relative aperture
2 h/f = 1/2.8. The smallest stop number is 2.8 giving a diameter of the
entrance pupil 2 A = SO mm/2.8 = 18 mm. For an angular field 2 w = 46°
we have in air nW = -0.39. The minus sign corresponds to Fig. 11 but is,
of course, arbitrary. In the plane of the entrance pupil, B = 0 so that
LLW=AnW= -9 x 0.39mm=- 3.Smm.
A comparison with the linear conductivity of the eye (LLW = 0.7S
mm) shows that it is not possible with the tools of geometrical optics to
adapt the light tube of the camera objective to the eye. Consequently,
no viewfinder can exist which enables the eye to see the image as it
appears in the film plane. We can only view the whole image field if we
reduce the aperture in the viewfinder to one fifth. This implies photo-
graphing with a stop number of 14. Alternatively, we can use the whole
aperture but only see a fifth of the image field. In practical viewfinders
the full aperture is abandoned in favour of a view of the whole image
field. For this reason, the image quality cannot be checked in the view-
finder and incorrect focusing can only be detected by a trick. This consists
of introducing into the plane of the emulsion a ground glass screen which
scatters the radiation more or less uniformly. It follows that the intensity
distribution over the ground glass screen can be seen from more or less
any position and it is no longer necessary to locate the eye in the pupil
plane. This destruction of the light tube by scattering has the disadvan-
tage that the rules of geometrical optics are no longer valid. The radiation
density becomes smaller, the image on the ground glass screen appears
markedly darker than the object. This is the reason why photographers
used to cover their heads with a black cloth and why it is still necessary
today to use the largest stop aperture when focusing with a ground glass
screen viewfinder.
Finally, we shall refer briefly to a curiosity of photography, the
pinhole camera. As Fig. 9 showed, a geometrical separation of the light
tubes behind the pinhole is not possible. Nevertheless, the pinhole camera
can yield good pictures if the exposure times are long enough and the
size of the pinhole is suitably chosen. In Fig. 12, suppose the object
distance a is large compared with the radius r of the pinhole. If this is
the case, the geometrical spread of the light tube compared with the
central projection through the centre of the hole is of the order of
magnitude of r. The greater the separation b of the pinhole from the
film plane, the less significant this spread becomes in relation to the
central projection. On the other hand, the angle u' subtended by the
The Calculation of Light Tubes 39
Axis
Central projection
of the object
~, -;-(' -;::, -:.: --- -r
a ;,1 b
"I
Fig. 12
There is no difference between the sine and tangent of this small angle
so that we can write sin u' = rib giving:
r2
b=A, r = VbA.
This process is repeated for every lens or refracting surface of the system
until we arrive at the form of the light tube in the image space behind
the last surface.
Numerical calculations are not popular because they require consider-
able self discipline. Optical designers facilitate their daily work in no
small measure by using a fixed scheme for the calculation of the necessary
quantities, i.e. the values corresponding to fixed symbols are calculated
strictly in a given order. The choice of such a scheme depends on what
machines are available for calculation, the type of design and personal
factors: in principle, it has no effect on the results. Experience has shown,
Im.age plane
Stop
Exif PPpI7.', ,.,En/ranee pIJpl7
,,
Axis.
H'H
,,
T T
I ,
Fig. 13
1. A, B, 1.
14 -5
n~U~ n~W~ 0.224 - 0.48
2. A2 B2 2.
11.76 - 0.2
n~U~ n~W~ - 0.11704 - 0.4742
A3 B3 13.04744 5.0162
3. 3.
n~U~ n~W~ 0.130861 - 0.378892
Fig. 14
B1/W1 = 12.5 mm behind the first lens. The exit pupil lies B3/W~ =
- 13.24 mm behind the third lens; or, following the sign rule for separa-
tions, 13.24 mm in front of the third lens. How long is the perpendicular
AAP in the exit pupil? We can calculate this by means of a transfer
with 15 = 13.24 (in the opposite direction to the incident light) from the
relation AAP = A~ + t5n~U~. But the following method is more elegant.
At the exit pupil, B = 0 by definition. It follows from the invariance of
the linear conductivity that AAP n~W~ = LLW, so that
AAP = - 5.6/ - 0.378892 = 14.78 mm .
The magnification between the entrance pupil and the exit pupil
is AAP/A EP = 14.78/14 = n l WI/n~W~ = - 0.4/ - 0.378892 = 1.0557. A
real stop must be introduced in the plane where the principal ray (not
its extension) cuts the axis. This plane lies Bz/Wf = 0.42 mm behind the
second lens. At this point, the perpendicular on to the marginal ray has
a length A B = LLW/Wf = 11.81 mm. The marginal ray has an inclination
to the axis sin u = 0.117, giving a radius of the stop R = AB/cos U =
11.81 mm/0.9931 = 11.89 mm.
The Calculation of Light Tubes 43
Table 4
- 0.0025 - 0.0025
15.0 0
1. 0.044215 - 0.0025
2. 14.591324 0.023107
0.044215 - 0.0025
position of the image although rp2 = o. However, it does not alter its
size, for n 1 Udn~U~ has the same value as n 1 Udn~U~.
c= CPt = [cpt] ,
d= 1 + b,cp, = [b" CPI] .
A*=A* = aA + bnU,
n*U* = n*U* + CPkA* = (c + acpk)A + (d + b CPk)nU .
The corresponding equations for the refraction of the principal ray need
not be given, as they have the same coefficients.
Transfer with the parameter bkH:
d= d + b CPk = [b" CPt, .. " !Pk-l] + [b" !p" ... , CPk-l, bk] '!pk
= [b" CPt' ... , bk, CPk] ,
Ii = a + CbkH = [!PI' b2 , ••• , bk] + [!PI' bz, ... , bk, !Pk] ·bkH
= [cpt, b2 , ••• , CPk, bkH] ,
The Gaussian BFackets 47
b = b + d15k+1 = [15 1, rpl' ... , 15k] + [151, rpl' •.. , 15k, rpk] ,15k+1
= [15 1 , rpl' ... , rpk, 15k+1] .
This inductive process has led us to the desired result, expressed by
equation (16.1), which represents the transformation of the light tube in
terms of the system parameters:
Ak+1 = [rpl' 152 , ••• , rpk, 15k+l]Ao + [15 1 , rpl' 152 , ••• , rpk, 15k+1]noU o '
nk+1 Uk+1 = [rpl' 15 2 , ••• , 15k, rpk]A o + [15 1, rpl> 152 , ••• , 15k, rpk]noUo '
Bk+1 = [rpl' 152 , ••• , rpk, 15kH]Bo + [151, rpl' 152 , ••• , rpk, 15k+1]noW o ,
nkHWkH = [rpl,15 2, · · · , 15k, rpk]B o + [15 1, rpl' 15 2 , ••• , 15k, rpk]noWo '
(16.1)
The perpendiculars and apertures with the suffix refer to reference
point no. 0, the origin of the first transfer 151 ; the quantities with the
°
suffix k + 1 to reference point number k + 1, the terminal point of the
last transfer 15k+1.
The expressions given in the square brackets are called "Gaussian
brackets" because C. F. GAUSS drew attention to this formulation in the
course of his researches into the theory of numbers. But I do not know
of any reference to show that he used the technique in his numerical
researches into optical imagery. The following rules of calculation apply
to the Gaussian brackets: -
[] = 1; a bracket which does not contain any parameter has
the value one. This is a formal definition which is of practical
value for the reduction rules. (16.2)
[x] = x. (16.3)
[XI' x 2, ... , xn] = [XI' x 2' ... , X"-2] + [XI' x 2' ..• , Xn-l] 'X n . (16.4)
(16.4) is the reduction rule, proved above, expressed here for a general
case of parameters XI to X". The following "splitting" rule is a generali-
sation of the reduction rule: -
[XI' x 2' .•. , x,,] = [XI' x 2, ... , xi-d' [XI+2' ... , x,,] +
+ [XI' x 2' ... , Xi]' [Xl+l' ..• , X,,]. (16.5)
By using induction according to the number of the "split" parameters
Xl+l to Xn , it is possible to prove equation (16.5). This proof will not be
given because it does not yield any new physical insight.
The differentiation of the Gaussian brackets represents an application
of the splitting rule which is of interest in optics. Suppose that
K = [XI' x 2' •.. , Xi-I, Xi + LlXi' Xl+l, •.. , Xn] .
Then splitting gives
K = [XI' ... , Xi-I]' [XI+2' •.. , X,,] + [XI' •.. , Xi + Llxd' [Xl+l' ..• , X,,] •
48 Perfect Imagery
The third bracket can be transformed using the reduction rule, giving
[Xl' ... ,Xt+Llxt]= [Xl' •.. ,XH]+ [Xl' .•• ,XH]·(Xt+LlXt)
= [XI' ..• , Xi] + eXt, .•. , Xi-I] ·LlXt ;
for we can combine two additive terms, after expansion to remove the
round brackets, by reversal of the reduction rule. If this result is sub-
stituted in K and terms are collected after applying a reversal of the
splitting rule, we obtain
K = [Xl' X2' ... , Xn] + [XI' ... , Xt-I]· [Xi+!, .•. , Xn] ·Llx! .
Comparison with the first expression for K yields the simple rule for
differentiation:
a
ox, [Xl' X2' ... , Xn] = [XI' ... , Xi-I]· [XHI •.. , Xn] . (16.6)
After removing the factor [dHl, ••. , dk+1] the remaining terms can
be collected together to give At. Furthermore, equation (16.1) shows that
[dt+1' .•. , dk+1] is the coefficient b of the light tube transformation from
the reference point E, in the plane of the refracting power cP' to the
reference point Ek+1 behind the system. By virtue of equation (9.1)
B k+lAI - A>+lB,
[dHl' ... , dk+1] = LLW '
from which
OA>+l _ A Bk+lA, - A>+lB,
~- t LLW .
These equations give the size of the geometrical discs of confusion in the
original image plane when one parameter is changed by one unit. We
suppose, of course, that the image plane lies at a finite distance. If not,
the changes in the aperture nk+1Uk+1 must be investigated.
The complete set of equations for the differential coefficients of the
light tube coordinates in the image space with respect to the system
parameters!pt and d, for given coordinates in the object space is:
OAk+l A B k +lA,-Ak+lB,
~=! LLW '
OB.+1_ B B>+lA, - A'+lB,
~- t LLW '
on'+l U>+l _ A n>+lWk+l A, - nk+lUk+l B,
o 0lP' -! LLW '
(16.11)
on>+lW>+l B n>+lWk+l A, - nk+lUk+l B,
o 0lP' = j LLW '
OA>+l _ n U 4_'j-l n,WI - B'+l nlU,
00 - i I LLW '
The Gaussian Brackets 51
(16.11)
These formulae are very useful when one wishes to change an existing
system or a rough design to fulfil specified conditions. A calculation
which follows the procedure described in § 15 with the correct starting
coordinates A o, B o, noUo and noWo gives all the intermediate values A j , B j
etc. If these are inserted in the formulae given above the necessary para-
meter changes can be calculated.
Since the Gaussian brackets are linear functions of each parameter,
the differential coefficient has the same value as the finite difference
quotient. If only one parameter is free to be changed, this change is
given by equation (16.11) not merely as an approximation but exactly,
even for large changes. Thus one can arrive at the correct result without
iteration if, for example in a rough starting design, a refracting power has
been given a wrong sign or a completely incorrect value. The situation
is different when several parameters are changed simultaneously by finite
amounts. In this case, the changes in the coordinates of the light tube are
only approximately described by (16.11) because second order cross terms
do not disappear. In practice, this non-linearity does not worry us much
since a second iteration leads to a sufficiently accurate solution. Never-
theless, one cannot blindly rely on the convergence of this method: there
are cases where it diverges.
We have assumed up to now that the starting data A o, Bo etc. are
fixed values independent of the system parameters. This is almost always
the case for Ao and noUo because the data for the object are given. On
the other hand, a physical stop inside the system is often present rather
than a fixed entrance pupil. If the system parameters in front of the stop
are changed, the position of the entrance pupil is also changed. In applying
the differentiation formulae one must take this into account.
The stop is placed in lens or refracting surface number j. This does
not imply a restriction of generality because a lens of refracting power
zero can be introduced at any reference point. Then from (16.1):
Bk+1 = [!pjH, ... , !5k+1]-Bj + [!5j+1' ... , !5k+1]njWj,
nk+1Wk+1 = [!pjH, .•• , !Pk] -Bj + [!5j+1' ... , !Pk]njWj .
nlc+l
W k+l = LLW ["1+1, ... , <po]
AI '
.
In W
hi h A
C ,oft
O·
smce
B
,= 0 .
If the differentials with respect to system parameters in front of the
stop are formed, we have
8B>+1 LLW ["1+1, ... , ">+1] • aAl
8tp, = - A1 8<p,
i ;;;;, j.
E
Fig. 15
are represented with continuous lines; the principal ray and the con-
struction corresponding to it are shown with dashed lines.
Even if the marginal and principal rays are defined by known values
before the refraction, the above construction is not adequate to define
the refracted rays because the tangent points of these rays to the given
circle are not known. They are determined by means of the aperture
relation of the law of refraction
n'U' = nU + tpA , n'W' = nW + tpB .
