Pratt & Whitney's

Dependable Masterpiece

Graham White
This book is on what was arguably
I the finest aircraft piston engine ever produced - the Pratt & Whitney
R-2800. It was an engine that was put together with the invaluable help of
those who were actually there at the drawing boards, in the test cells and at the
test flights . An aircraft engine, however, does not stand alone. R-2800: Pratt &
Whitn ey s Dependable Masterpiece provides a background of Pratt & Whitney,
and delves into the design challenges faced by its engineers when building the
R-2800; answering questions like, "How did the airframe designers mount the
engine?"; or "How was the intercooler supplied with cooling air?" In addition,
this comprehensive book covers propellers, carburetors, and the many famous
and not so famous aircraft the R-2800 powered.

From the Preface ...

As the heyday of the R-2800 is rapidly becoming a fond memory, the younger
generation needs to realize how commercial and military aviation gained
prominence in this country thanks to the R-2800. Today 's generation, raised
on the pungent stink of kerosene and the
high pitched whine of a gas turbine's
compressor, can take solace in knowing
that at one time the wonderful aroma of
burned oil and high performance fuel
used to waft through airports along with
that wonderful, loping idle of the
R-2800, or its ferocious roar at takeoff
power. That they dripped oil, and always
looked messy with exhaust stains and oil
leaks only added to th~ir charisma.
R-2800: Pratt & Whitney's Dependable
Masterpiece examines the piston pow-
ered engine that helped lead a nation to
victory in war, and the men and women
whose hard work and dedication made it
possible. Topics covered in this
book include:
• Why Radials?
• Pratt & Whitney History and
Background
• R-2800 Development
• Model Types & Specifications
• Carburetors
• Propellers
• Installations
• Military Applications
• Commercial Applications
• Helicopters
• Operating, Service Difficulties
and Overhaul
• Racing
• The Future
About the Author...
Graham White was born in 1945 and
spent his formative years in England
where he got his start in aviation by
racing U control model airplanes. Since
then, he has spent much of his time
researching and learning about the
various piston powered aircraft engines
that he adores so much. In addition to
owning and restoring an R-2800,
Graham's collection also includes an
ultra-rare Continental IV-1430 Hyper
engine; a Packard built Rolls-Royce
Merlin, and two Pratt & Whitney
R-4360s. Graham is also author of the
SAE Bestseller Allied Aircraft Piston
Engines of World War II (R-154).
 R-2800
Pratt & Whitney's
Dependable Masterpiece
 Other SAE books

Allied Aircraft Piston Engines of World War II

By Graham White
(Order No. R-154)

German Aircraft Industry and Production, 1933-1945

By Ferenc A. Vajda and Peter Dancey
(Order No. R-236)

The World's Most Significant and Magnificent Aircraft

Evolution of the Modern Airplane
By David B. Thurston
(Order No. R-285)

For more information or to order this book, contact SAE at 400 Commonwealth Drive,
Warrendale, PA 15096-0001; (724)776-4970 ; fax (724)776-0790; e-mail: publications @sae.org;
web site: www.sae.org/BOOKSTORE.
 R-2800
Pratt & Whitney's
Dependable Masterpiece

Graham White
 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

White, Graham, 1945-

R-2800 : Pratt & Whitney 's dependable masterpiece I Graham White.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-7680-0272-9
1. Airplanes-Motors-Design and construction-History. 2. Air cooled engines-
Design and construction-History. 3. Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Group-History. I. Title.

TL703 .P7 W45 2001

629.134'35'0973-dc21
2001020429

Copyright © 2001 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

400 Commonwealth Drive
Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A.
Phone: (724)776-4841
Fax: (724)776-5760
E-mail: publications@sae.org
http://www.sae.org

ISBN 0-7680-0272-9

All rights reserved. Printed in Canada

Permission to photocopy for internal or personal use, or the internal or personal use of specific clients, is granted
by SAE for libraries and other users registered with the Copyright Clearance Center (CCC), provided that the
base fee of $.50 per page is paid directly to CCC, 222 Rosewood Dr. , Danvers, MA 01923. Special requests
should be addressed to tl1e SAE Publications Group. 0-7680-0272-9/01-$ .50.

SAE Order No. R-241

Dedicated to my wonderful wife Diane who has always supported me in my various endeavors
 Contents

Foreword .............. ........ ..... ... .... .... ... ..... ..... ........ .. .... ............ .......... .................. ..... ....... ............ ........... ix
Preface .... .............. ........ .... ... .... ........ .... ..... ... .............. ... ... ..................... .. .............................. ...... .... .. xi
Acknowledgments ...... ............ ...... ....... .......... ..... ...... .. ...... ..... .. ...... .. .... .. ... ....... .. .... .. ... ....... ...... .... .... . xv
Introduction ... ............. .... ......... ............... ...... ..... .... .. ..... ......... .... ... .... ..... ....... ..... .... .... .... ...... .......... ... xix
Chapter 1 Why Radials ? ......... .... ........... ....... ........ ........... ...... ... ......... .. ...... .... .... ..... ...... ... .... ... .. ... .. ... 1
Chapter 2 Pratt & Whitney History and Background ..... ... ................ .. .... .... .... ... ...................... .. ... ... 9
Chapter 3 R-2800 Development ........................ .... .... ..... ..... .... .... .. ..... .... .. .. ...... ... ....... ..... ...... ......... . 21
Chapter 4 Variations .......... ..... ..... ... ........ ............... ..... ....... ... .. ... ... .... ......... ..... ...... .... .. ............ .. ..... 125
Chapter 5 Model Types & Specifications .... ........................ .... ...... ............... ..... ..... ... .. ................ . 225
Chapter 6 Carburetors ....... ................ .......... .. ......... .. ... .. ... ... ... .. ... .... ... ....... ... .... .. ...... ..... .... ..... ....... 299
Chapter 7 Propellers ........ ..... ........ .... .......... ...... ............. .... .. .... ... ... ....... ... ..... .. .... .. ...... .... ... ..... ....... 317
Chapter 8 Installations ................... .............. .. ... ................. ... .. .. .... .... .... ... ...... ... ... ..... .............. ..... .. 365
Chapter 9 Military Applications ...... ............ .. .. ....................... ..... .. ... ... ............... ..... .... .. ... ... ....... ... . 375
Chapter 10 Commercial Applications ...... ..... ... ...... .. .......... ..... .......... .... .. ........ .... ...... .. .. .... ... ....... ... 563
Chapter 11 Helicopters ...... .... ...... .................. ........ .. .. .................. ........................... .. ..................... 601
Chapter 12 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul ....... ...... ....... .... ... .... ... ... .... ....... ............. 617
Chapter 13 Racing ................. .... .................. ........ ...... .. ..... ... .. .... ..... ...... ..... .. ........ ...... ......... ... .... .... 655
Chapter 14 The Future ....... ... .. ..... .. ... ... ......... .. ...... .. .... .. ... ... .... ..... ... ..... .. ..... ... .... .. .... .... .... .. ... ..... ... 663
Color Section ...... ..... ............... ............... ...... .... .................. ........... ... .. ... ....... ... ... .... ....... .. .... ....... ... ... C 1

Index ............ ... ......... .. ............ ....................... .. ...... ... .... ........ .. .. .... .. ............. .. ... ..... ..... .... ... .. ..... .. ..... 669
About the Author ..... ......... ... .... ....... .................. .... ...... .. ..... .. ... ........ .. .. ..... .. ... ... .. .... .. ........ ....... ... ..... 717

vii
 Foreword

It has been a pleasure for me to know that Graham White 's first book-Allied Aircraft Piston
Engines of World War II-has sold a solid 9000 copies to date . It's comforting for each of us who
have read this book to know that there are nine thousand others out there with similar interests.
Because the book had none of the usual "units and markings" flavor of so many WWII equipment
histories, we can be sure that most of those nine thousand are others to whom historic engines and
their design are important.

