20

Chapter 20
Further differentiation

Objectives
◮ To differentiate negative powers.
◮ To understand and use the chain rule.
◮ To differentiate rational powers.
◮ To understand and use the product rule.
◮ To understand and use the quotient rule.
◮ To apply differentiation techniques to sketching graphs and solving problems.

In Chapter 18 we have seen how to differentiate polynomial functions. In this chapter we add
to the collection of functions that we can differentiate.
We start by extending our rule for differentiating powers of x to negative integer powers.
We then introduce three rules for differentiating functions. The first is the chain rule.
What is a composition of functions?
If f (x) = x5 and g(x) = x2 + 3x, then the function with rule f (g(x)) = (x2 + 3x)5 is called
the composition of f with g. The other composition from these two functions has rule
g( f (x)) = x10 + 3x5 . We write the new functions as f ◦ g and g ◦ f respectively.
The chain rule gives a simple method for differentiating expressions such as (x2 + 3x)5 .
By applying the chain rule, we are able to extend further our rule for differentiating powers
of x to rational powers.
We also introduce the product rule and the quotient rule. By combining the chain, product
and quotient rules, we are able to differentiate complicated expressions such as
√ 2x + 1
(2x + 1)(x2 + 2)10 , (2x + 1) x2 + 2 and
x2 + 2
Knowledge check See the online test of required knowledge, with links to revision lessons.
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 682 Chapter 20: Further differentiation

20A Differentiating xn where n is a negative integer

In this section we consider functions which involve linear combinations of powers of x,
where the indices may be negative integers.
e.g. f (x) = x−1 for x , 0
−2
f (x) = 2x + 3 + x for x , 0

Example 1
1
Define the function f (x) = for x , 0. Find f ′ (x) by first principles.
x
Solution
The gradient of secant PQ is given by y
f (x + h) − f (x)  1 1 1
= − ×
h x+h x h
P x, 1x
x − (x + h) 1
= × 1
Q x + h, ––––
(x + h)x h x+h
−h 1 x
= × 0
(x + h)x h
−1
=
(x + h)x
So the gradient of the curve at P is
−1 −1
lim = 2 = −x−2
h→0 (x + h)x x
Hence f ′ (x) = −x−2 .

Example 2
Let f (x) = x−3 . Find f ′ (x) by first principles.

Solution
The gradient of secant PQ is given by y

(x + h)−3 − x−3
P(x, x –3)
h
x3 − (x + h)3 1
= ×
(x + h)3 x3 h
Q(x + h, (x + h)–3)
x3 − (x3 + 3x2 h + 3xh2 + h3 ) 1
= × x
(x + h)3 x3 h 0
−3x2 h − 3xh2 − h3 1
= ×
(x + h)3 x3 h
−3x2 − 3xh − h2
=
(x + h)3 x3

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 20A Differentiating xn where n is a negative integer 683

So the gradient of the curve at P is given by

−3x2 − 3xh − h2 −3x2
lim = 6 = −3x−4
h→0 (x + h)3 x3 x
Hence f ′ (x) = −3x−4 .

We are now in a position to state the generalisation of the result we found in Section 18C.

For f (x) = xn , f ′ (x) = nxn−1 , where n is a non-zero integer.

For f (x) = c, f ′ (x) = 0, where c is a constant.

When n is positive, we take the domain of f to be R, and when n is negative, we take the
domain of f to be R \ {0}.
Note: This result can be proved by again using the binomial theorem – the previous example
gives the idea of the proof.

Example 3
Find the derivative of x4 − 2x−3 + x−1 + 2, x , 0.
Solution
If f (x) = x4 − 2x−3 + x−1 + 2 (for x , 0)
′ 3 −4 −2
then f (x) = 4x − 2(−3x ) + (−x ) + 0
= 4x3 + 6x−4 − x−2 (for x , 0)

Example 4
Find the derivative of f (x) = 3x2 − 6x−2 + 1, x , 0.

Solution
f ′ (x) = 3(2x) − 6(−2x−3 ) + 0
= 6x + 12x−3 (for x , 0)

Example 5
1
Find the gradient of the tangent to the curve y = x2 + at the point (1, 2).
x
Solution
dy
= 2x + (−x−2 )
dx
= 2x − x−2
dy
When x = 1, = 2 − 1 = 1. The gradient of the curve is 1 at the point (1, 2).
dx

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 684 Chapter 20: Further differentiation 20A

Example 6
Show that the derivative of the function f (x) = x−3 , x , 0, is always negative.

Solution
f ′ (x) = −3x−4
−3
= 4 (for x , 0)
x
Since x4 is positive for all x , 0, we have f ′ (x) < 0 for all x , 0.

Section summary
For f (x) = xn , f ′ (x) = nxn−1 , where n is a non-zero integer.
For f (x) = c, f ′ (x) = 0, where c is a constant.

Exercise 20A
1
Example 1 1 a Let f (x) = , x , 3. Find f ′ (x) by first principles.

SF
x−3
1
b Let f (x) = , x , −2. Find f ′ (x) by first principles.
x+2

Example 2 2 a Let f (x) = x−2 . Find f ′ (x) by first principles.

b Let f (x) = x−4 . Find f ′ (x) by first principles.
Hint: Remember that (x + h)4 = x4 + 4x3 h + 6x2 h2 + 4xh3 + h4 .

Example 3 3 Differentiate each of the following with respect to x:

3 5 4
a 3x−2 + 5x−1 + 6 b 2 + 5x2 c 3
+ 2 +1
x x x
5 3x2 + 2
d 3x2 + x−4 + 2 e 6x−2 + 3x f
3 x

4 Find the derivative of each of the following:

3z2 + 2z + 4 3+z 2z2 + 3z
a , z,0 b , z,0 c , z,0
z2 z3 4z
5z − 3z2
d 9z2 + 4z + 6z−3 , z , 0 e 9 − z−2 , z , 0 f , z,0
5z

Example 4 5 a Find the derivative of f (x) = 3x4 − 6x−3 + x−1 .

b Find the derivative of f (x) = 5x4 + 4x−2 + x−1 .

