Name: Abbas Oudah Hameed

Section: HVAC (B)

Define stainless and name the

application of it.
Stainless steel is the general name for a family of steels that are corrosion-resistant and contain a minimum of 10.5%
chromium. The effect of this minimum level creates a chromium oxide layer on the surface, which is a self-healing
oxygen barrier that stops further oxidation. Below 10.5% chromium, the oxide film is of insufficient durability to be
self-healing.

Stainless steels are widely used in most industries, including: construction, marine, aerospace, automotive, and
consumer goods. The material delivers high strength, durability, and resistance to corrosion, making it ideal for many
cosmetic and open-environment components. Stainless steel is supplied in grades classed by their alloy content. The
grade selected for an application depends on factors such as the environment in which it will be used, the required
strength and durability, and the desired aesthetic standard. This article will define: What is stainless steel?, its
composition, types, grades, properties, and applications.

What Is Stainless Steel?

Stainless steel is primarily made from medium and low-carbon steel. They are alloyed with a range of metals to alter
the resulting properties. For example, chromium and nickel lend corrosion resistance and hardness. Other metals
enhance malleability, toughness, ductility, tensile and shear strength, and other properties. Stainless steels are
generally high strength, with some examples being among the highest tensile and yield strengths of all metals. They
are also generally corrosion-resistant, with exceptional performance in particular environments according to
grade/alloy type. Additionally, stainless steels are capable of high- and low-temperature performance, from
cryogenic temperatures to 2,000 °C, depending on grade.

Depending on the definition, there are at least 60 and possibly over 100 distinct grades of stainless steel that
continue to be developed for general and specific purposes. The study of stainless steel is among the most active
areas in metallurgical research. These grades are covered by various national and international standards which are
progressively becoming unified and generally define close or identical alloys/properties.

What Is the History of Stainless Steel?

The history of stainless steel began in 1912, when Harry Brearley, an English metallurgist leading the Brown Firth
Laboratories in Sheffield, was researching hard-wearing steels for gun barrel improvements. Some of his
experimental alloys were observed to be highly resistant to corrosion, and he saw and understood the wider
implications of his work. He began experimenting with different compositions of steel and found that it was the
addition of chromium to the alloy that created the biggest influence on the resulting resistance to corrosion.

Brearley patented his new alloy under the name “rustless steel” (later modified to stainless steel) in 1915. The
research lab owners were Sheffield steelmakers, whose primary reputation was in weapons and table cutlery. It was
Name: Abbas Oudah Hameed
Section: HVAC (B)

in this market that the first application for stainless steel was developed, making good use of the strengths of the
new alloys. During World War I, stainless steel was also used in military applications such as aircraft engines and gun
parts.

Stainless steel is now a primary material in most industrial sectors, including appliances, medical equipment,
automotive parts, and construction materials. Its resistance to corrosion, as well as its strength and durability,
increasingly make it a popular choice for many industries.

What Is Stainless Steel Made Of?

Stainless steels are made of alloying elements such as: chromium, nickel, molybdenum, and titanium to achieve
specific properties like improved corrosion resistance, higher tensile strength, or improved ductility/malleability. The
exact composition of stainless steel is a wide-ranging topic, with small changes in constituent metals potentially
making significant adjustments in properties.

How Is Stainless Steel Made?

Stainless steel is manufactured by a range of smelting methods that are typical of most metallurgical processing.
Three of the common processes are listed below:

An electric arc furnace uses a high current flowing between two carbon electrodes to heat the raw materials.
Alloying elements of scrap and pre-made steel, chromium, etc. are added to the furnace crucible, along with iron ore
and the necessary additions to refining this component, to create the stainless steel alloy. Melting and refinement
occur in the furnace and the impurities float off as slag/clinker.

Blast furnaces melt iron ore mixed with coke in the crucible, blowing oxygen through the molten iron to remove
impurities that float off as slag. Once the ore has been purified, chromium and other alloying elements are added to
the molten metal to create the stainless steel alloy.

Vacuum induction melting and vacuum arc melting produce very high-purity metals, from already refined source
materials (i.e., no ore is added). This process allows for more precision in the control of the composition of stainless
steel alloys.