The value of writing a book such as this is threefold. First, for many of us these engines stand on their
own as engineering, art, or theater. Second, preservation of the details of human technologies is
always valuable. And third, and perhaps of the greatest interest to the publishers, SAE, is the lesson
herein that engineering is detailed analytical thought about physical problems . It is not just a simple of
process of plugging values into some $30,000 engineering software and then hitting "run."

Many persons, and this too often includes management, imagine that "engineering is solved now. "
This view holds, for example, that successful auto engines can be designed from electronic cook-
books, sent for brief testing at Prototype, and will then be ready for production- almost entirely
bypassing all processes of human analysis and thought. To the degree that what we are designing is
of routine specification, this may be possible.

The plan fails when anything difficult is attempted. Consider the cam drives of auto or motorcycle
racing engines, which almost invariably display some kind of destructive instability as first drawn.
These problems must then be, in the language of Pratt & Whitney engineers, "trampled to death."
This means that such a variety of possible solutions must be tried in rapid succession, that an answer
is shortly found and development can proceed to the next difficulty.

The higher you reach in technology, the more true this becomes . The development history of the
Space Shuttle Main Engines is a prime example. No doubt computer analysis using every kind of
boilerplate and custom computer software was attempted in the initial design, but many years were
necessary to achieve reliability. Each tin1e there was a failure in an oxygen turbopump, nearly all
evidence was destroyed by hot reaction with the escaping fluid. The engineering team then had to
propose all conceivable failure modes, eliminate those made impossible by surviving evidence, and

ix
Foreword

quickly implement whatever remained for the next test. This is the essence of engineering-to
extend physical understanding of what is happening in the equipment, and then to make and test the
hardware implied by that understanding.

This is the great lesson of the R-2800 radial aircraft engine; that each difficulty must be solved by
reasoned physical thinking, guided by recourse to testing . This places great importance on under-
standing what goes on in devices and processes. It makes experience and reflection important. It
reveals that analytical tools are valuable, but can take us only so far. These tools by themselves
understand nothing . That is up to us.

At a pleasant dinner with three professors from RPI, I was told that every entering class of students
is better prepared in math and keyboard skills- and less experienced in dealing with practical physi-
cal matters. This is a result of the present emphasis on formal preparation and credentials as the
unique pathway to a good job. This emphasis leaves much less time for the former youthful pastimes
of Erector Set, hot-rodding engines, and soldering electronic kits. The armed forces of the world
observe the same trend-new recruits in the 1930s could be relied upon to have some physical
intuition, based upon experience with farm vehicles or personal projects. Today, it is a rare soldier
who knows that there are 25.4 millimeters in an inch.

Without traditional childhood play as a source of physical intuition, today's formally educated engineer
must complete his childhood on the job, making the foolish mistakes that old-timers love to joke about.

The R-2800 is a valuable example of thoughtful engineering. It is an antidote to the temptation to

become just another chair-warming ProE jockey, keeping physical reality at a distance with electronic
menus.

Kevin Cameron

x
 Preface

On a beautiful fall day in November, 1998, eight elderly gentlemen met with the author in one of
Pratt & Whitney's plush conference rooms, in the company's training center located at corporate
headquarters in East Hartford, Connecticut. They came from all walks of life. Some were in better
health than others, but they all had one thing in common: each was a WWII veteran, not in the
trenches but in the test cells and design offices. Their primary interest was aviation, specifically a
passionate belief that preserving the history of the Pratt & Whitney R-2800 was essential. Even
though their bodies were showing signs of wear and tear, there was no doubt that their minds remained
as sharp as tacks. The other thing they had in common was that when this engine was in its infancy
they were there. These fine gentlemen made a contribution to WWII well beyond even their wildest
dreams. As the author of this book, I am simply the historian, but these men made it happen with
their fertile minds and engineering ingenuity. They were part of that great generation that won
WWII, and the freedom that we all too often take for granted these days. Even though they were not
in the trenches, they made similar sacrifices: 70- to 80-hour work weeks, no time off, and intense
stress and pressure to squeeze every last horsepower out of the engine yet maintaining some modi-
cum of reliability and maintainability. They also shouldered the additional responsibility of ensur-
ing that the brave young fighter pilots, bomber pilots, and transport pilots could assume their engine
would not let them down.

Allow me to introduce them to you in alphabetical order:

C.G. Beckwith
Larry Carlson
Jack Connors
Jesse Hendershot
Phil Hopper
Bill Martens
George Meloy
Elton Sceggel
Frank Walker
Dana Waring

xi
Preface

A group shot of some of the pioneers responsible for the R-2800. This p hoto of the R-2800 test
engineers was taken around 1944.
Front Row: Frank Walker, Grady McRae, John Kojfel, Al Swansson, Bob Teneyck, Art Krill,
Armin Rabel, and unknown.
Second Row: Elaine Anderson, June Davis, unknown, Ralph Page, Elton Sceggel, Jim Roets, Bob
Rickner, Bev Pierce, and Bob Meyer.
Third Row: Jim Nassau, Charles Malcolm, Fred Hendy, Jack McDermott, Larry Carlson,
unknown, Gordon Beckwith, Norm Briggs, Hilton Hamm, and Jack Esgar.
Not available for this historic photo were: Roland Ely, Bob Davisson, Bill Isfdeld, Clay Osborne,
Clarence Bird, Harold Archer, Bill Kennedy, and Wes Khurt.

The photo above shows many of the gentlemen mentioned above during their R-2800 development
days along with other members of their team.

The focus of this book is on what was arguably the finest aircraft piston engine ever produced. It
was put together with the invaluable help of those who were actually there at the drawing boards, in
the test cells, test flying, twisting wrenches, troubleshooting, and redesigning . I feel privileged to
record the history of this significant artifact and piece of Americana.

xii
 Preface

As with many successful mechanical developments, the R-2800 's history is littered with many fail-
ures and success stories. The success stories are, by now, quite familiar; however, the failures are
hidden in dusty archives . And of course, this is exactly how it should be. Failures, design problems,
and the like should never be allowed to escape into the manufacturing environment. In the case of
the R-2800, instances of problems getting into production were, thankfully, few and far between.
Nevertheless, with an engine as complex and highly stressed as the R-2800 it was almost inevitable
that on occasion this did occur. Sometimes it was due to design problems and on other occasions
manufacturing problems manifested themselves as field problems and even in-flight failures. Thanks
to the valiant efforts of the fine gentlemen listed above, and their co-workers, the R-2800 was con-
stantly updated with design improvements, manufacturing improvements, and ease of maintenance
improvements . The desperate days of WWII brought out the best in man and machine. And don 't let
us forget the sacrifices made by the legions of women collectively known as "Rosie the Riveter. "
During World War II, the R-2800 would never have been manufactured in the huge quantities neces-
sary for successful execution of the war without the women who gave up home life in order to help
out on the battlefront. Second best was not good enough, particularly in light of the excellent mate-
rial being produced by the Third Reich and Japanese industry. The technological see-saw battle
ensured that no one got any rest until the monumental conflict of WWII was over. At the end of
WWII the respite was brief; after all, Pratt & Whitney was a business with stockholders to take care
of and bills to pay. The postwar period was one of developing a reliable power plant for the airlines
to power their aircraft, and, hopefully, with which to make a profit. In this environment, the R-2800
succeeded beyond anyone 's expectations. By piston engine standards, the R-2800 delivered as prom-
ised and helped the burgeoning post-WWII airline industry into profitability.