If the first equation is multiplied by B, the second by A, we have
(n'U' - nU)B = (n'W' - nW)A = tpAB. The following construction is
based on this relation.
We draw the perpendicular 5 to the axis through E. The four angles
u, u', wand w' are defined with respect to this line. The other lines
defining these angles are the perpendiculars A, A', B and B'. Fig. 16
54 Perfect Imagery
A :4'
Q'
E
Fig. 16
equal to the distance between the points P and P', again measured in
the direction of the light. P P' is found by an equivalent construction
in which the distances nA and n'A' are drawn on to the perpendiculars
Band B'.
The construction becomes particularly simple for a thin lens in air
for which n = n' = 1, and it is only in this case that it possesses any
practical significance. For here Q and Q' are the points of intersection
of the perpendiculars A and A' (or their extensions) with the circle of
radius B centred on the reference point E; and, correspondly, P and P'
are the points of intersection of the perpendiculars Band B' (or their
extensions) with the circle of radius A centred on E. Fig. 17 shows'the
complete construction for this special case. It is supposed that the axis
with reference point E and the principal and marginal rays before
refraction are given. The perpendiculars A and B can then be constructed
and circles drawn about E as centre. To continue the construction, we
Graphical Representation of Perfect Imagery 55
will suppose that the refracted marginal ray is also given, for example
by the angle u' necessary for a given radiation intensity in the image or
for a prescribed magnification. Alternatively, this ray may be defined
by a given intersection point with the axis which, in turn, is determined
by a particular image position. In any event, we will avoid at this stage
any explicit assumptions about the refracting power. We can now con-
struct the perpendicular A' and determine Q and Q' as the points of
intersection of the perpendiculars A and A' with the circle of radius B;
and P as the intersection of the extension of the perpendicular B with
the circle of radius A. The desired point P' lies on the same circle and is
the same distance from P in the direction of the axis as the distance
--..!¥
E
Fig. 17
from Q to Q'. The line joining P' to E gives the perpendicular B' which
thus defines the refracted principal ray.
If the refracted principal ray is given, the construction can be carried
out in an analogous manner with the roles of A and B, P and Q reversed.
If the refracting power rp of the lens or surface is given, the distance n'/rp
is measured off along the axis from the point E giving the back focal point
F'. A tangent is drawn from this point to one of the two circles, for ex-
ample the circle with the radius B. The perpendicular from the reference
point E to this tangent intersects the circle with radius A in R. The pro-
jection of ER on to the axis is the distance (n'W' - nW) A =
(n'U' - nUl B = rpAB which is necessary for the construction shown
above. This can readily be seen if one remembers that the tangent used
in the construction may be considered as a principal ray which was
parallel to the axis before refraction and for which the relation n'W' =
rpB must therefore hold.
56 Perfect Imagery
Fig. 18
The construction given above for light tubes is useful in that it can
be readily understood from the rules of elementary geometry; but it
rapidly becomes unwieldy when applied to optical systems consisting of
several lenses with small separations. For such cases, the "conductivity
diagram" introduced by E . DELANO in an article in Vol. 2 of "Applied
Optics" (1963) is more practical. This is much simpler to construct and,
although its significance is less clear than that of the section through
the light tube, it nevertheless permits a geometrical interpretation of
the process.
DELANO considers the marginal ray and the principal ray as two
projections of a line, skew to the axis and joining the edge of the emitter
to the edge of the receiver, on to two planes which are perpendicular to
each other and contain the axis. To illustrate this, we shall suppose one
Graphical Representation of Perfect Imagery 57
Fig. 19 shows the longitudinal section through the light tube for the
same system.
The apertures and perpendiculars have deliberately been chosen to
be very large to make the significance of the diagrams clear. In practice,
imagery as shown here would not be possible with a single lens.
o·
<I\~
o ."cW
?II'.
[nw. B
O·
~
IT?
"\
~
10 1,0 \
[\
1.'1 \
1\
111
i n~ \ '-.
I~ ,; '\
"
,;
h V r'\
" -.- ~\ . b
~ -12 ML/ 2 6 p A
:0 IS ,; .~
"- GIS 1\ ~p ,; nU
"
-~
'1-. 1-.
1-. ./
j=ll5 ~.
1-. ~
-8 1/
'l/
-.'I
V
./
_Il 1.A'1'
0
Fig. 20
refraction and (3 the apertures after the refraction. It follows from (17.6)
that MIX is parallel to OL and M(3 parallel to LO'; from (17.5) that ML
is parallel to 1X(3. The area of the parallelogram formed by MIX and M(3
is calculated as the product of the base and height of the triangle MIX(3,
giving <>IXM(3 = 0.4167. From (17.4), rp = 0.4167/5 = 0.0833 = 1/12. The
sign can only be obtained from this construction if the area contained
by the parallelogram is given a sign according to the direction of move-
ment round M. The parallelogram formed by MO and ML has the area
<>OML = 100. As we are supposing that the lens is in air, the distance
from object to lens is, according to (17.3), 20 units. Since <> LMO' = 150
it follows that the distance from the lens to the image is 30 units. The
pupil planes are given by B = 0, that is by the intersection points of the
lines on the perpendicular diagram, or of these lines produced, with the
Fig. 21
gram formed by MC and MD. For if one constructs the triangles MB'D
and MCA, which form part of the rectangle of area B'A and lie outside
the parallelogram, then the area of the parallelogram is obtained if the
area of the upper rectangle A' B is subtracted from that of the rectangle
B'A. The proof of (17.4) is completely analogous and follows from the
elimination of rp from the relation (7.7) for the refraction@.
There remain a few points concerning the conductivity diagram.
There can be no line or extension thereof on the perpendicular or
aperture diagram which goes through the origin of coordinates M, since
LLW ¥= O. Any polygon, whose sides (or extensions thereof) do not pass
through M, may be considered as a perpendicular diagram. Furthermore,
we may use (17.5) and (17.6) to construct the corresponding aperture
diagram from any specified starting point, and the reverse process applies
If a line parallel to the new B*-axis is drawn through the point with
the coordinates A = 0 and B = 1, then this line cuts the A-axis at a
distance w from the origin M. In Fig. 22, w is negative. If a conductivity
diagram has been constructed and we wish to investigate the effect of
an object shift, we can leave the figure as it is and simply "shear" the
B-axis. The changed perpendiculars and apertures as well as the new
positions and sizes of the object and image can immediately be read off
in the new coordinate system.
As an example of an object shift represented by a "shearing" of the
B-axis, we shall show that the points F and F' in the perpendicular
diagram of Fig. 20 indicate the front and rear foci respectively of the
lens L. If the B-axis is "sheared" until it is parallel with OL and therefore
passes through the point IX, then nl*UI * = O. The object lies at infinity
and has an apparent angular diameter of nrWr = - 0.4. The point F'
has the new coordinate A * = 0 and is thus the image point of the
infinitely distant object, i.e. the rear image point. The image size is given
by B* = 4.8 and the aperture on the image side is n*U* = 1.03. Such
apertures in air are, of course, meaningless and serve to remind us that
Fig. 20 is concerned with a theoretical demonstration of the conductivity
diagram and not with a practical case of image formation. The demon-
stration that F is the front focal point of the lens is analogous to that
for F' above. The distances of the focal points from the lens can be
calculated according to (17.3) from LLW and the area of the parallelo-
gram formed by ML and MF or by ML and MF'.
Any pupil shift II can be represented in the conductivity diagram by
a "shearing" of the A-axis. The proof is completely analogous to that
for an object shift above.
nW 8
o
l-
I 20
0,3
0.1 L
-5 5 A
-0.1 p' 0.1 nU
+P'
Fig. 23
nW B
a2 4
-2 P' (P A
-al nU
Eyepiece I
.. I
I
I
10 I
P'
.... \
~.,..-.-.-
\i
a5 I
I
I
\i I
\i ·-a5 -10
I
\i
,
I
\i
\i
II
-a5 -10
Fig. 24 Fig. 25
photo effect of the objective and would be quite pointless if one could
achieve perfect imagery with two lenses.
Fig. 25 shows the conductivity diagram for a simple opera glass with
2.5 x magnification. The scale is the same as that of Fig. 24. The linear
conductivity LLW = - 0.39 and the angle of view of the eye is only
utilized up to W' = 0.264. This telescope does not have a real intermediate
image, i.e. there is no intersection of the perpendicular diagram with the
B-axis. Of the two pupils, only the exit pupil P' is real and is determined
in normal use by the position of the eye pupil. The entrance pupil (P)
Condnctivity Diagrams of Optical Instruments 65
is virtual and appears in the case shown 128 mm behind the objective,
or 87 mm behind the eyepiece. Since the position of the exit pupil depends
upon how the user holds the instrument, the values found.in practice
may differ widely from those calculated. The variations in the pupil
position can be represented in the diagram by "shearing" the A-axis
The useful field is very sensitive to such variations. A "shearing" in the
clockwise direction corresponds to an increase in the distance of the
eyepiece from the exit pupil. In this case, the objective must be given
a larger diameter if vignetting of the light tube by its rim is to be avoided,
although the diameter of the entrance pupil remains unchanged at 7.5 mm.
nW B
0.3 6
MagnifYing glass
-Qj -6
-5 P A
><
....
'-
~:
Fig. 28
point to some other one, then the conductivity naturally retains its
numerical value and assumes the form given in (19.2). Accordingly, we
can interpret the expression for the depth T as the linear conductivity
with which the circles of confusion from 0 are imaged in the plane of 0*;
or (apart from the sign) as the conductivity with which the circles of
confusion from 0* are imaged in the plane of O. Thus if the absolute
value of T is less than one quarter of a Rayleigh unit, then the unsharp-
ness of the first object is less than the Rayleigh limit when the other is
sharply imaged. This means that the unsharpness is less than the lower
limit for the rules of perfect imagery. It follows that the geometrical
difference in the position of the objects will not be rendered visible by
optical imagery.
Care is necessary in interpreting depth of imagery in practice. In
special cases, objects whose separation is less than the depth of imagery
can nevertheless be separated optically by means of interference techni-
ques. But the relative amount of energy originating from the two emitters
can no longer be measured. This implies that the two objects are effectively
seen as one. If two objects are separated by more than ± 0.25 RE. from
a mean focus position - that is, more than half a Rayleigh unit from
each other - then they are, in many cases, visibly separated. This is
important in the theory of aberrations. Suppose a lens system yields a
red image separated from a blue image; then this colour error can be
detected when the separation between the two images is more than
0.5 RE. The effect only becomes serious with larger values. Our eye is
fortunately less critical here than a physical measuring instrument. The
special characteristics of the eye make it impossible to give a precise
limit for the depth at which two objects can be recognized as separate.
An example of such special visual effects is the different resolution of
points and lines to which we have already referred. The data given by
E. ABBE and M. BEREK for the calculation of depths of focus in the
microscope correspond to a depth of about 2 RE. This is probably a
reasonable value for microscopic objects with low contrast.
As an example, we shall calculate the depth of imagery of the human
eye when observing an infinitely distant object. We thus have the con-
dition nU = O. The reference point is placed in the centre of the pupil.
In this plane for daylight vision we have A = A * = 1.5 mm. From
T = - An*U* = ± 0.25 RE. = ± 0.00014 mm
and n* = 1 it follows that U* = ± 0.0000923. The limit of the depth of
imagery is at A*JU* = ± 16250 mm = ± 16.25 m. The positive limit
gives us no practical advantage since it corresponds to an object lying
behind our head. The above result shows that we can see objects clearly
without accommodation down to a distance of just over 16 m, when our
Imagery in Depth 69
the depth of imagery is given by the perpendicular to the edge of the disc
of confusion A * = - 0.00014 mm/nU, and the geometrical extent of the
depth of imagery is thus A */U* = ± 0.00014 mm/nU2. In Table 5 values
for this depth are given in the fourth column as a function of the refractive
index and the numerical aperture nU. The last four columns refer to the
depth of accommodation in the microscope and will be explained later.
The size of the eye pupil has no importance for the depth of imagery in
the microscope provided it is larger than the exit pupil of the instrument.
This is usually the case. The values given are the smallest values according
to the theory. In practice, values between twice and four times as great
may be assumed, depending on the object structure.
Table 5
Refrac- N urn. Depth of Total Depth of Total Depth of
tive aperture imagery magnif- accomo- magnif- accommo-
index ±A*,U* ication dation ication dation
n nU U [mm] (3N= A*,U* (3N = A*,U*[mm]
500nU [mm] 1000nU
Theory of Aberrations
Aberrations describe the difference between the effects of lenses and
the predictions of perfect imagery. They are thus a measure of the
imperfection of practical imagery with lens systems; their relationship
with the system parameters is the basis of optical design. The following
sections give an inductive introduction to this theory.
sweat from human hands. For this reason, the polished surface of a lens
should never be touched. There are even a few glasses which contain
thorium and are therefore radioactive. In Germany the protection laws
are so strict that it is virtually impossible to use these. Finally, a charac-
teristic of great importance is the price. We shall quote two examples,
even though these prices may no longer be correct when this book appears.
Since the density varies between 2.28 g/cm3 and 6.18 g/cm3 , a kilogram is
contained in cubes with sides of lengths between 76 mm and 55 mm.
If one purchases from the Schott glass works, the lowest price for a
kilogram lies between $ 3.65 and $ 5.40, according to the terms of sale.