Once the stainless steel has been melted and refined, it will generally be rough cast into billets. These billets are then
formed into various shapes and sizes using a range of manufacturing processes, including:

The casting of stainless steel involves molten metal being poured into a cast cavity, to which it conforms and the cast
retains the cavity shape when cooled.

Rolling of stainless steel sees the raw billets pass through a series of precise pinch rollers, to reduce their thickness
and shape the steel into sheets or other forms. This process can be performed hot or cold, to produce a variety of
final materials of diverse strengths and crystalline structures.

The forging of stainless steel requires it to be heated and then shaped by hammering or pressing it into the desired
form.

Machining stainless steel enables it to be cut and shaped using various machines, such as lathes and mills.
Name: Abbas Oudah Hameed
Section: HVAC (B)

After the stainless steel has been formed into its final shape, it may undergo additional processing to improve its
properties, such as heat treatment, polishing, or coating.

What Are the Characteristics of Stainless Steel?

Some of the characteristics of stainless steel include:

Generally highly resistant to corrosion.

Strong and durable—resistant to bending, cracking, and breaking.

Non-porous and non-reactive—easy to clean and autoclave.

Can achieve a range of quality finishes.

Can withstand high temperatures without degrading.

Suitable for use at cryogenic temperatures.

Sustainable materials, in that they are 100% recyclable without loss or degradation.

What Is the Color of Stainless Steel?

Stainless steels are naturally a uniform silver in color, although various companies offer proprietary “stainless
coloring” processes that are analogous to anodizing. A range of bronze to golden colors can be achieved by heating
stainless steel in an oven to around 700 °C in an oxygen atmosphere. This will result in the formation of iron oxides in
the surface film, which will stain with shades of yellow, gold, and brown depending on temperature and time.
Stainless steel will also develop hues of blue when heated to 250 °C in air, also by an oxidation process.

What Does Stainless Steel Look Like?

Stainless steel parts are often polished to a mirror finish by electropolishing. This results in a reflective and generally
silver color, but can be colored as described above. Stainless steel components can also have various types and levels
of texturing added—from sandblasting to shot peening, brush finishing to photo etching.

A brushed or linished finish is often used on street furniture and building cladding, to reduce the appearance
degradation that results from scratches. Figure 1 below are examples of stainless steel:

What Are the Different Types of Stainless Steel?

The basic nomenclature for broad grades of stainless steel is as follows:

1. Austenitic Stainless Steel

Austenitic stainless steel is the most common classification, offering high corrosion resistance, ductility, and
toughness. It is alloyed with a minimum of 16% chromium and 6% nickel, with other metals/non-metals such as
manganese, nitrogen, and sometimes molybdenum. These steels can handle salt exposure, although some brown
staining is possible.
Name: Abbas Oudah Hameed
Section: HVAC (B)

2. Martensitic Stainless Steel

This type of stainless steel is generally stronger and harder but suffers lower corrosion resistance. They contain 12–
18% chromium and may also include nickel or molybdenum.

3. Ferritic Stainless Steel

Ferritic stainless steels can have a broad range of chromium content (10.5–27%) and use higher carbon content
steels than austenitic types. This group is less ductile and tougher, but still has good corrosion resistance and is often
used for automotive applications. These steels react less well to salt and are not generally used in marine
environments.

4. Duplex Stainless Steel

Duplex stainless steels combine austenitic and ferritic stainless steels, with a carefully tuned proportion of both
types of crystalline structure. They offer higher strength combined with great corrosion resistance and are often
used in chemical processing and oil and gas applications.

5. Precipitation-Hardening Stainless Steel

Precipitation-hardening stainless steel is achieved by the formation of small particles, precipitated within the
material, that increase its strength and hardness by inducing lattice stress. This can commonly deliver 3–4 times the
strength of basic austenitic stainless steel.

What Does the Grade of Stainless Steel Mean?

The stainless steel grading system attempts to differentiate alloys by toughness, corrosion resistance, magnetic
properties, and composition. The first grading system was developed by the SAE (US Society of Automotive
Engineers) using a 3-digit code, with grades belonging to 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, and 600 series classifications. This
was enhanced by ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) to a 6-digit code, known as UNS (Unified
Number System) identifiers. In most cases, UNS identifiers share the same first three numbers as their AISI
(American Iron and Steel Institute) equivalent.
Name: Abbas Oudah Hameed
Section: HVAC (B)

What Are the Different Grades of Stainless Steel?

