Weld Types

Manual Metal Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Tungsten Inert Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Submerged Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Gas Metal Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Metal Inert Gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Resistance Spot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Flux-Cored Arc . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Laser Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Electron Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Brazing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Soldering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Electric Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Friction Stir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Fusion Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Ultrasonic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

28 Weld Inspection
 Manual Metal Arc - MMA Tungsten Inert Gas Submerged Arc
Shielded Metal Arc - SMA TIG SAW

Materials Iron and steel, stainless steel, aluminum, nickel, Stainless steel, non-ferrous materials, Carbon steel, stainless steel, nickel-based
copper alloys aluminum, magnesium alloys, low alloy steel, surfacing applications
(i.e. weld buildup)
Applications Steel structures, industrial fabrication Aerospace and space vehicles, nuclear Structural and vessel construction, pipes
applications, thin wall materials manufacturing
applications
Typical Location Fabrication shop, factory Fabrication shop, factory Fabrication shop, factory
Field operations Suitable for indoor or outdoor use
Suitable for indoor or outdoor use
Advantages Low equipment costs and wide applicability Stronger, higher quality welds High deposition rates – deep weld penetration
Dominant process in repair and maintenance Used with thin materials Little edge preparation is needed
Basically no thickness limitations Greater operator control over the weld Single pass welds can be made with thick
Can be used in almost any position Highly resistant to corrosion and cracking plates
Arc is always covered under a blanket of flux
Produces sound, uniform, and ductile welds
Limitations Applications are limited by welder skill Cannot be used on lead or zinc Limited to ferrous and some nickel based alloys
Potential safety issues if not monitored Economically not feasible for steel Limited positions and requires flux handling
Applications may require preheat Slower production and difficult to master Limited to long straight seams or rotated pipes
Requires inter-pass and post weld slag removal
Typical Discontinuities Porosity, lack of fusion, incomplete penetration, Lack of fusion, porosity, tungsten inclusions Porosity, inclusions, incomplete penetration,
Types and cracks and lack of fusion.
Non-destructive Testing VT, PT, MT, RT, UT VT, PT, MT, RT, UT VT, PT, MT, RT, UT
Methods

Visual Testing...............................VT * Flux feed tube

Penetrant Testing.......................PT* Shielded or heavy coating
Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT* Electrode core wire Nozzle Continuously fed
Radiographic Testing................RT** welding wire
Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT** Gaseous shield Filler rod
Eddy Current Testing.................ET*** Molten weld metal Gas shielding Flux shelf Granular flux
Weld deposited Projecting
Solid slag
* For surface discontinuities Slag
sheath Arc Weld pool
** For subsurface discontinuities Crater
*** For surface-breaking Weld metal
discontinuities and usually
Base metal Base metal Baking plate
used to supplement PT, MT
Penetration

Weld Inspection 29
 Resistance Spot Gas Metal Arc – GMAW Flux-Cored Arc
RSW Metal Inert Gas – MIG FCAW

Materials Sheet metal, aluminum alloys Structural steel - aluminum sections – stainless Mild- and low-alloy steels, stainless steels,
steel and nickel alloys - some offshore some high nickel alloys
applications
Applications Automotive, weld studs and nuts to metal, Automotive, structural, ornamental Automotive, structural steels
weld screw machine parts to metal,
join cross wires and bars
Typical Location Fabrication shop, factory Fabrication shop, factory - field applications Factory or field
Advantages Limits the areas of excessive heating Versatility and speed No shielding gas is required making it suitable
Energy controlled - more reliable welds Adaptive to robotic automation for outdoor welding and/or windy conditions
Allows closer spacing of welds High-deposition rate process
A production process can be completely Less precleaning of metal required
automated The weld metal is protected initially from
external factors until the flux is removed
Limitations Tends to harden the material Limited to indoor use When the electrode contacts the base metal,
Reduce fatigue strength Unusable underwater the contact tip can melt fusing it to the base
Stretch or anneal the material Weld quality can fluctuate metal
Cause the material to warp Irregular wire feed – usually the result of a
mechanical problem
More costly filler material/wire than GMAW
Typical Discontinuities Cracks, porosity and expulsion Dross and porosity, lack of fusion, excessive Porosity, lack of fusion, inclusions, incomplete
Types penetration, silica inclusions, cracking, undercut penetration, hollow bead and cracks. Also,
overlap, weld spatter, underfill, and undercut.
Non-destructive Testing VT, UT RT, UT VT, PT, MT, RT, UT
Methods

Visual Testing...............................VT * C
Penetrant Testing.......................PT* Switch
Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Electrode
Radiographic Testing................RT**
Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT** Workpiece
Nozzle
Eddy Current Testing.................ET***
Shielding gas Contact tube Shielding gas Contact tip
Main supply
* For surface discontinuities SW PW Solid wire Flux core wire
Electrode
** For subsurface discontinuities Molten weld metal Solidified slag
Arc column
*** For surface-breaking T
Weld metal Solidified weld metal
discontinuities and usually
used to supplement PT, MT Base metal Base metal