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 20A 20A Differentiating xn where n is a negative integer 685

1
6 With the help of your calculator, sketch the graph of f (x) = , x , 0.

CF
x2
a Let P be the point (1, f (1)) and Q the point 1 + h, f (1 + h) . Find the gradient of the

secant PQ.
1
b Hence find the gradient of the tangent line to the curve y = 2 at x = 1.
x

Example 5 7 For each of the following curves, find the gradient of the tangent line to the curve at the

SF
given point:
a y = x−2 + x3 , x , 0, at (2, 8 41 )
x−2
b y= , x , 0, at (4, 21 )
x
1
c y = x−2 − , x , 0, at (1, 0)
x
d y = x(x + x2 − x−3 ), x , 0, at (1, 1)
−1

8 For the curve with equation f (x) = x−2 , find the x-coordinate of the point on the curve
at which the gradient of the tangent line is:
a 16 b −16

Example 6 9 Show that the derivative of the function f (x) = x−1 , x , 0, is always negative.

10 The diagram shows graphs of the y

CF
1 1
functions y = and y = − .
x x 1
y = – 1–x 2 y = –x
P(–1, 1) 1
1
a Find the gradient of y = at the x
x –4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4
point (2, 21 ).
Q(–1, –1) –1 y = – 1–x
b Without further calculation, state –2
1
the gradient of y = − at (2, − 21 ).
x
1
c Find the equation of the tangent at the point (1, 1) of y = .
x
1
d Find the equation of the tangent at the point (1, −1) of y = − .
x
e Find the equations of the tangents at points P and Q, and find their point of
intersection.
1 1
f Draw sketch graphs of y = and y = − on the same set of axes and draw in the
x x
four tangents.

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 686 Chapter 20: Further differentiation

20B The chain rule

An expression such as (x3 + 1)2 may be differentiated by expanding and then differentiating
each term. This method is a great deal more tiresome for an expression such as (x3 + 1)30 .
Instead, we can transform y = (x3 + 1)2 into two simpler functions defined by
u = x3 + 1 and y = u2
which are ‘chained’ together:
h g
x −→ u −→ y
where h(x) = x3 + 1 = u and g(u) = u2 = y.
We may exploit this connection to differentiate. We use Leibniz notation to explore this idea.
Consider y = (x3 + 1)2 at the point where x = 2.

u y y
y = (x3 + 1)2
u = x3 + 1 80 Z
y = u2
R 60
P

δu δy 40 δy
Q S 20 W
δx δu (0, 1) δx
0 1 2 x 0 9 u –2 –1 0 1 2 x

When x = 2, u = 9 When u = 9, y = 81 When x = 2, y = 81

P is the point (2, 9) R is the point (9, 81) Z is the point (2, 81)

A section of a spreadsheet (shown below) illustrates the connection between the gradients of
the secants PQ, RS and ZW.

δu δy δu δy δy
x u y δx δu δy ×
δx δu δx δu δx
1.60000 5.09600 25.96922 0.40000 3.90400 55.03078 9.76000 14.09600 137.57696 137.57696
1.80000 6.83200 46.67622 0.20000 2.16800 34.32378 10.84000 15.83200 171.61888 171.61888
1.90000 7.85900 61.76388 0.10000 1.14100 19.23612 11.41000 16.85900 192.36119 192.36119
1.99000 8.88060 78.86504 0.01000 0.11940 2.13496 11.94010 17.88060 213.49614 213.49614
1.99900 8.98801 80.78425 0.00100 0.01199 0.21575 11.99400 17.98801 215.74816 215.74816
1.99990 8.99880 80.97840 0.00010 0.00120 0.02160 11.99940 17.99880 215.97480 215.97480
1.99999 8.99988 80.99784 0.00001 0.00012 0.00216 11.99994 17.99988 215.99748 215.99748

δy δy δu
It can be seen that, as δx gets smaller, so does δu, and that = × .
δx δu δx
By considering δx becoming smaller, and hence δu becoming smaller, we arrive at the
following result. We will prove this result at the end of the section.

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 20B The chain rule 687

The chain rule (using Leibniz notation)

dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx

From the spreadsheet it can be seen that the gradient of u = x3 + 1 at x = 2 is 12, and the
gradient of y = u2 at u = 9 is 18. The gradient of y = (x3 + 1)2 at x = 2 is 216. The chain rule
can be used to confirm this:
du du
= 3x2 and, at x = 2, = 12
dx dx
dy dy
= 2u and, at u = 9, = 18
du du
dy dy du
= · = 18 × 12 = 216
dx du dx

Example 7
Find the derivative of y = (3x + 4)20 .

Solution
Let u = 3x + 4 then y = u20
du dy
So =3 and = 20u19
dx du

dy dy du
∴ = ·
dx du dx
= 20u19 · 3
= 60(3x + 4)19

Example 8
Differentiate y = (4x3 − 5x)−2 .

Solution
Let u = 4x3 − 5x then y = u−2
du dy
So = 12x2 − 5 and = −2u−3
dx du

dy dy du
∴ = ·
dx du dx
= (−2u−3 ) · (12x2 − 5)
−2(12x2 − 5)
=
(4x3 − 5x)3

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 688 Chapter 20: Further differentiation

Example 9
16
Find the gradient of the curve with equation y = at the point (1, 4).
3x2 + 1
Solution
Let u = 3x2 + 1 then y = 16u−1
du dy
So = 6x and = −16u−2
dx du
The chain rule gives
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
= −16u−2 · 6x
−96x
=
(3x2 + 1)2
−96
∴ At x = 1, the gradient is = −6.
16

We can state the chain rule using function notation as follows.

The chain rule (using function notation)

( f ◦ g)′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)) g′ (x)

where ( f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))

Example 10
Given that f (x) = (x2 + 1)3 , find f ′ (x).