Table 1: Austenitic Stainless Steel

SAE UNS equivalent

201 S20100
202 S20200
205 S20500
254 S31254
301 S30100
302 S30200
302B S30215
303 S30300
303Se S30323
304 S30400
304L S30403
304Cu S30430
304N S30451
305 S30500
308 S30800
309 S30900
309S S30908
310 S31000
310S S31008
314 S31400
316 S31600
316L S31603
316F S31620
316N S31651
317 S31700
317L S31703
321 S32100
329 S32900
330 N08330
347 S34700
348 S34800
Name: Abbas Oudah Hameed
Section: HVAC (B)

384 S38400

Table 2: Ferritic Stainless Steel

SAE UNS equivalent
405 S40500
409 S40900
429 S42900
430 S43000
430F S43020
430FSe S43023
434 S43400
436 S43600
442 S44200
446 S44600

Table 3: Martensitic Stainless Steel

SAE UNS equivalent

403 S40300
410 S41000
414 S41400
416 S41600
416Se S41623
420 S42000
420F S42020
422 S42200
431 S41623
440A S44002
440B S44003
440C S44004
- -

Table 4: Heat Resisting Stainless Steel

SAE UNS equivalent

501 S50100
502 S50200
Duplex Duplex
2205
Super duplex Super duplex
Name: Abbas Oudah Hameed
Section: HVAC (B)

2507 S32750

The physical properties of stainless steel are shown in Table 5 below:

Table 5: Physical Properties of Stainless Steel

Property Value/Notes

Density 7.75 x 103 to 8.05 x 103 kg/m3

Ductility Typical annealed austenitic stainless steel delivers

70% elongation at break

Malleability Highly malleable when annealed, some grades work

harden very quickly and lose malleability

Tensile strength (general grades) 500–750 MPa

Yield strength (general grades) 500–650 MPa

Tensile strength (precipitation hardened) 850–1,700 MPa

Yield strength (precipitation hardened) 520–1,500 MPa

Melting point 1,370–1,420 °C

Thermal conductivity is poor (typical) 15 W/(mK)

Electrical conductivity is poor (typical) 1.33 m/Ωmm²

Magnetic permeability – austenitics (HIGHLY variable by 1.003 to 1.005 when measured at magnetizing
grade and work hardening) forces of 200 oersteds (16k A/m)

Magnetic permeability – ferritics (HIGHLY variable by Up to 6.0 for annealed 304 grade, when measured
grade and work hardening) at magnetizing forces of 200 oersteds (16k A/m)

The chemical properties of stainless steel are listed in Table 6 below:

Table 6: Chemical Properties of Stainless Steel

Property Notes
Ranges widely from good to moderate in non-salt environments, through
Corrosion resistance good to moderate in salt environments, and good to poor in
hot/salt/caustic/acidic environments, depending on grade

Generally high to very high, various grades have particular resilience that suit
Chemical resistance
selected difficult environments

Heat resistance Generally high to very high. Up to 2,000 °C for 330 grade

Cold resistance -200 °C for non-stabilized 304-grade

Can be severe in 304 and 316 grades at welds—requires low heat and low-
Sensitization corrosion
carbon fillers
Name: Abbas Oudah Hameed
Section: HVAC (B)

What Are the Applications of Stainless Steel?

Some applications of stainless steel are listed below:

1. Kitchen Appliances and Utensils

Stainless steel is a widely employed choice in kitchen equipment of all kinds. It’s a durable and long-lasting
material that can withstand heavy and constant use in the kitchen. It is resistant to corrosion, which is
important in a food environment where there is constant exposure to water and other liquids. This results
in no taint of food. It is a hygienic material that is easy to clean and maintain and withstands the most
aggressive cleaning. It does not absorb food odors or flavors and is resistant to stains.

2. Medical Equipment

Stainless steel is a widely applied material choice in the medical sector for various equipment and devices.
A main driver of this is its corrosion resistance, which prevents surface degradation by addition or pitting. It
makes durable products that can tolerate the autoclave cleaning and aggressive chemical sterilization
processes necessary for medical equipment. Since it is non-porous, it is easy to clean to extreme hygiene
standards. Stainless steel is also a biocompatible material, so it is rarely actively rejected when implanted
into patients. This property results in stainless steel being tolerated and durable in medical implants and
devices that come into direct contact with the human body.