Obviously, an aircraft engine does not stand alone: How did the airframe designers mount the engine?
What kind of exhaust system was employed? How was the intercooler supplied with cooling air?
And how was the critical oil system designed so the engine was assured of a copious amount of
clean, filtered, and cool oil? These and other these design challenges are covered along with chap-
ters on propellers, carburetors, and the many famous and not so famous aircraft it powered .

As time goes by the historian's job becomes increasingly difficult as fiction starts to take over from
fact, and the people actually involved with the production of the R-2800 inevitably pass on. My
good friend Kevin Cameron once eloquently expressed it as "history passing to the grave." A maca-
bre way of looking at things, possibly-but true nonetheless .

The inspiration for this book came from the late Harvey Lippincott. While performing research on
my previous book, Allied Aircraft Piston Engines of World War II, I visited with Harvey and his
extensive research facility in the basement of his charming home in Connecticut. During our visit I
casually asked Harvey ifhe knew of anyone writing a book on the R-2800. It came as a surprise to
me to learn that no one had even expressed an interest in tackling the job, even though readership

xiii
Preface

interest was there . The seed was then planted in my head to rectify this oversight, despite the fact
that far more qualified people than I could have accomplished the job. Hopefully, I have not let
down the thousands of engineers, manufacturing people, pilots, maintenance personnel, and others
involved with the R-2800. As the heyday of the R-2800 is rapidly becoming a fond memory, the
younger generation needs to realize how commercial* and military aviation gained prominence in the
United States thanks to the R-2800. Today's generation, raised on the pungent stink of kerosene and
the high pitched whine of a gas turbine's compressor, can take solace in knowing that at one time the
wonderful aroma of burned oil and high performance fuel used to waft through airports along with
that wonderful, loping idle of the R-2800, or its ferocious roar at takeoff power. That they dripped oil,
and always looked messy with exhaust stains and oil leaks only added to their charisma.

*Please note that the words "commercial" and "civilian" have been used interchangeably throughout the text.

xiv
 Acknowledgments

When writing a book I am reminded of two Chinese proverbs: "Be careful what you ask for-you
may get it"; and "A journey of a thousand miles starts with the first step. " Staring at a blank com-
puter screen with the cursor blinking at you (the first step) and realizing that a book has to be
produced (1000-mile journey) is intimidating-to say the least. That's why "Be careful what you
ask for" is valid advice, after all, no one twisted my arm to write this book. Without the help of many
people, this metaphorical journey of a thousand miles would never have come together. With the
foregoing in mind, I'd like to mention some of the folks who have offered their assistance in the
production of this book.

I met Kim McCutcheon at the 1998 Sun 'n Fun Convention held each year in Lakeland, Florida. Kim
immediately took an interest in the R-2800 book project. He asked to accompany me on the Pratt &
Whitney archive trip, which I gladly agreed to. The R-2800 crankshaft development was a tortuous
one. Kim immediately started to assemble all the SMRs (short memorandum reports) pertaining to
crankshaft development. This material was sufficient for a detailed paper to be published by the
American Aviation Historical Society. Kim also kept me honest with his thorough reviews of the
manuscript.

Pratt & Whitney has a long and proud heritage, and like many, but not enough, corporations, they
would like to preserve and publicize this history. Fortunately, Pratt & Whitney kept much of its
obsolete documentation regarding the R-2800: engineering reports, company memos, and the like.
And this is how it should be. Even if it could be argued that this material is no longer relevant in
today's environment, regardless of what Henry Ford said ("History is bunk"), those who ignore
history are destined to repeat it. Reading through accounts of the trials and tribulations that the
brightest and smartest engineers the United States could offer faced over 50 to 60 years ago, many of
the lessons learned are still valid today. Without this information, the R-2800 's history would have
been far more difficult to document. With this in mind, a posthumous acknowledgment is in order.
Harvey Lippincott was the driving force behind the world class Pratt & Whitney archives. Harvey
passed away before this project got off the ground; nevertheless, without his diligence in collecting
material that, in all likelihood would have been pitched out, the archives would never have come
together. In no particular order, I would like to mention some of the folks who contributed to this
book.

xv
Acknowledgments

Dick Wellman, manager of Pratt & Whitney's Training Center, was very helpful in greasing the skids
on my behalf in order to gain access to the archives. Dick also went out of his way to ensure that
everything I needed was at hand including a copier, computer, etc. Without Dick's cooperation, I
would never have gleaned as much information from the archives . Additionally, Dick is to be highly
commended for his commitment to preserving a piece of Pratt & Whitney's heritage by supporting
and ensuring adequate funding of the Pratt & Whitney Museum located on the company's premises.
Last but not least, Dick jumped through hoops on my behalf to get permission to use the Flying Eagle
logo on the dust jacket.

Riding shotgun with Kim and me in the archives was Jesse Hendershot. Jesse pulled together as
much R-2800 material as he could find in the archives. Considering its size, a daunting task. Nev-
ertheless, Jesse managed to gather a huge amount of material prior to my visit. For that, I'm extremely
grateful.

Jack Connors, retired Pratt & Whitney engineer, also greased the skids on my behalf on many occa-
sions . Although retired, Jack still keeps his hands full with respect to aircraft power plants by
volunteering his time as engine curator at the New England Air Museum.

Larry Carlson, another retired Pratt & Whitney executive, shared many insights with me, particu-
larly in regard to personalities such as Luke Hobbs, George Mead, etc. His experiences with the
development of fluid drive superchargers, which he was personally involved in for "E" series R-2800s,
was invaluable. Larry also kept me honest, the most unenviable of tasks, reviewing various drafts of
the manuscript.

Craig McBumey's enthusiasm for the Chance Vought Corsair knows no bounds. Over the years, in
his quest to gather parts and information for the F4U-4 he is restoring, Craig has accumulated a
significant collection of Corsair material. Information for the manufacture of "C" series cylinder
heads came from a paper Craig had acquired. In addition, Craig's encyclopedic knowledge of the
Corsair series of aircraft has been of inestimable value. He also reviewed drafts of the manuscript,
and his many suggestions and corrections were invaluable.