Solution
We can write f (x) = k(g(x)), where
k(x) = x3 and g(x) = x2 + 1
We have
k′ (x) = 3x2 and g′ (x) = 2x
Therefore, by the chain rule:
f ′ (x) = k′ (g(x)) g′ (x)
= 3(g(x))2 × 2x
= 6x(x2 + 1)2

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 20B 20B The chain rule 689

Proof of the chain rule

Let f and g be differentiable functions. To find the derivative of their composition f ◦ g, we
must evaluate the limit
f (g(x + h)) − f (g(x))
( f ◦ g)′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
Multiply and divide the expression inside the limit by an extra term:
f (g(x + h)) − f (g(x)) f (g(x + h)) − f (g(x)) g(x + h) − g(x)
= ×
h g(x + h) − g(x) h
Now we can rewrite the limit as
f (g(x + h)) − f (g(x)) g(x + h) − g(x)
( f ◦ g)′ (x) = lim × lim
h→0 g(x + h) − g(x) h→0 h
The second limit is just g′ (x). Notice that the expression inside the first limit is the gradient of



the secant of the graph of f through the two points g(x), f (g(x)) and g(x + h), f (g(x + h)) .
As h → 0, this approaches the gradient of f at g(x). So the first limit is f ′ (g(x)).
Hence we have shown that
( f ◦ g)′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)) g′ (x)
This proof is not without fault: for example, if there are values of h near zero for which
g(x + h) − g(x) = 0, then we have division by zero in the first limit. However, a completely
rigorous proof is beyond the scope of this course.

Section summary
 The chain rule (using Leibniz notation)
dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
 The chain rule (using function notation)
( f ◦ g)′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)) g′ (x), where ( f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x))

Exercise 20B

Example 7, 8 1 Differentiate each of the following with respect to x:

SF

a (2x − 1)7 b (5x + 2)12 c (1 − x)4

d (x − 1)30 e (x5 − x10 )20 f (x − x3 − x5 )4
 2 −3
g (x2 + 2x + 1)4 h (x2 + 2x)−2 , x , −2, 0 i x2 − , x,0
x

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 690 Chapter 20: Further differentiation 20B

Example 9 2 a Find the derivative of y = (2x3 + 1)4 .

SF
b Find the gradient of the curve y = (2x3 + 1)4 at the point (1, 81).

Example 10 3 For each of the following, find f ′ (x):

a f (x) = (2x − 3)3 b f (x) = (2x2 + 7)7
c f (x) = −4(3x2 + 2)5 d f (x) = 2(x − 3x2 )−2
e f (x) = −(x2 − x + 3)4 f f (x) = −3(1 − x3 )−5

1
4 a Find the gradient of the curve with equation y = at the point (1, 14 ).
x+3
1 1
b Find the gradient of the curve with equation y = at the point (1, 64 ).
(x + 3)3

5 The diagram is a sketch graph of the y

CF
1 x = – –3
function f (x) = . 2
2x + 3 0, –13
a Find the gradient of the curve at the
point (0, 31 ). x
0
b Find the coordinates of the points on
2
the curve at which the gradient is − .
9

6 Consider the curve with equation y = 2(x2 − 1)3 .

dy
a Find .
dx
dy
b Find the value of at:
dx
i x=0 ii x = 2 iii x = −1
c Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at x = 0.
d Find the equation of the normal to the curve at x = 0.
e Find the coordinates of the stationary points on the curve.

7 Consider the family of functions with rules of the form

f (x) = a(4 − x2 )2
where a is a non-zero real number.
a Find f ′ (x) in terms of x and a.
b Find in terms of a:
i f ′ (1)
ii the x-coordinates of the stationary points on the curve y = f (x)
iii the equation of the tangent to the curve y = f (x) at x = 1.

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 20C Differentiating rational powers 691

20C Differentiating rational powers

Before using the chain rule to differentiate rational powers, we will show how to differentiate
1 1
x 2 and x 3 by first principles.

Example 11
Differentiate each of the following by first principles:
1 1
a f (x) = x 2 , x > 0 b g(x) = x 3 , x , 0

Solution
√ √
f (x + h) − f (x) x+h− x
a =
h h
√ √ √ √
x+h− x x+h+ x
= ×√ √
h x+h+ x
x+h−x
= √ √
h( x + h + x)
1
= √ √
x+h+ x

f (x + h) − f (x) 1 1
∴ f ′ (x) = lim = lim √ √ = √
h→0 h h→0 x+h+ x 2 x
b We use the identity
a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
 1 3  1 3
By observing that a 3 = a and b 3 = b, we obtain
 1 1  2 1 1 2
a − b = a3 − b3 a3 + a3 b3 + b3
and therefore
1 1 a−b
a3 − b3 = 2 1 1 2
a3 + a3 b3 + b3
We now have
1 1
g(x + h) − g(x) (x + h) 3 − x 3
=
h h
x+h−x
=  2 1 1 2
h (x + h) 3 + (x + h) 3 x 3 + x 3
1
= 2 1 1 2
(x + h) 3 + (x + h) 3 x 3 + x 3
Hence
g(x + h) − g(x) 1 1
g′ (x) = lim = lim 2 1 1 2
= 2
h→0 h h→0
(x + h) 3 + (x + h) 3 x3 + x3 3x 3

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 692 Chapter 20: Further differentiation

Note: We can prove that an − bn = (a − b)(an−1 + an−2 b + an−3 b2 + · · · + abn−2 + bn−1 )

1
for n ≥ 2. We could use this result to find the derivative of x n by first principles,
but instead we will use the chain rule.