3. Automotive Industry

Stainless steel is an important material choice in many automotive components, due to its general
strength, durability, and resistance to corrosion. It is used in exhaust systems, fuel tanks, external
decorative/finishing applications, and sometimes in whole-body (monocoque) construction.

A primary benefit of stainless steel in automotive applications is corrosion resistance. The often high-salt
environment results in rapid corrosion of even well-protected basic steels, quickly degrading vehicles.
Stainless steel is resistant to rust and corrosion, making it an ideal material choice for automotive
components that are exposed to harsh conditions, despite the mild salt vulnerability of some lower-cost
alloys.

In exhaust, engine, suspension, and transmission parts it is durable and can withstand high temperatures
and mechanical stresses. In exhaust systems, it can handle high-temperature, high-vibration applications
without fracturing or corroding.

4. Construction Industry

Stainless steels are important in the construction sector in that they are widely used in sheet form for
cladding purposes, lending high environmental resistance, but not as structural components. Stainless
Name: Abbas Oudah Hameed
Section: HVAC (B)

steels also feature extensively in “finishing” components such as flashings for window and door
installations, and as structural and functional components for doors, windows, and balustrades/handrails.
Stainless steels are widely employed in functional piping and exterior ducting, where corrosion resistance
is paramount both from environmental causes and from potentially contaminated materials carried within
pipes.

5. Aerospace Industry

Stainless steels find wide application in gas-turbine technologies, which have been a key driver of research
into higher-performing alloys and processing methods, such as precipitation-hardening alloys. The
materials compensate for their relatively high weight, in the highest-stress and higher-temperature
applications by bringing extreme tolerances and strength to otherwise vulnerable parts. The use of
stainless steel in landing gear is also critically important—high-stress tolerance is important, but landing
gear encounters harsh conditions with complex mechanics exposed to runway environments that are wet,
abrasive, and often chemically contaminated.

6. Chemical and Petrochemical Industry

Stainless steel is much favored in these sectors as good alloy selection and correct processing methods
make remarkably stable and durable components for harsh conditions. It brings high-temperature
tolerance, high resistance to vibration fatigue, great chemical resistance, and low maintenance needs to
piping, valve gear, vessels, and structural parts.

7. Marine Industry

Stainless steel is a mainstay of small components in the marine sector. Marine environments are harsh in
that materials undergo large temperature swings, constant wet-salt exposure, and high mechanical
stresses. The material is widely used for engine parts, general fittings, anchors/chains, capstans, structural
elements, and much more—from small pleasure craft to supertankers. Alloy selection is critical, in that
some alloys have cosmetic and even pinhole/pitting sensitivity to salt environments. The use of the most
chemically resilient alloys is important for both long-term durability and short-term cosmetic reasons.

8. Jewelry

Stainless steel is widely used in “costume” (i.e., non-precious) jewelry. It allows fine components of high
strength and polished “silver” appearance, while being low cost to use, compared with precious metals of
lesser corrosion resistance.

What Are the Benefits of Stainless Steel?

Listed below are some benefits of stainless steel:

1. Corrosion Resistance: Stainless steel is highly resistant to corrosion and rust due to the presence of
chromium in the alloy. This makes it suitable for use in harsh environments, such as marine or
chemical industry applications (by careful alloy specification) and reduces the need for maintenance
and replacement.
Name: Abbas Oudah Hameed
Section: HVAC (B)

2. Durability: Stainless steel is a strong and durable material with a high strength-to-weight ratio. It is
resistant to deformation and can withstand high stress without breaking or cracking, making it
suitable for use in demanding applications.
3. High Cosmetic Facility: Stainless steels lend a modern and enduring appearance to many
applications, being essentially unchanging and maintenance-free in the great majority of
applications.
4. Weldability: Most stainless steel alloys are highly weldable, making the assembly of complex
systems from individual parts a clean, watertight, and permanent process. Care must be taken with
the altered corrosion properties of welded areas.
5. Formability: Being generally fairly malleable materials and in many cases of moderate to high
ductility, stainless steels provide many options in manufacturing processes that allow the
manufacture of complex and intricate components for a wide range of purposes—from valve gates
to turbine blades, from jewelry to kitchen utensils.