For the most expensive glass, including supplementary costs for fine
tolerances in the refractive indices, the price is $ 455 per kilogram.
The optical properties of glasses are defined by the refractive indices
n(..1.) for chosen wavelengths..1.. The refractive index is defined as the ratio
n(..1.) = s~n i
SIn 1.'
of the sines of the angles of incidence i and i', which are formed by the
wave normals and the surface normals before and after refraction at a
plane polished surface separating air (at 20°C and 760 Torr) from the
glass. The measurement of the refractive index is thus reduced to an
angle measurement carried out in air under normal conditions. This is
convenient because these are the conditions in which lenses are normally
used. In special cases, the above definition must be borne in mind; it
may be necessary to adjust the refractive indices for another reference
medium. For . 1. = 546 nm the refractive index of air at a pressure of
760 Torr relative to a vacuum is 1.00029 at oDe and 1.00027 at 20°C.
In the visible region, it is less sensitive to changes of wavelength than to
normal temperature variations.
Precision measurements of refractive indices can only be made if
monochromatic sources with small band width and high radiation density
are available. Formerly, sodium vapour lamps or even salt in a Bunsen
burner flame were used. The strong sodium yellow doublet (..1. = 589 mm)
was the standard for many years and was termed D. The corresponding
refractive indices were given the symbol nD. Because of its width this
doublet is not capable of giving the accuracy required of modern measure-
ments. Up to a decade ago, the commonest lines for measurements were
the helium d (.J. = 588 nm), the red hydrogen line C (..1. = 656 nm) and the
blue hydrogen line F (..1. = 486 nm).
Since then metal vapour lamps have tended to replace Geissler tubes
because of their greater technical convenience. The most convenient lines
for measurement with these lamps are given in the following table: -
Optical Glasses 79
Table 6
Wavelength Symbol for Chemical Colour
(nm) the line element
365 i Hg (ultra-violet)
405 h Hg violet
436 g Hg blue-violet
480 F' Cd blue
546 e Hg green
644 e' Hg red
1014 t Hg (infra-red)
The choice of these lines has the advantage that they can all be produced
with a single cadmium-mercury lamp.
In general, the refractive indices are measured at the glassworks and
this information is passed on to the purchaser. Modern techniques can
reduce errors of measurement to as little as 10-6 , but this accuracy can
rarely be exploited in practice because the optical homogeneity is con-
siderably worse in spite of the utmost care in manufacture. The refractive
indices vary from melt to melt, or even for different pieces of the same
melt, up to ± 10--4. Consequently, the values are normally measured
with accuracy of ± 10-6 • Unless one is prepared to pay the manufacturer
a supplementary charge for the selection of pieces which lie particularly
close to the catalogue value, variations up to ± 1 x 1()-3 between diffe-
rent deliveries must be accepted. These examples show what can be
achieved by modern techniques, but also provide a salutary reminder
that it is useless to push a design to the theoretical limit without consider-
ing the effect of normal refractive index variations and lens manufacturing
errors on the quality of the system.
Fig. 29 shows the refractive indices of Schott glasses F2, SK16 and
K50 as a function of wavelength. It is evident that these "dispersion
curves" show marked differences in position and slope. Many formulae
have been suggested for these curves, of which the best known is due to
DRUDE who assumed resonant frequencies for electrons in the ultra-violet
and for ions in the infra-red. He derived the formula
ABe
+ ,,.. _ ).2 + r-=1:2 '
2_
n - 18 UY
n(J.) = no + J. ~ J.o.
This is an empirical formula which has no direct physical basis. Never-
theless, experiment has proved that it is capable of giving the dispersion
curves of optical glasses in the visible region from I. = 405 nm to I. = 644
nm with a maximum error of ± 1 x 10-4 • The best agreement is found
for crown glasses, with a maximum error of ± 2 x 10-5 • The error
F2
~65
SKI.
~60 F2
The proof will be derived later from formulae for the chromatic aber-
rations. Since the influence of the lens thicknesses on these aberrations
can be neglected in very many cases, practising designers find the above
formulation the most useful.
It is somewhat inconvenient that the numerical values of
(nF' - nd/(n. - 1)
are so small. Values are given in the following table: -
6 Zimmer, Geometrical Optics
82 Theory of Aberrations
Table 8
Glass Mean Principal np' - ne' Abbennmber Dispersion
refractive dispersion n. - 1 n. - 1 number
n. nF' - no' np' - no' np'- ne'
1831~
known as the Abbe number, was introduced. The Abbe number of optical
glasses lies between 80 and 20 and is used, because of this convenient
range of values, as the second coordinate for the graphical representation
of the glasses. It should be noted that a small Abbe number means a high
dispersion and vice versa. The convenient range of values is, unfortuna-
tely, the only practical aspect of the Abbe number. It is very incon-
venient not to be able to compare the effects of two glasses on the
chromatic aberrations directly from the difference of the Abbe number:
to do this, we must calculate the difference between the reciprocals.
But since estimates of such effects are constantly required, it is better
to use the expression (nF' - nO')/(ne - 1) and bring the values into a
more convenient range by multiplying by an appropriate factor. I suggest
the number 1831 = 1/0.000546, since this is the factor needed to express
the chromatic aberrations in Rayleigh units. This conversion must any-
way be undertaken whenever we wish to check what effect the chromatic
aberrations will have on the image. Thus, we kill two birds with one stone
if we decide to introduce this factor from the start into our definition of
dispersion. According to this scheme, the dispersion number of an optical
glass has the value
me = 1831 np' - ~c' . (22.1)
n. -
Thus defined, the dispersion numbers lie - similarly to the Abbe
numbers - in the range between 20 and 90; but glasses with a low
dispersion have a low number, those with a high dispersion a high number.
Optical glasses with dispersion numbers smaller than 36.6 are termed
"crown glasses", those with a higher dispersion "flint glasses". Fig. 30
shows the mean refractive indices ne and dispersion numbers me of the
optical glasses available from Schott. In addition, the position of fluorite
is shown at the extreme bottom left hand comer. The arrows attached
to many of the glasses will be explained later.
Optical Glasses 83
Table 9
Line x Liney (X • • {l ••
_Sf
'KJ
t 1.701 .~---+
ISU ss
___~f--~~--~.QL-4---~H~~~~--___~~~~~_+-~~_+---~
!
g,
i
~
Po
~
'-<
g f
~
~
.§
w ~
w _
! !! !!! I! I 't80
80 8S .90 .
~ JS 'IIJ % 50 me
me
The Chromatic Aberrations of Perfect Imagery 85
the range from C' to pI, two suitably chosen a-values are sufficient to
give a clear and accurate picture of the properties of a glass. In Fig. 30,
the symbols all and at indicate the values allP' and ate' and are shown as
the horizontal and vertical components of an arrow. The length and
direction of the arrow give the magnitude and direction of the departure
of the glass from the n. - m. plane of the normal glasses. The signi-
ficance of the a-values for the chromatic aberrations will be explained
in § 25.
for the two wavelengths if the same reference point is taken. With these
coordinates we construct the chromatic aberrations
CHLOxy = 1831 (A~n~U~ - A;n~U~) R.E. ,
CHVO
xy
= 1000 (A:n!W!
LLW
- B~n;U; _ 1) 0100'
CHLPxy = 1831 (B~n;W; - B;n~W~) R.E., (23.1)
CHVP
xy
= 1000 (A~n;W;
LLW
- B;n~U~ _ 1) 0100·
86 Theory of Aberrations
These are called the longitudinal chromatic aberration and the chromatic
difference of magnification of the (perfect) object or pupil imagery. (In
modern literature, these aberrations are often simply termed the longi-
tudinal and transverse colour aberrations). The subscripts xy can be
omitted if it is clear from the context which pair of lines has been used.
Equations (23.1) follow immediately from the rules of perfect imagery.
In the object space the object with the "colour" x coincides with that of
"colour" y, but this is not necessarily the case in the image space. CHLO",y
gives the depth explained in § 19 between the image of colour x and that
of colour y. The value is in Rayleigh units for the wavelength A = 546 nm
because of the factor 1831 = 1/0.000546. For any given line, the linear
conductivity of the light tube is an invariant of the image forming
process. The chromatic differences of magnification give the changes in
the "coloured" conductivities per mill of LLW in terms of the object
coordinates of one colour and the pupil coordinates of the other colour.
To make this clear, we shall place the reference point in the image plane
for the colour corresponding to the line y. In this plane, A; = 0 so that
the line y, for example, completely define the coordinates of the other
line:
A , A' CHVP A' CHLO B'
'" - 1/ = 1000 • 1/ - 1831 LLW' r'
'W'
n" ",-n1/
'w'1/= 1831LLW'
CHLP n 1/'u'1/+ CHVO
1000
'w'11'
'nll
These expressions are obtained by solving equations (23.1) for A~ and B~.
If we suppose that the object is free from chromatic aberration and
that the conductivities for both wavelengths are the same, it follows from
the invariance of the linear conductivity for any perfect imagery that the
relation
(23.3)
must hold. This implies that the four chromatic aberrations of equations
(23.1) cannot be independent of each other. If now the values of (23.2)
are substituted for A~, B~ etc. in (23.3), the following relation results
for the chromatic aberrations: -
when CHLO = 0, since the first equation of (23.2), together with (23.6),
gives the relation
A' - A'
1000· ~ = CHVP"", - CHVO for A~ # 0 and CHLO = 0 . (23.7)
v
p'
IL
~ iI
Fig. 31
~
of the lamp in the pupil P. Correct illumination thus requires that p* be
the object, P the image and the slide 0 the pupil; or, more exactly, the
exit pupil. In the example given, the focal length of the condensor may
conveniently be taken to be 200 mm. It then forms an image in P of the
radiating surface p* with about 30 x magnification. Since there is a stop
with diameter about 30 mm in P, a radiating spot of about 1 mm diameter
is necessary at P*. A mercury lamp has roughly the required dimensions.
The slide 0 is evenly illuminated because it serves as pupil for the source
and condensor.
To adjust the illumination, a screen is placed in the plane P, 0 is set
up at the correct distance (6 m) from P, K is placed directly to the left
of 0 and p* is moved until the best image of the source appears on the
screen. It is often better to remove the slide in order to increase the
brightness of the image: in fact, if the non-opaque parts of the slide are
mat, it is essential to remove it. The lens mount of the condensor then
serves as pupil, but the small pupil shift is of no consequence for the
source imagery provided the condensor does not have a significantly
larger diameter than the slide.
After the above adjustment, we remove the screen from P, replace the
slide in the correct position and can then consider 0 as the emitter and P
90 Theory of Aberrations
as the receiver of the radiation. The source itself may now be ignored. The
illumination has been considered here in some detail because it is usually
treated very cursorily. Often, a light source is set up somewhere behind
the object with the idea that all will be well if the source is powerful
enough. But the decisive factor is that the light source must be properly
adapted to the light tube of the object imagery. If this is not correct, no
amount of complication with lenses can redeem the situation because any
wrong energy distribution in the light tube will be faithfully transmitted
by the optical system.
An image of the slide 0, reduced about 18 times, is formed in 0'
about 330 mm behind the lens L. But we cannot assess its quality without
further apparatus because of the position and size of the exit pupil. This
is the image of P and lies in the lens L, in front of 0', and is much larger
than the eye pupil. We therefore need an observing microscope, shown
schematically in Fig. 31 behind 0'. It must possess a total magnification
of at least 25 x and the numerical aperture of the objective must be at
least 0.05. In practice, on account of the brightness of the mercury lamp,
it is more agreable for the eye to observe with a considerably greater
magnification than this minimum, for example with a 10/0.22 objective
and a 10 x eyepiece, giving a total magnification of 100. This also has the
advantage that the accommodation depth of the eye becomes negligible.
The observing microscope yields a strongly reduced image P' of the
exit pupil P in a plane behind the eyepiece which is accessible to the eye.
Furthermore, it forms an enlarged image of 0' at a considerable distance
in front of the eye, thus enabling 0' to be viewed without difficulty. The
observing microscope has no influence on the image quality, provided
that a reputable make is available and that the eyepiece is suitable for
use with the objective; for the design, manufacture and quality control
of good microscopes guarantee that their aberrations will be completely
negligible for the purposes of our experiment.
Before we can begin, the whole apparatus must be carefully centred
and adjusted. This is quite essential, otherwise the results will be value-
less. An old knotted thread can transmit mechanical force just as well as a
new one, twisted wires can conduct electricity perfectly well; but a lens
held between two fingers instead of being properly mounted is useless. If
its plane surface is tilted so that the normal subtends 3 0 with the axis,
the results of the experiment will be quite invalid. But it is not possible
to centre the lens with an accuracy of 1 0 by eye. Sensitive systems
require adjustments to a few thousandths of a millimeter and angular
centring errors of a few seconds of arc. Such refinement of adjustment
demands time and considerable skill, but without this there is no hope
of experimental verification of the effects predicted by the theory.
Fortunately, in our experiment we are investigating a very large effect:
The Chromatic Aberrations of Perfect Imagery 91
The indices x and y refer to the spectral lines used and d gives the
geometrical distances of the reference points. It is taken to be positive
if the transfer occurs in the same direction as the light.