Kevin Cameron, technical editor of Cycle World magazine is always an inspiration and a ready
source of technical information. Never one to shy away from a project, Kevin and I purchased
several Pratt & Whitney R-4360s for eventual restoration to running condition. Whenever a techni-
cal issue arose during this project, Kevin always had a ready answer via e-mail or our always-
lengthy and interesting telephone conversations.

Ray Anderson is the owner of Day Air in Stockton, California. Day Air is one of the few R-2800
overhaul facilities left in the world. Despite having to run a business, Ray always graciously accepted
my calls in my quest for R-2800 information.

Even though Rolls-Royce is a fierce competitor of Pratt & Whitney, I can always rely on them, in
particular the Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust, to assist in any project I am involved with. Notwithstand-
ing their competitive relationship with Pratt & Whitney, both companies realize the importance of

wi
 Acknowledgments

saving our aviation heritage. In this regard, Richard Haigh of the R-RHT always responded immedi-
ately to my requests for photographs.

Karl Ludvigsen, fellow committee member on SAE's Historical Committee, has a vast collection of
auto and aviation photos and related material. My constant requests for difficult-to-find photographs
were always answered with a care package containing the much sought after photos.

Warren Bodie and I (he refers to me as "Red Bearing," a play on words for my e-mail handle of
"redbaron") have enjoyed many animated discussions related to aircraft or anything else that comes
to mind. Warren is a preeminent aviation author with many best-selling books to his credit. His
photograph collection is legendary. Whenever I needed a photo, Warren could be relied upon to come
through.

Often described as "A Prince of a Guy," Al Marcucci richly deserves this accolade. Al has always
supported my aviation interests. He is owner of "Savage Magneto Services," based in Oakland,
California. In the quest for information on R-2800 ignition systems, Al very kindly loaned me his
entire collection of R-2800 ignition related material.

Bruce Vandermark is always on the lookout for manuals and other material that he knows I will
appreciate. Bruce sent many interesting pieces of historical material that helped out with this R-2800
project.

Carlos Arana is the owner of Florida Airline Services, Inc., based in Miami, Florida. Carlos has
spent his entire career working on and around large radials. Whenever a technical problem arises,
Carlos is always ready to help me out. He also kindly loaned me several photos of "Corrosion
Comer" in its heyday.

Tim Travis, corporate communications manager at Raytheon Aircraft Company was kind enough to
dig into the elusive Beech T-36A for me.

Don Jordan is the brilliant engineer responsible for the engine installation designs of the F 4U Cor-
sair series of aircraft. Don kept me honest in describing the Corsairs ' power plant installation details.
In addition, he finally solved the mystery of who the "Turbo Engineering Company of New Jersey"
was .

Willie Walter has always been a good friend. He spent his entire career from WWII to the early
1990s working on P&W radials.

David Cummings came to my rescue at the last minute by furnishing information and anecdotes about
the Howard 500. David was also responsible for supplying the Howard 500 photo.

Andrew Richards kindly offered to put his commercial art skills to use by fixing up a number of very
obscure line drawings to make them more understandable. Andrew is now employed by my good
friend Al Marcucci.

xvii
Acknowledgments

Carburetor and fuel guru, Pete Law, kindly loaned me a color copy of the Bendix carburetor layout.

Dan Whitney, author of Vees for Victory, the definitive work on the Allison V-1710, was always
willing to offer his expertise. Dan also came up with a fascinating and unpublished Navy report that
gave insight into fuel injection and propellers-among other things .

Indexing is a difficult and thankless job. Nevertheless, I'd like to mention Bob Richardson who did a
superb job of indexing this book.

In addition to the folks mentioned above, a special thanks to the engineers mentioned in the Introduc-
tion and the individuals mentioned in the text. Without them, the R-2800 would not have happened
and consequently you would not be reading this book.

For those who assisted in any way and are not mentioned in these acknowledgments, my sincere
apology.

XVUI
 Introduction

The magnificent roar of big cubic inch, air-cooled radial engines has almost been silenced. This
state of affairs is a result of the reliability, smoothness, and overall economy of Sir Frank Whittle's
gas turbine. Almost-but not quite silenced. Due to the efforts of dedicated enthusiasts and collec-
tors, many examples of these aviation masterpieces are still stirring the hearts of even the most
hardened aviation enthusiast.

During their heyday, radials dominated commercial aviation and played a significant role in military
aviation . Their simplicity of design, particularly cooling, held sway over their liquid cooled inline
competitor for commercial applications; however, as we shall see, the controversy over these two
concepts dominated leading edge aircraft engine technology for the better part of four decades . We
tend to assume that all radials are air-cooled, but in fact many examples were developed that fea-
tured water or liquid cooling. The first aircraft radial engine developed and built was the Manly
5-cylinder radial, built for Langley's attempt at aircraft design called the "Aerodrome" (Ref. I. l). At
5 3 horsepower, this water-cooled engine was far superior to any other gasoline engine of 1903.
Unfortunately it did not receive the accolades it so richly deserved due to the miserable failure of the
Aerodrome. Too bad Charles Manly never hooked up with the Wright brothers. Rather surprisingly,
despite the undisputed efficiency of Manly's engine, it would be many years before serious develop-
ment of the radial was undertaken again. One factor that contributed to this concept being sidelined
was the introduction of the rotary. Developed in Paris, France, by the Seguin brothers, this rather odd
but fascinating engine development dominated aviation power plant thought for several years until the
end of World War I, and then, like the mayfly, seemingly disappeared from the aviation scene almost
overnight (Ref. I.2). The story of the rotary is out of the bounds of this work. However, a brief
description is in order. In a conventional engine the driven member is the crankshaft, which also
serves as the power means to supply the power out via gears, clutch, or in the case of a direct drive
aircraft engine, the propeller. For the rotary, things were reversed. The crankshaft remained station-
ary and the rest of the engine rotated. Furthermore, the crankshaft also served as the engine mount
via a large round flange at its rear, which was then attached to the airframe. The cylinders, arranged
in a radial configuration, attached to the cylindrical crankcase. Fuel/air mixture was introduced
through the hollow crankshaft via a primitive carburetor mounted at its end. Upon entering the
crankcase, the fuel/air mixture entered the cylinder through a spring-loaded valve located in the
crmvn of each piston. As the piston descended on the induction stroke, the valve would open under
the influence of low pressure in the cylinder, allowing the fuel/air mixture to enter from inside the
crankcase. As rotaries evolved, dedicated intake valves were developed, mounted in the cylinder

xix
Introduction

head. A conventional spark plug and magneto supplied ignition. High-tension voltage was trans-
mitted to the plug via a slip ring and wire, under spring tension, from the slip ring to the plug. A single
valve in the cylinder head provided egress for the exhaust gases. A cam ring, pushrod, and rocker
arm actuated the valve. Lubrication was of the total loss system, i.e. , the oil was not returned to the
engine or an oil tank; instead, it was burned in the exhaust. State of the art for lubricating oil in those
far off days was castor oil. Of course, castor's medicinal value was well known, even in those days.
Much has been written about the effects on the pilot from breathing the castor oil fumes. In reality,
it probably was not as bad as has been documented. The reason for this is that the exhaust valves,
regardless of which cylinder it belonged to, always opened at the same part of the revolution of the
engine. Therefore, rotary engines were always timed to open the exhaust valve towards the bottom
of the cowl in an effort to keep the exhaust and its medicinal properties a\vay from the pilot. Inter-
estingly, in a further effo1t to keep exhaust gases away from the pilot, ring cowls were developed,
similar to the Townend ring and NACA cowls developed in the late 1920s for improved radial
engine cooling and reduced drag. At the time they were developed for the rotary powered aircraft,
their aerodynamic advantages were not fully realized.