◮ Using the chain rule

dy dy dx
Using the chain rule in the form = · with y = u, we have
du dx du
dy dx
1= ·
dx dy

dy 1 dx
Thus = for ,0
dx dx dy
dy
1
Now let y = x n , where n ∈ Z \ {0} and x > 0.
dx
We have yn = x and so = nyn−1 . Therefore
dy
dy 1 1 1 1 1
= = n−1 =  1  = x n −1
dx dx ny n−1 n
n xn
dy

1 dy 1 1 −1
For y = x n , = x n , where n ∈ Z \ {0} and x > 0.
dx n

This result may now be extended to rational powers.

p
Let y = x q , where p, q ∈ Z \ {0}.
 1 p 1
Write y = x q . Let u = x q . Then y = u p . The chain rule yields

dy dy du
= ·
dx du dx
1 1 −1
= pu p−1 · x q
q
 1  p−1 1 1 −1
= p xq · xq
q
p qp − 1q 1q −1
= x x
q
p qp −1
= x
q
Thus the result for integer powers has been extended to rational powers. In fact, the
analogous result holds for any non-zero real power:

For f (x) = xa , f ′ (x) = axa−1 , where a ∈ R \ {0} and x > 0.

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 20C Differentiating rational powers 693

1 1
This result is stated for x > 0, as (−3) 2 is not defined, although (−2) 3 is defined.
1 1
The graphs of y = x 2 , y = x 3 y
1
1
and y = x4 are shown.
y = x2
1
The domain of each has been 1.5 y = x3
taken to be R+ .
1
1.0 y = x4

0.5

x
–0.5 0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0
–0.5

The figure to the right is y

the graph of the function
1
f (x) = x 3 for x ∈ R. 0.4 1
y = x3
Note that the values shown
0.2
here are −0.08 ≤ x ≤ 0.08.
From this it can be seen that x
1 – 0.08 –0.06 –0.04 –0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
the tangent to y = x 3 at the
origin is on the y-axis. –0.2
Use a calculator to investigate –0.4
graphs of this type further.

Example 12
Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:
2 1
a 4x 3 b x 5 − 2x−3

Solution
2 1
a Let y = 4x 3 b Let y = x 5 − 2x−3
dy 2 2 dy 1 1 −1
Then = 4 × × x 3 −1 Then = x 5 − 2 × (−3x−3−1 )
dx 3 dx 5
8 −1 1 −4
= x 3 = x 5 + 6x−4
3 5

Section summary
p
For any non-zero rational number r = , if f (x) = xr , then f ′ (x) = rxr−1 .
q

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 694 Chapter 20: Further differentiation 20C

Exercise 20C
Skillsheet 1 Find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:

SF
1 3 5 3
Example 12 a x3 b x2 , x > 0 c x2 − x2 , x > 0
1 5 5 1
d 2x 2 − 3x 3 , x > 0 e x− 6 , x > 0 f x− 2 − 4, x > 0
2 Using the chain rule, find the derivative of each of the following with respect to x:
√ √3 1 1
a 1 + x2 b x + x2 c (1 + x2 )− 2 d (1 + x) 3
1
3 a Find the gradient of y = x 3 at each of the following points:
1 1  1 1
i , ii − , − iii (1, 1) iv (−1, −1)
8 2 8 2
b Comment on your results.
1 1
4 Consider the graphs of y = x 2 and y = x 3 for x > 0.

CF
1 1
a Find the values of x for which x 2 < x 3 .
1
b Find the values of x for which the gradient of y = x 2 is greater than the gradient
1
of y = x 3 .
5 Differentiate each of the following with respect to x:

SF
√
√
√ 2+ x x2 + 2 √
a 2−5 x 2 b 3 x+2 2 c d √ e 3 x x2 + 2



x 2
x

20D Sketch graphs

In Chapter 19 we used calculus to help us sketch the graphs of polynomial functions. In this
section we show how the same techniques may be applied to non-polynomial functions.
We will sketch the graph of the function
1
f (x) = 2 + x for x , 0
x
Consider the behaviour of f(x) for very large x
This section of a spreadsheet shows the behaviour a x f (x)
of f (x) as the value of x becomes very large positive.
1 2.0000000000
This has been done using increasing powers of 2.
2 2.2500000000
We see that as x → ∞, f (x) → x. 4 4.0625000000
This shows us that the line y = x is an oblique 8 8.0156250000
asymptote for the graph. 16 16.0039062500
It is clear also that as x → −∞, f (x) → x. 32 32.0009765625
64 64.0002441406
128 128.0000610352

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 20D Sketch graphs 695

Consider vertical asymptotes

The function is not defined at x = 0. The behaviour of the function as x approaches 0 is
demonstrated below. The values of x considered are 20 , 2−1 , 2−2 , 2−3 , etc.

b x f (x) c x f (x)
1.00000000 2.00000000 −1.00000000 0.00000000
0.50000000 4.50000000 −0.50000000 3.50000000
0.25000000 16.25000000 −0.25000000 15.75000000
0.12500000 64.12500000 −0.12500000 63.87500000
0.06250000 256.06250000 −0.06250000 255.93750000
0.03125000 1024.03125000 −0.03125000 1023.96875000
0.01562500 4096.01562500 −0.01562500 4095.98437500
0.00781250 16384.00781250 −0.00781250 16383.99218750

Spreadsheet b shows the behaviour as Spreadsheet c shows the behaviour as

x approaches 0 from the right: x approaches 0 from the left:
f (x) becomes increasingly large. again f (x) becomes increasingly large.
We write lim+ f (x) = ∞. We write lim− f (x) = ∞.
x→0 x→0

Find the axis intercepts

The graph does not have a y-axis intercept, as the function is not defined at x = 0. The graph
1
crosses the x-axis when 2 + x = 0, i.e. when x3 = −1, which implies x = −1.
x
Consider the stationary points
1 −2 1
For f (x) = 2
+ x, we have f ′ (x) = 3 + 1, and so f ′ (x) = 0 implies x = 2 3 . Thus there is a
x x
1
point on the curve at x = 2 at which the gradient is zero.
3
y
As the graph is not continuous at x = 0,
we use a gradient chart for x > 0 only.
6
1
3
x 2 4
1
f ′(x) y = ––2 + x
– 0 + x
2
(1.26, 1.89)
shape of f x
–6 –4 –2 0 2 4 6
–2
Thus there is a local minimum at the point
(1.26, 1.89), with coordinates correct to –4
two decimal places.
Spreadsheet a shows how rapidly the graph of y = f (x) moves towards the line y = x.
At x = 4, f (x) = 4.0625 and at x = 8, f (x) = 8.015625.