To calculate the effect of a refraction with the parameterrp = (n' - n)e
on the chromatic aberrations, we place the reference point at the pole of
the surface and refer to light tube coordinates before the refraction by
plain symbols, those after it by dashed symbols. Thus
A~n~U~ - A~n~U~
= Aa;· [nyUy + (n~ - ny)e·Ay] -Ay·[na;Ua; + (n~ - nx)e·Aa;]
= AxnyUy - Ayna;Ua; - Aa;Aye{(n~ - n;) - (na; - ny)} .
From this, the longitudinal chromatic aberration follows as
CHLO' = CHLO - 1831·Aa;Aye{(n~ - n;) - (na; - ny)}. (24.3)
The effect of the refraction on the chromatic aberrations is represented
by the upright 6. symbol, for example 6. CHLO = CHLO' - CHLO. From
(24.3) and similar equations for the other chromatic aberrations, we can
derive the equations:
6. CHLO = - 1831· Aa;Aye{ (n~ - n~) - (na; - ny)} R.E. ,
6. CHVO = lOOO·Ba;Aye{(n~ - n~) - (na; - ny)}/LLW %0'
6. CHLP = - 1831· Ba;Bye{(n~ - n~) - (na; - ny)} R.E. , (24.4)
6. CHVP = - lOOO·Aa;Bye{(n~ - n~) - (na; - ny)}/LLW %0.
Here 12 = 11r denotes the curvature of the refracting surface, x and y refer
to the spectral lines used.
By virtue of the linearity of equations (24.1) and (24.3), the longi-
tudinal chromatic aberration of an optical system is the sum of the
contributions V CHLO and 6. CHLO for all transfers and all refractions:
CHLO = 2: V CHLO + 2: 6. CHLO . (24.5)
The other chromatic aberrations can also be expressed in terms of
sums of individual contributions. It is for this reason that the quantities
given by (24.2) are termed thickness contributions to the chromatic aber-
rations, while (24.4) gives the surface contributions. They are functions of
the separations ("thiclmesses") d or the curvatures 12, the dispersions
(na; - ny) and the coordinates of the light tube. The surface and thickness
contributions are therefore changed if the imagery is changed. In other
words, the same lens system has different surface and thickness contri-
butions if the manner in which it is used is altered.
The changes in the contributions resulting from shifts of the object
or the pupil are readily calculated. The object shift Q as given by equa-
tion (7.5) is substituted in the first equation of (24.2) giving
94 Theory of Aberrations
the pupil) is zero. This follows immediately from equations (24.6) and
(24.7).
The rigorous formulae (24.2) and (24.4) for the thickness and surface
contributions explain the theoretical origin of the chromatic aberrations
but are not very suitable for numerical calculation. Instead, approximate
formulae, derived from them, are used in the following way. The blue
cadmium line F' (A = 480 nm) is taken as x, the red cadmiun line C'
(A = 644 nm) as y and the chromatic aberrations corrected for this line
pair. "Corrected" does not necessarily mean reduced to zero, but brought
to a given desired value. The light tube coordinates are not calculated
for these lines but for the intermediate "principal wavelength" e (the
green mercury line with A = 546 nm) and these values are inserted as
approximate values for A"" Ay etc. in equations (24.2) and (24.4). For a
reason which will be explained later, the expressions on the right hand
side are multiplied with (ne - 1) so that the term 1831· (nF' - ndj(ne-I)
can be replaced by the dispersion number me. Equations (24.2) for the
thickness contributions then yield the approximate formulae:
n, - 1
V CHLO "" - . - ·d· (nU)2me RE. "" 0.23·d· (nU)2me R.E. ,
ne
ne - 1
VCHVO"" - 0.546· --.- ·dnUnWmejLLWOfoo""
n.
"" - 0.I3dnUnWmejLLWOfoo, (24.8)
n, - 1
V CHLP "" - . - ·d· (nW)2' me RE. "" 0.23·d· (nW)2'me RE. ,
n.
V CHVP "" - V CHVO .
The factor 0.23 in these expressions represents a rough approximation
to (ne - I)jn;. The following table gives the range of values which occur
in practice.
Table 11
n (n - 1)/n2 n (n - 1)/n2
SKIt; F2
Axis
1i 12 fj
Fig. 32
not only on paper but also in practice within about half a Rayleigh unit.
This gives an idea of the care necessary in the manufacture of the glass
and the lens.
The following data are for a design using these glasses:-
r1 = 90.00 mm,
33 13 d2 = 8.5 mm, glass SK 16, f = 39.9 mm ,
r2 = - . mm, d3 -- 4 •0 mm, g1ass,F2 f = 64.9 mm.
r3 = - 190.00 mm,
Fig. 32 shows a section through the objective. The numbers refer, of
course, to surfaces, not to lenses. The lens thicknesses have been delibera-
tely made larger than necessary for manufacture in order to demonstrate
their effect more clearly. The following table gives the thickness and
surface contributions to the chromatic aberrations, calculated from
equations (24.2) and (24.4). The cemented surface is divided into two
surfaces bounded by air to show the individual contributions of the two
lenses.
Table 12
Contributions for CHLO [R.E.] CHVO [0/00] CHLP [R.E.J CHVP [%oJ
(23.1). The reference line y is the green mercury line e. The other lines,
their wavelengths and the corresponding calculated values for CHLO are
given in Table 13: -
Table 13
Line h g P' C' A'
This table shows that the longitudinal chromatic aberration does not
necessarily disappear for another line pair when it is zero for F' and C'.
This is equally true for the other chromatic aberrations of perfect imagery.
It will suffice if we confine the treatment of secondary spectrum to CHLO,
since the effect is formally identical for the other chromatic aberrations.
The aberration was given the name "secondary spectrum" for the
following reason. Suppose the primary chromatic aberrations for a given
case of imagery are uncorrected, then the image of a suitable object shows
red and blue fringes on each side of the yellowish green region which is
perceived as "the image" because of its brightness. If now the chromatic
aberrations between F' and C' are corrected so that the "primary colours"
red and blue are eliminated, small colour errors remain which cause green
and violet fringes, the "secondary colours". These secondary effects are
much smaller than the primary fringes. If the achromat described above is
replaced by a single thin lens of SK 16, the longitudinal chromatic aber-
ration between F' and C' is - 48 Rayleigh units. By comparison, the
achromat has only - 1.4 R.E. between e and F' and 4.2 R.E. between g
and F'. Nevertheless, the secondary aberrations significantly worsen the
image quality.
The starting point for the analytical treatment of the secondary
spectrum of longitudinal chromatic aberration is the equation
n - 1
CHLOF'a' ,." - L A 2 t:p me + L ----;;> . d· (nU)2 me . (25.1)
This follows immediately from (24.5), (24.8) and (24.9). The symbols
and conditions of Validity of these equations were explained in section 24.
Equation (25.1) can be applied with exactly the same assumptions to any
line pair x and y giving
n - 1
CHLO",y"" - LA2t:pm",y+ L----;;>d.(nU)2m",y. (25.2)
in which the coefficients !Xzy and /3zy are functions only of the spectral
lines x and y and are the same for all glasses. The quantity azy is depen-
dent on the glass but is zero for many glasses - the so-called normal
glasses.
If (22.3) is substituted in (25.2) and combined with (25.1), we have
n - 1
CHLOzy "" !Xzy·CHLOF'C' + /3ZY {- L: A2 t:p + L: --.;;2d· (nU)2} +
n- 1
+ {- L: A2 t:p azy + L: --.;;2 ·d· (nU)2·aZY}. (25.3)
If /3ZY = 0 and azy = 0, then mzy = !Xzy me and the secondary spectrum
is zero; for it follows that if CHLOF'C' = 0, then CHLOzy = 0 for any line
pair apart from small inaccuracies due to the replacement of A",Ay by A~
and n",UznyUy by (n eUe)2. The second term in brackets on the right hand
side of equation (25.3) is determined by the constructional parameters of
the system and can hardly be influenced by the choice of glasses because
the value of (ne - 1)/n~ varies little over the range of useful refractive
indices. This was shown in Table 11 (page 95). The third term only gives a
contribution to CHLOzy if glasses are used for which azyoF 0, i.e. glasses
which are not "normal". Such glasses exist. They are indicated in the
glass diagram (Fig. 30) by arrows with components at = ate' andal! = al!F'.
In general, they have the disadvantage of being expensive, difficult to
work, coloured or liable to striae. It is also particularly unfortunate that
they do not exist at the very points of the glass diagram where they are
most needed. It is therefore clear why optical systems for which the
secondary spectrum is considerably reduced or completely removed are
much more expensive than simple achromats.
Following equation (25.3), the secondary spectrum of the longitudinal
chromatic aberration between the lines x and y is defined by the expression
SSP(CHLO)zy = CHLO",y - !XzyCHLOF'C' . (25.4)
Instead of SSP(CHLO)zy, one usually writes simply SSP",y since the
secondary spectra of more than one chromatic aberration are rarely
needed at a given stage of the design. The above definition is very useful
in practice. In the special case of CHLOF,c' = 0 it gives CHLOzy as the
secondary chromatic aberration. However, there is no restriction that
the primary aberration shall be zero specifically between the lines F'
and C'. Such a definition, based on the special nature of visual obser-
vation, would be very unsatisfactory because of the varied requirements
of photographic emulsions and other receivers. Equation (25.3) shows
that within the accuracy specified for this relation, SSP is independent of
the normal glasses contained in the system and how they are used to
correct the primary chromatic aberration. The value of SSP nevertheless
Secondary Spectrum 101
These follow from (25.3). The first gives the additional effect due to
a refracting glass-air surface or a thin lens in air, the second the additional
p ~LO CHLO
./ h
./
./
./
/ 9
F'
CHLO CHLO
-5 15 [R.£] -5 e 12 [R.£l
C'
--
Fig. 33 Fig. 34
y y
x x
(z)
Perspective
Plane section diagram
z
Fig. 35
Q6
Q2
20 40
Fig. 36
special cases to detect not only the reduction in amplitude but even the
small amplitude differences between different polarisation directions.
Nowadays, lens surfaces bounded by air are usually "coated" with
anti-reflexion films. These films are about 100 nm thick and are produced
by evaporating magnesium fluoride (n = 1.38). The transmission factors
of a coated surface are larger than those of a pure glass surface but the
differences are so small that they would hardly be discernible in the curves
of Fig. 36. However, the significance of anti-reflexion coatings is much
greater than this would indicate because the measured intensities are
proportional to the squares of the amplitudes: an amplitude difference
of 2% gives an intensity difference of 4%. For a single surface it may be
unimportant whether 95% or 99% of the incident intensity is transmitted
R%
40
I
30 I
I
20 I
/
10 /
/
,/
20 40 60 80 j.
Fig. 37
However, this equation also has a singularity; for both nominator and
. sin u' + sin if
denommator of the factor . . . become zero when r .... 00. Apply-
Slnu + sin 1.
110 Theory of Aberrations
ing the sums and products formulae and the relation u' + i' = u + i, the
singularity of the factor can be removed by the relation
sin 1,1,' + sin i' COSu' + cos i'
sinu +sini cosu + cosi .
This relation is also valid for plane surfaces because cos u = cos i i= 0
whene = O.
Apart from the coordinates of the rays, one often needs those of
the point of incidence P. Referred to the point E, these are given by
x = r·(1 - cos rp) and z = r·sinrp. Once again, the radius can be eliminated
from these formulae giving relations valid for plane surfaces. In Fig. 38,
we drop the perpendicular from P on to the axis, the point of intersection
being P 6 • Similar triangles EPP6 and PP4 P 6 give the ratios
EP z
----=--
pP. Y + Y'cos rp
Y'sin rp
which, combined with
EP a
PP. -Y'cosu+Y'cosi'
gives
sin rp l+cosrp
x=acosu+cosi
and z=a cosu+cosi
(26.11)
For the sake of clarity, it is useful at this stage to re-state the complete
set of formulae for tracing a ray in the sagittal section through a refracting
spherical surface with curvature e = l/r: -
Plane Rays 111
The reference point E is the pole of the refracting surface. The same
formulae are also valid for a ray in the tangential section; but the
quantities represented by a, U, i, cp and z are given the symbols b, w, j,
cp andy.
At first sight, there seems to be no similarity between these formulae
and the refraction formulae (7.7) for perfect imagery. However, a
similarity is made evident by a simple rearrangement. Equation (26.6) is
multiplied by nand (26.7) by n'. Then, applying the law of refraction,
nt'a'e - n'·sin u' = n'·sin it = n sin i = n·a e - n·sin U J
giving
n"sin u' = n'sin U + e (n'a' - n a) .
The condition a' = a is only fulfilled for rays in special cases. But
if we write a' = a + IX in which IX = a' - a is the difference in the lengths
of the perpendicular before and after refraction, then we arrive at the
following formulae for the refraction of plane rays: -
a' = a + IX,
n'·sin u' = n·sin u + e (n' - n)·a + en' IX ,
b' = b + p, (26.13)
n'·sin w' = n·sin w + e(n' - n)·b + en'P.
These are analogous to those derived for perfect imagery.
