Chemistry Matters Textbook Full Solutions

1 Experimental Chemistry
Let’s Practise 1.1
1. Using a burette is more accurate than using a measuring cylinder.

2. A pipette can only measure a fixed volume.
1. Water displacement / upward delivery (Any one)

2. Quicklime (calcium oxide) / fused calcium chloride (Any one)
1. Sublimation / evaporation / crystallisation / simple distillation / fractional distillation (Any two)

2. We need to know the properties of the substances, such as the state they are in, their solubilities,
boiling and melting points, and whether the substances will sublime on heating.
3. Under the same experimental conditions, components in a mixture can be identified by comparing Rf
values with those of pure substances.
1. The purity of water can be tested using its melting and boiling point. Pure water should have fixed
melting and boiling points.
2. It is impure as it does not have a fixed boiling point.
Let’s Review
Section A
1. D
We use SI units as a common standard for recording measurements. The second is the SI unit for time.
2. B
Burettes measure a range of volumes accurately to the nearest 0.05 cm3.
3. D
Water freezes at 0 ºC, which can be written as 0 + 273 = 273 K.
4. A
Downward delivery allows the denser chlorine gas to remain at the bottom of the gas jar.
Section B
1. (a) R: Distillate; S: Condenser; T: Thermometer; U: Boiling chips; V: Fractionating column

(b) S: cools the vapour into liquid; T: measures the vapour temperature; U: allows for smooth
boiling; V: provides a larger surface area for vapour to condense
(c) The water in the condenser flows in the opposite direction of the vapour to maximise the cooling
effect.
2. (a) Separating funnel
(b) Pour the mixture into a separating funnel. The bottom layer (sodium chloride solution) can be
extracted into a flask. The toluene forms the top layer left behind.
(c) The toluene can be boiled to check if its boiling point is fixed.
(d) The salt solution can be evaporated to dryness.
3. (a) The chromatogram of the food sample was run for a longer period of time.
(b) Additives C and D are found in the food sample. The spots in the chromatogram of the food
sample had the same Rf values as Additive C (Rf = 0.8) and additive D (Rf = 0.4).
Section C
1. (a) Chromatography / paper chromatography (Any one)

(b) (i) Crystallisation takes a longer time.
(ii) Heating may cause some substances to be destroyed. / Chromatography requires a small
amount of sample. (Any one)
 2023 Marshall Cavendish Education Pte Ltd Chemistry Matters for GCE ‘O’ Level 1
2. Catchment/rainwater requires less energy but is dependent on rainfall. Imported water requires less
energy but is dependent on the cost and availability determined by Malaysia. NEWater has plenty of
sewage water available but requires the use of sophisticated technology. Desalinated seawater has
plenty of seawater available but a high energy is required.
2 Kinetic Particle Theory

Let’s Investigate 2A
1. Gas to liquid and gas to solid

2. Condensation and vapour deposition
1. (a) Coffee is a liquid. The forces of attraction between particles in a liquid are weaker than those in a
solid. The particles of coffee are able to slide freely over one another, allowing the liquid to take
on the shape of the mug it is in.
(b) The particles of the gaseous coffee aroma are found very far apart in a disorderly manner.
The particles are able to move freely and randomly to fill the room.
(c) Particles in the solid pastry are very closely packed in an orderly manner. The particles can only
vibrate and rotate about their fixed positions, giving it a definite shape. Hence, the baked pastry
does not take the shape of the bowl it is in.
2. (a) In the solid state, particles of dry ice are very closely packed in an orderly manner. They can only
vibrate and rotate about their fixed positions. As thermal energy is absorbed from the
surroundings, the particles gain kinetic energy and vibrate faster. Eventually, they gain enough
energy to overcome the forces of attraction and break free from the ordered arrangement. The
particles begin to move quickly and randomly, becoming very far apart in a disorderly manner.
(b) Dry ice is solid carbon dioxide. As the particles of dry ice are more closely packed than gaseous
carbon dioxide, dry ice takes up less space than carbon dioxide gas.
1. When in contact with the cold surface of the apple, water vapour in the surrounding air cools and the
particles lose energy. The gas particles start to move slower and the spacing between particles
reduces. When the particles are close enough, the vapour becomes liquid water, resulting in water
droplets observed on the surface of the apple.
2. The fragrance will be stronger on a warmer day. At higher temperatures, the particles gain more kinetic
energy, and more particles will have enough energy to escape into the air as a gas.
3. The particle responsible for the smell of curry is larger and heavier than the particle responsible for
cooking gas. As kinetic energy is proportional to mass, the particles responsible for the smell of curry
has lower kinetic energy and moves slower. As such, it has a lower rate of diffusion, and the smell of
curry is observed to linger longer than the odour of a gas leak.
Let’s Review
Section A
1. A
Melting is the process by which a substance changes from the solid state to the liquid state.
P represents a substance in the solid state and Q represents the substance in the liquid state.
2. A
Sublimation is the process by which a substance changes from the solid state into the gaseous state
directly. P represents a substance in the solid state and R represents the substance in the gaseous
state.
3. A
Volume measures the amount of space a substance occupies. The spacing between particles is largest
in the gaseous state, giving it the greatest volume. In the solid state, the spacing between particles is
the least, giving it the least volume.
4. B
Condensation is the process by which a substance changes from the gaseous state into the liquid state.
Kinetic energy of the particles is lost to the surroundings.
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5. B
The rate of diffusion increases when the particles have a lower mass and at higher temperatures.
Section B
1. (a) Q to R: Condensation; S to T: Freezing

(b) From R to S, the particles in the liquid state are closely packed in a disorderly manner, and are
able to slide past one another. As the liquid is cooled, thermal energy is transferred to
surroundings and the particles within the liquid move more slowly. At S, the particles have less
kinetic energy and start to come closer together. From S to T, the particles possess even lower
energy, and are drawn closer together by the forces of attraction between them. Substance Z
exists as a solid–liquid mixture between S and T. At T, all the particles can only vibrate and
rotate about their fixed positions, forming the solid state. The particles are closely packed in an
orderly manner.
2. (a) Ice cream melts when the particles absorb thermal energy from its surroundings after its removal
from refrigerator. The particles gain enough kinetic energy to overcome the forces of attraction
and take on a more disorderly arrangement. In this arrangement, the particles are less closely
packed than before, and are able to slide past one other. Because ice cream is a mixture of
substances, the change in arrangement and movement of particles occurs over a range of
temperature, rather than at a specific temperature. Hence, the ice cream begins to soften but it is
not completely melted until all the substances within it have changed into the liquid state.
(b) The smell of fried eggs comes from the substances in the cooking egg. As thermal energy is
transferred from the flame to the cooking egg, these substances change from the liquid to the
gaseous state. The particles in these substances are initially closely packed in a disorderly
manner and are able to slide past each other only. As the particles gain more thermal energy
from the surroundings, they possess enough kinetic energy to overcome the forces of attraction
between them and move further apart, quickly and randomly. The substances have changed
from the liquid to the gaseous state. The particles in the gas diffuse away from the pan and into
our noses.
(c) The particles of water absorb thermal energy from its surroundings. Eventually, the particles
possess enough kinetic energy to overcome the forces of attraction, and move further apart from
each other. They are able to move quickly and randomly in a disorderly manner. The particles
then diffuse away from the clothing. This process is known as evaporation. Eventually all the
particles in the wet clothing will have evaporated away. On a sunny day (assuming that the wind
conditions are similar), the surrounding temperature is higher than on a cloudy day. So, the
particles of water in the wet clothing gain thermal energy more readily and evaporate faster.
3. (a) The brown nitrogen dioxide gas will diffuse upwards and the colourless hydrogen gas will diffuse
downwards until the gases are evenly distributed across both gas jars. The concentration of the
gases in both gas jars will remain unchanged, even though the particles of both gases will
continue to move across the gas jars.
(b) Nitrogen dioxide is a heavier particle than hydrogen. Its diffusion will be aided by gravity more
than the lighter hydrogen particle was in (a), when hydrogen diffused downwards. Therefore, the
brown gas will diffuse more quickly (downwards) than in (a).
4. (a) When water and ethanol were mixed, the smaller water particles filled the gaps between the
bigger ethanol particles, resulting in an overall reduction in volume.
(b) Evaporation occurred. The faster moving particles at the surface of the liquid escaped and
became a gas.
5. (a) Particles in the chilled water absorb the thermal energy in the warm rooms. The particles gain
kinetic energy and move more quickly, increasing the temperature of the chilled water.
(b) The particles of the liquid refrigerant will absorb the thermal energy in the warm air. At the
surface of the liquid, some particles possess enough kinetic energy to overcome the forces of
attraction and "escape" from the liquid. The liquefied refrigerant evaporates and becomes a gas.
Section C
1. (a) Tom is wrong. The particles are identical in solid ice, liquid water and steam. Only the spacing
between particles is different. So, they should all have the same mass.
(b) Jill is wrong. Boiling does not release energy. Instead, the thermal energy transferred from the
Bunsen flame to the liquid and is converted to kinetic energy of the particles for boiling to occur.
The steam is hot because the particles possess more kinetic energy.
(c) The Bunsen flame is heating the contents of the boiling tube. The particles of liquid water
nearest to the flame absorb and convert the thermal energy to kinetic energy, which causes the
warmed liquid to expand and rise to the surface. The more energetic particles escape as steam.
The ice cube remains at the bottom because it is weighted down by the wire gauze. It does not
melt quickly as thermal energy is transferred upwards towards the cooler liquid instead of
downwards towards the ice. However, as the water continues to be heated, some of the particles
of water eventually collide with the particles of the solid ice. Kinetic energy in the particles of
liquid water is transferred to the particles of solid ice. The particles of solid ice vibrate and rotate
faster, and eventually lose their orderly arrangement, melting into liquid water.
2. (a) As the gas is pumped in, the particle concentration of the gas outside the porous pot will be higher
than inside it. For bubbles to appear in the water, the particles of the gas must have diffused
through the walls of porous pot, down the glass tube and into the water. This means that particles
of the gas are smaller than the pores in the pot. (Note: Some particles of air within the porous pot
will also travel down the glass tube and bubble out along with particles of the gas. Also, the gas
pumped in must be less dense than air since it is trapped under the upturned beaker.)
(b) (i) Particles of the gas must have escaped through the pores of the pot after the pumping
was stopped, and the beaker was removed. Although particles of the air outside could
diffuse from the surroundings into the porous pot, they would do so more slowly since
they have a greater mass than the gas. So, more particles diffuse out of the porous pot
than particles diffuse in, reducing the pressure within the porous pot. The reduced
pressure allows the water to rise up the capillary tube as observed.
(ii) The gas with a smaller particle mass would diffuse faster out of the porous pot. The water
level would rise faster up the capillary tube than in (b)(i).
3 Atomic Structure
1. An atom is the smallest particle that can still have the chemical characteristics of an element.
2. (a) Electrons, protons and neutrons.
(b) Electrons are found in electron shells, while protons and neutrons are found in the nucleus.