The French Salmson radial was arguably the first successful radial to be developed after Manly's
superb effort. Again, the Salmson was developed in France and manufactured in volume during
WWI with later ones rated at 250 horsepower (Ref. 1.3). This water-cooled engine was developed in
many varieties including a version with a right angle drive for the power output. Interestingly, many
of the early radials featured water cooling. The primary factor contributing to this was the difficulty
of air cooling or more precisely heat rejection. It took several years before air-cooled cylinder
technology was up to the task. In the meantime, aircraft engine development was littered with
dismal failures . Undoubtedly the best known was the ABC Dragonfly. Built in England during the
latter stages of WWI, the Dragonfly engine was designed by Granville Bradshaw, who later moved
into the auto industry where he developed so-called cycle cars, popular in England during the 1920s.
This poor excuse for an engine almost crippled the British war effort of WWI. Vibration and its
effects were a little understood phenomenon in the early days of aviation and engine development.
Bradshaw unintentionally designed the Dragonfly's crankshaft to run at its natural harmonic fre-
quency (Ref. 1.1). In as little as five hours, the crank would fail from metal fatigue. Fatigue failure
was another little understood phenomenon at this time, often described as "crystallization. " Air-
cooled cylinder design, even after the intense development forced by WWI, was still in its infancy.
Rotary engines rarely suffered from overheating because the cylinders produced their own powerful
forced draft as a result of their rotation with the engine. The Dragonfly's cylinder, on the other hand,
was totally deficient from a heat rejection perspective. Inadequate cooling fin area that was inca-
pable of dissipating the heat rejection of combustion from the Dragonfly's 295 horsepower caused
serious overheating. At night, the cylinder heads could be seen glowing a dull red! Exacerbating the
problem was the fact that it suffered poor mixture distribution resulting in lean and rich running
cylinders. Being a skillful entrepreneur, Bradshaw convinced the British government that his radial
engines should power the next generation of Royal Air Force (RAF) aircraft. Consequently, British
industry retooled for this monstrosity and it was fortunate that WWI ended when it did, otherwise the
British would have had to rely on other engines such as the U.S.-built Liberty. The Dragonfly
exemplified some of the more serious problems that can beset a radial, i.e ., torsional vibration,

xx
 Introduction

overheating due to poor cylinder design, fatigue failure of major components, and poor mixture distri-
bution. Although most radials suffered from these and other types of failure during development,
rarely did an engine enter mass production with one of the aforementioned problems. Over the
course of the next 20 years, these problems and others would be overcome, making the radial the
power plant of choice for commercial and military aviation.

Fuels and fuel development would continue apace with development of the engine. As one part of
the development envelope was pushed, a weakness in another area would surface . Therefore, as fuel
quality increased, via octane rating or performance number, engine developers immediately took
advantage of this and increased compression ratio or increased the maximum allowable manifold
pressure and ad infinitum. Starting with an octane rating of 50, or even less, fuel development
finally reached a high of 150 PN (performance number). However, the most common high perfor-
mance aviation fuel used at the end of the large displacement piston engine era was 115/145 PN. A
brief dissertation on the meaning of performance number and its relationship to octane number is in
order. Sam Heron (more about Sam Heron later) came up with the performance number label. The
PN scale was introduced in 1943, some years after the British had a crude version of it based on a
100 octane number commercial gasoline (Grade 100/125). The PN scale was introduced after the
army and navy specified fuel with a lean rating of 100 octane number and a rich mixture rating equal
to isooctane plus one cubic centimeter (1 cc) of tetraethyl lead (Grade 100/125). In simple terms this
means pure isooctane is 100 octane and adding one cubic centimeter of tetraethyl lead boosted the
performance of the fuel to 125 PN when running on the rich side of stoichiometric (Ref. 1.4and1.5).
Army and Navy personnel were confronted with the problem of explaining to military brass that it
was not possible to assign an octane number to isooctane plus one cubic centimeter oflead. Operat-
ing personnel in the supply and maintenance divisions of the services arbitrarily started to assign
octane numbers to the new fuel and consequently mark fuel-servicing trucks. Of course, no specs
existed at the time so fuel might have been described as 104 octane at one location and 108 octane at
another location. One can imagine the confusion caused by this mislabeling. A pilot landing at a
field with fuel designated as 104 octane and needing " 10 8" would, in all likelihood, refuse the 104
fuel as being unsafe. This state of confusion and, at times, chaos needed a fix. The army, navy and
British Air Commission representatives decided that fuels of 100 octane number and higher should
be described by performance number (PN). The PN scale was based on 100 octane number, i.e.,
pure isooctane, as permitting 100 percent power in a supercharged engine, and 130 PN fuel permit-
ting 130 percent of the power for the same engine operating on 100 octane fuel. The relation between
permissible power (i .e., maximum power before the onset of detonation) and various concentrations
of lead in isooctane (which, of course, had been the rating scale previously in use) was derived by
averaging a large number of single-cylinder and full-scale engine and laboratory single-cylinder
engine data.

Bearing materials and bearing technology also advanced. As horsepower ratings increased, existing
bearing technology became inadequate for the job at hand with resulting catastrophic failures becoming
commonplace. And again, engineers stepped up to the challenge with fatigue resistant hard backed
silver and later lead indium silver bearings for the arduous duty of master rod bearings and crank-
shaft main bearings.

xxi
Introduction

Despite the devastating depression of the 1930s, significant developments continued unabated in the
quest for ever more power at lower weights, lower fuel consumption, and greater reliability. It was
during this period of feverish development that commercial aviation was at last a viable form of
transportation and entrepreneurs could finally make money at running an airline. The air-cooled
radial played a significant part in this transportation revolution. Better fuels , lubricants, advanced
propeller designs, carburetion, and supercharger design also made their contributions.

World War II brought these developments together and, as World War I did, accelerated further
development. By the end of World War II, the big cubic inch military piston engine had reached its
zeQith. Post-World War II development was reduced to a minimum thanks to the introduction of the
gas turbine. However, the piston engine would continue to be the only type of power plant available
to commercial aviation for another dozen or so years. Nonetheless, the technology employed was, if
anything, less sophisticated than that used during World War II. A couple of notable exceptions
stood out from the foregoing, one being the jet powered de Havilland Comet. A brave attempt at
introducing jet powered transportation, the Comet suffered from a fatal flaw. Although fatigue
failures were better understood by the 1940s, this type of failure mode was not a science for aircraft
structures. As a result, the Comet suffered from catastrophic fatigue failure of the fuselage emanat-
ing from passenger window openings .

After an exhaustive investigation of several Comet crashes, the results were published in a detailed
report. Boeing, in particular, was the beneficiary of this report when designing the highly successful
707. Even though the early Comets suffered from this fatal flaw, the British still pioneered gas
turbine powered civilian aircraft the most notable being the successful Vickers Viscount powered by
four Rolls-Royce Dart turbo-props.