These formulae are useless for practical computation because they
give no indication how IX and p are to be determined. Nevertheless, they
are very significant in aberration theory. For refraction at a spherical
surface, they show that the difference between light tube coordinates
and plane rays is given by the two quantities IX and p. A plane ray has
only one degree of freedom relative to the corresponding light tube
coordinates, not two, because the "angle difference" elX or eP is the
product of the surface curvature e and the "perpendicular difference"
IX or fl. When setting up a new system, it is important for the optical
112 Theory of Aberrations
using the sums and products formulae for trigonometrical functions into
u' + if u' - if u +i u - i
2 sin - 2 - . cos - 2 - - 2 sin -2- . cos -2-
IX = a·
u+i u-i
2 sin -2- cos -2-
so that
2a . u' - i . if - i
IX= - - - . · S I n - - ' S I n - -
u-< 2 2 '
cos-
2-
2b . w'-i . i'-i (26.14)
{J = - -w--1. ·SIn-- ·SIn--.
2 2
cos-
2-
reasons why aspheric surfaces are not in general use. Their significance is
also limited in the design stage because aberrations resulting from the
spherical form can be corrected with spherical surfaces if additional lenses
are introduced; furthermore, it may not be necessary to remove them
entirely as the image quality is often impaired by other aberrations not
dependent on the form of the surfaces. Chromatic aberrations, parti-
cularly secondary spectrum, are examples of such aberrations. Other
examples are the change in spherical aberration with wavelength of the
radiation (Gauss error) and field curvature, an aberration which will be
dealt with later in connexion with astigmatism.
SPHO can be interpreted, exactly like CHLO, as the depth explained
in § 19 between the image given by the marginal ray and that arising from
perfect imagery. What is the effect of spherical aberration on the image
quality? Are there two separate images which can be observed separately
as in the case of chromatic aberration? If the image suffers from spherical
aberration then A' = 0 and a' ¥= 0 apply in the plane of the ideal image.
Is the image blurred because an ideal image point is replaced by a circle of
confusion with radius roughly equal to a'? Where is the image formed:
in the plane of the perfect image, in the plane where the marginal ray
cuts the axis or somewhere between? The theory cannot answer these
questions; we must again be guided by experiment.
We shall use the experimental set-up described in § 15 and § 23 and
shown in Fig. 31. Since the chromatic aberrations would mask the effects
we wish to investigate, we use a filter which only transmits the green
mercury line e. The filter is placed in front of the object 0 or behind the
eyepiece of the observing microscope. The coordinates of the light tube
for perfect imagery were calculated in § 15. We now compute the coordi-
nates of the marginal and principal rays from equations (26.5) and (26.12).
In the object space they are identical with the light tube coordinates;
in the image space the computation gives
a' = 14.592826 mm, n'sin u' = 0.0443065 ,
b' = 0.023107 mm, n' sin w' = - 0.002500 .
The reference point is again the point of intersection of the plane
surface of the lens L with the axis. Equations (27.1) give for the aber-
rations:
SPHO = - 2.3 R.E., SVO = 0.0%0 ,
SPHP = 0.0 R.E., SVP = 0.2%0 .
The only value of consequence is the spherical aberration of the object
imagery. We shall now investigate this aberration more closely.
At first, we use our apparatus exactly as described in § 23, but with
a green filter. There is no difficulty in finding the black strips and focusing
S'
116 Theory of Aberrations
them sharply against the green background. The depth of focus is about
± 0.1 mm and is in good agreement with the theoretical value of the
depth of imagery. The marginal ray cuts the axis 0.6 mm in front of the
plane of the perfect image, but it is quite impossible to detect images in
different planes along the axis.
We now replace the stop P by an iris diaphragm or by a series of stops
with different diameters. Spherical aberration varies as the fourth power
of the pupil diameter, but this result cannot be seen directly from
equations (27.1). It could, of course, be confirmed by a numerical com-
putation, but this is not necessary as a simple proof is given in the next
section. The significance of this fourth power law for our experiment is
that the pupil diameters of 68 mm, 34 mm and 17 mm give - 64 RE.,
- 4 RE. and - 0.25 RE. of spherical aberration respectively. If we
slowly reduce the pupil diameter from an initial value of 30 mm to 15 mm,
we can be quite certain that the spherical aberration will vanish under
the depth of imagery. What happens to the image during this process?
It becomes darker because the exit pupil behind the microscope is smaller
than the eye pupil and becomes even smaller when the aperture is reduced.
We have already commented on this effect in connexion with perfect
imagery: it has nothing to do with the spherical aberration. Apart from
the brightness, there is no change in the image. In particular, the sharp-
ness of the strips is unaltered and refocusing does not bring any impro-
vement for small apertures.
Suppose now the diaphragm is slowly opened. The image becomes
brighter but a special effect appears when the diameter exceeds 34 mm:
light starts to flood in like a bright fog from the edges into the dark parts
of the strips. The effect occurs so suddenly that the radius of the critical
diaphragm can be quite precisely determined, within a millimetre. With
this diameter, the spherical aberration has the value 4 RE. Further
increase in diameter produces a strong fogging effect with the result that
the brightness difference between the strips and the background is
rapidly reduced, i.e. the contrast of the image is worsened. With 200 RE.
of spherical aberration, careful observation is needed to find the pattern
at all! In spite of this, the boundary between the background and the
strips remains clearly defined at the same focus as that found for small
apertures, although the marginal ray cuts the axis at a distance from this
focus equal to about a hundred times the depth of imagery.
This observation contradicts the view generally held that spherical
aberration is an aberration causing unsharp images and that the best
image lies between the point of intersection of the marginal ray and the
ideal image plane. The fact that rays from an object point do not combine
in a point when spherical aberration is present does not prove that
The Primary Monochromatic Aberrations of Plane Rays 117
unsharp images will result; for rays are merely a mathematical abstrac-
tion defining the direction of propagation of the radiation.
It is very instructive to carry out the experiment described above
using a "point" object. This is easily done by replacing the test pattern
by a metal screen with a pinhole of about 0.5 mm diameter. Together
with a diaphragm of 30 mm diameter, this gives a linear conductivity of
1 R.E., i.e. just at the limit of geometrical imagery. In the plane where
the test pattern was sharply in focus we now see a bright spot whose
diameter corresponds to that of the pinhole. If the diameter of the stop
is reduced to 15 mm, the linear conductivity is 0.5 R.E. and diffraction
effects become clearly visible. The spot has become somewhat larger and
forms the centre of a system of bright and dark concentric rings. The
brightness of the outer rings falls off rapidly. The first can always be
observed quite readily and a dark-adapted eye can see between three and
five rings. By closing the diaphragm further to a diameter of 7.5 mm we
reduce LLW to 0.25 R.E. The central spot is now twice as large as the
geometrical image of the pinhole; the rings are also stronger and wider.
The appearance of the diffraction image is completely altered if the focus
of the microscope is now changed. The outer ring becomes bright and wide
while a number of narrower rings surround the central spot. This spot may
be either bright or dark, depending on the plane of focus of the microscope.
If, starting at the image plane 0', the object plane of the microscope is
moved away from the lens L, then the rings appear to originate at the
centre and spread out from it. If the focus direction is reversed, the rings
vanish into the centre. The movement of the rings is the same whether
the diffraction pattern is observed in front of or behind the plane 0'.
To investigate the effect of the spherical aberration on the diffraction
pattern, we replace the object 0 by a smaller pinhole with only about
0.1 mm diameter. Even with a large aperture, this object is not imaged
geometrically. The necessary pinhole can be produced quite simply by
punching a few holes in a metal foil with a fine needle. The exact diameter
is not critical. The observing microscope is first focused using a stop
diameter of 30 mm with the strip test object which is then replaced by a
metal foil with the fine pinholes. The diffraction pattern can now be
observed with the large aperture. Stopping down produces no noticeable
change, but when the aperture is increased beyond 34 mm a bright,
blurred ring structure is superposed on the diffraction pattern. As with
the strip test object, this effect becomes visible when the spherical aber-
ration reaches about - 4 R.E., but the precise aperture at which it occurs
is not so easy to determine.
A special effect appears when the observing microscope is defocused.
The appearance of the image is no longer the same for intra- and extra-
focal settings at the same distance from the image plane. In the extra-focal
118 Theory of Aberrations
direction (further from L than 0') the image rapidly becomes so blurred
that the ring system can hardly be seen. In the intra-focal direction, on the
other hand, there is a setting where the image appears sharp. It lies
halfway between the ideal image plane and the intersection point of the
marginal ray, or about 0.5 mm in front of the ideal image plane when the
diameter of the diaphragm is 40 mm. The image here is at its smallest and
the ring system very sharply defined: it is perceived as "the best image".
The central spot has become smaller and darker, the first bright ring
broader and as bright as the central spot. Further defocusing in the intra-
focal direction causes a broadening of the whole pattern into a slightly
blurred ring system.
This asymmetry relative to the focus position can even be observed
when no unsharpness is detectable in the diffraction image. Since the real
structure of the object is seldom known, there is a definite danger that the
focus will be wrongly chosen in favour of the "best image". For example,
if the focus for the "best image" is found with the pinhole of diameter
0.5 mm, it will be found to have a clearly defined bright ring round the
centre. But at the focus chosen for the strip test object, the ring is
definitely weaker. This is the reason why the spherical aberration
of high quality microscope objectives is kept below 4 R.E. although
this quality brings no improvement in the images of coarser struc-
tures.
The situation regarding the effect of spherical aberration on the quality
of photographic images is quite different and not entirely understood.
I ts effect is a reduction in contrast and a shift of the plane of the sharpest
image from the ideal image plane towards the point of intersection of the
marginal ray. The effects which were observed separately for geometrical
imagery and diffraction are now combined. The interruption of the light
tube by the photographic emulsion provides a plausible explanation
which can be tested experimentally by replacing the microscope in the
set-up shown in Fig. 31 by a fine ground glass screen in the plane of the
image 0'. The screen is observed with a lO-times magnifying glass. The
strip test slide is used as object. Of course, the pupil imagery has now
been destroyed, but the effect corresponds to the conditions of obser-
vation of a photograph. We adjust the pupil diameter to 25 mm and
focus the image sharply on the ground glass screen. Then the pupil is
opened up to 50 mm diameter. The background of the image is now
brighter and the edges of the strips are blurred. A shift of the screen of
about half a millimetre towards the lens restores the sharpness but the
contrast between the bright and dark parts of the image remains signi-
ficantly reduced. Focusing is more difficult because of the grain of the
screen than it was when the image was observed directly with the micro-
scope.
The Primary Monochromatic Aberrations of Plane Rays 119
same distance as the rear principal point of the objective with which the
picture was taken. This distance is the focal length of the objective, or
somewhat more if near objects were photographed. Enlargements should
be viewed at a correspondingly greater distance. A picture taken by a
miniature camera with! = 50 mm and a format 24 mm x 36 mm cannot
be viewed properly with the naked eye because a normal adult cannot
accommodate for an object only 50 mm away. To view the picture
correctly at the normal distance of 250 mm, an enlargement of five times
is necessary, i.e. a format of 120 mm x 180 mm.
The word "distortion" implies failure of the image forming system
to reproduce the exact form of the object. This interpretation was,
indeed, the origin of the name given to the aberration: imagery was only
accepted as correct if straight lines in the object appeared as straight lines
in the image. But this definition was based on the assumption that
Euclidean geometry and the associated perception of space represented
the only possible framework of reference. In 1827, C. F. GAUSS and
N. LOBATCHEVSKY showed that this assumption was false and that other
geometries were perfectly feasible. In 1863, the physicist CLAUSIUS re-
cognized in the course of his theoretical investigations into heat radiation
in space that imagery produced by radiation cannot produce similarity
of form in the sense implied by classical Euclidean geometry. If two
figures F and F' in the same plane are observed under the angles wand
w', then according to the rules of Euclidean geometry F' is twice as large
as F if tan w' = 2·tan w. The constancy of the ratio tan w'/tan w for all
corresponding parts of F' and F is the criterion for the geometrical
similarity of these figures. The departure from constancy is expressed by
the "tangent distortion"
TVO = 1000 (A' n' sin w' - b' n' U' . cos w _ 1) 0/ •
LLW cos w' 00
The sine distortion is based on the constancy of the ratio sin w' /sin w
and is only identical with the tangent distortion when w = w', that is
when both figures appear to subtend the same angle at the eye. Apart
from this special case, one cannot expect optical imagery to produce
geometrical similarity between object and image.
The condition w = w' is roughly fulfilled for imagery in our eye, that
is for the refraction by the cornea and the crystalline lens. Since more or
less sharp vision only extends over an angular field of about 5° diameter
for a fixed direction of view, it is quite impossible to decide with the
maked eye whether or not Euclidean geometry is applicable to our per-
ception of space.
If it is important to have a geometrically correct reproduction of the
object, the system is designed so that the condition w = w' is roughly
The Primary Monochromatic Aberrations of Plane Rays 121
Fig. 39
the impression that the image is curved into a spherical form. In practice,
a compromise between these two extremes is adopted. A certain amount
of distortion is introduced so that the straight lines appear somewhat
curved but the curvature of the image is not immediately obvious.
The effects discussed in this section do not contribute in any way to
the development of the theory. Nevertheless, their significance is so great
for an understanding of optical instruments that I have thought it
justified to deal with them in some detail.
As with the equivalent formulae for the chromatic aberrations, equa-
tions (27.1) express all the aberrations ofthe two rays; for the coordinates
of the rays are completely determined by the coordinates of the light tube
for perfect imagery and the four aberrations. This is proved by the
following equations which can be readily derived from (27.1): -
Analysis of the AbelTations of Plane Rays 123
,. ,
n sm u - n
'U' SVP n 'U'
= 1000' SPHO
- 1831.LLW·n
'w' ,
,. ,
n sm w - n
'W' SPHP
= 1831'LLW' n
'u' + SVO
1000'n
'w' .