1
1. 1H, 42 He, 73 Li respectively
2. 92 protons, 143 neutrons and 92 electrons
3. 10 electrons
4. 16 protons, 16 neutrons and 18 electrons
5. Phosphorus has one isotope, phosphorus-31. Sulfur has four isotopes, sulfur-32, sulfur-33, sulfur-34
and sulfur-36.
1. (a) 5 protons, 6 neutrons and 5 electrons

(b) 2, 3
2. 3 electrons
Let’s Review
Section A
1. B
Atoms are electrically neutral, so they have the same number of electrons and protons.
2. B
In 23
11 Na, the proton (atomic) number is 11, representing the 11 protons and 11 electrons a sodium atom
has. The nucleon (mass) number is 23, meaning that it has 23 – 11 = 12 neutrons.
3. C
Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same proton (atomic) number but different
nucleon (mass) numbers. This means that they have different numbers of neutrons. Both isotopes have
2 protons and 2 electrons. 42 He has 2 neutrons while 32 He has 1 neutron.
4. D
The first electron shell has a maximum of 2 electrons. The second and third electron shells usually have
a maximum of 8 electrons each. The remaining 2 electrons can be found in the fourth electron shell.
5. C
Atoms are electrically neutral. Since this atom has 12 electrons, it should have 12 protons.
Section B
1. (a) Potassium
(b) Potassium and calcium
(c) Argon
(d) (i) Argon
(ii) 2, 8, 8
2. (a) Isotopes are atoms of the same element that have the same proton (atomic) number but different
nucleon (mass) numbers. This means that they have different numbers of neutrons.
(b) 17
(c) 18 and 20
3. (a) Element Proton (Atomic) Number Electronic Configuration
carbon 6 2, 4
nitrogen 7 2, 5
silicon 14 2, 8, 4
sulfur 16 2, 8, 6
potassium 19 2, 8, 8, 1
(b) Carbon and silicon are likely to react in similar ways. They have the same number of electrons in
the outermost shell.
4. (a) Isotope Name Protons Neutrons Electrons Nuclide Notation
32
sulfur-32 16 16 16 16 S
79
bromine-79 35 44 35 35 Br
81
bromine-81 35 46 35 35 Br
204
lead-204 82 122 82 83 Pb
(b) No, they will not undergo different types of chemical reactions since they have the same
electronic configuration.
Section C
1. (a) Oxygen: 2, 8, 6; Hydrogen: 1

(b) Isotopes
(c) Heavy water diffuses through the body at a slower rate than normal water.
(d) Fractional distillation might work since heavy water may require more energy to boil and
evaporate than normal water.
2. (a) Arsenic: 33; Phosphorus: 15
(b) 2, 8, 5
(c) They have the same number of outermost electrons.
4 Chemical Bonding
1. An atom has a noble gas electronic configuration when it has a fully filled outermost shell or complete
valence shell of electrons.
2. They have fully filled valence shells of electrons. Hence, they do not need to react to make changes to
their valence shells.
1. Ionic compounds are formed from the mutual electrostatic forces of attraction between ions of opposite
charges.
2. Ionic compounds exist as giant ionic crystal lattice structures.
3. The relative charges of the positive and negative ions
1. A covalent compound is formed when atoms share electrons to attain a noble gas electronic
configuration.
2.
1. In the solid metal, lead has as a giant metallic lattice structure. The outermost electrons of lead atoms
are delocalised into a “sea of electrons” that surround the ordered lattice of positive lead ions.
2. The atoms are held together by the electrostatic forces of attraction between the metal ions and their
delocalised electrons.
Let’s Review
Section A
1. A
Only metals form a metallic structure. Most non-metals form simple covalent molecules.
2. A
Chlorine gains 1 electron to form the chloride ion with the electronic configuration 2, 8, 8.
The electronic configurations of the fluoride, magnesium and oxide ions are all 2, 8.
3. D
In a molecule of nitrogen, each nitrogen atom shares 3 electrons to form a triple covalent bond.
4. B
An ionic compound is a neutral substance formed between positive and negative ions. Positive ions are
usually formed from metals while negative ions are usually formed from non-metals. Aluminium is a
metal that forms the Al3+ ion. Al2O3 is the only compound listed that has no net charge.
5. C
A solid metal has a giant metallic lattice structure. Metal atoms lose their outermost electrons and
become positively charged ions. The outermost electrons are said to be delocalised and move freely
between the metal ions.
Section B
1. (a) Sodium nitrate

(b) Argon
(c) Hydrogen / Chlorine (Any one)
(d) Methane / Water (Any one)
(e) Potassium iodide
2. (a) 2, 8, 1
(b) 2, 7
(c)
3. (a) 4
(b) A simple molecule
(c) 1
4. (a) The compound between carbon and chlorine has covalent bonding with a simple molecular
structure. The compound between lead and chlorine has ionic bonding with a giant ionic crystal
lattice structure.
(b)
5. (a) 1 silicon atom and 4 fluorine atoms

(b)
(c) Silicon dioxide is a giant covalent molecule. Silicon fluoride is a simple covalent molecule.
Section C
1. (a) Metallic bonding in gold is the electrostatic attraction between positively charged ions in a metal
and the sea of mobile (or delocalised) electrons.
(b) The solid atoms rotate and vibrate about their fixed positions.
(c) From 1000 ºC to 1063 ºC, the arrangement of the atoms will change from closely packed in an
orderly arrangement to closely packed in a disorderly arrangement. The movement of the atoms
will change from vibrating and rotating about their fixed positions to sliding past each other freely.
2. (a)
(b) There are only 6 outermost electrons in boron, which is not a noble gas electronic configuration.
(c) 1:1
5 Structure and Properties of Materials

1. A compound has a fixed ratio of its constituent elements but the ratio in mixtures is not fixed.
A compound has different properties from its constituents, but a mixture has similar properties to its
constituents.
2. Sparkling water is a mixture. Water and carbon dioxide are two different compounds physically put
together.
3. (a) Helium / neon / argon (Accept other possible answers.)
(b) Oxygen / nitrogen (Accept other possible answers.)
(c) Carbon dioxide / water (Accept other possible answers.)
1. The electrostatic forces of attraction between the oppositely charged ions in the lattice are strong. So, a
large amount of energy is needed to overcome these electrostatic forces of attraction.
2. Calcium chloride can dissolve in water but not in cooking oil.
3. (a) Potassium iodide crystals have no mobile electrons or ions to conduct electricity. The mobile
ions present in potassium iodide solution can conduct electricity.
(b) Molten potassium iodide can conduct electricity.
1. Simple covalent molecules have weak intermolecular forces of attraction that are easily overcome.
Giant covalent substances have a large network of strong covalent bonds that require lots of energy to
break apart.
2. Diamond is a giant covalent molecule with a large network of strong covalent bonds between carbon
atoms. A lot of energy is needed to break these strong covalent bonds. Hence, diamond is hard.
However, in graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms by strong covalent
bonds in layers of hexagonal rings of carbon atoms. There are weak intermolecular forces of attraction
between the layers of carbon atoms. Only a small amount of energy is needed to overcome these
forces. Hence, these layers of carbon atoms can slide over each other easily.
3. Most covalent compounds do not have mobile electrons to conduct electricity, unlike graphite.
1. A pure metal has a “sea of delocalised electrons” to conduct electricity.

2. (a) An alloy is a mixture of a metal and one or more other elements.
(b) Alloys contain atoms of different sizes, disrupting the regular structure of the lattice. So, the
atoms cannot move easily past each other, as compared to the regular structure in pure metals.
(c) Alloys are mixtures that have the properties of its constituent elements.
3. An alloy is a mixture. The exact number and distribution of atoms may be exactly the same or different
within different parts of the alloy.
1. Solid X is likely to be pure copper. Pure metals are more malleable than alloys due to the regular
structure of the atoms.
2. Naphthalene is the solid that melts at 80 ºC since it is a simple covalent molecule. Potassium chloride is
an ionic solid with a giant ionic crystal lattice structure and a high melting point.
3. Solid P is graphite as the mobile electrons between the layers can conduct electricity. Solid Q is
manganese(IV) oxide with a giant ionic lattice structure that does not have mobile electrons or ions to
conduct electricity. When melted, the ions become mobile and can act as charge carriers.
Let’s Review
Section A
1. A
Phosphorus trichloride is a simple covalent molecule. So, it will have a low melting point and will not
have mobile charge carriers to conduct electricity.
2. C
Each carbon atom in graphite forms three covalent bonds with neighbouring carbon atoms. The fourth
valence electron of each atom is free to move along each layer of the structure.
3. D
Sodium bromide is an ionic compound formed between a metal and a non-metal. Ionic compounds
exist as giant ionic crystal lattices with high melting points. They are soluble in water and the mobile
ions conduct electricity when molten.
Section B
1. (a) Y is a compound since it has a fixed melting point.

Z is a mixture since it melts over a range of temperatures.
(b) Metallic bonding
(c) Y is an ionic solid that has mobile ions in the molten state but not in the solid state.
2. (a) Allotropes are different forms of the same element with different structural arrangements of
atoms.
(b) Diamond / nanotubes / fullerenes (Accept other possible answers.)
(c) Carbon dioxide is a simple covalent molecule held by weak intermolecular forces of attraction
which require only a small amount of energy to overcome. Hence, it has a low melting point.
However, graphite is a giant covalent molecule with a large network of strong covalent bonds
between carbon atoms. A lot of energy is needed to break these strong covalent bonds. Hence,
graphite has a very high melting point.
Carbon dioxide has no free mobile ions or electrons to conduct electricity. However, in graphite,
each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms, leaving one unbonded electron per
carbon atom which is free and mobile to conduct electricity.
Section C
1. (a) Sodium chloride has a giant ionic crystal lattice structure held by strong electrostatic forces of
attraction between the positive and negative ions. These forces require a large amount of energy
to overcome. Hence, it has a high melting point. However, iodine exists as simple covalent
molecules held by weak intermolecular forces of attraction. These forces require only a small
amount of energy to overcome. Hence, it has a low melting point.
(b) Metals have a “sea of delocalised electrons” to conduct electricity. Polystyrene does not have
any mobile ions or electrons to conduct electricity.
(c) Each carbon atom in diamond is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms in a giant
covalent structure. There are no mobile charge carriers in diamond to conduct electricity.
In graphite, each carbon atom is bonded to three other carbon atoms. This leaves one unbonded
electron per carbon atom which is free and mobile to conduct electricity.
2. (a) The bonding in a pure metal is metallic bonding. It has a giant metallic lattice structure held by
strong electrostatic forces of attraction between the positive ions and the "sea of mobile
electrons".
(b) (i) No. The regular lattice is disrupted due to the atoms having different sizes.
(ii) Yes. There are still mobile electrons to conduct electricity.
(c) (i) P and Q have high melting and boiling points.
(iii) P is used as a lubricant while Q is used for drill bits.
6 Chemical Formulae and Equations

1. (a) 1 Ca, 1 C, 3 O
(b) 1 Al, 3 O, 3 H
(c) 3 Fe, 2 P, 8 O
(d) 12 C, 14 H, 3 O
1. (a) CaCl2
(b) Ag3PO4
(c) Fe2(SO4)3
2. +4
1. (a) MgO + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2O

(b) C + 2FeO  CO2 + 2Fe
2. (a) CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(b) CuSO4(aq) + 2NaOH(aq)  Cu(OH)2(s) + Na2SO4(aq)
3. (a) NH4+(aq) + OH–(aq)  NH3(g) + H2O(l)
(b) ZnCO3(s) + 2H+(aq)  Zn2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
4. (a) Fe(s) + 2H+(aq)  Fe2+(aq) + H2(g)
(b) H+(aq) + OH–(aq)  H2O(l)
Let’s Review
Section A
1. C
Magnesium forms the Mg2+ ion. It needs two hydroxide ions, OH–, to form magnesium hydroxide,
Mg(OH)2.
2. C
The balanced equation is: 2Fe(OH)3 + 3H2SO4  Fe2(SO4)3 + 6H2O
3. B
The balanced equation is: 2Fe(OH)3 + 3H2SO4  Fe2(SO4)3 + 6H2O
4. A
Ionic equation for option A: Ag+(aq) + Cl–(aq)  AgCl(s)
Ionic equation for options B to D: OH–(aq) + H+(aq)  H2O(l)
5. D
The balanced equation is: C2H4 + 3O2  2CO2 + 2H2O
1+3+2+2=8
Section B
1. (a) Li2CO3 + 2HBr  2LiBr + H2O + CO2

(b) Fe2O3 + 3H2  2Fe + 3H2O
(c) SiO2 + 4HF  SiF4 + 2H2O
(d) 2Al(NO3)3 + 3Ba(OH)2  2Al(OH)3 + 3Ba(NO3)2
2. (a) ZnO(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  Zn(NO3)2(aq) + H2O(l)
(b) AgNO3(aq) + HCl(aq)  AgCl(s) + HNO3(aq)
3. (a) Pb2+(aq) + SO42–(aq)  PbSO4(s)
(b) Ca2+(aq) + SO42–(aq)  CaSO4(s)
Section C
1. (a) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq)  2NaCl(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
(b) For calcium carbonate:
CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq)  Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
For sodium carbonate:
CO32–(aq) + 2H+(aq)  CO2(g) + H2O(l)
2. (a) 6CO2 + 6H2O  C6H12O6 + 6O2
(b) From 10 molecules of glucose, 9 molecules of water are produced in the conversion to starch.
There are 60 C, 120 H and 60 O atoms in 10 molecules of glucose.
There are 18 H and 9 O atoms in 9 molecules of water.
Thus, there are 60C, 120 – 18 = 102 H and 60 – 9 = 51 O atoms in a molecule of starch.
Chemical formula of a molecule of starch: C60H102O51
7 Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

1. (a) 3(12) + 6(1) + 2(16) = 74

(b) 31 + 3(35.5) = 137.5
(c) 2(27) + 3[32 + 4(16)] = 342
1. (a) 40
× 100 % = 40.0 %
40 + 12 + 3(16)
(b) 14
× 100 % = 26.2 %
14 + 4(1) + 35.5
(c) 3(32)
× 100 % = 28.1 %
2(27) + 3(32) + 12(16)
1. (a) 10.0 × [2(1) + 16] = 180 g

(b) 0.50 × [56 + 3(14 + 3 × 16)] = 121 g
2. (a) 4.0 × 24 = 96.0 dm3
(b) 0.02 × 24 = 0.48 dm3
3. (a) 0.3 ÷ 1.5 = 0.200 g/dm3
(b) 1.2 × [14 + 4(1) + 35.5] = 64.2 g
64.2 ÷ (100 ÷ 1000) = 642 g/dm3
4. (a) 1.0 ÷ 2.5 = 0.400 mol/dm3
(b) 2.2
= 0.01848 mol
39 + 80
0.01848 ÷ (40.0 ÷ 1000) = 0.462 mol/dm3
1. Element C H O
Mass / g 59.9 8.1 32.0
Relative Atomic Mass 12 1 16
Number of Moles / mol 59.9 ÷ 12 = 4.991 8.1 ÷ 1 = 8.1 32.0 ÷ 16 = 2
4.991 ÷ 2 = 2.495 8.1 ÷ 2 = 4.05 2÷2=1
Mole Ratio
2.495 × 2 ≈ 5 4.05 × 2 ≈ 8 1×2=2
Therefore, the empirical formula of plexiglass is C5H8O2.
2. Mr from empirical formula, C4H5N2O = 4(12) + 5(1) + 2(14) + 16

= 97
194
n=
97
=2
Molecular formula = (C4H5N2O)2

= C8H10N4O2
1. (a) Na2CO3 + 2HNO3  2NaNO3 + CO2 + H2O

(b) 100
Number of moles of Na2 CO3 present =
2(23) + 12 + 3(16)
= 0.9433 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of NaNO3 will produce 1 mol of CO2.