The United Stated took a more conservative approach and relied on the, by now, fully developed air-
cooled radial engine to power their commercial transports. But, piston engine development was
sidelined by the big manufacturers such as Pratt & Whitney in favor of gas turbine development.
Even so, many military and civilian aircraft were developed, manufactured, and operated through
the 1960s by major airlines and the USAF. Of course, the Pratt & Whitney R-2800 played a major
role in these activities.

Many historic and significant R-2800 powered aircraft are being modified by their well-meaning
owners . One of the favorite modifications is the replacement of the correct military R-2800 in
warbirds for a civilian CB16. Oftentimes the CB16, or other incorrect R-2800, bears little resem-
blance to the correct engine. Although these modifications typically do not compromise the safety
of the aircraft, historians should be aware of these major changes and not be fooled into thinking
that's how the airplane was originally manufactured. If this book only achieves this one objective of
making folks aware of what is correct and what is not, I' 11 be happy.

Throughout the text various terms have been used interchangeably. For example, water injection
and ADI are both used, as they are both standard terminology; likewise with blower and super-
charger. The terms single-stage supercharging and two-stage supercharging are often abbreviated to
single stage or two stage.

xxii
 Introduction

References
I.I Gunston, Bill, World Encyclopedia of Aero Engines, Patrick Stephens Limited, 1986.
1.2 Morse, William, Rotary Engines of World War One, Nelson & Saunders, Buckinghamshire,
1987.
1.3 Jane, Fred, Janes Fighting Aircraft of World War I, Military Press, New York, 1990, origi-
nally published in 1919.
1.4 Heron, S.D. , The History of the Aircraft Piston Engine, Ethyl Corp. , Detroit, 1961.
1.5 "Development of Aviation Fuels," Aero Digests Aviation Engineering, May 1941.

xxiii
 Chapter 1

Why Radials?

Why power an aircraft with a radial engine? After all, we come to expect aircraft to be the personi-
fication of streamlining and perfection of form-the ultimate statement of form follows function.
The radial engine seems to defy these basic attributes with its air-cooled cylinders radiating out fan
style creating what appears to be built-in drag. In fact the radial offers many advantages over its
inline, liquid-cooled competitor. And even the perceived installation drag was all but eliminated at
the end of the radial engine 's reign putting it in the predominant position for power plant choice.
The lowest weight for the most power and the lowest specific fuel consumption are the parameters
any aircraft engine is designed to-commensurate, of course, with a reasonable time between over-
hauls; and, if you are a commercial operator, low cost. Looking at the big picture, the radial actually
fills the bill in all the aforementioned areas. However, it took many years and the creative genius of
the finest aerospace engineers of the 1920s and 193 Os to achieve these goals. Cooling, structural
issues, manufacturing, reducing the installed drag to the level of its inline, liquid-cooled competitor,
and other problems were resolved to make the radial supreme in commercial aviation and a worthy
power plant for military applications.

It was, of course, the Pratt & Whitney R-2800 that personified all the above requirements. Without
this engine, World War II would have been a far more difficult war for the Allies to win. Powering
many of the significant fighters and medium bombers of this monumental conflict, its reliability,
ease of maintenance, and power were of supreme importance. Postwar, the R-2800 continued to
distinguish itself in military and c01m11ercial aviation. Although the military soon took advantage of
the emerging gas turbine technology, some commercial passenger operators relied on the R-2800
into the 1970s. Cargo hauling operators will use R-2800 powered aircraft well into the 21st century.
The R-2800 has also gained a new lease on life with the burgeoning warbird environment.

It was the evolutionary development of the cylinder-the heart of the engine-that contributed to
the radial engine concept (Ref. 1.1). As horsepower ratings increased, the required heat rejection
also increased. Unlike its liquid-cooled sibling, improving the heat rejection of an air-cooled engine
required a lot more thought than sin1ply installing a larger radiator and/or a higher output coolant
pump . Indeed, it took many years of painful development with many setbacks on the road to success .

1
Chapter 1

Early air-cooled cylinders employed what was known as the poultice head . This simply meant that
the cylinder barrel featured a closed end at the combustion chamber end. The valve seats were
incorporated into this closed end and the cylinder head butted up against the top of the cylinder.
Even under ideal conditions the heat transfer between the cylinder top and the cylinder head was
marginal and under typical operating conditions the seal and consequently the heat transfer was
almost non existent. This design concept resulted in design disasters like the ABC Dragonfly (Fig. 1.1).
Precision casting technology was also in its infancy during these embryonic years. This resulted in
cooling fins being spaced too far apart with insufficient depth.

An Englishman by the name of Sam Heron (Fig. 1.2) was the knight in shining armor as the savior
for the air-cooled concept. His contributions to the science of air-cooled cylinder design have contin-
ued on to the present day and can be seen on any Continental or Lycoming general aviation aircraft
engine. As an aside, Heron (Ref. 1.4) also made significant contributions to fuel development and
other engine-related improvements such as the sodium-cooled valve. Heron was born in New Castle
Upon-Tyne in the North East of England on May 18, 1891. While serving an apprenticeship as a
mechanic and foundryman at the Thames Iron Works Shipbuilding and Engineering Company, he
attended night school for engineering classes. He also gained experience as a draftsman at Sir W.G.
Armstrong Whitworth & Company Ltd. Later, this company became a major player in the British
aircraft construction business. During World War I he bounced around several employers, but his
most significant work was the time he spent at the Royal Aircraft Establishment. While there, he
worked with Major F.M. Green, with whom he collaborated on, among other things, air-cooled cylin-
der design. Green was one of the pioneers of engine development and during his tenure at the RAE
he was responsible for the development of several aircraft engines, most of which were based on
modified Renault air-cooled V-8s and V-12s.

It was during World War I that aircraft engine development took quantum leaps . With increasing
power came liabilities. One of the more significant was the requirement for more heat rejection as
the power per cubic inch of engine displacement increased. Water-cooled engines of the time expe-
rienced little difficulty in dealing with this problem- not so with the stationary air-cooled engine. Air-
cooled rotary engines rarely suffered from overheating because of their idiosyncratic mode of operation
by spinning on their axis, which induced a forced draft and their relatively low specific power. Heron
played a significant part in understanding and developing solutions to these heat rejection issues by
employing new (for the time) materials such as aluminum alloys. At the cessation of hostilities,
Heron worked for several British aircraft engine companies, but could not find his "niche. " Conse-
quently he sailed for the United States in 1921 and got a job with the Engineering Division, United
States Army Air Corps (USAAC), at McCook Field and later Wright Field . He was associated with
the military from 1921to1926 and 1928 to 1933, during which time Heron continued to make valuable
contributions to air-cooled aircraft engine technology. The in-between years of 192 7 and into 1928
were spent at Wright Aeronautical Corporation, where he helped develop the Wright Whirlwind. This
engine was the power plant that got Charles Lindbergh safely across the Atlantic from New York to
Paris in 1927, and in doing so forever placed Lindbergh in the annals of aviation history. Heron took
personal responsibility to inspect Lindbergh's engine for this epic flight.