However, a relation between these aberrations analogous to (23.5)
does not exist because the expression a'n' sin w' - b'n' sin u' is not an
invariant for the coordinates of the rays.
since the last bracket is always zero. The proof is completely analogous
for the other aberrations. The monochromatic aberrations therefore differ
from the chromatic aberrations in that the thickness contributions of the
monochromatic aberrations of plane rays are all zero. As this result can
also be extended to the aberrations of skew rays, it follows that only
surface contributions need be considered in the analysis of monochromatic
aberrations.
The effect of a spherical refracting surface on the spherical aberration
can be calculated quite easily. Combining the refraction equations (7.7)
with f{! = (} (n' - n) and (26.13) we have
124 Theory of Aberrations
Since u and i always have values less than 90°, it follows that cos U ; i
The following relations thus apply before and after refraction respec-
tively: -
ae - (1 + ~) sin u = 0,
a' e - (1 + ;?) sin u' = 0 . (28.5)
The case e= oresults in sin ~t=sin u' = Oandis therefore without inter-
est. But if e # 0, (28.5) indicates that the marginal ray cuts the axis in
126 Theory of Aberrations
the distances a/sin u = r' (1 + n'ln) and a'/sin u' = r' (1 + nln') respec-
tively from the refracting surface. These two points are called the
aplanatic points of the refracting surface. If the centre of the object lies
in one of these points, it will be imaged in the other without SPHO
and SVP. This imagery is by no means trivial from a geometrical point
of view, for the two aplanatic points have a separation
r(nln' - n'ln) .
The magnification is
:g. ~ c!;. a. ~ C)
~.
",OJ
"
.~
C)•
...
",'
:g.
'"
C).
~.
a.
'"""
<;- <;-
C) <>
9~ ~'
~ '"'i'
~ 9"
?' 9'
9' '"9'
<0
..:.:.
§1 <0
. .
9' 0 9'
og
.!
~
'
::l
9' .S 9'
·sCIJ, l5' CIJ
~' 0- ~ ~,
t::J" II ~'
10'0
~I~~
0
Fig. 40
128 Theory of Aberrations
is inserted into the product formula (26.14) for IX, the expression
a· (sin u' - sin i) . (sin i' - sin i)
IX=
u - i u' + i i' + i
2 cos -2- ·cos-
2 - ·cos-
2-
results.
This formula can be simplified if we suppose that all the angles
occurring in it are small. Then the cosines in the denominator are
roughly 1 and the equation reduces to
IX "" a (sin u' - sin i) (sin i' - sin i)f2 .
This approximation is of little value in practice because the coordi-
nates of the marginal ray are still present. The next approximation is
based on the assumption that the difference between the coordinates
of the actual and ideal marginal rays is not large. This assumption
has no theoretical justification, for the exact theory is equally valid for
large differences. But large differences mean very large aberrations which
are not acceptable in practical optical systems. Thus, the fact that aber-
rations must be small in cases of practical interest justifies the assumption
that only small differences exist between the coordinates of the rays and
those of the light tube. This approximation gives
= :t...nI(~
2 n'
- ~
n
-~+~),
n' n
A2 (U'n' U)
IXI'>I-nI - - - .
n
(28.6)
Similarly: B (WI -:nW) .
(J "" 2 n] 7 -
A (U U)
Ll SPHO"" - 1831 "2 (nI)2· ;;;-- -;; R.E.,
I
1000B (WI W)
Ll SVO "" 2.LLW nI nJ· 11- -;; %0'
B
Ll SPHP "" - 1831 2 (nJ)2· (WI W) R.E.,
11- -;; (28.7)
power. If, for example, the principal ray has the inclination sin w and the
object distortion SVO while a zonal principal ray has the inclination
l·sin w and the distortion SVO*, then the zonal aberration of the distor-
tion is defined by the expression
(SVO) = SVO* - l2 ·SVO .
Similarly, if the marginal ray has the inclination sin u and spherical
aberration SPHO and a zonal ray through the centre of the object the
inclination sin u* = k sin u and the spherical aberration SPHO* referred
to the light tube coordinates A * = kA and U* = kU, then the zonal
aberration must logically be expressed by
SPHO* - k4 ·SPHO.
Nevertheless, it is usual to divide this by k 2 giving
(SPHO) = k-2 ·SPHO* - k2·SPHO.
There are both historical and practical reasons for this which we shall
discuss in connexion with the graphical representation of the aberrations.
The complete set of formulae for the zonal aberrations is
(SPHO) = k- 2·SPHO* - k2·SPHO,
(SVO) = SVO* - l2 ·SVO , (29.2)
(SPHP) = l-2·SPHP* -l2·SPHP,
(SVP) = SVp* - k 2 ·SVp ,
in which k = n sin u*jn sin u = A*jA and l = n sin w*jn sin w = B*jB
are the ratios of the apertures or perpendiculars for the zonal rays and the
marginal ray or principal ray. The calculation of the aberrations is per-
formed with the values of the light tube coordinates for the corresponding
rays in the object space.
Equations (29.2) have the advantage of economy of calculation - the
evaluation of the Seidel approximations becomes unnecessary. Since
they are linear functions for fixed values of k and l, the total zonal
aberration is equal to the sum of the zonal aberrations from each sur-
face. Thus the optical designer can calculate the amount of zonal aber-
ration originating at the surfaces of the system and take the necessary
steps to eliminate it.
From a mathematical point of view, there are objections to selecting
the rays with the largest aberration as the reference rays for zonal
aberration because they depart most markedly from the Seidel approxi-
mation. In practice, however, this objection is of little consequence. For
if the primary aberrations cannot be adequately corrected, there is no
point in calculating the zonal aberrations. If, on the other hand, they
have been adequately corrected, they represent better reference quan-
tities than the calculated values of the Seidel approximation because
9·
132 Theory of Aberrations
they have more physical significance. From the point of view of practical
optical designing, there is no reason to depart from the definition of (29.2).
Graphical representations are convenient in that they give a clear
picture of the aberrations of an optical system. All optical designers are
agreed on this point although they hardly ever agree on the best way of
representing them. This disagreement arises because individual designers
want to read off values relevant to their specific problems. Aerial survey
photographs must be free from distortion: differences b' - B' in the per-
pendiculars of the images are only acceptable to the extent that they
remain smaller than the grain size of the film material. This is the same
over the entire film plane and independent of B'. It is therefore con-
venient to plot the quantity 1000· (b' - B') = B' . SVO rather than SVO
against sin WI. This curve is roughly a third order parabola. Other design-
ers favour a direct plot of SVO because this quantity emerges directly
from the theory and can be obtained by simple addition of the surface
contributions. Of course, it is equally valid to plot tangent distortion
rather than sine distortion.
There are even more possible ways of representing spherical aber-
ration. If the value calculated from equations (27.1) is plotted as a func-
tion of sin u, (or a, for an infinitely distant object), the result is a fourth
power curve or higher. This curve shows at once the effect of pupil size
on the spherical aberration or, in other words, the effect of stopping down.
A disadvantage of this method of plotting spherical aberration is that
the curve virtually vanishes into the ordinate when the aperture becomes
small, so that information about the contrast and resolving power of the
system can hardly be obtained from the plot.
Equation (27.1) gives the spherical aberration of a ray relative to the
diffraction image of perfect imagery with the same aperture. But it is
quite permissible to give a value relative to the smallest diffraction
pattern, that is the pattern corresponding to full aperture. This curve
is obtained by plotting SPHO/k as a function of n, sin u" where
k = nsin u*/n sin u is the ratio of the aperture of the ray in question to the
aperture of the marginal ray. The curve is a third order parabola and is
used for photographic objectives, because here the grain size rather than
the diffraction pattern is usually the quantity determining the acceptable
aberration.
For optical systems which must yield the theoretical resolving power
it is convenient to plot SPHO/k2 as a function of n, sin u, (or a, for an
infinitely distant object). This curve is a parabola for the Seidel approxi-
mation and has the advantage that the zonal aberration emerges more
clearly than in the other methods of plotting given above. This is the
reason for the definition of (SPHO) in (29.2). Apart from this, SPHO/k2
represents - to an accuracy sufficient for all practical purposes - the
The Secondary Aberrations of Plane Rays 133
geometrical distance between the perfect image and the point of inter-
section of the ray with the axis. Thus the curve has a geometrically
evident significance. This was the reason for the choice of this form of
representation quite early in the history of geometrical optics.
Apart from Rayleigh units or pro mill (%0), aberrations have been
expressed in mm, p" inch, diopters and other units. Similarly, the inde-
pendent variable is not always taken to be the sine of the angle: it may,
for example, be the tangent or the square of the sine. Inevitably, with so
many different methods of representation, the plotted curve of an aber-
ration has little value unless the axes are defined. It is dangerous to
compare curves from different sources.
We shall now illustrate the theory given in sections 27 to 29 by three
objectives, each consisting of two cemented lenses. These are very simple
examples which are not intended to demonstrate what is technically
possible today: they are chosen to illustrate the fundamental problems
encountered in lens designing. We shall therefore assume that the positive
lens consists in each case of the crown glass K 5, and the negative lens of
the dense flint glass SF 1, although these glasses do not necessarily give
the best chromatic correction in all cases. The objective mount will be
assumed to be the stop so that, for the calculation, the centre of the
entrance pupil may be taken to be the pole of the first refracting surface.
This simplifies the computation and the small difference has no significant
effect on the results. In each case, the field angle is n 1 WI = - 0.1, the
perpendicular from the centre of the entrance pupil on to the marginal
ray Al = 12.5 and the focal length of the systemj = 100 mm. The green
mercury line e is used for the calculation of the monochromatic aber-
rations.
The first objective is intended to image an object at infinity. The
design data are: -
r1 = 61.5 mm
d2 = 6 mm glass K 5 j= 52.0mm
r2 = - 47.4 mm
d3 = 3 mm glass SF 1 j = - 107.0 mm .
r3 = - 125.6 mm
Table 14 gives the surface contributions to the aberrations and their
sums. The line below shows the equivalent Seidel approximation SN.
The results show that there is no difference between the exact values
and the Seidel approximation for SVO and SPHP; furthermore, the
values of the surface contributions are so small that they have no effect on
the image quality. They have not been corrected during the design pro-
cess: they are simply the values emerging from the final form. The fact
that they are negligible could be predicted from the small values of the
perpendiculars b on to the principal ray. On the other hand, the small
134 Theory of Aberrations
Table 14
Aberration 1st Surface 2nd Surface 3rd Surface Sum
values for the sums of SPHO and SVP are achieved by suitable compen-
sation of the surface contributions. Comparison of these contributions
in the table will show that the correction of SVP is by no means auto-
matic if SPHO is reduced to zero.
The correction of both these aberrations simultaneously requires the
use of both the degrees of freedom of the achromat, i.e. the form or
"bending" of the achromat and the distribution of the total refracting
power between them. The distribution of refracting power necessary for
the correction of the monochromatic aberrations is only compatible with
the correction of the chromatic aberrations for a few special pairs of
glasses. K 5 and SF 1 give an adequate correction of the chromatic
aberrations.
The exact surface contributions and the Seidel approximations are
not identical for SVP, but the small differences are of no consequence in
practice. This is not the case for the spherical aberration. The Seidel
approximation gives a residuum of five Rayleigh units, an aberration
which would be clearly visible. The actual sum remaining is negligible.
This is an example of zonal aberration bringing a significant departure
from the Seidel approximation. Fig. 41 shows the aberration curves.
The reduced spherical aberration (i.e. SPHO/k2 as explained above) is
plotted against the incident perpendicular at - since sin u t = 0 - for
various wavelengths. The most important curves for our present purposes
are the e-curve and the corresponding Seidel curve, both of which start at
the origin. Since the spherical aberration at the edge of the pupil is
effectively zero, the "belly" of the curve is a direct measure of the zonal
aberration for various values of the incident perpendicular. The value
reaches a maximum of about - 1.4 RE. for at RO 9 mm.
This example demonstrates clearly how the Seidel value of an aber-
ration can be reduced by higher order aberration. Inevitably, zonal aber-
ration remains. This is quite small in the above example, but it can
become very serious in the case of a microscope objective of high aperture
The Secondary Aberrations of Plane Rays 135
Seidel a rmmI
,~
,
approximation
'\
C' F' ft
9
'\
\
~
SPHOlk 2
-5 o 5 [REI
Fig. 41
surface of the first objective; but the other two surfaces must therefore
yield higher contributions, in fact 14 R.E. and 24 R.E. more respectively.
This results in a larger discrepancy between the Seidel approximation
and the true value giving a zonal spherical aberration of - 2.1 R.E.
compared with - 1.4 R.E. for the first objective. The third objective is
also inferior from a manufacturing point of view. Although the plane
surface can be produced rather more cheaply than spherical surfaces,
the other two surfaces are steeper than in the first objective so that fewer
lenses can be ground simultaneously on a "block". A further disadvantage
is that the manufacturing tolerances are smaller because of the larger
surface contributions to the aberrations.
y*= Y+d:l
,; , Z* =Z+ dl..