30 Weld Inspection
 Laser Beam Electron Beam Brazing
LBW EBW

Materials Carbon steel, stainless steel, aluminum, Stainless steel, superalloys, refractory metals Copper, brass, bronze, aluminum and others
titanium
Applications Automotive, aerospace Aerospace and automotive, semiconductor Electrical, electronics, transportation,
appliances, and construction

Typical Location Factory Manufacturing facility Manufacturing / field - indoors or outdoors

Advantages Versatile process - high quality yield Has a very small heat affected zone Easy to learn, virtually any dissimilar metal can
Used in high volume applications Is used for dissimilar metal welds be joined, the bond line can be very neat in ap-
Easily automated with robotics pearance, and the joint strength is strong enough
for most non-heavy-duty use applications.
Limitations Cracking with hi-carbon steels Lack of penetration, lack of fusion, cracking A badly brazed joint can look similar to a good joint, and can
Speed depends on type and thickness of have a very low strength. The metal used to bond the two
materials parts may be different in color than the parts being bonded.
Long-term effects of dissimilar metals in constant contact
may need to be examined for special applications. Since the
filler material (typically bronze) melts at a relatively low tem-
perature, brazed parts should not be put in an environment
which exceeds the melting point of the filler metal.
Typical Discontinuities Porosity, cracks, lack of fusion Incomplete penetration, lack of fusion, cracks Lack of fill (unbond), porosity, cracks, and cold
Types Also, “humping” and undercut and porosity bond
Non-destructive Testing VT, PT, MT, RT, UT VT, PT, MT, RT, UT VT, PT, UT
Methods

Visual Testing...............................VT * Reflective Partially Filament High

Penetrant Testing.......................PT* end reflective end voltage
Cathode DC
Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT* electrode
Radiographic Testing................RT**
Brazing rod
Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT** Anode
Eddy Current Testing.................ET***
Focus coil

* For surface discontinuities

** For subsurface discontinuities Ruby rod Low
*** For surface-breaking voltage
Electron beam Vacuum chamber
DC
discontinuities and usually
used to supplement PT, MT Source of light Lens system Workpiece
Work piece

Weld Inspection 31
 Soldering Electric Resistance Friction Stir
ERW FSW

Materials Copper, silver, gold, iron, nickel Steel Aluminum - copper

Applications Electronic components, pipe soldering, Round / square tubing Ship building and offshore - aerospace and
aluminum, stained glass automotive - railway rolling stock - specialized
fabrication
Typical Location Manufacturing / field - indoors or outdoors Manufacturing Fabrication shop, factory
Advantages Soldering can be manual or automated High production - easy automation Can be used on large pieces not post weld heat
Formulated for maximum electrical conductivity Energy efficient treated
Typically stronger than the material itself Used where metal characteristics must remain
Very durable weld unchanged
Low concentration of discontinuities
Can operate in all positions
Minimum safety issues / low environment
impact
Limitations Soldering difficulty can increase when other Power source and material thickness must Exit hole left when tool is withdrawn
materials are involved match Heavy duty clamping necessary
Less flexible and often slower
Typical Discontinuities Cold solder joint, oxidation, cracks and voids Pin holes, cracks Cracks and lack of penetration, kissing bonds
Types
Non-destructive Testing VT VT, PT, RT UT, PT
Methods

Load Load Switch

Visual Testing...............................VT * Downward force
Penetrant Testing.......................PT*
Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT*
Radiographic Testing................RT** Tool
Boiling flux Soldering iron tip
Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT** removing Joint
Electrode
Eddy Current Testing.................ET*** oxide film Liquid solder
Main supply
Probe

Oxide layer Solder solidifying Load Load Retreating

Shoulder
* For surface discontinuities side of
** For subsurface discontinuities the weld
Workpiece Advancing
*** For surface-breaking side of
discontinuities and usually Clean base metal
the weld
used to supplement PT, MT Trailing edge of the rotating tool

32 Weld Inspection
 Fusion Bonding Ultrasonic

Materials Composites, stainless steels, alloys, ceramics Composites, plastics, dissimilar materials
Applications Aerospace Aerospace, automotive, medical, computer,
packaging
Typical Location Manufacturing Manufacturing
Advantages Creates a bond by atomic attraction No other materials required in the process
Used with MEMS fabrication / silicon Alternative to glue, screws or snap fit
Easily automated
Clean, precise joints
Used for electrical wire harness connections
Limitations Must be highly polished, clean surfaces Only used for small welds
Low strength improved by thermal treatment Major limitation is material thickness
Limited by the amount of power available
Typical Discontinuities Laminations, lack of bonding Determine the presence of unbonds
Types
Non-destructive Testing UT VT
Methods

Visual Testing...............................VT * Electrode coating Clamping force

Coupler Transducer
Penetrant Testing.......................PT* applied
Core wire
Magnetic Particle Testing.......MT* Welding atmosphere
Radiographic Testing................RT**
Ultrasonic Testing.......................UT** Arc steam
Eddy Current Testing.................ET*** Arc pool Sonotrode tip

Solidified slag Hard tip

* For surface discontinuities Weld metal Work piece
** For subsurface discontinuities
*** For surface-breaking
discontinuities and usually Anvil
Base metal
used to supplement PT, MT
Penetration depth

Weld Inspection 33