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 696 Chapter 20: Further differentiation

Example 13
x2 + 3
Sketch the graph of the function with rule f (x) = , where x , −1.
x+1
Solution
4
By division, f (x) = x − 1 + .
x+1
Behaviour for very large x
As x → ∞, f (x) → x − 1 from above.
As x → −∞, f (x) → x − 1 from below.
There is an oblique asymptote with equation y = x − 1.
Vertical asymptote
lim f (x) = ∞ and lim f (x) = −∞
x→−1+ x→−1−
There is a vertical asymptote with equation x = −1.
Axis intercepts
When x = 0, f (x) = 3. There is no x-axis intercept, as x2 + 3 , 0 for all x ∈ R.
Stationary points
4
For f (x) = x − 1 +
x+1
4
f ′ (x) = 1 −
(x + 1)2
Find where f ′ (x) = 0:
4
1− =0
(x + 1)2
(x + 1)2 = 4
x + 1 = ±2
Therefore x = 1 or x = −3.
We consider two gradient charts.

First for x > −1: Next for x < −1:

x 1 x –3
f ′(x) – 0 + f ′(x) + 0 –

shape of f shape of f

∴ Local minimum at (1, 2) ∴ Local maximum at (−3, −6)

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 20D 20D Sketch graphs 697

Sketch graph
y
x2 + 3
y = –––––
x = –1 x+1
10
y=x– 1
5
(0, 3)
(1, 2)
x
–15 –10 –5 0 5 10 15

(–3, –6) –5

–10

–15

Section summary
Steps for sketching graphs
 Find the x-axis and y-axis intercepts and the stationary points.
 Find where the graph is strictly increasing and where it is strictly decreasing.
 Determine the nature of each stationary point (local maximum, local minimum or
stationary point of inflection).
 Identify vertical asymptotes.
 Understand the behaviour as x becomes very large positive and very large negative.

Exercise 20D
1
Example 13 1 The equation of a curve is y = 4x + .
CF

x
a Find the coordinates of the turning points.
b Find the equation of the tangent to the curve at the point where x = 2.

x2 − 1
2 Find the x-coordinates of the points on the curve y = at which the gradient is 5.
x
2x − 4
3 Find the gradient of y = at the point where the curve crosses the x-axis.
x2
4
4 Sketch the curve y = x − 5 + by first finding:
x
a the coordinates of the points of intersection with the axes
b the equations of all asymptotes
c the coordinates of all turning points.

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 698 Chapter 20: Further differentiation 20D

4
5 If x is positive, find the least value of x + .

CF
x2
4
6 For positive values of x, sketch the graph of y = x + and find the least value of y.
x
7 Sketch the graph of each of the following, indicating the coordinates of axis intercepts
and turning points, and the equations of asymptotes:
1 1
a y= x+ , x,0 b y = 2 − x, x , 0
x x
1 243
c y= x+1+ , x , −3 d y = x3 + , x,0
x+3 x
1 x2 − 4
e y= x−5+ , x,0 f y= , x , −2
x x+2

20E The product rule

In the next two sections, we introduce two more rules for differentiation.
The product rule can be used to find the derivative of a function of the form f (x) = u(x) · v(x).
For example: f (x) = (2x − 1)(x2 + 3) and f (x) = (5 − x2 )(3x + 7).

The product rule (using function notation)

Let f (x) = u(x) · v(x). If u′ (x) and v′ (x) exist, then
f ′ (x) = u(x) · v′ (x) + v(x) · u′ (x)

We will prove the product rule at the end of this section.

Example 14
Use the product rule to find the derivative of f (x) = (x2 + 3x)(4x + 5).

Solution
Let u(x) = x2 + 3x and v(x) = 4x + 5. Then f (x) = u(x) · v(x).
The product rule gives
f ′ (x) = u(x) · v′ (x) + v(x) · u′ (x)
= (x2 + 3x) · 4 + (4x + 5) · (2x + 3)
= 4x2 + 12x + 8x2 + 22x + 15
= 12x2 + 34x + 15

Note: This could also have been found by expanding the brackets and then differentiating.
We can state the product rule in Leibniz notation and give a geometric interpretation.

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 20E The product rule 699

The product rule (using Leibniz notation)

If y = uv, where u and v are functions of x, then
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx

In the following figure, the white region represents y = uv and the shaded region δy, as
explained below.

δv uδv δuδv
v uv vδu
u δu

δy = (u + δu)(v + δv) − uv
= uv + uδv + vδu + δuδv − uv
= uδv + vδu + δuδv

δy δv δu δu δv
∴ =u +v + δx
δx δx δx δx δx
In the limit, as δx → 0, we have
δu du δv dv δy dy
= , = and =
δx dx δx dx δx dx
Therefore
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx

Example 15
Differentiate y = 3(x − 1)(x2 − 3) using the product rule.

Solution
Let u = 3(x − 1) = 3x − 3 and v = x2 − 3.
du dv
Then = 3 and = 2x.
dx dx
The product rule gives
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
= (3x − 3) · 2x + (x2 − 3) · 3
= 6x2 − 6x + 3x2 − 9
= 9x2 − 6x − 9
= 3(3x2 − 2x − 3)

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 700 Chapter 20: Further differentiation

Example 16
Use the product rule and the chain rule to differentiate y = (x2 + 2)2 (4x + 1).