,; , (30.4)
;* =;, 'Yj* = 'Yj, C* = C·
All the above relationships follow from the definition of the coordina-
tes and the principles of elementary geometry. The difference in sign is a
result of the fact that our sign rule for sin u and sin w is the opposite of
that normally used in mathematics.
In the refraction formulae we only use the coordinates Y, Z, ;, 'Yj, C.
The refracting surfaces are normally planes or spherical caps. Later we
shall limit our equations to such surfaces, but at this stage we shall
merely postulate that the surface separating the media with refractive
indices nand n' is rotationally symmetrical to the axis and that it posses-
ses a normal at every point. The latter supposition is true for any "con-
tinous" surface. By virtue of the symmetry of rotation, all normals either
cut the axis or are parallel to it: they cannot be skew to it. To simplify
the treatment, we shall not discuss the case of normals parallel to the
axis and will merely note here that quite simple considerations show that
this special case leads to the same results as the general case. The direc-
tion cosines of the normals are denoted by lX, fl, y.
If the ray cuts the refracting surface in the point (xp; yP; zp) then
Xp = l;, yp= Y + l'Yj, zp =Z + lC,
in which l is the distance from the reference point (0; Y; Z) to this point
on the surface. Suppose the normal at this point cuts the axis in the point
defined by the coordinates (r*; 0; 0) and that this point is at a distance r
from the surface point. Then the coordinates of the surface point can be
Skew Rays 139
The first equation shows that the expression Ynt; - Zn'Yj is invariant
for any refraction in a centred system. With the help of the transfer
equation (30.4) it can be readily demonstrated that it also remains
invariant if the reference point is changed. It follows that the expression
Ynt; - Zn'Yj has the same formal property for any skew ray in any
centred system as LLW = AnW - BnU for perfect imagery, i.e. the
property of invariance. Thus we can take over the entire formulation of
perfect imagery, although the quantities do not have the same signifi-
cance as the light tube coordinates.
It may well be asked at this stage why different coordinates were
chosen for the light tube if the new coordinates Y, Z etc. are clearly
better adapted to the law of refraction and, therefore, to physical reality.
The difference between LLW and the expression Ynt; - Zn'Yj is made
clearer if we introduce the conversion formula (30.2) into the latter and,
using (30.1), obtain
Y nt; _ Zn = a n sin w - b n sin u (30.9)
'Yj V 1 - sin2 u sin2 w
Apart from the purely formal difference between the ray coordinates
and light tube coordinates, the numerator on the right-hand side of (30.9)
is identical with the linear conductivity. The denominator confirms that
the tangential and sagittal components of a ray are not independent of
one another during the process of refraction. The function relating them
is solely determined by the direction of the ray: it is immaterial whether
the direction is a result of refraction at spherical or aspheric surfaces.
Skew Rays 141
The ray tracing formulae for plane rays and the calculation of the light
tube coordinates are simpler precisely because the coordinates in one
section (for example, a and sin u) and those in the other (for example,
b and sin w) are independent of each other. Equation (30.9) shows that
this procedure must be correct for the two principal sections since the
denominator then has the value unity. For rays lying close to the prin-
cipal sections, the rules of perfect imagery yield the correct limiting
values because the departure of the denominator from 1 is proportional
to sin2 u ·sin2 w. This is the real basis for the link between ray coordinates
and light tube coordinates in the formulae (27.1) defining SVO and SVP.
One can imagine the light tube coordinates to be infinitesimally small
components perpendicular to the plane of the ray. The disappearance of
the aberrations then has the significance that skew rays in a small region
perpendicular to the plane of the traced ray behave in a stable manner
similar to that of the plane ray. This is very important in practice, for it
enables the optical designer to proceed with his work on the basis of
relatively few rays. In many cases the tracing of skew rays, which
requires more computation than that of plane rays, is unnecessary.
The invariant
ansinw-bnsinu
(30.10)
V 1 - sin2 u sin2 w
is the most general form known at present of the Abbe sine condition.
It is valid for coordinates of the sagittal and tangential components of a
skew ray in a centred optical system, as explained at the beginning of this
section. In practice, it is mostly applied in the special cases for which the
components in the sagittal or tangential direction are infinitely small.
Even with this limitation, it saves much calculation and gives valuable
information regarding the relationship between aberrations. Although
HELMHOLTZ - and, some ten years earlier, CLAUSIUS - noticed this
invariant at about the same time as Abbe, it is justifiable to name the sine
condition after Abbe because it was he who first recognized its practical
significance for optical instruments and thereby laid the foundation of
design techniques for high quality systems which reduced the amount
of computation necessary to acceptable proportions.
The sine condition is not equivalent to the law of conservation of
energy for transverse waves, although this is often assumed to be the
case. It is a consequence of the law of refraction and thus only defines
the continuity of the phase relationship in the region of the ray.
For numerical computation it is necessary to express equations (30.8)
in a different form. The case Yn~ - Zn1J = 0 may be ignored because the
skew ray lies in a plane containing the axis and may therefore be treated
as a plane ray. If Yn~ - Zn1J oF 0, then according to Theorem 2 in § 9, four
142 Theory of Aberrations
e = <p, (30.12)
In the special case of spherical surfaces with curvature e = l/r we have
yz +Z2
L = r'(~ - YI21J - ZeC - cos i) = e' (~_ YQt} -zQC) + cosi '
cP = - e (n' 'cos i' - n'cos i) , (30.13)
L'=Lt,
in which the values
sin2 i = e2(YC - Z1])2 + (Y e~ + 1])2 + (Ze~ + C)2 ,
. '/ n ..
SillZ =-'SillZ (30.14)
n'
cos i = + V1 - sin2 i , cos i' = + V1 - sin2 i' ,
n'~' = n~ + <P' (L~ - r)
must be calculated beforehand for use in (30.13).
Astigmatism 143
§ 31. Astigmatism
Coordinates of Skew Pencils,
Lambert's Radiation Law,
Ray Tracing Formulae for Astigmatism,
Astigmatism and Field Curvature
If the four monochromatic aberrations SPHO, SVO, SPHP and SVP
have been corrected or reduced to sufficiently small values by suitable
lens shapes, it follows that for the given wavelength the centres of the
image and the exit pupil are at the correct points on the axis and that
their edges are imaged with the correct size relative to their centres. But
this does not necessarily imply that the edges are sharp and in the correct
position. This is only true if further aberrations are corrected, namely
astigmatism, field curvature and coma.
The formulae for these aberrations are more complicated than for
those treated previously. To avoid the danger of confusion through too
much detail, we shall confine the analysis to the object imagery only.
The derivation of the corresponding formulae for the pupil imagery is
without exception analogous if the symbols for pupil imagery are used.
144 Theory of Aberrations
Fig. 42
2. The cones of the central pencil and the oblique pencil intersect
each other roughly at the edge of the entrance pupil. This is only strictly
true if U or w have small absolute values, i.e. for a distant object or pupil.
But it would be splitting hairs to worry about this discrepancy since the
effect of vignetting is usually very much greater in practice.
In the sagittal direction we shall use the coordinates
which also satisfy the above conditions. Of course, it is essential that the
coordinates in the tangential direction change continously into those of
the sagittal direction. Clearly this is possible if the relations
at"n sin Y."cos w - b.·n sin Ut = (a"n sin Y. - b·n sin u) "COS2 w"
a."n sin yt"cos2 w - bt "cos won sin u. = (a"n sin Yt - bon sin u) "COS2 w .
10 Zimmer, Geometrical Optics
146 Theory of Aberrations
Here it has been assumed that the principal ray lies in the x-y-plane and
consequently C= o. They can be derived formally if the last two equa-
tions of (30.2) are differentiated for u = 0 and w = - j and these differ-
ential coefficients are inserted in the definitions (31.1) and (31.2) of the
coordinates for oblique pencils. Fig. 43 gives a geometrical interpretation
for the tangential section. The reader able to interpret three-dimensional
effects will have little difficulty in picturing the corresponding relations
in the sagittal section.
10·
148 Theory of Aberrations
Fig. 43
Its numerical value can be determined from the axial separation and the
"sagittae" x [see Fig. 38 and formulae (26.12)J.
If these formulae are applied to all the separations and refracting
surfaces of a system, the coordinates A;, n'U;, A; and n'U; in the image
space may be calculated from the corresponding coordinates in the object
space. Thus astigmatism is defined by the formula
AST = 1831· (A; n'U; - A; n'U;) R.E. , (31.9)
a definition which is analogous to that for spherical aberration.
It is a measure of the tangential unsharpness A; in the plane A; = 0
of the sagittal image in Rayleigh units of the sagittal pencil aperture;
Astigmatism 149
For a thin lens made from a glass of refractive index n and surrounded
by air, the quantity 2/1 (,I, - ~) may be written
2/1 (~
n
-~)
n
=~
1"1
(~n - 1) + ~ (1 - ~)
1"2 n
= (~ -~) (~) = - £. ,
1'1 1"2 n n
in which rp is the refracting power of the lens. This means that the Petzval
curvature is negative for a positive (converging) lens so that the image
is curved towards the incident light. The reverse is the case for a negative
lens. It is evident that a single lens can never produce a flat image of a
flat object.
The lens thicknesses do not appear in the expression for the Petzval
curvature. Nevertheless, it is precisely these thicknesses which form an
invaluable aid for the correction of field curvature in practical systems.
This appears surprising at first sight but is readily explained by the fact
that the thicknesses influence the refracting power of a lens according
to the equation rp = rpl + rpz + fJrplrpZ in which fJ = - din. As an example,
let us consider a "thick meniscus", a lens in air which has identical radii
r 1 and r2 both in value and sign. According to the equation above, its
contribution to the Petzval curvature is zero. The refracting power of
the meniscus is positive and has the value rp = drpUn because rpl = - rp2'
Thus it functions as a positive lens without producing negative Petzval
image curvature, a property which is used extensively in optical design.
Our first numerical example will be imagery by the plane-convex lens
with focallengthj = 321 mm which was described in § 15. However, we
shall assume a stop diameter of 25 mm instead of 30 mm and the field
angle will be increased from - 0.0025 to n l sin WI = - 0.035 (WI = 2°).
This corresponds to an increase of the object diameter from 30 mm to
419 mm. Table 16 gives the numerical values for two cases.
In the first case the curved surface (r = 200 mm) of the lens is turned
towards the object. We used the lens in this way to demonstrate the
chromatic aberrations, the spherical aberration and the astigmatism.
In the second case the lens is turned round so that its plane surface faces
the object. The values given are the surface contributions to the spherical
aberration, astigmatism and sagittal field curvature and their sums.
Table 16
Case Aberration First surface Second surface Sum
Table 17
Aberration First surface Second surface Third surface Sum
Although the aberrations of plane rays are very well corrected, the
sums show that this objective is of little value for the field of n, . sin w,
= - 0.1 which was assumed in § 29 on account of the astigmatism
and field curvature. The field of reasonable correction is limited to about
n, . w,
sin = - 0.02, i.e. about one fifth of that assumed above. This
reduces these aberrations to about 1/25. If very good image quality is
required, the field must be further limited to about n, . sin W, = - 0.014,
an angle w, of less than 1°.
If the surface contributions to the astigmatism are compared with
those to the spherical aberration SPHO (Table 14 in § 29), it is clear that
the effect of the cemented surface on the astigmatism is quite inadequate
to compensate that of the outer surfaces. The marginal ray is refracted
downwards by the first surface and meets the cemented surface with a
large perpendicular and consequently a much larger incidence angle i
156 Theory of Aberrations
than that of the principal ray which is moving upwards and strikes the
cemented surface with a small perpendicular. This difference between
the incidence angles gives a simple geometrical picture of the very
different effect of the cemented surface on astigmatism and spherical
aberration. From this it may be thought that a different stop position
which yields larger perpendiculars for the principal ray within the system
will give more favourable values for the astigmatism. However, this is not
the case. Within the range of validity of the Seidel approximation, a pupil
shift has no effect on the astigmatism of this objective because SPHO
and SVP are corrected for the pupil position chosen initially. We shall
return to this point in § 34.
§ 33. Coma
Aberrations of Oblique Pencils of Finite Aperture and
their Relationship to the Spherical Aberration of the Object
Imagery and the Distortion of the Pupil Imagery
If the infinitesimally narrow pencils about the principal ray are
opened up to give pencils with a finite aperture, a further aberration
appears in addition to astigmatism and field curvature. This is coma.
Its origin is fundamentally similar to that of spherical aberration and
distortion for plane rays. Indeed, it is closely related to these aberrations.
Nevertheless, all the resulting effects are more complicated and can only
be analysed in terms of approximations because the symmetry of the
central pencil is absent in oblique pencils. Our present knowledge of
coma is comparable with what was known of the aberrations of plane rays
before 1850. We have formulae which enable us to trace any desired skew
rays through the system and can therefore determine all ray coordinates
with the necessary accuracy; but there is no exact theory available which
can explain and correlate the many effects and problems that arise. In
any event, we do not posses a theory which is sufficiently simple, general
and flexible to provide a working tool in practical optical design. In
particular, we lack reliable rules for calculating the influence of coma
on image quality. The broad effects are known both empirically and
theoretically but even the experienced designer must rely on guesswork
and experiments to decide whether finer effects, which may be near the
limit of visibility, are acceptable or not.