0.9433 mol of NaNO3 will produce 0.9433 mol of CO2.
Volume of CO2 = 0.9433 × 24

= 22.6 dm3
2. (a) From the equation, 1 mol of N2 reacts with 3 mol of H2.

20 dm3 of N2 will react with 60 dm3 of H2.
Since only 30 dm3 of H2 is present, it is the limiting reactant.
(b) 30
Number of moles of H2 present =
24
= 1.25 mol
From the equation, 3 mol of H2 will produce 2 mol of NH3.

1.25 mol of H2 will produce 1.25 ÷ 3 × 2 = 0.8333 mol of NH3 .
Mass of NH3 = 0.8333 × [14 + 3(1)]

= 14.2 g
3. (a) 6
Number of moles of CO2 present =
24
= 0.25 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of CO2 will react with 1 mol of Ca(OH)2.
0.25 mol of CO2 will react with 0.25 mol of Ca(OH)2.
0.25
Concentration of Ca(OH)2 =
250 ÷ 1000
= 1.00 mol/dm3
(b) From the equation, 1 mol of Ca(OH)2 will produce 1 mol of CaCO3.
0.25 mol of Ca(OH)2 will produce 0.25 mol of CaCO3.
Mass of CaCO3 = 0.25 × [40 + 12 + 3(16)]

= 25.0 g
1. (a) Zn(s) + CuCl2(aq)  Cu(s) + ZnCl2(aq)
171
Number of moles of Cu produced =
64
= 2.671 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of Zn will produce 1 mol of Cu.

2.671 mol of Zn will produce 2.671 mol of Cu.
Mass of pure Zn in sample = 2.671 × 65

= 173.6 g
173.6
Percentage purity = × 100 %
200
= 86.8 %
(b) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
100
Number of moles of CaCO3 present =
40 + 12 + 3(16)
= 1.00 mol
73
Number of moles of HCl present =
1 + 35.5
= 2.00 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of CaCO3 and 2 mol HCl will produce 1 mol of CO2.
Theoretical mass of CO2 produced = 1 × [12 + 2(16)]

= 44 g
38
Percentage yield = × 100 %
44
= 86.4 %
Let’s Review
Section A
1. D
28
Number of moles of C2 H4 =
2(12) + 4(1)
= 1 mol
23
Number of H atoms = 4 × [6.02 × 10 ]
24
= 2.408 × 10
2. B
4(1)
Percentage mass of hydrogen in C2 H4 = × 100 %
2(12) + 4(1)
= 14.3 %
3. D
2(27)
Percentage mass of aluminium in Al2 O3 = × 100 %
2(27) + 3(16)
= 52.9 %
4. D
36.0
Number of moles of O2 =
24
= 1.5 mol
From the equation, 3 mol of O2 will produce 2 mol of SO3.

1.5 mol of O2 will produce 1.5 ÷ 3 × 2 = 1.0 mol of SO3.
Mass of SO3 = 1 × [32 + 3(16)]

= 80.0 g
5. B
H2SO4 + 2NaOH  Na2SO4 + H2O
Number of moles of H2 SO4 = 0.5 × (200 ÷ 1000)

= 0.1 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of H2SO4 will react with 2 mol of NaOH.
0.1 mol of H2SO4 will react with 0.1 × 2 = 0.2 mol of NaOH.
0.2
Concentration of NaOH =
100 ÷ 1000
= 2.00 mol/dm3
Section B
1. MgCO3  MgO + CO2
27.5
Number of moles of MgO =
24 + 16
= 0.6875 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of MgCO3 will produce 1 mol of MgO and 1 mol of CO2.
0.6875 mol of MgCO3 will produce 0.6875 mol of MgO and 0.6875 mol of CO2.
Volume of CO2 = 0.6875 × 24

= 16.5 dm3
2. (a) 2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(g)
From the equation, 2 mol of H2 will react with 1 mol of O2 to produce 2 mol of H2O.
0.2 mol of H2 will react with 0.1 mol of O2 to produce 0.2 mol of H2O.
Right after the reaction, 0.1 mol of O2 is left behind and 0.2 mol of H2O is produced.
0.1 + 0.2 = 0.3 mol
(b) At r.t.p., O2 is the only gas left behind.

Volume of O2 = 0.1 × 24
= 2.4 dm3
3. Element C H
Mass / g 80.0 20.0
Relative Atomic Mass 12 1
Number of Moles / mol 80.0 ÷ 12 = 6.666 20.0 ÷ 1 = 20
Mole Ratio 6.666 ÷ 6.666 = 1 20 ÷ 6.666 ≈ 3
Therefore, the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon is CH3.
4. 4.0
Number of moles of Na2 SO4 =
2(23) + 32 + 4(16)
= 0.02816 mol
0.02816
Concentration of Na2 SO4 =
400 ÷ 1000
= 0.0704 mol/dm3
Concentration of sodium ions = 2 × 0.0704

= 0.141 mol/dm3
5. (a) Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq)  2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

(b) Number of moles of HCl = 2.0 × (200 ÷ 1000)
= 0.4 mol
From the equation, 6 mol of HCl will react with 1 mol of Al2O3.
0.4 mol of HCl will react with 0.4 ÷ 6 = 0.06666 mol of Al2O3.
Mass of Al2O3 = 0.06666 × [2(27) + 3(16)]

= 6.8 g
6.8
Number of antacid pills needed =
2
≈4
Section C
1. (a) (i) 8(12)

Percentage mass of carbon in C8 H18 = × 100 %
8(12) + 18(1)
= 84.2 %
(ii) 2(12)
Percentage mass of carbon in C2 H5 OH = × 100 %
2(12) + 6(1) + 16
= 52.2 %
(b) (i) From the equation, 2 mol of C8H18 will produce 16 mol of CO2.
1 mol of C8H18 will produce 16 ÷ 2 = 8 mol of CO2.
Volume of CO2 = 8 × 24
= 192 dm3
(ii) From the equation, 1 mol of C2H5OH will produce 2 mol of CO2.
Volume of CO2 = 2 × 24
= 48 dm3
(c) (i) 100
8(12) + 18(1)
= 0.8771 mol
From the equation, 2 mol of C8H18 will produce 16 mol of CO2.

0.8771 mol of C8H18 will produce 0.8771 ÷ 2 × 16 = 7.016 mol of CO2.
Volume of CO2 = 7.016 × 24

= 168 dm3
(ii) 100
Number of moles of C2 H5 OH =
2(12) + 6(1) + 16
= 2.173 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of C2H5OH will produce 2 mol of CO2.

2.173 mol of C2H5OH will produce 2.173 × 2 = 4.346 mol of CO2.
Volume of CO2 = 4.346 × 24

= 104 dm3
(d) (i) 2H2 + O2  2H2O

(ii) Advantage: Hydrogen does not produce pollutants when burnt.
Disadvantage: Hydrogen is harder to store / more explosive.
(Accept other possible answers.)
2. (a) 400 ÷ 1000

24
= 0.01666 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of C5H12 will react with 8 mol of O2.
0.01666 mol of C5H12 will react with 0.01666 × 8 = 0.1333 mol of O2.
Mass of O2 = 0.1333 × 2(16)

= 4.27 g
(b) 148
24
= 6.166 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of O2 will react with 8 mol of C5H12.

6.166 mol of O2 will react with 6.166 ÷ 8 = 0.7707 mol of C5H12.
Mass of C5 H12 in sample = 0.7707 × [5(12) + 12(1)]

= 55.49 g
55.49
Percentage purity = × 100 %
100
= 55.5 %
8 Acids and Bases

1. Test 1: Add a strip of magnesium ribbon to the liquid. A colourless gas is formed which extinguishes a
burning splint with a "pop" sound.
Test 2: Add calcium carbonate to the liquid. A colourless gas is formed. When bubbled into limewater,
a white precipitate is formed.
2. The ions in solid citric acid are held in a lattice and are not free to move to conduct electricity.
When dissolved in water, the lattice structure breaks up, allowing the ions to be mobile in the water.
3. Barium reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid to form soluble barium chloride. When barium reacts with
dilute sulfuric acid, a layer of insoluble barium sulfate forms around barium.
4. (a) Mg(s) + 2H+(aq)  Mg2+(aq) + H2(g)
(b) CaCO3(s) + 2H+(aq)  Ca2+(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)
1. Strong acids ionise fully in water whereas weak acids ionise partially in water.
2. (a) Hydrochloric acid / sulfuric acid / nitric acid (Accept other possible answers.)
(b) Ethanoic acid / citric acid / formic acid (Accept other possible answers.)
1. The pH of the solution increases from about 1. The eventual pH will depend on how much sodium
hydroxide is added.
2. (a) Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl  MgCl2 + 2H2O
(b) Sodium hydroxide is a strong alkali. It is corrosive and would “burn” the stomach lining.
1. 0: Car battery acid; 1: Acid in the stomach; 3: Vinegar; 5: Black coffee; 7: Pure water
2. (a) Lemon juice is a weak acid and reacts with the calcium carbonate. Also, it would not react with
the iron kettle.
(b) Ethanoic acid (vinegar)
1. The soil is alkaline.

2. He can add calcium hydroxide to the soil to reduce the acidity.
1. Carbon and sulfur

2. (a) Mg(OH)2 + 2HCl  MgCl2 + 2H2O
(b) A: Amphoteric; B: Acidic; C: Basic
Let’s Review
Section A
1. B
An acid is a substance that produces hydrogen ions, H+, in aqueous solutions.
2. C
Acids react with carbonates to give off a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
3. A
pH measures the concentration of H+ ions in a solution. A lower pH value represents a higher
concentration of H+ ions. Diluting an acid with water would decrease the concentration of the acid
(H+ ions), and thus the pH value would increase.
4. D
Sodium hydroxide is a base. When a base is added to an acid, neutralisation occurs. The temperature
of the reaction mixture increases as such reactions release energy in the form of heat into the
surroundings.
5. C
2 moles of PbO and 1 mole of PbO2 gives the same number of lead and oxygen atoms in 1 mole of
Pb3O4.
Section B
1. (a) Water is a colourless liquid, boils at 100 °C and has a pH of 7.

(b) NaOH tastes bitter. / NaOH feels slippery and soapy. / NaOH dissolves in water to form a
solution that conducts electricity. / NaOH turns red litmus paper blue. / NaOH turns Universal
Indicator violet/purple. / NaOH reacts with acids to form a salt and water. / NaOH gives off
ammonia gas when heated with ammonium salts. (Any three)
2. (a) (i) Battery
(ii) Blood
(iii) Water
(b) Both reactions produce carbon dioxide gas. However, the rate at which effervescence is
observed in the reaction with ethanoic acid, a weak acid, is slower than in the reaction with
sulfuric acid, a strong acid.
Na2CO3(s) + H2SO4(aq)  Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
Na2CO3(s) + 2CH3COOH  2CH3COONa(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)
3. (a) (i) Pass the carbon dioxide gas into limewater. A white precipitate will be observed in a
positive test.
(ii) A burning splint can be placed at the mouth of the test tube. Hydrogen gas extinguishes
the burning splint with a “pop” sound.
(b) (i) Sodium carbonate
(ii) Magnesium methanoate
(c) Dilute hydrochloric acid is a stronger acid than dilute methanoic acid.
(d) Carbon monoxide gas
4. (a) Most non-metallic oxides are acidic.
(b) Most metallic oxides are basic.
(c) (i) Zinc oxide / aluminium oxide / lead(II) oxide (Any one)
(ii) Other than water, a salt is formed.
5. (a) Hydrochloric acid / nitric acid (Any one)
(b) Strong acids ionise fully in water whereas weak acids ionise partially in water.
(c) Test 1: A carbonate salt such as sodium carbonate can be added. If carbon dioxide is given off,
it is an acid.
Test 2: A blue litmus paper can also be used. If the solution turns the blue litmus paper red, it is
acidic.
Section C
1. (a) The pH value increases as the concentration of hydrochloric acid decreases.