Solution
Let u = (x2 + 2)2 and v = 4x + 1.
du
Then = 2(x2 + 2) · 2x = 4x(x2 + 2) (by the chain rule)
dx
dv
and =4
dx
The product rule gives
dy dv du
=u +v
dx dx dx
= (x2 + 2)2 · 4 + (4x + 1) · 4x(x2 + 2)
= 4(x2 + 2)2 + 4x(4x + 1)(x2 + 2)
= 4(x2 + 2) (x2 + 2) + x(4x + 1)
 

= 4(x2 + 2)(5x2 + x + 2)

Proof of the product rule

Let f (x) = u(x) · v(x), where u and v are differentiable functions. By the definition of the
derivative of f , we have
f (x + h) − f (x)
f ′ (x) = lim
h→0 h
u(x + h) v(x + h) − u(x) v(x)
= lim
h→0 h
Adding and subtracting u(x + h) v(x):
 
′ u(x + h) v(x + h) − u(x) v(x) + u(x + h) v(x) − u(x + h) v(x)
f (x) = lim
h→0 h
  v(x + h) − v(x)   u(x + h) − u(x) 
= lim u(x + h) · + v(x) ·
h→0 h h
Since u and v are differentiable, we obtain
 v(x + h) − v(x)   u(x + h) − u(x) 
f ′ (x) = lim u(x + h) · lim + lim v(x) · lim
h→0 h→0 h h→0 h→0 h
= u(x) · v′ (x) + v(x) · u′ (x)
This completes the proof of the product rule.

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 20E 20E The product rule 701

Section summary
 The product rule (using function notation)
If f (x) = u(x) · v(x), then f ′ (x) = u(x) · v′ (x) + v(x) · u′ (x).
 The product rule (using Leibniz notation)
dy dv du
If y = uv, then =u +v .
dx dx dx

Exercise 20E

Skillsheet 1 Find the derivative of each of the following functions using the product rule:

SF
Example 14 a f (x) = (3x + 2)(x2 − 1) b f (x) = (x + 4)(x3 − 2)
c f (x) = (2 − x2 )(3x + 4) d f (x) = 2(x − 2)(3 − x3 )

Example 15 2 Find the derivative of each of the following functions using the product rule:
a y = (x + 3)(5x − 1) b y = (x2 + 7)(1 − x)
c y = 2(x − 2)(5x + 7) d y = −3(2x + 1)(x2 − 3)

3 Differentiate each of the following expressions with respect to x. Only use the product
rule if it is the simplest method.
a (3x − 2)(x3 + 4) b 3x2 (4x + 5)
c (x2 + 5)(2 − x) d (x2 + 4)(x2 − 4)
e 5x3 (x2 − 1) f 4(x2 − 1)(x2 + 2)

Example 16 4 Combine the product rule and the chain rule to differentiate each of the following
functions:
a y = (x − 1)2 (2x + 3) b y = (2x + 1)2 (x + 5)
3
c y = (1 − 2x)(x − 2)3 d y = (3x + 1) 2 (2x + 4)
√
e y = (x2 + 1) 2x − 4 f y = x3 (3x2 + 2x + 1)−1

5 For the function f (x) = (5 − 3x)(3x + 1)2 , find:

a f ′ (x) b f ′ (1) c f (1) d the equation of the tangent at x = 1.

6 For f (x) = 2(x + 2)(x − 1)2 , find f ′ (−3).

7 Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = (2x − 3)2 (1 − x) at x = 0.

8 Show that the derivative of (1 − 2x)3 (x + 1) is equal to −(8x + 5)(1 − 2x)2 .

9 If the tangent to the curve y = kx4 (3x − 5)3 at x = 1 has gradient 2, find the value of k.
CF

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 702 Chapter 20: Further differentiation

20F The quotient rule

u(x)
The quotient rule can be used to find the derivative of a function of the form f (x) = .
v(x)
3x (3 − x)2
For example: f (x) = and f (x) = .
x2 − 1 4x3

The quotient rule (using function notation)

u(x)
Let f (x) = , where v(x) , 0. If u′ (x) and v′ (x) exist, then
v(x)
v(x) · u′ (x) − u(x) · v′ (x)
f ′ (x) =
v(x) 2
 

We will prove the quotient rule at the end of this section.

Example 17
x2 + 1
Find the derivative of f (x) = .
2x − 3
Solution
u(x)
Let u(x) = x2 + 1 and v(x) = 2x − 3. Then f (x) = .
v(x)
We have u′ (x) = 2x and v′ (x) = 2.
Therefore the quotient rule gives
v(x) · u′ (x) − u(x) · v′ (x)
f ′ (x) =
v(x) 2
 

(2x − 3) · 2x − (x2 + 1) · 2
=
(2x − 3)2
4x2 − 6x − 2x2 − 2
=
(2x − 3)2
2(x2 − 3x − 1)
=
(2x − 3)2

We can state the quotient rule using Leibniz notation as follows.

The quotient rule (using Leibniz notation)

u
If y = , where u and v are functions of x and v , 0, then
v
du dv
dy v dx − u dx
=
dx v2

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 20F The quotient rule 703

Example 18
−3(x2 − 2)
Differentiate the function y = using the quotient rule.
5x + 2
Solution
du dv
Let u = −3(x2 − 2) and v = 5x + 2. Then = −6x and = 5.
dx dx
The quotient rule gives
du dv
dy v dx − u dx (5x + 2) · (−6x) + 3(x2 − 2) · 5
= =
dx v2 (5x + 2)2
−30x2 − 12x + 15x2 − 30
=
(5x + 2)2
−15x2 − 12x − 30
=
(5x + 2)2
−3(5x2 + 4x + 10)
=
(5x + 2)2

Example 19
(2x − 3)4
Use the quotient rule and the chain rule to differentiate y = .
4x
Solution
Let u = (2x − 3)4 and v = 4x.
du
Then = 4(2x − 3)3 · 2 = 8(2x − 3)3 (by the chain rule)
dx
dv
and =4
dx
The quotient rule gives
du dv
dy v dx − u dx 4x · 8(2x − 3)3 − (2x − 3)4 · 4
= =
dx v2 (4x)2
32x(2x − 3)3 − 4(2x − 3)4
=
16x2
4(2x − 3)3 8x − (2x − 3)
 
=
16x2
(2x − 3)3 (6x + 3)
=
4x2
3(2x − 3)3 (2x + 1)
=
4x2

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 704 Chapter 20: Further differentiation 20F

Proof of the quotient rule

The quotient rule can be proved from first principles, but instead we will use the product rule
and the chain rule.
u(x)
. Then we can write f (x) = u(x) · g(x), where g(x) = v(x) −1 .
 