What Are the Limitations of Stainless Steel?

Listed below are the limitations of stainless steel:

1. Cost: Stainless steel can be more expensive than other materials, such as carbon steel or aluminum,
depending on the specific grade and application.
2. Hardness: Some grades of stainless steel can be too hard for certain applications, making them
difficult to machine or shape.
3. Work Hardening Embrittlement: Overstressed components that are repeatedly taken close to their
elastic limit can, in some alloys, work harden severely, and this can lead to brittle failure.
4. Weight: While stainless steel is often a preferred choice from a strength and corrosion perspective,
its high density makes it impractical for lightweight equipment in many cases.
5. Shape: Stainless steel is hard to work with and requires special tools and skills, compared with less
intractable materials.
6. Environment: While highly corrosion resistant, particular grades and types of stainless steel have
poorer resistance to salt corrosion.
7. Temperature: Some grades are suited to cryogenic applications, while others have extremely high-
temperature limits for safe use. Care is needed in specifying alloys for extreme temperature
applications.

Why Use Stainless Steel?

Overall, stainless steels offer huge benefits in a surprisingly wide range of environmental, structural,
cosmetic, and engineering applications. They bring durability, low maintenance, high-quality cosmetics,
and great design flexibility when used correctly.

How Long Will Stainless Steel Last?

Well-specified, well-designed, and well-cared-for stainless steel components have functional life
expectancies that are essentially unlimited. Examples abound from the early stages of the widespread use
of the materials in kitchenware. It is common for the “failure” of, for example, cookpots to be the result of
handle attachment methods. The same is true for a common construction application of stainless steel, in
window stays. It is common for these components to remain in service 30–50 years after they were made.
Name: Abbas Oudah Hameed
Section: HVAC (B)

It is also common for the stainless steel components of stays to remain serviceable when the
bearings/couplings between them have failed. These design failure issues are not directly a result of the
use of stainless steel, where the components themselves have unlimited endurance.

Is Stainless Steel Better Than Carbon Steel?

Choosing which is better between stainless and carbon steel depends on many factors. In contexts where
the particular strengths of stainless steels compensate for the weaknesses of carbon steels, the upgrade to
stainless is a wise choice for durability, lifespan, and cosmetic reasons. Carbon steels, on the other hand,
are exactly the right solution for low-cost, high-strength, and highly durable components in many
applications. However, where the risk of corrosion is present, the durability weakness of carbon steel is
countered very effectively by the use of stainless steel.

Can Stainless Steel Get Rusted?

Yes, stainless steel gets rusted. Some stainless steels have particular chemical sensitivities and this can
result in corrosion. For example, 316 stainless steel fuel tanks in marine environments can see a form of
tunneling corrosion that leads to pinholes, due to rust. Stainless steel fittings on boats/ships can bleed
brown (iron oxide) stains onto surrounding areas as the iron content responds slowly to salt presence.
Welded stainless steel can develop localized sensitivities to corrosion in non-salt environments.

Is Stainless Steel Stronger Than Metal?

Stainless steels of the precipitation-hardening class are among the strongest metals available for mass-
produced components. When specified for maximum strength, stainless steel can easily be the equivalent
of the strongest carbon steel after heat treatment. For more information, see our guide on Metal.

Is Stainless Steel an Alloy or Metal?

Stainless steels are a broad family of complex alloys of medium- and low-carbon steels, chromium, nickel,
manganese, molybdenum, copper, silicon, nitrogen, and other elements. For more information, see our
guide on Alloys.

Is Stainless Steel Waterproof?

Yes, stainless steel is waterproof. All stainless steels resist corrosion from fresh water and all are
impervious barriers to water unless mechanically pierced. No matter the thickness of the material, water
will not pass through it.

What Is the Difference Between Stainless Steel and Ordinary Steel?

The addition of alloying agents such as chromium, nickel, manganese, molybdenum, copper, silicon, and
nitrogen alters the properties of the steel, exploiting its fundamental strengths but enhancing various of its
weaknesses. The most important change is the addition of chromium (without which the alloy is not
stainless steel). This induces a high degree of corrosion protection, by forming a chromium oxide film on
the steel in a self-healing coating that renews when scratched (in an oxygen atmosphere).
Name: Abbas Oudah Hameed
Section: HVAC (B)