(b) (i) The pH value of a solution is dependent on the concentration of H + ions.
The higher the concentration of H+ ions, the lower the pH value. 0.1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric
acid ionises to give 0.1 mol/dm3 H+ ions. 0.1 mol/dm3 sulfuric acid ionises to give
0.2 mol/dm3 H+ ions. Hence, the pH value observed for 0.1 mol/dm3 sulfuric was less than
that for 0.1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid.
(ii) Yes. Both 0.1 mol/dm3 sulfuric acid and 0.1 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid will give a red
colour with Universal Indicator.
(iii) The pH value is likely to be between 5 to 7. Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid which fully
ionises in water. Ethanoic acid is a weak acid which only partially ionises in water.
The concentration of H+ ions in 0.00001 mol/dm3 ethanoic acid will be lower than that in
0.00001 mol/dm3 hydrochloric acid. Therefore, the pH value of ethanoic acid will be
greater than 5 but less than 7.
2. (a) NaOH(aq) + HNO3(aq)  NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l)
(b)
(c) 1.00 mol/dm3

(d) (i) Aqueous sodium hydroxide
(ii) Aqueous sodium nitrate
(iii) Aqueous sodium nitrate and nitric acid
9 Salts
1. (a) Insoluble
(b) Soluble
(c) Soluble
(d) Insoluble
1. (a) A: Silver nitrate or lead(II) nitrate; B: Silver chloride or lead(II) chloride

(b) C: Sulfuric acid; D: Zinc
(Also accept C: Zinc; D: Sulfuric acid)
(c) E: Hydrochloric acid; F: Carbon dioxide
2. (a) Aqueous ammonia or ammonium carbonate and dilute sulfuric acid; titration
(b) Copper(II) oxide (or copper(II) carbonate) and dilute nitric acid; reaction of acid with an insoluble
substance
(c) Barium nitrate (or barium chloride) and sodium sulfate; precipitation
(d) Aqueous lithium hydroxide and dilute hydrochloric acid; titration
Let’s Review
Section A
1. D
Lead(II) chloride is insoluble in water.
2. D
In titration, both reactants used should be soluble in water. Acids are added to alkalis or soluble
carbonates to prepare salts by titration.
3. A
Acids react with carbonates to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water.
H2SO4 + MgCO3  MgSO4 + CO2 + H2O
4. C
Copper(II) chloride is a soluble salt that can be prepared by titration or by the reaction of acids with
metals, insoluble bases or insoluble carbonates. Copper metal does not react with hydrochloric acid.
Copper(II) oxide is an insoluble while copper(II) sulfate is a soluble.
5. A
Precipitation involves the formation of an insoluble salt from the mixing of two aqueous solutions.
Section B
1. Ammonium chloride, sodium sulfate, copper(II) sulfate and copper(II) chloride

2. (a) Y, Z, U, V, X, W
(b) Evaporation
(c) Ensure that no flammable items are near the Bunsen burner when heating the contents.
(d) Distillation
3. (a) Pour about 50 cm3 of aqueous barium nitrate into a small beaker. Add aqueous potassium
sulfate (in excess) and stir until no more precipitate forms. Filter to collect the precipitate.
Wash the precipitate with distilled water to remove impurities. Allow the precipitate to dry
between a few sheets of filter paper.
(b) Barium sulfate is insoluble in water. Thus, it does not dissolve to form toxic barium ions when
it is consumed.
4. (a) Neutralisation
(b) Precipitation
5. Step 1:
Lead metal can be added into a beaker of nitric acid until no more reaction is observed with the acid.
Filter to remove the excess lead metal.
Pb(s) + 2HNO3(aq)  Pb(NO3)2(aq) + H2(g)
Step 2:
Collect the filtrate and add it to aqueous potassium chloride.
Pb(NO3)2(aq) + 2KCl(aq)  PbCl2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
Step 3:
Filter to collect the precipitate. Wash the precipitate with distilled water and dry it between a few sheets
of filter paper.
Section C
1. (a) (i) No more effervescence was observed. / Copper(II) carbonate can no longer dissolve in
the solution. / An indicator could be added to determine the pH of the solution. (Any two)
(ii) Colourless to blue
(iii) The saturation point is determined by dipping and removing a clean glass rod into the
solution. If small crystals form on the rod as the solution cools, the solution is saturated.
(b) 4.80
Number of moles of CuSO4 =
64 + 32 + 4(16)
= 0.03 mol
Mass of CuSO4 .5H2 O = 0.03 × [160 + 5(2 + 16)]

= 7.50 g
(c) (i) 5.00

Percentage yield = × 100 %
7.50
= 66.7%
(ii) Some of the copper(II) sulfate crystals could have been lost during filtration.
(d) 160
× 100 % = 72.1 %
[64 + 12 + 3(16)] + [2(1) + 32 + 4(16)]
3–
2. (a) (i) N
(ii) 2Na3N(s)  6Na(s) + N2(g)
(b) (i) Ammonia gas
(ii) Ammonium chloride
(iii) Na3N(s) + 4HCl(aq)  NH4Cl(aq) + 3NaCl(aq)
(c) The white solid mixture can be gently warmed in an evaporating dish. As ammonium chloride
sublimes, a white vapour is observed emerging from the solid mixture. When no more vapour is
seen, solid sodium chloride remains in the dish.
10 Ammonia
1. At 150 ºC, the reaction is very slow. At 650 ºC, the ammonia would decompose.
2. Pressures beyond 300 atm would incur additional costs due to the special equipment that requires a
larger amount of electricity.
3. An iron catalyst increases the rate of reaction.
1. Hydrated copper(II) sulfate decomposes when heated.

2. The flame can be moved along the length of the test tube to prevent water from condensing on the
cooler regions.
1. (a) 4NH3 + 5O2 ⇌ 4NO + 6H2O

(b) Below 600 ºC, the rate of reaction decreases, so the decomposition of nitric oxide decreases.
Let’s Review
Section A
1. A
Air comprises mainly of nitrogen gas.
2. A
A lower temperature leads to a higher yield of ammonia. However, too low a temperature would slow
down the reaction. Hence, a compromise temperature of 450 ºC is used.
A higher pressure leads to a higher yield of ammonia. However, maintaining higher pressures incurs a
large cost. Hence, a compromise pressure of 250 atm can be used.
An iron catalyst is added to speed up the reaction.
3. A
Hydrogen exists as hydrogen molecules and not hydrogen atoms. Only option A has the balanced
chemical equation with the hydrogen molecule.
4. C
The Haber process occurs under a high pressure and a low temperature, in the presence of a catalyst
of iron.
5. B
When heated, ammonium chloride breaks down into ammonia gas and hydrogen chloride gas, which is
a decomposition reaction.
Section B
1. (a) An element is a pure substance that cannot be broken down into two or more simpler
substances by chemical methods. A compound is a pure substance containing two or more
elements that are chemically combined in a fixed ratio.
(b) Fractional distillation separates mixtures of liquids with similar boiling points whereas simple
distillation separates a liquid from a solid–liquid mixture.
(c) A reversible reaction can go both forward and backward at the same time. Changing the reaction
conditions can favour the backward or forward reaction. An irreversible reaction can only occur in
the forward direction.
2. (a) N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
(b) Iron
(i) Since the reaction is a reversible reaction, it does not go to completion. Hence, some
ammonia was converted back into nitrogen and hydrogen.
(ii) Ammonia has the highest boiling point compared to hydrogen and nitrogen. Hence, it will
condense into a liquid first.
(iii) The remaining mixture of hydrogen and nitrogen gases should be recycled to manufacture
more ammonia.
3. (a) A reversible reaction is a reaction in which the conversion of reactants to products and the
conversion of products to reactants occur simultaneously.
(b) (i) The copper(II) sulfate would turn from blue to white. Water will be collected in the
test tube.
(ii) It is a reversible reaction.
4. (a) CO(g) + H2O(g) ⇌ H2(g) + CO2(g)
(b) The reaction does not go to completion.
5. (a) 48
Number of moles of NH3 =
24
= 2 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of NH3 will produce 1 mol of HNO3.

2 mol of NH3 will produce 2 mol of HNO3.
Theoretical mass of HNO3 = 2 × [1 + 14 + 3(16)]

= 126 g
20
Actual mass of HNO3 = × 126
100
= 25.2 g
(b) The concentration can be increased by heating the mixture to evaporate the water.
(c) (i) HNO3 + NH3  NH4NO3
25.2
Number of moles of HNO3 =
63
= 0.4 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of HNO3 will produce 1 mol of NH4NO3.

0.4 mol of HNO3 will produce 0.4 mol of NH4NO3.
Maximum yield of NH4 NO3 = 0.4 × [2(14) + 4(1) + 3(16)]

= 32.0 g
(ii) 2(14)
Percentage mass of nitrogen in NH4 NO3 = × 100 %
80
= 35.0 %
Section C
1. (a) The best conditions are 350 ºC and 400 atm.

(b) The reaction might be too slow at 350 ºC. The use of a high pressure is expensive as special
equipment is required which consumes a high amount of electricity
(c) Increasing the temperature increases the rate of reaction. However, the percentage yield of
ammonia decreases as it decomposes back into nitrogen and hydrogen.
(d) N2(g) + 3H2(g) ⇌ 2NH3(g)
From the equation, 1 mol of N2 will react with 3 mol of H2 to produce 2 mol of NH3.
36 dm3 of N2 will react with 108 dm3 of H2 to produce 72 dm3 of NH3.
2. (a)
(b) Nitrogen has three covalent bonds. These bonds are strong and require a large amount of
energy to overcome.
(c) Nitrogen gas is obtained from fractional distillation of liquid air.
(d) (i)
(ii) Both hydrazine and ammonia are soluble in water. Hydrazine exists as a liquid whereas
ammonia exists as a gas.
11 Qualitative Analysis
1. (a) Aqueous ammonia

(b) If the solution of compound X produces a white precipitate, calcium ions are absent in
compound X. If the white precipitate formed dissolves in excess aqueous ammonia,
zinc ions are present. Otherwise, aluminium ions would be present.
1. Calcium carbonate
1. Add dilute nitric acid, then add aqueous barium nitrate. A white precipitate of barium sulfate is formed if
sulfate ions are present in the solution.
2. Add dilute nitric acid, then add aqueous silver nitrate. If chloride ions are present, a white precipitate
of silver chloride will be formed. If iodide ions are present, a yellow precipitate of silver iodide will be
formed.
1. Hydrogen / oxygen / carbon dioxide (Any one)

2. Damp blue and red litmus papers can be placed at the mouth of the gas jars. If there is no colour
change, the gas is hydrogen. If the damp red litmus paper turns blue, the gas is ammonia. If the damp
blue litmus paper turns red and is then bleached, the gas is chlorine.
Let’s Review
Section A
1. C
When aqueous sodium hydroxide and aluminium are added to a solution of nitrate ions, alkaline
ammonia gas is produced.
2. B
When the fertiliser was heated with aqueous sodium hydroxide, ammonia gas was evolved. Hence, the
fertiliser contains ammonium ions.
When dilute nitric acid and barium nitrate were added into the solution of fertiliser, a white precipitate
was formed. Hence, the fertiliser contains sulfate ions.
3. B
Adding dilute nitric acid and aqueous barium nitrate is a test for sulfate ions.
4. A
The presence of dilute nitric acid will result in the solution having a pH of below 7. Dilute nitric acid and
silver nitrate will react with the iodide ions to give a yellow precipitate.
5. C
Dilute acids react with the carbonate ions to produce carbon dioxide gas.
Section B
1. P: Copper(II) chloride, CuCl2