Let f (x) =
v(x)
Using the chain rule, we have
g′ (x) = − v(x) −2 · v′ (x)
 

Therefore, using the product rule, we obtain

f ′ (x) = u(x) · g′ (x) + g(x) · u′ (x)
= −u(x) · v(x) −2 · v′ (x) + v(x) −1 · u′ (x)
   
  
= v(x) −2 −u(x) · v′ (x) + v(x) · u′ (x)


v(x) · u′ (x) − u(x) · v′ (x)

=
v(x) 2
 

This completes the proof of the quotient rule.

Section summary
 The quotient rule (using function notation)
u(x) v(x) · u′ (x) − u(x) · v′ (x)
If f (x) = , then f ′ (x) = .
v(x) v(x) 2
 

 The quotient rule (using Leibniz notation)

du dv
u dy v dx − u dx
If y = , then = .
v dx v2

Exercise 20F

Skillsheet 1 Find the derivative of each of the following functions using the quotient rule:
SF

Example 17 x2 5x2 2 − 3x
a f (x) = b f (x) = c f (x) =
2x − 1 2x − 3 5x + 1

Example 18 2 Find the derivative of each of the following functions using the quotient rule:
4x2 − 1 x2 + 4x 5(x2 + 1)
a y= b y= c y=−
2x − 5 1−x 2x − 1

3 Differentiate each of the following expressions with respect to x. Only use the quotient
rule if it is the simplest method.
3 − x2 3 − 4x 11x + 7 3x2 4x2 + 2x
a b c d − e
4x 2x2 6x − 5 2x − 9 4x + 2

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 20F 20F The quotient rule 705

Example 19 4 Combine the quotient rule and the chain rule to differentiate each of the following

SF
functions:
(3x − 1)2 (5 − 2x)3
a y= , x,0 b y= , x,0
2x 3x2
7x2 2 − 3x 1
c y= , x,1 d y= , x,−
(1 − x)2 (4x + 1)2 4
2(3x − 2)2 5x3 1
e y=− , x , −1 f y=− 2
, x,−
x+1 (3x + 1) 3

3x − 1
5 For the function f (x) = , find:
3 − x2
a f ′ (x) b f ′ (2) c f (2) d the equation of the tangent at x = 2.

4(x − 3)2
6 For f (x) = − , find f ′ (−1).
3x2 + 1

(3 − 2x)2
7 Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = at x = 1.
5x + 2

(2x + 3)3 (x − 3)(2x + 3)2

8 Show that the derivative of is equal to .
2x2 x3

k(x + 2)2
9 If the tangent to the curve y = at x = 1 has gradient 2, find the value of k.

CF
5x + 1

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 706 Chapter 20: Further differentiation
Review

Chapter summary
 Derivatives of powers
AS
If f (x) = xr , then f ′ (x) = rxr−1 , for any non-zero rational number r.
Nrich
 Chain rule
• The chain rule is often used to differentiate a complicated function by transforming it
into two simpler functions, which are ‘chained’ together.
√ √
For example: y = 3x2 + 1 can be transformed into y = u and u = 3x2 + 1.
dy dy du
• Using Leibniz notation, the chain rule is stated as = · .
dx du dx
• Using function notation, the chain rule is stated as ( f ◦ g)′ (x) = f ′ (g(x)) g′ (x),
where ( f ◦ g)(x) = f (g(x)).
 Product rule
• If f (x) = u(x) · v(x), then f ′ (x) = u(x) · v′ (x) + v(x) · u′ (x).
dy dv du
• If y = uv, then =u +v .
dx dx dx
 Quotient rule
u(x) v(x) · u′ (x) − u(x) · v′ (x)
• If f (x) = , then f ′ (x) = .
v(x) v(x) 2
 
du dv
u dy v dx − u dx
• If y = , then = .
v dx v2
 Sketch graphs When sketching the graph of a function, consider:
• the behaviour of the function as x becomes large positive and large negative
• vertical asymptotes
• axis intercepts
• stationary points (i.e. where the gradient is zero).

Technology-free questions
1 Find the derivative of each of the following:
SF

1 3 x2 + x3 3x2 + 2x 2
a 2x−3 b − 2 c 5 d e f 5x2 −
3x x x4 x2 x
1 √ 2 4 1 1 3
g x2 h 3x i −√ j x3 k x− 3 l x− 3 + 2x 5
x
2 Differentiate each of the following with respect to x:
1
a (2x + 3)2 b 2(3x + 4)4 c (3 − 2x)− 2 d (x2 − x + 1)3
1
1 1 3  3 3
e f 2
g √ h 2x2 − 2
3 + 2x 2 + x2 x
(2x − 1) 3

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 Chapter 20 review 707

Review
3 Find the gradient of the tangent to each of the following curves at the given point:

SF
√ 1 2
a y = x, (9, 3) b y= , (0, 1) c y = 2 , (4, 81 )
2x + 1 x
2 √
d y = 3 + , (1, 5) e y = x + 1, (8, 3) f y = (x2 − 7x − 8)3 , (8, 0)
x
1
4 a Find the coordinates of the point(s) on the curve with equation y = for which the

CF
x
gradient is −4.
√
b Find the coordinates of the point(s) on the curve with equation y = x for which the
gradient is 2.