Every detail of the high performance air-cooled cylinder received Heron 's scrutiny. Exhaust valves
were a constant source of problems, particularly with all early internal combustion engines prior to the

2
 Tif!hy Radials?

921·~1

Fig. 1.1 ABC Dragonfly, possibly one of the sorriest excuses for an aircraft engine ever pro-
duced. If World War I had dragged on for an additional six months, England would have been in
serious trouble due to commitments made to have the Dragonfly replace other aircraft
engines. This engine exemplified all the possible design problems of a radial engine and
therefore represented an excellent example of how not to do it. (Courtesy of "World War I
Aero" and Bruce VanderMark.)
3
Chapter 1

Fig. 1.2 Sam Heron,

one of the pioneers of
air-cooled engine
development and fuel
development. His
engine development
work strongly influ-
enced Pratt & Whitney
along with all the other
major producers of air-
cooled radials.

advent of high temperature steel alloys . Sodium-cooled valves, which became indispensable when
specific powers reached 0.5 horsepower per cubic inch and greater, were developed by Heron
(Fig. 1.3). Although solid at ambient temperature, the sodium quickly liquefied in the high tempera-
ture environment of the exhaust. Upon melting, the sodium would slosh up and down inside the
hollow valve thus transferring heat from the red-hot head of the valve to the much cooler stem,
through the valve guide and ultimately to the cylinder head. Spark plug design, metallurgy, lubrication,
fuels , and valve seat insert material also contributed to his repertoire of innovation. All of the above
were key to the radial engines' domination of piston engine powered aircraft and to the R-2800 's
subsequent success.

Early radial engine installations simply consisted of hanging the engine on a tubular steel mount
with no cowling. This arrangement was adequate for aircraft developed in the 1920s with air speeds
ofless than 150 mph, but as horsepower and consequently speed increased the fallacy of this concept
became painfully evident. In two parallel developments, cowlings were perfected which overcame
these deficiencies . In England, H. Townend developed a cowling ring named after him. Working for
the National Physical Laboratory, he wrapped an airfoil shape, made from aluminum, around the
cylinders. This made a dramatic difference to installed drag even though it only had a narrow chord
and simply covered the cylinder heads (Ref. 1.2). In the United States a similar solution was evolved
by NACA, except their solution featured a wider chord (Fig. 1.4). NACA's cowl was somewhat
analogous to a ram jet. An efficient diffuser, in the form of the NACA cowl, resides at the front
where it recovers much of the flight dynamic pressure and converts it into static pressure in front of
the engine. The cooling baffles and cylinder cooling fins restrict air flow to the minimum required
to transfer heat to the highest practical cooling air temperature. The exhaust system is often designed
to accelerate the used hot cooling air up to the highest possible aft velocity. When this combined
exhaust and cooling air velocity is higher than flight speed, the cooling drag can be reduced to zero
or a net thrust; just like a ram jet (Ref. 1.3). Of course, some R-2800 installations were better than
other in this regard as will be related in more detail in subsequent chapters. As cowling design
evolved, cooling flaps were incorporated to control the mass air flow through the cowling and thus
control the engine temperatures and maintain them at their optimum (Fig. 1.5). As the radial engine

4
 Why Radials?

Fig. 1.3 One of Sam Heron :S more well-

known developments, the sodium-cooled
valve. Prior to Heron :S internally cooled
valve, engine designers were forced into
solutions such as pumping engine oil
through the valve stem and exposing valve
gear to the elements in an effort to get more
cooling to the valves. (Double Wasp B
Series Two Stage Engines [R-2800-8,
-10, -8W, and -lOW], Second Edition.
Author :S collection.)

Fig 1.4 One of the break-

throughs that allowed radial
engines to be competitive
with liquid-cooled inlines.
The NACA cowl was devel-
oped at the same time as the
British developed Townend
ring Both accomplished the
same purpose, i.e. , reducing
cooling drag; however, the
NACA was far superior and
consequently ended up
being the standard for
radial engine cowling. By
the end of the radial engine
Section A -A
show ing shape era, cowl design, still based
of bC>Hies
on the NACA development,
had advanced to the point
where drag, or lack thereof,
was on a par with liquid-
cooled inlines. (Parts
Catalog for Martin B-26G,
20 December 1944.
Courtesy of the National Air
and Space Museum.)

5
Chapter 1

Motor - 1003-263 12 Flop Assembly - 116862

2 Adopter - (Prototype only) 13 Bonding Strip - A-595
3 Flexible Shaft - 95017 14 Angle Assembly - 117 526L
4 Engine Mount - 19031 15 Support Segment - 116872
5 Bracket - 120189L 16 Support Brocket - 121345L
l 20190L 17 Link - 13762
6 Flop Assembly - 116860L 18 Support Brock et - 1168 70L
7 Filler Plate - 116847 19 Torque Tvbe - 1 16863
8 Flop Assembly - 118281 20 Support Brocket - 1l6858L
9 Flop Assembly - 116859 21 Support Bracket - 118672 R
10 Deleted 22 Support Bracket - 116B64L
11 Flop Assembly - 11686 l 23 Support Brack et - l l 6864R

Fig. 1.5 After NACA developed the definitive radial engine cowl, the next issue was temperature
control. By controlling mass air flow through the cowl via adjustable flaps, an ideal engine
temperature could be maintained. This illustration shows the inside of the cowl and its cowl flap
operating mechanism. (Fairchild C-82 Erection & Maintenance Manual AN Ol -115CBA -4.
Courtesy of the National Air and Space Museum.)

6
 Why Radials.?

era came to a close, even more sophisticated methods to reduce installed drag and improve cooling
entered into the picture. Exhaust gases were utilized to "pump" cooling air through the cowling and
consequently eliminate the need for cowl flaps. These arrangements were known as "augmented
exhausts ." Fan cooling and buried installations contributed to this sophistication.

In the meantime, the air-cooled radial engine's competitor, the liquid-cooled inline had also enjoyed
the fruits of innovative minds working on similar problems such as the most effective way to reject
the heat of combustion, reduce cooling drag, radiator development, etc. These challenges were met
by the introduction of ethylene glycol mixed with water, more efficiently cowled radiators, and
development of radiators with greater heat rejection capability and yet retaining a relatively small
frontal area. By the end of the day, however, the installed drag of a radial was lower than its erst-
while liquid-cooled competitor. Furthermore, with one less complex system to maintain, mainte-
nance was considerably easier and cheaper. This was a key selling point for commercial operators
who had more of an eye to the bottom line rather than the ultimate in performance and consequently
could not afford the sophistication or problems of the highly stressed liquid-cooled inline . And as
further proof of the air-cooled engine 's capability, later R-2800 CB series were required to reject up
to 10,000 BTUs per minute at takeoff power (Ref 1.4).

References
1.1 Ryder, Earle A, "Recent Developments in the R-4360 Engine," paper presented at the SAE
Summer Meeting (French Lick, Ind.), Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa., June
1950.

1.2 Schlaifer, Robert and Heron, S .D ., Development ofAircraft Engines and Fuels , Harvard Uni-
versity, Boston, 1950.
1.3 Letter on this subject from Larry Carlson to the author, dated December 12, 1998.