Q: Silver nitrate, AgNO3 / lead(II) nitrate, Pb(NO3)2 (Any one)
R: Potassium chloride, KCl
S: Carbon dioxide, CO2
2. (a) Aqueous sodium hydroxide can be added separately into each solution and the mixture heated.
Reaction with ammonium chloride produces an effervescence of ammonia gas whereas reaction
with magnesium chloride does not produce a gas.
(b) Aqueous ammonia can be added separately into each solution. Reaction with aluminium nitrate
produces a white precipitate whereas there would be no visible change observed in the reaction
with calcium nitrate.
(c) Excess aqueous ammonia can be added separately into each solution. Both zinc hydroxide and
aluminium hydroxide produce a white precipitate upon reaction, but the precipitate for zinc
hydroxide is soluble in excess ammonia.
3. NO3–, Ba2+, Ag+, I–, Zn2+
4. (a) The crystalline compound K contains water.
(b) (i) K contains Cu2+ ions and NH4+ ions.
(ii) K contains Cu2+ ions.
(iii) K contains SO42– ions.
5. (a) X: Sulfuric acid
Y: Aqueous sodium hydroxide / aqueous sodium carbonate (Any one)
Z: Copper(II) oxide / copper(II) hydroxide / copper(II) carbonate (Any one)
(b) (i) Aqueous sodium hydroxide
(ii) Heat
(iii) It has a pungent smell and turns damp red litmus paper blue.
Section C
1. (a)
(b) Sublimation
(c) (i) Carbonic acid, HCO3
(ii) CO2 + H2O ⇌ HCO3
(d) Limewater (calcium hydroxide)
A white precipitate is formed when carbon dioxide gas is bubbled through limewater.
(e) React the mixture with a dilute acid and pass the gas given off into limewater. If the gas forms a
white precipitate with limewater, carbonate ions are present. Add dilute acid and barium nitrate
solution into the original mixture. If a white precipitate is formed, sulfate ions are present.
2. (a) A: Iron(II) chloride
B: Iron(II) hydroxide
C: Silver chloride
D: Iron(III) hydroxide
E: Iron(III) chloride
(b) Aqueous sodium hydroxide
12 Oxidation and Reduction

1. Not all reactions involve hydrogen and/or oxygen.

2. Propane is oxidised by gaining oxygen (or increase in the oxidation state of carbon). Oxygen is reduced
as its oxidation state decreased (or gained hydrogen when water is formed).
3. V in VO2+: +4; V in VO2+: +5
1. (a) This is not a redox reaction as the oxidation states remain unchanged.
(b) This is not a redox reaction as the oxidation states remain unchanged.
(c) This is a redox reaction. The oxidation state of oxygen increased from –2 in Cu(NO3)2 to 0 in O2,
showing oxidation. The oxidation state of nitrogen decreased from +5 in Cu(NO3)2 to +4 in NO2,
showing reduction.
2. (a) 2Fe3+(aq) + 2I–(aq)  2Fe2+(aq) + I2(aq)
(b) The original solution is yellow and a positive test might also be yellow. One solution is to add starch,
which will give a dark blue colour in the presence of iodine.
3. (a) Potassium manganate(VII) and potassium dichromate(VI) are oxidising agents.
SO2 is a reducing agent.
(b) Potassium dichromate(VI) is being reduced.
Let’s Review
Section A
1. B
The oxidation state of iron increased from 0 in Fe to +2 in FeSO4.
2. C
The oxidation state of chlorine decreased from 0 in Cl2 to –1 in HCl.
3. C
The oxidation state of nitrogen increased from 0 in N2 to +2 in NO and +4 in NO2.
4. A
The oxidation state of silver decreased from +1 in AgNO3 to 0 in Ag. The Ag+ ion gained 1 electron to
form the Ag atom.
5. B
The positive result for the potassium iodide test for oxidising agents shows that gas X is an oxidising
agent. The positive result for the acidified aqueous potassium manganate(VII) test for reducing agents
shows that gas Y is a reducing agent. Thus, when gases X and Y react, gas Y will reduce gas X.
Section B
1. (a) Oxidising agent: Nitric acid; Reducing agent: Copper

(b) +5 in HNO3 to +4 in NO2
2. (a) The oxidation state of nitrogen increased from –2 in N 2H4 to 0 in N2.
The oxidation state of oxygen decreased from –1 in H2O2 to –2 in H2O.
(b) Nitrogen is oxidised and oxygen is reduced, hence this is a redox reaction.
(c) 500 000
Number of moles of N2 H4 =
2(14) + 4(1)
= 15 625 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of N2H4 will produce 1 mol of N2.

15 625 mol of N2H4 will produce 15 625 mol of N2.
Volume of CO2 = 15 625 × 24

= 375 000 dm3
3. (a) +1, –1, 0, +3, –1

(b) Iodine was oxidised (+1 to +3) and chlorine (in the gas) was reduced (0 to –1).
(c) Oxidising agent: Chlorine gas

Reducing agent: Iodine(I) chloride
(d) No oxidation states were changed.
4. (a) The hydrocarbon loses hydrogen, so is oxidised.
(b) 2C20H42 + 61O2  40CO2 + 42H2O
(c) The hydrocarbon gains oxygen.
5. (a) 0 in S to +4 in SO2 to +6 in SO3
(b) There is no change in the oxidation state of the elements.
(c) It is not a redox reaction as there is no change in the oxidation state of the elements.
Section C
1. (a) Na2S2O3 + 2HCl  2NaCl + SO2 + S + H2O

(b) From the equation, 1 mol of Na2S2O3 will produce 1 mol of S.
0.5 mol of Na2S2O3 will produce 0.5 mol of S.
Mass of S = 0.5 × 32
= 16 g
(c) Sulfur’s oxidation state changed from +2 in Na2S2O3 to +4 in SO2, and also +2 in Na2S2O3 to
0 in S. Na2S2O3 is both oxidised and reduced.
2. (a) CuO(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CuCl2(aq) + H2O(l)
(b) The oxidation state of copper, oxygen and hydrogen did not change.
(c) The oxidation state of copper increased from 0 in the metal to +2 in copper(II) nitrate. This
shows that this is an oxidation reaction. Oxidation and reduction always occur simultaneously.
Hence, this must be a redox reaction.
13 Electrochemistry
1. (a) An electrolyte is an electrically conductive substance in the molten or aqueous state.

(b) It contains mobile ions which act as mobile charge carriers to conduct electricity.
2. Electrolysis is the process of passing an electric current through a compound to separate its
components. It involves oxidation at the anode and reduction at the cathode. It is driven by electricity
from a power source.
3. (a) Sodium chloride crystals are unable to conduct electricity as the Na+ and Cl– ions are held
strongly in a giant ionic crystal lattice. The ions cannot act as mobile charge carriers to complete
the circuit. The bulb does not light up because electricity does not flow through the set-up.
(b) The sodium chloride crystals can be melted. Molten ionic compounds have ions that can act as
mobile charge carriers. / The sodium chloride crystals can be dissolved in water. Aqueous ionic
compounds have ions that can act as mobile charge carriers. (Any one)
1. (a) Graphite
(b) Anode: Bromine gas
Cathode: Molten lead
(c) Anode: 2Br–(l)  Br2(g) + 2e–
Cathode: Pb2+(l) + 2e–  Pb(l)
2. (a) Anode: 4OH–(aq)  O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e–
Cathode: 2H+(aq) + 2e–  H2(g)
Overall: 2H2O(l)  2H2(g) + O2(g)
Mole ratio = 1 : 2
(b) Anode: 2Cl–(aq)  Cl2(g) + 2e–
Overall: 2H+(aq) + 2Cl–(aq)  H2(g) + Cl2(g)
Mole ratio = 1 : 1
The mole ratio of gases would be 1 : 1 instead.
1. Silver (Accept other possible answers.)

2. To enhance its attractiveness / to protect from corrosion / to increase its price (Any two)
1. The lemon juice acts as an electrolyte.

2. Zinc is the most reactive, followed by tin and copper.
3. They stop lighting up after some time.
1. (a) Magnesium is the anode as it is more reactive than copper and thus has a greater tendency to
oxidise. Copper is the cathode because it is less reactive than magnesium and thus has a lesser
tendency to oxidise.
(b) Magnesium can be replaced with a less reactive metal or copper can be replaced with a more
reactive metal.
2. 2H2(g) + O2(g)  2H2O(l)
3. Advantages: Hydrogen is a renewable fuel. / Hydrogen only produces water when used a fuel. /
Hydrogen fuels produce less air pollution than fossil fuels. (Any two)
Disadvantages: Hydrogen is expensive to produce renewably via electrolysis. / Hydrogen is a
flammable gas and is hard to safely store and transport. (Any two)
Let’s Review
Section A
1. B
At the cathode, since hydrogen is below calcium in the reactivity series, H+ ions are selectrively
discharged over Ca2+ ions.
At the anode, concentration effects apply since the concentration of Cl– ions is greater than the
OH– ions.
2. A
Anions are attracted to the anode and are discharged. The OH– ion is lower than SO42– ions in the
anion electrochemical series. Thus, the OH– ions are selectively discharged.
3. A
Electrons are responsible for the electrical conductivity in the external circuit, M. In the electrolyte, N,
both the positive and negative ions act as charge carriers to complete the circuit.
4. C
The voltage generated increases as the difference in reactivity between the anode and the copper
cathode increases.
5. D
Ca2+(l) + 2e–  Ca(s)
16
Number of moles of Ca =
40
= 0.4 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of Ca is produced with 2 mol of e–.

0.4 mol of Ca is produced with 0.8 mol of e–.
9.6
Number of moles of Ti =
48
= 0.2 mol
0.2 mol of Ti is produced with 0.8 mol of e–.

1 mol of Ti is produced with 4 mol of e–.
Hence, Ti4+(l) + 4e–  Ti(s)
Section B
1. (a) Anode: Oxygen gas

Cathode: Hydrogen gas
(b) 4H+(aq) + 4OH–(aq)  2H2(g) + O2(g) + 2H2O(l)
2. (a) The copper anode shrinks in size while the copper cathode increases in size.
Anode: Cu(s)  Cu2+(aq) + 2e–
Cathode: Cu2+(aq) + 2e–  Cu(s)
(b) The graphite anode does not change in size. A gas is evolved at the graphite anode as the inert
anode does not react. OH– ions from the electrolyte are discharged as O2. The electrolyte
decolourises over time. This happens because there is no replacement of Cu2+ ions from the
anode.
3. Tin, magnesium, copper, zinc
Section C
1. (a) Beaker 1. Mg(s)  Mg2+(aq) + 2e–

(b) The copper electrode grows in size. The blue colour of the copper(II) sulfate electrolyte fades.
(c) A is NO3–. It moves towards the magnesium anode.
B is K+. It moves towards the copper cathode.
(d) The voltmeter will show no reading and the redox reactions at each electrode will stop. This is
because cooking oil contains no mobile charge carriers and thus cannot conduct electricity.
2. (a) Anode: 4OH–(aq)  O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e–
Cathode: Ag+(aq) + e–  Ag(s)
(b) 0.50 – 0.10 = 0.40 g
(c) 0.40
Number of moles of Ag =
108
= 0.003703 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of Ag+ ions will produce 1 mol of Ag.
0.003703 mol of Ag+ ions will produce 0.003703 mol of Ag.
0.003703
Concentration of AgNO3 =
200 ÷ 1000
= 0.0185 mol/dm3
(d) (i) Number of moles of Ti = 1.0 × (200 ÷ 1000)

= 0.2 mol
Maximum mass of Ti = 0.2 × 48

= 9.6 g
(ii) Ti4+(aq) + 4e–  Ti(s)
Number of moles of Ti = 0.003703 ÷ 4

= 0.0009257 mol
Mass of Ti at 100 min = 0.0009257 × 48

= 0.04443 g
Mass of Ti at 50 min = 0.04443 ÷ 2

= 0.0222 g
14 The Periodic Table

1. (a) 2, 8, 7
Chlorine is in Period 3 and Group 17.
(b) (i) C and Si
(ii) Si and Cl / H and He (Any one)
(iii) H and Cl
(iv) Cl
(v) H
1. (a) Rubidium hydroxide, RbOH, and hydrogen, H2

(b) Rubidium chloride, RbCl
2. (a) (i) Magnesium astatide, AgAt2
(ii) It is a solid at room temperature and pressure. / It is soluble in water to form a colourless
solution. (Any one)
(b) (i) Chlorine displaces astatine in sodium astatide. A black precipitate of astatine is formed.
The resulting colourless solution contains sodium chloride.
(ii) No change was observed. Iodine is more reactive than astatine.
3. Helium is unreactive and less dense than nitrogen.
1. (a) Copper (Accept other possible answers.)

(b) Cu+ and Cu2+
2. Manganese is a transition metal. It forms different coloured compounds at different oxidation states.
Let’s Review
Section A
1. A
Helium is one of the noble gases that make up the Group 18 elements.
2. D
An atom displays more metallic properties when it is more likely to lose electrons than to gain electrons.
Across a period, atoms become less likely to lose electrons. Hence, there is a decrease in metallic
properties across a period. As the size of the atom increases down a group, the outermost electrons of
the element are found further away from the attractive force of the nucleus. Hence, there is an increase
in metallic properties going down a group.
3. B
Elements found in the same group of the periodic table will have similar properties.
4. C
An atom of M gains 1 electron to form the M– ion with 2 electrons in its first shell and 8 electrons in its
fully filled second shell. Thus, M must be from Group 17, Period 2.
5. D
The reactivity of Group 1 elements increases down the group. They are reducing agents that are
themselves oxidised when losing the outermost electron to form their ions.
Section B
1.
2. (a) Asium is a metal. Metals can conduct electricity.