5 Using the product rule, find the derivative of each of the following functions:

SF
a f (x) = (5x − 1)(2x + 1) b f (x) = (2 − 3x2 )(4x + 5)
c y = 2(x − 1)(x2 − 5) d y = (x2 + 4)(5 − 3x2 )

6 Using the quotient rule, find the derivative of each of the following functions:
2x 2x2 7x + 2 4x2 − 1
a f (x) = b f (x) = − c y= d y=
3x − 4 5x − 2 5−x x+2
7 Combine the chain rule with either the product rule or the quotient rule to differentiate
each of the following with respect to x:
(5x + 2)3
a (2x + 1)2 (3x − 1) b −7x2 (1 − x)3 c
6 − 5x
√ −2x 2
−3(3x + 7)2
d (x2 + 1) x3 + 1 e f
(8x + 1)2 (6x − 7)2
8 For each of the following curves, find the equation of the tangent at x = 1:
(x − 3)2
a y = 2x2 (5x − 1) b y=
3 − 2x

Multiple-choice questions
1
1 The graph of f (x) = x + has a local minimum at (a, f (a)). The value of a is
x
5 5
A −1 B 2 C − D E 1
2 2
2 The derivative of (5x2 + 2x)n is
A n(10x + 2)(5x2 + 2x)n−1 B (5x2 + 2x)n−1 C (10x + 2)n
D n(5x2 + 2x)n−1 E 10x2n−1 + 2xn−1

3 The equation of the normal to the curve y = (2x − 7)3 at x = 4 is

A 2y − x = −3 B y = −6x + 25 C x − 6y = 2
D x + 6y = 10 E y = 6x − 23
4
4 Define f (x) = 4 + for x , 2. Then f ′ (x) > 0 for
2−x
A x,2 B x∈R C x<2 D x>2 E x>4

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 708 Chapter 20: Further differentiation

p
Review

5 If f (x) = 2x q , where p and q are integers, then f ′ (x) equals

p−q p
−1 2p p−q 2p
A 2x q B 2px q C 2 D x q E x
q q
dy
6 Let y = f (g(x)), where g(x) = x3 . Then equals
dx
A 3x2 f ′ (x3 ) B 3x2 f (x3 ) C 2x f (x) f ′ (x3 )
D 2 f (x) f ′ (x3 ) E 3x2
k
7 The graph of y = has gradient 1 when x = 1. The value of k is
2(x2 + 1)
1
A 1 B −1 C 4 D −4 E −
4
1
8 Which of the following is not true for the curve y = f (x), where f (x) = x 5 ?
A The gradient is defined for all x. B For x > 0, the gradient is positive.
C For x > 0, the gradient is decreasing. D The curve passes through the origin.
E The curve passes through the points (1, 1) and (−1, −1).
3
9 If f (x) = (x + 2)(x − 5) 2 , then f ′ (6) is equal to
A 1.5 B 8 C 9 D 12 E 13
2x
10 The derivative of is
(3x + 2)2
2(x + 2) −2(3x − 2) 6x − 4 6(x + 2) 6x + 5
A B C D E
(3x + 2)3 (3x + 2)3 (3x + 2)4 (3x + 2)3 (3x + 2)4

Extended-response questions
1 A rectangle has sides of length x cm and y cm, and the area of the rectangle is 16 cm2 .
a Find y in terms of x. CF
32
b Show that the perimeter, P cm, is given by P = 2x + .
x
c Find the value of x for which the value of P is a minimum and find this value of P.
d Sketch the graph of P against x for x > 0.

2 A solid cylinder has radius r cm and height h cm. It has a fixed volume of 400 cm3 .
a Find h in terms of r.
800
b Show that the total surface area, A cm2 , of the cylinder is given by A = 2πr2 + .
dA r
c Find .
dr
dA
d Solve the equation = 0 for r.
dr
e Find, correct to three significant figures, the minimum surface area of the cylinder.
f Sketch the graph of A against r.

Cambridge Senior Maths for Queensland ISBN 978-1-108-45161-1 © Evans et al. 2018 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 1&2 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.
 Chapter 20 review 709

Review
3 An open rectangular box of height h cm has a horizontal rectangular base with side

CF
lengths x cm and 2x cm. The volume of the box is 36 cm3 .
a Express h in terms of x.
108
b Show that the total surface area, A cm2 , of the box is given by A = 2x2 + .
x
c Calculate the values of x and h which make the total surface area a minimum.
d Sketch the graph of A against x for x > 0.

4 The area of rectangle OABC is 120 cm2 , the length of X Y

CZ is 5 cm and the length of AX is 7 cm. Let the length
A B
of OC be x cm.
a Find the length of OA in terms of x. Z
O C
b Find the length of OX in terms of x.
c Find the length of OZ in terms of x.
d Find the area, y cm2 , of rectangle OXYZ in terms of x.
e Find the value of x for which the area, y cm2 , is a minimum.
√
5 The curve with equation y = x + 2 meets the x-axis at A and the y-axis at B.
a Find the coordinates of A and B.
dy
b By using the chain rule, find .
dx
c i Find the gradient of the curve where x = −1.
ii Find the equation of the tangent at the point where x = −1.
iii If this tangent meets the x-axis at C and the y-axis at D, find the distance CD.
dy
d Find the values of x for which < 1.
dx
6 The prism shown in the diagram has a triangular cross-section. B
The ‘ends’ of the prism shown are congruent right-angled A
triangles with the right angles at C and Z.
The lengths of some edges are AX = CZ = BY = y cm, C
AC = XZ = 3x cm and CB = ZY = 4x cm.
The volume of the prism is 1500 cm3 .
Y
a Express y in terms of x.
X
b Show that the total surface area, S cm2 , is given by
3000 Z
S = 12x2 + .
x
dS
c Find .
dx
d Find the minimum value of S .

7 Two positive quantities p and q vary in such a way that p3 q = 9. Another quantity z is
defined by z = 16p + 3q. Find values of p and q that make z a minimum.

Cambridge Senior Maths for Queensland ISBN 978-1-108-45161-1 © Evans et al. 2018 Cambridge University Press
Mathematical Methods 1&2 Photocopying is restricted under law and this material must not be transferred to another party.