For these reasons, no attempt is made in this section to give a com-
plete account of present knowledge of coma. This would not only be
outside the scope of this small book but also beyond its author's powers.
Instead, the treatment will be limited to a geometrical description which
Coma 157
very much and it is better to consider the effect of the whole curve on the
image qUality.
The geometrical significance of the coma curve in Fig. 44 is simply
that the tangential rays focusing from the space above the principal ray
cut the latter in front of the tangential inlage point (defined by A; = 0)
whereas those from the space below the principal ray cut it behind the
tangential image point. Thus all the rays cut an image plane containing
U Ut
Fig. 44
the tangential image point below the principal ray and form an unsym-
metrical ray pattern as shown in Fig. 45. This suggests at once that the
image will be unsharp on one side. In fact, the visible tail of unsharpness
in the image of point objects is the origin of the name given to this aber-
ration. However, the matter is not so simple as the geometrical ray pattern
would suggest. For the wavefronts represented by the upper and lower
coma rays do not necessarily have the same phase at the point of inter-
Fig. 45
section of the two rays. For this reason, it is not possible to deduce the
distribution of intensity in the image from the ray pattern alone. In
practice, the tilt of the coma curve always has an unfavourable effect on
the image quality and the designer must try to reduce it to small values;
but there is no generally valid rule for the amount of tangential coma
permissible before the resolution of the diffraction image or, in the case
of coarser structures, the sharpness or contrast begin to be affected.
Coma 159
a {mm1 a{mm]
-2
do not generally remain in the initial plane after refractions have taken
place. The tracing of these rays must therefore be carried out with the
formulae for skew rays given in § 30. The amount of computation is
greater and the geometrical effects are correspondingly more complicated.
In spite of this, sagittal coma is easier to understand than tangential
coma because the invariance formula (30.10), known as the Abbe sine
condition, is valid for skew rays:
ansinw-bnsinu
Y1---sin2 u'sin2 w = const .
The condition that rays leaving an object point on the principal ray
of the oblique pencil shall meet in an image point on the principal ray
behind the system can only be satisfied for quite definite coordinates
sin u'. For a' = 0 for the image point if the image is at a finite dis-
tance and b' has a fixed value determined by the principal ray. Thus,
apart from an error which is quite insignificant in practice and which
arises from the quantity sin w' in the square root of the denominator,
sin u' can be calculated from the sine condition. By virtue of the sine
160 Theory of Aherrations
condition, the projection of the skew rayon to the sagittal plane therefore
gives us complete information as to whether the rays in the sagittal sec-
tion of the oblique pencil meet in a point on the principal ray or not.
The degree to which the rays fail to meet in a point is expressed by
two aberrations. The first is the longitudinal sagittal coma which is
defined by the expression
SLK = 1831 (a; n'U; - A; n' sin u;) R.E. ,
a; n' u;
in which and sin are the coordinates of the rays in oblique pencils
defined in § 31 and A;, n'U; the corresponding coordinate differentials of
a neighbouring ray lying limitingly close to the principal ray. The analogy
with the tangential coma is purely formal but there is a close relationship
with the spherical aberration of the object imagery. On account of the
symmetry of the ray paths to the tangential section, the corresponding
rays in the front and rear halves of the pencil must always meet each
other with the same phase. The curve for SLK must therefore be sym-
metrical for the two halves of the pencil and reduces to the curve repre-
senting SPHO when the field angle becomes small.
The second aberration is the transverse sagittal coma. This corre-
sponds to the tilt of the tangential coma and is defined by the expression
SQK = 1000 (a'n' sin w' - b'n' sin u'
a'n' sin w~ - b~n' sin u'
-1) 0/
00 .
The quantities b~ and n' sin w~ are characteristic of the path of the
principal ray in the tangential plane. The other four quantities are the
coordinates of skew rays as explained at the beginning of § 30, not the
coordinates for oblique pencils referred to the principal ray. The value
of S QK is independent of the choice of the reference point, a consequence
of the form of the equation. If the reference point is placed at the inter-
section point of the skew ray with the tangential plane, then a' = 0 and
the expression SQK = 1000· (b'/b~ - 1) %0 gives the "perpendicular"
error between the skew ray and the principal ray in pro mill of the length
of the perpendicular b~ on to the principal ray. This is the justification
for the name given to this aberration.
Since the computation of sagittal coma requires the tracing of
skew rays, it is important for practical design work to possess approxi-
mate formulae which can be applied to small angles. Obviously SPHO
meets this requirement in the case of longitudinal sagittal coma. For
transverse sagittal coma the approximation is provided by - SVP.
This becomes clear if we divide the numerator and denominator in S QK
V
by 1 - sin2 U' 'sin2 w'. The numerator is then an invariant for the
whole system which means that the coordinates of the object space may
be inserted. In the special case of small angles WI' the numerator reduces
Coma 161
to AnW - BnU = LLW. This does not mean that A' is an approxi-
mation for a' or U' for sin u' behind the system: our only information is
that LLW gives an approximate value for the numerator, even behind
the system, and that this is a consequence of the sine condition. In the
denominator we take B' to be an approximation for b;' and n'W' for
tt' sinw;..This is based on the assumption that the principal ray has only
small aberrations behind the system. This is always true if the angle WI
is made sufficiently small because (29.1) shows that SVO and SPHP are
proportional to the square and the fourth power of n l sin Wj respectively.
As an approximation for a' and n' sin u' we use the coordinates of the
marginal ray in the sagittal plane, an assumption which is certainly
valid for small angles WI in centred systems because of the continuity of
the function. In this way we derive for S QK the approximate expression
K = 1000 (,
an
'w' - LL; I.
nSlllU
,- 1) 0/00 ,
which is called the coma number. If this result is compared with the
equation in (27.1) for SVP, we see that the numerator and denominator
are reversed. Thus we have the relation
SVp·K
SVP + K + --woo = 0
or, in practice, K"" - SVP because the third term is negligible if the
coma is kept small, a necessary condition for adequate image quality in
practical optical systems.
We conclude that there exists a relationship between the distortion
of the pupil and the transverse sagittal coma analogous to that established
between the chromatic differences of magnification for the object and
pupil imagery. This is not a coincidence. Just as the ideal object and
pupil imageries are related to each other by the invariance of the linear
conductivity, so are the real imageries linked by the invariance of the
sine condition for skew rays. The skew ray from the edge of the object
to the edge of the entrance pupil, and from the edge of the exit pupil to
the edge of the image, is the sagittal coma ray of the object imagery and
the pupil imagery. This becomes clear if one imagines the conventions
for the sagittal and tangential planes with respect to the marginal and
principal rays, as described in § 30, to be reversed. A small pencil aperture
corresponds to a small field angle in the pupil imagery. If the field angles
are made so small that no aperture aberrations of the spherical aberration
type can appear in the sagittal section of the pupil imagery, it follows
that SVP must be the only aberration present in this imagery. If the
pencil aperture of the object imagery is large, spherical aberration will
be present, given by SLK. In the sense that the sagittal coma rays cut
the tangential plane above or below the principal ray, SQK will also be
11 Zimmer, Geometrical Optics
162 Theory of Aberrations
LI SV -
_ 500 (W' W)o
LLWB nln] --;:;;- --;; 100'
LI K -_ LLW
500 (U' U)
A nI n] n' - -;; a100'
The Influence of Object and Pupil Positions on Aberrations 163
= ,1 K - n 0.546 ,1 SPH .
LLW
a2 = 500 {A n1 n] (U'
LLW U) + B (n1)2 (U';;; - -;-U) + A (n1)2 (W'
;;; - -;- W)} ,
-:;;- - -:;;
11·
164 Theory of Aberrations
A -(WI W)
n'
--
n
=B -
12.'
--
12.
(U' U)
+LLW -
12.'2
--
n2
, (1 1) (34.2)
LLW {23 [
at = - 0.546 - 1831 (W' W)] + 915.5 LLW2e (11-
B (nI)2 -:;;;- - -;; 1 -;;I)} +
+ 500·(U'W'- UW).
This formulation is unsatisfactory because the influence of the astigma-
tism of the pupil imagery on the object imagery is not clear. Within the
Seidel approximation, the relation between the two is very simple. It is
(W'n' W)12.
(U' U)
B(nI)2 - - - =A (n])2 - - - - LLW (U'W'- UW).
12.n
This follows from (34.2) and (34.3) by elementary reduction. If the
contributions of all the surfaces are added, the products UW cancel out
in pairs apart from the first term Ut Wt in front of the system and the last
term U~Wk behind it. There remains
AST P = AST 0 + 1831 LLW (UkW~ - UtW t ). (34.4)
The astigmatism of the object imagery and that of the pupil imagery
always differ by 1831 LLW (UkWk - UtW t ) R.E., an expression which
only depends on the form of the light tube in front of and behind the
system. It is immaterial how many lenses are contained in the system
and what form they have.
The Influence of Object and Pupil Positions on Aberrations 165
Ll SV* =LlSV -:n;~~~(iLl AST +Ll PTZ) +:n;2 3Ll K- :n;3~~~Ll SPH
- lOOO:n; (U'W' - UW) - 500:n;2(U'2 - U2).
The effect of a pupil shift on the spherical aberration of the pupil is
expressed by a fourth degree polynomial in:n;. This will not be given here.
Instead we shall derive the effect of an object shift A * = A + wB,
n*U* = nU + wnW, n*I* = nI + wn] on the Seidel approximation for
the surface contribution
(U' U)
Ll SPHO = - 915.5 A (nI)2 ;;;- - -;- R.E.
which cuts that volume of space. Suppose this section be taken as the
object plane, then the coefficients SPHO, K, AST, PTZ and SV in (34.S)
are all zero. If the new image corresponding to any object shift within
a finite interval measured from the basic object plane is to be free at
least of spherical aberration, then SPHP must be zero and also
U'; - U~ = 0, U~W~ - U1W 1 = 0 and W~ - m= 0 .
This implies that U;. = ± U j , WI. = ± Wj' Furthermore, because of the
second of the above three conditions, the same sign must be taken in both
cases: the combination U;. = Uj and WI. = - Wj is not acceptable.
Equations (g.!) then give the refracting power as
Leipzig) appeared. This book was specifically written with the optical
designer in mind. BEREK and CONRADY were both active not only in the
theory of geometrical optics but also as practical optical designers. This
explains why their books are still in wide use after several decades.
Those who work in geometrical optics should not neglect the physics
associated with the subject. In my opinion, the best book in this respect
is R. W. PORL: "Optik und Atomphysik", ninth edition, Springer 1954.
Astigmatism is explained in a debatable manner, but this is the exception
which proves the rule that one can rely on PORL.
A better understanding of the finer points of image quality may be
gained if the wave nature of light is taken into account in considering the
aberrations of geometrical optics. An introduction is given by H. H.
HOPKINS: "Wave Theory of Aberrations", Oxford, 1950. A useful supple-
ment is given in a paper by J. L. RAYCES: "Exact relations between wave
aberration and ray aberration", Optica Acta, Vol. 11, 1964. Wave aber-
rations lend themselves to simple physical interpretation and are there-
fore useful for assessing image quality. But they are more difficult to
compute than geometrical optical aberrations and there is no existing
formulation for the surface contributions to the total aberration. For this
reason, it is the geometrical aberration theory which is used in practice
for the computation and design of optical systems. It allows an exact
analysis of the system and usually gives the designer adequate informa-
tion regarding the image quality. The wave aberrations contain the
entire information concerning image quality but only give a rough indi-
cation what changes in the system are necessary to improve its perform-
ance.
Author- and Subject Index
Abbe 9,68, 121, 141 dispersion 79, 96
Abbe number 82 distortion 113, 119, 156
aberration 9,75,85, 113, 156, 162 Drude 79
accommodation 25
achromat 96
Emitter 1, 6, 23
anti-reflexion films 31, 107
energy flow 5,22
aplanatic 125
entrance pupil 28, 34, 42
aspheric surfaces 114
eye 12,21
AST 148
eyepiece 28, 64
astigmatism 143, 148, 152
exit pupil 28, 34, 42
axis 3
explicit calculation 45
Berek 68
Field curvature 143, 151
binocular 19,63, 69, 122
brightness 22 - lens 15, 28, 64
- of view 24
flint glass 82
Calculation of light tubes 39 fluorite 103
centred system 3, 24 focal length 19,26,42
CHLO (- CHL) 85 fundamental equations 140
CHLP 85
chromatic aberrations 80, 85
CHVO (- CHV) 85 Gauss 47, 120
CHVP 85 - error 115, 135
Clausius 120, 141 - , theorem of 19
coated lenses 107 Gaussian brackets 45,47,49
coma 156 geometrical construction of a refraction
- number 161 53
conductivity diagram 52, 56 - optics 1,75
Conrady 167 glass 77,96
coordinates for light tubes 3,6, 9 grain of silver bromide 33
- - plane rays 105 graphical representation of aberrations
- - skew rays 137 132
crown glass 82 - - - perfect imagery 52
crystal optics 10
Hartmann formula 80
Decentred imagery 3 Helmholtz 21, 121, 141
Delano 56 Herzberger 143
depth of accommodation 66, 70 Hopkins 168
- - focus 66, 68
- - imagery 66, 70 lilumination 89
differential formulae 47, 49 image plane 42
diffraction 7, 9 - quality 76
170 Autbor- and Subject Index