(b) Asium should be stored in oil.
(c) 2A(s) + 2H2O(l)  2AOH(aq) + H2(g)
(d) (i) ACl
Asium behaves like a Group 1 metal.
(ii) White.
Asium behaves like a Group 1 metal. KCl and NaCl are white.
(e) As is the symbol for arsenic.
3. (a) (i) MnO2(s) + 4HCl(aq)  MnCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l) + Cl2(g)
(ii) The oxidation state of manganese decreased from + 4 in MnO2 to +2 in MnCl2.
The oxidation state of chlorine increased from –1 in HCl to 0 in Cl2.
(b) Bromine and iodine will be formed at T and R respectively. Chlorine gas displaces both bromine
and iodine from their salts.
T: Cl2(g) + 2KBr(aq)  2KCl (aq) + Br2(l)
R: Br2(g) + 2KI(aq)  2KBr(aq) + I2(s)
Cl2(g) + 2Kl(aq)  2KCl (aq) + I2(s)
(c) Chlorine, bromine and iodine gases are toxic. Concentrated hydrochloric acid is corrosive.
4. (a) P, R and S. They have much higher densities and melting points than the other elements.
They also form coloured compounds.
(b) S has a very high density and thus is not suitable for making overhead power lines.
(c) Mass of P in sample = 5.96 × 10
= 59.6 g
59.6
Number of moles of P =
51
= 1.17 mol
5. (a) (i) They react with water to produce an alkali and hydrogen gas.
(ii) 2K(s) + 2H2O(l)  2KOH(aq) + H2(g)
(b) No
(c) 2(133) – 85 = 181
(d) No
(e) No
(f) The law did not hold true for elements that were bigger.
Section C
1. Potassium metal reacts readily. However, the potassium in fruit and vegetables are found as ions (K+).
K+ ions have obtained the stable noble gas configuration, so are not as reactive as potassium metal.
2. (a) Periodic
(b) (i) 2, 8, 5
(ii) P3–
(iii) AlP
(c) Sodium has 1 valence electron contributed to the sea of electrons compared to the 2 valence
electrons in magnesium. The forces of attraction in magnesium requires more energy to
overcome than in sodium.
(d) (i) –1
(ii) +2
(iii)
15 The Reactivity Series

1. Zinc / iron (Any one)

2. Potassium hydroxide and hydrogen
3. Zinc oxide / iron oxide / lead(II) oxide / copper(II) oxide / silver oxide (Any two)
1. (a) Zinc powder is a grey solid and copper(II) sulfate is a blue solution. After the reaction, the grey
powder dissolves, the blue solution becomes colourless (zinc sulfate) and red-brown deposits
(copper) are formed.
(b) Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)
(c) Yes, zinc is oxidised as its oxidation state increased from 0 in Zn to +2 in ZnSO4.
(d) Iron / lead (Any one)
2. (a) Yes
(b) No
(c) No
(d) Yes
1. (a) Electrolysis and reduction with carbon

(b) Electrolysis
(c) 2Fe2O3(s) + 3C(s)  4Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
1. (a) Oiling / greasing (Any one)

(b) Painting
(c) Sacrificial protection
2. Oxygen is needed for rusting to occur.
Let’s Review
Section A
1. A
Only metals above hydrogen in the reactivity series will react with dilute hydrochloric acid.
2. C
Potassium is the highest in the reactivity series. It is the most reactive, and hence forms ions
most readily.
3. B
Metals above iron in the reactivity series will corrode in place of iron, and hence slow down rusting.
4. D
Metals below carbon in the reactivity series can be extracted by reducing their oxides with carbon.
Only iron and tin are below carbon in the reactivity series.
5. B
A metal displacement reaction occurs. The more reactive iron will be oxidised while the less reactive
copper will be reduced.
Section B
1. (a) A control eliminates other factors that may affect the experimental results.
(b) There would be a change in the colour of the metals.
(c) Magnesium will corrode most easily since it is highest in the reactivity series.
2. (a) Hydrogen gas
(b)
(c) The hydrogen gas will extinguish a burning splint with a “pop” sound.
(d) The reaction between potassium and steam is explosive. It is dangerous to carry out
the experiment.
3. (a) Aluminium is higher in the reactivity series than silver. So, it is more likely to form positive ions
than silver and will displace the silver in silver sulfide.
(b) 3Ag2S + 2Al  Al2S3 + 6Ag
(c) Aluminium usually has a layer of aluminium oxide protecting the metal, so it is not very reactive.
4. (a) R>P>Q>S
(b) Between Q and S
(c) Electrolysis of the molten ore
5. (a) Hydrogen gas
(b) Magnesium > zinc > iron > tin > lead
(c) Lead(II) chloride is insoluble and forms a layer on the metal to prevent any reaction.
(d) Copper and silver
Section C
1. (a) Magnesium would react violently with the water, producing hydrogen which would cause the car
to catch fire and explode.
(b) A fire extinguisher with a carbon dioxide foam can be sprayed onto the burning car.
2. (a) (i) 1. Place 5 cm3 of zinc sulfate, nickel sulfate and copper(II) sulfate into separate
test tubes.
2. Place a clean strip of zinc into each solution and observe what happens.
3. Repeat the experiment with strips of nickel and copper.
(ii) With the strip of zinc, no reaction occurred in zinc sulfate. The nickel sulfate and
copper(II) sulfate solutions decolourised. With the strip of nickel, no reaction occurred in
zinc sulfate and nickel sulfate. The copper(II) sulfate solution decolourised. No reaction
occurred with the strip of copper.
(iii) When a reaction occurred, the metal is more reactive than the metal ions in the solution,
as displacement occurred. Zinc metal was able to displace the other two metals, but
copper metal was not able to displace any of the other two metals. So, zinc is the most
reactive while copper is the least reactive.
(b) (i) NiCO3(s)  NiO(s) + CO2(g)
(ii) Zinc is more reactive than nickel and therefore its compounds are more stable.
3. (a) (i) +4
(ii) 4Al(s) + 3MnO2(s)  2Al2O3(s) + 3Mn(s)
(iii) Aluminium was oxidised as it lost 3 electrons to form Al2O3. Manganese(IV) oxide was
reduced as it gained 4 electrons to form manganese.
(b) Hydrogen gas
(c) Manganese(II) sulfate
(d) (i) Aluminium > manganese > zinc
(ii) Between aluminium and manganese
(e) It has a high boiling point, forms different coloured compounds and has variable oxidation states.
16 Chemical Energetics
1. Endothermic changes involve the net absorption of energy from the surroundings. Exothermic changes
involve the net release of energy into the surroundings.
2. (a) Endothermic
(b) Endothermic
(c) Exothermic
3. (a) The reactants have more energy.
(b)
1. (a) H = 2(436) + 496 – 4(460)

= –472 kJ
(b) 30
Number of moles of H2 =
2(1)
= 15 mol
H = 15(436) + 7.5(496) – 30(460)

= –3540 kJ
(c) Exothermic
Let’s Review
Section A
1. D
Exothermic reactions involve the net release of energy into the surroundings. Thermal decomposition of
magnesium carbonate requires heat to break down the compound.
2. D
A negative enthalpy change denotes an exothermic reaction which involves the net release of energy
into the surroundings. Bonds are broken and other bonds are formed in the chemical reaction.
3. D
Exothermic reactions involve the net release of energy into the surroundings.
4. B
H = 820 – 312
= 508 kJ
5. C
H = 56.0 × [12 + 4(1)]
= 896 kJ
Section B
1. The reaction is endothermic. More energy is absorbed during bond breaking than released during bond
making.
2. 400
Number of moles of C2 H5 OH =
2(12) + 6(1) + 16
= 8.695 mol
H = 8.695 × (–1370)
= –11 900 kJ
3. CaCO3 + 2HNO3  Ca(NO3)2 + CO2 + H2O
115
Number of moles of CaCO3 =
46
= 2.5 mol
Mass of CaCO3 = 2.5 × [40 + 12 + 3(16)]

= 250 g
4. (a) H = 610 + 4(410) + 193 – 350 – 4(410) – 2(280)

= –107 kJ
(b) Exothermic
(c) The energy released in bond making is 107 kJ more than the energy absorbed in bond breaking.
Section C
1. (a) Exothermic
(b) (i) Hydrochloric acid is a strong acid whereas ethanoic acid is a weak acid.
(ii) The enthalpy change will be less negative when ethanoic acid is used. The dissociation of
ethanoic acid absorbs less thermal energy from the system.
2. (a) 5
Number of moles of butanol =
74
= 0.0676 mol
(b) 4.18 × 35 = 146 kJ
(c) 146.3 ÷ 0.06756 = 2170 kJ/mol
(d) The measured temperature increase would be lower than the theoretical increase because heat
is lost from the set-up to the surroundings.
(e) He could attach a windshield around the set-up. / He could place a lid on the copper container. /
He could insulate the copper container. (Any two)
17 Rate of Reactions
1. The volume of gas produced and the change in mass of reactant or product can be measured.
2. The mass of the products increases with time whereas the mass of the reactants decreases with time.
1. (a) A collision is effective when the particles collide with energy greater than or equal to the
activation energy.
(b) The rate of reaction increases when more effective collisions occur.
2. (a) I shows a faster rate of reaction as it has a steeper initial gradient than II.
(b) II shows a lower concentration of reactants as it has a slower rate of reaction.
1. (a) Reaction B would proceed more quickly as more reactant particles have energy greater than
or equal to the activation energy. This increases the frequency of effective collisions and rate
of reaction.
(b) Catalysts provide an alternative pathway with lower activation energy for the reaction to occur.
This speeds up the rate of reaction.
(c) Catalysts are not used up in the reaction. Lower temperatures and pressures can be used in
the reaction.
2. (a) Enzymes
(b) Enzymes are made of proteins / temperature-sensitive / pH-sensitive / have a specific
catalytic action. (Any two)
Let’s Review
Section A
1. B
Adding distilled water decreases the concentration of the acid, resulting in fewer effective collisions and
hence, decreasing the rate of reaction.
2. C
Each mole of sulfuric acid dissolves in water to produce 2 moles of H + ions. Hydrochloric acid and nitric
acid dissolve in water to produce 1 mole of H+ ions each. Thus, given the same concentration and
volume of acid, the frequency of effective collisions is highest with sulfuric acid. Ethanoic acid is a weak
acid that does not ionise completely when dissolved in water, so it will produce fewer H+ ions and hence
have fewer effective collisions.
3. B
Lowering the piston increases the pressure of the vessel, reducing the space between particles. Hence,
the frequency of effective collisions increases.
4. A
An increase in the amount of solvent decreases the concentration of the reactants. Hence, the
frequency of effective collisions would decrease.
5. C
A catalyst increases the rate of chemical reactions without being chemically changed at the end of
the reaction. They provide an alternative pathway of lower activation energy for the reaction to occur.
The overall enthalpy change of the reaction remains unchanged.
Section B
1. (a) When potatoes are halved or quartered, the particle size is reduced. This increases its surface
area for more effective collisions to occur and hence the rate at which the potatoes are cooked.
(b) Exhaust pipes have a higher temperature than the rest of the car. At the exhaust pipe, more
particles possess energy that is greater than or equal to the activation energy. This increases the
frequency of effective collisions and hence increases the rate of corrosion of exhaust pipes.
(c) An increase in the temperature of the water results in more particles possessing energy that is
greater than or equal to the activation energy. The frequency of effective collision increases, and
hence the rate of reaction observed by the bubbling.
(d) Vacuum-sealed packs have a very low pressure which results in a lower frequency of effective
collisions. Thus, the rate of decomposition decreases.
(e) Undiluted bleach has a higher concentration than diluted bleach, allowing for a greater frequency
of effective collisions. Thus, the rate of reaction to remove the stains is faster when undiluted
bleach is used.
2. (a) The gradients represent the volume of carbon dioxide produced per minute, which is the rate
of reaction.
(b) The rate of reaction between hydrochloric acid and sodium carbonate decreases over time.
(c) Half the mass of sodium carbonate can be used in X.
3. (a) X lowers the activation energy and speeds up the reaction.
(b) P: Nitrogen; Q: Hydrogen; R: Ammonia; X: Iron
(c) The iron catalyst also increases the rate of the backward reaction. This is because the activation
energy of both forward and backward reactions were lowered.
(d) An increase in pressure is used to increase the rate of forward reaction. At a higher pressure,
gaseous nitrogen and hydrogen molecules are found closer together, and will collide more
frequently. This increases the frequency of effective collisions and hence the rate of reaction.
Section C
1. (a) An increase in temperature results in more particles possessing energy that is greater than or
equal to the activation energy. The frequency of effective collision increases, and hence the rate
of reaction increases.
(b) Since I has a steeper initial gradient, vessel I has a faster rate of reaction. Thus, vessel I
represents the fermentation at 35 ºC.
As the fermentation is exothermic, the temperature in vessel I increases as the reaction
proceeds. At high temperatures, the yeast is destroyed and are unable to catalyse the
fermentation process. Thus, the reaction stops and the gradient approaches 0.
2. (a)
(c) 60 ÷ 1000
Number of moles of CO2 =
24
= 0.0025 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of CO2 can be produced from 1 mol of CuCO3.
0.0025 mol of CO2 can be produced from 0.0025 mol of CuCO3.
Mass of CuCO3 = 0.0025 × [64 + 12 + 3(16)]

= 0.31 g
3. (a)
(b) 40 cm3
(c) 2H2O2(aq)  2H2O(l) + O2(g)
In the first 10 s, 22.5 cm3 of O2 was produced.

22.4 ÷ 1000
22.4
= 0.0001 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of O2 can be produced from 2 mol of H2O2.

0.0001 mol of O2 can be produced from 0.002 mol of H2O2.
Highest rate of H2O2 decomposition = 0.002 ÷ 10

= 0.0002 mol/s
18 Fuels and Crude Oil
1. Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting mainly of methane. Natural gas can be burnt to
produce energy.
2. Crude oil is a non-renewable energy source because it is limited in quantity and cannot be replaced
quickly enough to keep up with our rate of use.
1. They have different boiling points.

2. (a) Hydrocarbons are organic compounds that are composed of only carbon and hydrogen atoms.
(b) Compared to this fuel, crude oil contains many more types of hydrocarbons made up of 1 to
more than 70 carbons.
1. Bioethanol from sugarcane plants. (Accept other possible answers.)

2. Biofuels are renewable. In addition, the carbon dioxide emitted when the biofuel is used can be offset
by the carbon dioxide taken in during plant growth.
Let’s Review
Section A
1. B
Natural gas is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting mainly of methane.
2. D
The combustion of fossil fuels involves burning the fuel in oxygen.
3. D
Shorter hydrocarbons have lower boiling points and rise higher up the fractionating column where they
are collected.
4. A
X has a lower boiling point than Y since it is found at the top of the fractionating column. Thus, X will
burn more easily than Y.
5. A
Sugarcane plants can be replaced in a short amount of time.
Section B
1. 3, 5, 4, 2, 1, 6
2. (a) CH4 + 2O2  CO2 + 2H2O
(b) 24 ÷ 1000
Number of moles of CO2 =
24
= 0.001 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of CO2 can be produced from 2 mol of O2.
0.001 mol of CO2 can be produced from 0.002 mol of O2.
Energy released = 0.002 × 890

= 0.89 kJ
3. (a) C20H42
(b) Fractional distillation. Due to the difference in molecular mass of the hydrocarbons, they will
have different boiling points. C5H12 has the lowest boiling point, so it can be collected at the top
of the fractionating column, followed by C10H22 in the middle and C20H42 at the bottom.
4. (a) It is the separation of crude oil into smaller, more useful forms of hydrocarbons.
(b) Fractional distillation
(c) Liquid crude oil boils into its gaseous hydrocarbon fractions.
(d) Naphtha, kerosene, diesel oil
(e) The vapour cools as it rises and is collected in the liquid form at different parts of the
fractionating column.
5. (a) When bioethanol burns in excess oxygen, chemical energy is converted into thermal energy,
which can in turn be converted into other useful forms of energy such as electricity.
(b) Bioethanol is renewable. In addition, the carbon dioxide emitted when bioethanol is used can be
offset by the carbon dioxide taken in during plant growth.
Section C
1. (a) No, they are not pure. The fractions boil over a range of temperatures.
(b) Q, R, S, T, U, P
(c) Crude oil is heated to 400 ºC in the furnace where it boils and becomes vapour. The vapour is
passed through a fractionating column, where it is hottest at the bottom and coolest at the top.
The fractions with the lowest boiling point rise to the top of the column while the fractions with the
highest boiling point stay at the bottom. As the vapour cools, the fractions condense and are
collected at the different parts of the column.
2. (a) C2H5OH + 3O2  2CO2 + 3H2O
(b) 10(12)
Percentage of carbon by mass of decane = × 100 %
10(12) + 22(1)
= 84.5 %
2(12)
Percentage of carbon by mass of ethanol = × 100 %
2(12) + 6(1) + 16
= 52.2 %
(c) Ethanol has a lower percentage of carbon by mass, so its combustion is usually complete,
compared to burning decane. Thus, the chances of producing carbon monoxide, which is toxic,
is less.
19 Hydrocarbons
1. A homologous series consists of a family of compounds with the same general formula, and similar
chemical properties because they have the same functional group.
2. Alkenes (C=C) / alcohols (–OH) / carboxylic acids (–COOH) (Any two)
1. (a) CnH2n+2
(b) (i) CH4, C2H6, C3H8
(ii) CH4
2. (a)
(b) 2C2H6 + 7O2  4CO2 + 6H2O

3. X: ethane
Y: butane
1. Alkanes and alkenes

2. The first two test tubes of gas will contain mostly air.
1. (a) Cracking converts the less useful components of crude oil into shorter-chain alkanes that are
important starting materials and are high in demand.
(b) C16H34
2. (a) Ethane
(b) 1,2-dibromoethane
(c) Ethanol
(d) Carbon dioxide and water
1. (a) Isomerism occurs when compounds have the same molecular formulae but have different
structural formulae.
(b)
2.
1. Pass the gases through aqueous bromine. If the aqueous bromine remains brown, it is ethane. If the
aqueous bromine decolourises, it is ethene.
2. Hydrogen, at a temperature of 150 °C and in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel.
Let’s Review
Section A
1. B
General formula of alkanes: CnH2n+2
When n = 8, the formula of the alkane is C8H18.
Empirical formula of octane: C4H9
2. C
General formula of alkenes: CnH2n
Empirical formula of alkenes: CH2
3. C
When trichloromethane and chlorine react in the presence of ultraviolet (UV) light, the hydrogen atom in
trichloromethane is substituted by a chlorine atom. The by-product of the substitution reaction is
hydrogen chloride.
4. D
Aqueous bromine decolourises when shaken with alkenes.
5. C
Isomers are compounds that have the same molecular formulae but different structural formulae.
Due to the difference in structure, isomers may have different chemical and physical properties.
However, all hydrocarbons can undergo combustion.
Section B
1. (a) C3H6
(b) Butyne
(c) CnH2n–2
2. (a) (i) C3H6
(ii) C11H22
(iii) H2
(b) Cracking converts longer-chain alkanes to shorter-chain alkanes and alkenes that are used as
chemical feedstock. Shorter-chain alkanes are higher in demand as fuel. Cracking also produces
hydrogen used for the production of ammonia.
3. (a) Similarity: Both the butane and butene molecules contain four carbon atoms which are covalently
bonded to other carbon atoms and hydrogen atoms.
Difference: All the covalent bonds in the butane molecule are single bonds while there is a
carbon–carbon double bond in but-1-ene.
(b) Aqueous bromine can be used to distinguish the two compounds. When aqueous bromine is
added to butane, the colour of the brown aqueous bromine remains unchanged. When aqueous
bromine is added to but-1-ene, the brown aqueous bromine decolourises into a colourless
solution.
(c)
4. (a) T is an alkane. Alkanes undergo substitution reaction with chlorine and there is a by-product of
hydrogen chloride. Alkenes undergo addition reaction to give only one product.
(b)
(c) CH4 + Cl2  CH3Cl + HCl

CH3Cl + Cl2  CH2Cl2 + HCl
CH2Cl2 + Cl2  CHCl3 + HCl
CHCl3 + Cl2  CCl4 + HCl
4. (a) Add aqueous bromine to the oil, dropwise, until the colourless solution just turns brown.
(b) Oil A contains the less saturated fats as it reacted with the least drops of aqueous bromine.
(c) For oils A and C, tests 1 and 2 produced consistent results. For oil B, the results of the first two
tests were not consistent. One of the tests produced an anomalous result. Hence, there is a
need to repeat the test to get more consistent results.
(d) At a temperature of 150 ºC and in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel
Section C
1. (a) Element C H
Mass / g 82.76 17.24
Relative Atomic Mass 12 1
Number of Moles / mol 82.76 ÷ 12 = 6.98 17.24 ÷ 1 = 17.24
6.98 ÷ 6.98 = 1 17.24 ÷ 6.98 = 2.469
Mole Ratio
1×2=2 2.469 × 2 ≈ 5
Therefore, the empirical formula of the hydrocarbon is C2H5.
(b) Mr = 2.42 × 24
= 58.1
58.1
n=
2(12) + 5(1)
≈2
Molecular formula = (C2H5)2

= C4H10
(c) Butane
2. (a) The boiling and melting points increase as the number of carbon atoms in the alkanes increase.
This is because the intermolecular forces of attraction between alkane molecules increase as
their size increases.
(b) (i) 36 – (–0.5) = 36.5 ºC
(ii) 216 – 196 = 20 ºC
(c) (i) General formula of alkanes: CnH2n+2
When n = 12, the formula of the alkane is C12H26.
(ii) 12(12)
Percentage of carbon by mass of dodecane = × 100 %
12(12) + 26(1)
= 84.7 %
20 Alcohols, Carboxylic Acids and Esters

1. The fermentation of glucose produces carbon dioxide gas that escapes through the cotton wool bung.
2. Fractional distillation
1. (a) Both methane and methanol have one carbon in each molecule. However, methanol contains a
hydroxyl (–OH) functional group bonded to the carbon atom.
(b) Methanol has higher boiling point as compared to methane.
(c) (i) Methanol reacts with acidified potassium manganate(VII).
(ii) Oxidation
2. (a) CH3CH=CH2
(b) 2C3H7OH(l) + 9O2(g)  6CO2(g) + 8H2O(g)
1. 2CH3CH2COOH(aq) + Na2CO3(s)  2CH3CH2COONa(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

CH3CH2COOH(aq) + NaOH(aq)  CH3CH2COONa(aq) + H2O(l)
2. X + O2  2CO2 + H2O
Thus, X must have 2 carbon atoms, so X is ethanol.
When an alcohol undergoes oxidation with potassium manganate(VII), a carboxylic acid is formed.
Product formed: Ethanoic acid, CH3COOH
1. Methyl butanoate
2. HCOOCH2CH2CH2CH3
Let’s Review
Section A
1. C
When an alcohol is heated with acidified potassium manganate(VII), it undergoes oxidation to form the
corresponding carboxylic acid.
2. D
In alcohol fermentation, micro-organisms such as yeast act on glucose in the absence of oxygen to
produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. The air lock prevents oxygen in the air from entering the jar and
carbon dioxide from the fermentation from escaping the jar.
3. B
At room temperature, ethanoic acid readily reacts with ammonia in a neutralisation reaction.
4. B
CH3CH2COOH(aq) ⇌ CH3CH2COO–(aq) + H+(aq)
Ca2+(aq) + 2CH3CH2COO–(aq)  (CH3CH2COO)2Ca(aq)
5. C
butanoic acid + butanol  butyl butanoate + water
Section B
1. (a) (i) Fermentation

(ii) Increasing the temperature will denature the yeast and thus stop the fermentation
process.
(b) (i) The gas is acidic.
(ii) The test tube containing the indicator solution acts as an air lock that prevents air from the
surroundings from getting into the flask.
2. (a) P is made from ethene by the catalytic addition of steam to ethene. The mixture of ethene and
steam is passed through a catalyst, phosphoric(V) acid, at 300 ºC and 60 atm.
(b) Oxidation
(c) Esterification
3. Ethanol Ethanoic Acid
Reacts to form
(a) No reaction
(CH3COO)2Mg and CO2
Reacts to form
(b) No reaction
CH3COOH
Reacts to form
(c) No reaction
CH3COOCH2CH3
4. (a) Methanoic acid, ethanoic acid, propanoic acid
(b) The extent of ionisation decreases down the homologous series.
(c) C2H5COOK (or potassium propanoate) and H2O (or water)
5. (a) CH3CH2CH2CH2OH
(b) Y is ethyl ethanoate, CH3COOCH2CH3.
Z is ethanol, CH3CH2OH.
Section C
1. (a) Methanol
Ethanol
(b) Methanol contains oxygen and when added to petrol, it increases the likelihood of complete
combustion. Hence, the fuel will burn more efficiently.
(c) Ethanol used in the industry usually costs much less than alcoholic beverages because it is
not taxed. Methanol is added to ethanol used in the industry to prevent its conversion to
alcoholic beverages.
(d) (i) C2H4 + H2O  C2H5OH
(ii) 288 ÷ 1000
24
= 0.012 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of C2H4 will produce 1 mol of C2H5OH.

0.012 mol of C2H4 will produce 0.012 mol of C2H5OH.
Mass of C2H5OH = 0.012 × [2(12) + 6(1) + 16]

= 0.552 g
0.552
Volume of C2 H5 OH =
0.8
= 0.69 cm3
2. (a) Empirical formula: C2H4O3

Molecular formula: C2H4O3
(b) C2H4O3 + NaOH  C2H3O3Na + H2O
3.04
Number of moles of C2 H4 O3 =
2(12) + 4(1) + 3(16)
= 0.04 mol
From the equation, 1 mol of C2H4O3 will react with 1 mol of NaOH.
0.4 mol of C2H4O3 will react with 0.4 mol of NaOH.
0.04
Volume of NaOH =
2.00
= 0.02 dm3
(c) Molecular formula of glycolic acid: C2H4O3
Molecular formula of lactic acid: C3H6O3
General formula: CnH2nO3 / CnH2n(OH)(COOH) (Any one)
21 Polymers
1. (a) A monomer is a small organic molecule that reacts with many other small molecules to form a
very large molecule called a polymer.
(b) A polymer is a very large organic molecule built up from many small units called monomers.
2. Covalent bonds
Low density poly(ethene) (LDPE) is softer and has a lower melting point compared to high density poly(ethene)
(HDPE). Materials made from HDPE are more durable and unreactive to strong chemicals. Thus, items made from
HDPE are more likely to be reused or recycled. Examples of items made from LDPE include disposable food
packaging and grocery bags. Examples of items made from HDPE include detergent bottles and milk jugs.
1.
2.
3. For making cling film / plastic toys / plastic bags (Any two)
1. (a)
(b) Ester linkage

2. For making clothing / curtains / parachutes / fishing lines / sleeping bags
1. Non-biodegradable means that something cannot be broken down by bacteria and other living
organisms in the soil.
2. Advantage: Incineration reduces land pollution. / Energy from the burning process can be used to
power factories. (Any one)
Disadvantage: It may cause air pollution. / Poisonous gases may be produced from the burning
of plastics. (Any one)
1. The physical method involves the pre-treatment of plastic waste such as sorting them by different
methods, washing them to remove contaminants, and shredding or grinding them into smaller pieces.
After pre-treatment, the smaller pieces of plastics are melted, cooled, pulled into long thin strands, and
cut into pellets. The pellets can then be made into new products.
2. Depolymerisation breaks down polymers into monomers, which can then be converted to other useful
chemicals. As plastic waste that undergo depolymerisation do not need to
be disposed of, there will be less pollution due to the disposal of plastic waste in landfills or incineration.
3. People find it more convenient to throw recyclable plastics with other waste. / Communities need time
and effort to adopt recycling as a lifestyle. / There are different types of plastics, but many people may
not be aware of how to sort them. (Any two)
Let’s Review
Section A
1. C
Terylene is a polyester with many ester linkages.
2. A
Poly(ethene) is a saturated hydrocarbon. It is made from the addition polymerisation of the monomer,
ethene. Since by-products are formed in the polymerisation process, poly(ethene) has the same
empirical formula as ethene.
3. B
The monomer used for addition polymerisation is usually unsaturated. It should contain either a
carbon–carbon double bond or a carbon–carbon triple bond.
4. D
The carbon–carbon double bond in butenedioic acid allows it to undergo addition polymerisation.
Butenedioic acid is a dicarboxylic acid, so it can also undergo condensation polymerisation.
5. C
Butane (C4H10) has the empirical formula C2H5. Ethene (C2H4) and propene (C3H6) both undergo
addition polymerisation to form polymers with the same empirical formula CH2, since no by-products
were formed in the process.
Section B
1. (a) A polyamide is a condensation polymer containing the amide (–CONH–) linkage.

(b)
2. (a)
(b) (i) Three repeat units
(ii) C2H3Cl
3. (a)
(b) PET can be converted back to the monomers through acid hydrolysis. This involves breaking
down a polyester using water in the presence of an acid catalyst.
4. (a)
(b) Addition polymer

(c) Poly(acrylonitrile) does not conduct electricity because there are no mobile electrons available.
All the valence electrons of the bonding atoms are involved in forming covalent bonds.
(d) Nitrogen dioxide / carbon dioxide / water vapour (Any two)
5. (a) Condensation polymerisation
(b) (i)
(ii) Clothing / curtains / parachutes (Accept other possible answers.)
Section C
1. (a)
(b) Cracking converts the used plastics to useful hydrocarbons, such as ethene, which can be used
to make other useful chemicals. / Incineration often produces toxic gases, such as carbon
monoxide and sulfur dioxide. Cracking leads to less air pollution than incineration. (Accept other
possible answers.)
(c) Wastewater that is generated from the recycling process can cause water pollution if it is
discharged into water bodies without being treated properly.
2. (a) (i)
(ii)
(b) Poly(ethene) (Accept other possible answers.)

(c) Disposable diapers are made from non-biodegradable plastics. The improper disposal of these
plastics will thus cause more waste to build up and lead to land pollution.
22 Maintaining Air Quality

1. 100 – 79 = 21
21 cm3 out of 100 cm3 of air has reacted, so 21 % of air is made up of oxygen.
1. Nitrogen / oxygen / carbon dioxide / water vapour / argon (noble gases) (Any four)
2. Fractional distillation
3. Combustion, breathing, and as an oxidiser in welding metals.
1. Air pollution is the introduction of unwanted and harmful chemicals into the atmosphere.
2. Combustion of fossil fuels / volcanic eruptions / lightning / incomplete combustion of carbon-based
fuels / anaerobic bacterial decay of organic substances / waste gases from cattle (Any four)
3. 2CO(g) + 2NO(g)  2CO2(g) + N2(g)
2CO(g) + O2(g)  2CO2(g)
2NO2(g)  N2(g) + 2O2(g)
2C8H18(g) + 25O2(g)  16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g) (Any two)
4. Flue gas desulfurisation converts the sulfur dioxide in flue gas into solid calcium sulfate before the gas
is released into the atmosphere.
1. O3
2. The ozone layer absorbs harmful UV radiation, reducing the amount of it that reaches the
Earth’s surface.
3. Sun burns / skin cancers / premature aging / cataracts (Any two)
4. Chlorofluorocarbons
1. Carbon is an element that is essential for life. The carbon cycle allows it to be regulated around
the environment.
2. Photosynthesis is the process that converts carbon dioxide into glucose that is used in other processes
that sustain plant life.
3. Respiration / decomposition / combustion (Any two)
1. Global warming is the increase in the average temperature of the Earth’s surface due to increasing
amounts of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
2. Greenhouse gases trap long wavelength radiation within the atmosphere, preventing them from
escaping into space. This increases the Earth’s stored heat over time.
3. Desertification / more frequent and severe heat waves / increase in frequency and intensity of extreme
weather / ocean warming and acidification / glacial retreat and melting of polar ice caps (Any three)
Let’s Review
Section A
1. D
Carbon monoxide binds irreversibly with the haemoglobin in our red blood cells. This lowers the ability
of the haemoglobin to transport oxygen to the rest of our body.
2. D
When sulfur is burnt in the air, it forms sulfur dioxide that react with oxygen in the air to form acid rain.
3. B
Unburnt hydrocarbons and ozone can form photochemical smog, which appears as a brown haze.
Section B
1. (a) Chlorofluorocarbons
(b) The ozone layer
(c) The ozone layer reduces the amount of harmful ultraviolet radiation that reach the
Earth’s surface. If it was destroyed, there would be an increase in sunburn and skin cancer rates
in humans.
2. (a) Nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide
(b) Nitrogen dioxide is acidic. It dissolves in rain to form acid rain which can kill plants and
marine life.
3. (a) Waste gases from cattle
(b) It is a gas that traps heat within the Earth’s atmosphere.
(c) An increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases leads to an enhanced greenhouse effect, which
causes global warming. This leads to extreme weather conditions and melting of polar ice caps.
4. (a) 0.04%
(b) Photosynthesis / ocean uptake (Any one)
(c) Respiration / decomposition / combustion (Any two)
(d) Industrialisation requires energy from the combustion of fossil fuels. This releases carbon dioxide
from the carbon in fossil fuels that was kept below ground for millions of years.
5. (a) S8(s) + 8O2(g)  8SO2(s)
(b) Flue gas desulfurisation
(c) CaCO3(s) + SO2(g)  CaSO3(s) + CO2(g)
2CaSO3(s) + O2(g)  2CaSO4(s)
Section C
1. (a) 2NO(g) + 2CO(g)  N2(g)+ 2CO2(g)

2CO(g) + O2(g)  2CO2(g)
2NO2(g)  N2(g) + 2O2(g)
(b) In reaction 1, nitrogen monoxide is reduced as it loses the oxygen atom.
Carbon monoxide is oxidised as it gains an oxygen atom.
In reaction 2, carbon is oxidised as its oxidation state increased from +2 in CO to +4 in CO2.
Oxygen is reduced as its oxidation state decreased from 0 in O2 to –2 in CO2.
In reaction 3, nitrogen is reduced as its oxidation state decreased from +4 in NO2 to 0 in N2.
Oxygen is oxidised as its oxidation state increased from –2 in NO2 to 0 in O2.
(c) 2C8H18(g) + 25O2(g)  16CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
(d) Carbon dioxide gas is a major greenhouse gas that contributes to global warming. None of the
reactions reduce the amount of carbon dioxide gas emitted. None of the other pollutants that are
removed are greenhouse gases.

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1 Experimental Chemistry

Let’s Practise 1.1

1. Using a burette is more accurate than using a measuring cylinder.

Let’s Practise 1.2

1. Water displacement / upward delivery (Any one)

Let’s Practise 1.3

1. Sublimation / evaporation / crystallisation / simple distillation / fractional distillation (Any two)

Let’s Practise 1.4

1. (a) R: Distillate; S: Condenser; T: Thermometer; U: Boiling chips; V: Fractionating column

1. (a) Chromatography / paper chromatography (Any one)

2 Kinetic Particle Theory

1. Gas to liquid and gas to solid

Let’s Practise 2.1

Let’s Practise 2.2

1. (a) Q to R: Condensation; S to T: Freezing

Let’s Practise 3.2

Let’s Practise 3.3

1. (a) 5 protons, 6 neutrons and 5 electrons

1. (a) Oxygen: 2, 8, 6; Hydrogen: 1

Let’s Practise 4.2

Let’s Practise 4.4

1. (a) Sodium nitrate

5. (a) 1 silicon atom and 4 fluorine atoms

5 Structure and Properties of Materials

Let’s Practise 5.2

Let’s Practise 5.4

1. A pure metal has a “sea of delocalised electrons” to conduct electricity.

Let’s Practise 5.5

1. (a) Y is a compound since it has a fixed melting point.

6 Chemical Formulae and Equations

Let’s Practise 6.2

Let’s Practise 6.3

1. (a) MgO + 2HCl  MgCl2 + H2O

1. (a) Li2CO3 + 2HBr  2LiBr + H2O + CO2

1. (a) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

7 Mole Concept and Stoichiometry

1. (a) 3(12) + 6(1) + 2(16) = 74

Let’s Practise 7.3

1. (a) 10.0 × [2(1) + 16] = 180 g

Let’s Practise 7.4

2. Mr from empirical formula, C4H5N2O = 4(12) + 5(1) + 2(14) + 16

Molecular formula = (C4H5N2O)2

Let’s Practise 7.5

1. (a) Na2CO3 + 2HNO3  2NaNO3 + CO2 + H2O

From the equation, 1 mol of NaNO3 will produce 1 mol of CO2.

Volume of CO2 = 0.9433 × 24

2. (a) From the equation, 1 mol of N2 reacts with 3 mol of H2.

From the equation, 3 mol of H2 will produce 2 mol of NH3.

Mass of NH3 = 0.8333 × [14 + 3(1)]

Mass of CaCO3 = 0.25 × [40 + 12 + 3(16)]

Let’s Practise 7.6

1. (a) Zn(s) + CuCl2(aq)  Cu(s) + ZnCl2(aq)

From the equation, 1 mol of Zn will produce 1 mol of Cu.

Mass of pure Zn in sample = 2.671 × 65

(b) CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq)  CaCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Theoretical mass of CO2 produced = 1 × [12 + 2(16)]

From the equation, 3 mol of O2 will produce 2 mol of SO3.

Mass of SO3 = 1 × [32 + 3(16)]

Number of moles of H2 SO4 = 0.5 × (200 ÷ 1000)

1. MgCO3  MgO + CO2

Volume of CO2 = 0.6875 × 24

(b) At r.t.p., O2 is the only gas left behind.

Concentration of sodium ions = 2 × 0.0704

5. (a) Al2O3(s) + 6HCl(aq)  2AlCl3(aq) + 3H2O(l)