1.4 Copy of telegram from WJ. Cake to R.H. Frazier, West Coast Office, on heat rejection
requirements of CB 17, dated 3-31-65 .

7
 Chapter 2

Pratt & Whitney History and Background

What kind of company would enter into the hostile and treacherous world of aircraft engine develop-
ment and manufacture? As it turns out, those with incredible intestinal fortitude and perseverance,
not to mention good luck and business acumen. The very nature of aviation demands nothing but the
best; anything else will fail-resulting in crashed airplanes or worse yet, loss of human life .

Frederick Rentschler (Fig. 2.1) was well aware of this difficult arena when he proposed the idea of
an aircraft engine company to the cash-rich Pratt & Whitney company in 1925. Born in 1887, he
enjoyed an Ivy League education at Princeton. He was one of the few men gifted with the ability to
operate machine tools, understand engines and yet have the business acumen that is so key to suc-
cess . With this unique combination of abilities he had very few peers. 191 7 found the United States
embroiled in the human slaughter we refer to as World War I. After enlisting in the Army at the
outbreak of the war as a first lieutenant, his abilities were quickly recognized and he rose through the
ranks to captain in the Air Signal Corps (forerunner to the Army Air Corps, U.S. Army Air Forces
and finally the independent U.S. Air Force) (Ref. 2.1). He was stationed in New York where he was

Fig. 2.1 Frederick Rentschler,

Pratt & Whitney s visionary
founder. (Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

9
Chapter 2

responsible for aviation power plant production and inspection . These responsibilities brought him in
contact with the then state of the art Hispano-Suiza water-cooled V-8 aircraft engine (Fig. 2.2)
(Ref. 2.2).

After the war, Rentschler joined Wright Aeronautical. Wright had evolved into a large corporation
via numerous reorganizations, acquisitions, and name changes. The contributions made to aviation
by the Wright brothers can never be overestimated. However, by 1910 the brothers' collective
inventive genius had waned. In their place a young and aggressive Glenn Curtiss took over. This
resulted in rivalry and at times bitter disputes between the Wrights and Curtiss. One of the more
well known of these disputes was the patent infringement suit brought by the Wrights, who claimed
Curtiss 's ailerons breached the Wright brothers ' patent on wing warping for lateral control. This
bitterly contested lawsuit drained the Wrights emotionally and physically. Another key player in the
burgeoning aviation business prior to World War I was Glenn Martin. He fanned the Gleim L. Martin
Company in 19 12 in California. In the same year, 1912, Orville Wright sold his remaining interests
in the Wright Company to a group of eastern capitalists including Frank Manville, president of the
Johns Manville company. In the meantime our young and aggressive entrepreneur, Glenn Curtiss,
had fanned the Curtiss Aeroplane Company. The Wright Company merged with the Glenn L. Mar-
tin Company to fom1 Wright-Martin Aircraft Corporation. Business for the Curtiss Aeroplane Com-
pany had skyrocketed thanks to lucrative war-related business building aircraft and engines . This
healthy state of affairs caught the attention of a New York syndicate who took control of the com-
pany in 1916. Base of operations was moved to Buffalo, New York, and the company was renamed
Curtiss Aeroplane and Motor Corporation. In a similar fashion to the Wright Brothers, Glenn Curtiss
faded from the aviation scene and ended his days selling real estate in Florida.

Fig. 2.2 Simply known as the

"Hisso, " the Hispano-Suiza
V-8 of World War I vintage
represented the state of the
art in 1915 when it was first
introduced. Rentschler s
involvement with a Wright
Martin license built version
while serving with Air Signal
Corps brought him into
contact with sophisticated
aircraft engines. (Courtesy
of Pratt & Whitney)

10
 Pratt & Whitney History and Background

Wright-Martin had also profited from World War I by delivering large numbers of aircraft engines-
5816 in all. Most of these engines were license built Hispano-Suiza V-8s. In 1919 the Wright-
Martin Company was dissolved and the Wright Aeronautical Corporation was created in its stead .
Rentschler 's World War I experience with the Hispano-Suiza was to prove valuable . Wright Aero-
nautical Corporation was licensed to build this engine, which proved to be the mainstay for U.S.
military aviation in the early postwar years. With his unequaled technical, business, and managerial
abilities he was given the position of vice president of Wright Aeronautical Corporation. He then
quickly ascended to the presidency.

Like many gifted managers, he tired of working for someone else and quit in April 1924. Contribut-
ing to his discontent was his relationship with the Wright board of directors. On several occasions
the board overruled his business decisions, an example being Wright's acquisition of the Lawrence
Corporation on May 15, 1923, of which Rentschler strongly disapproved.

Despite family pressure to get out of the aviation business, Rentschler came up with a proposal for
the Pratt & Whitney division of Niles-Bement-Pond. Lucrative World War I contracts had put them
in this enviable position. The skids were appropriately greased for Rentschler by way of an intro-
ductory letter written by James K. Cullen, president of Niles-Bement-Pond. The fact that Rentschler 's
father was a friend of Cullen didn ' t hurt. Part of Rentschler 's proposal to Pratt & Whitney was a
request for start-up capital. The initial amount invested was $250,000.00. This was considered the
amount necessary to finance development of the first engine. If Pratt & Whitney considered this
engine to be successful a further one million dollars would be invested to cover the cost of production
tooling and further development. As one can imagine, Rentschler was not prone to take undue risks.
He felt very confident that business could be drummed up for his initial engine. Clearly, his position as
president of Wright had given him the inside track on future requirements for the military, particu-
larly the Navy. Knowing full well that the Navy was looking for a 400 horsepower air-cooled radial
that weighed less than 650 pounds, Rentschler realized this was a plum contract ripe for the picking.
By this time, the Navy had made its famous decree: no more water-cooled engines, or as one high
ranking Navy officer has been often quoted, "A water-cooled aircraft engine makes as much sense
as an air-cooled submarine. " This Navy decision was to last throughout the piston engine era.
Despite a number of water-cooled and liquid-cooled powered aircraft being evaluated for carrier
operations, none were awarded production contracts . In the early days of Naval aviation after World
War I, water cooling made good sense. Due to the immature stage of air-cooled cylinder develop-
ment, air-cooled engines were forced to run a rich fuel/air mixture to facilitate cooling. 1 The addi-
tional fuel load was sufficient to offset any weight penalty suffered by a water-cooled installation.

Thanks to his relationship with Rear Admiral W.A. Moffett, Rentschler succeeded with his proposal,
and in 1925 the Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Company was created. The first facility was located on
Capitol Avenue in East Ha1tford. Part of the financing deal with Pratt & Whitney Tool was to utilize

1 Interestingly,
even today 's " modern" air-cooled aircraft engines are forced into the same situation of running a rich
mixture for additiona l cooling, particu larly at hi gh power settings such as takeoff.

11
Chapter 2

one of the brick buildings on Capitol Avenue. These facilities had been in disuse since WWI and a
major interest on the part of Pratt & Whitney was to utilize this manufacturing space in order to utilize
their excess cash. The Capitol Avenue building was a four-story brick machine shop that had been
previously used by the Pope-Hartford automobile company. Interestingly, a copy of this unsuccessful
auto in on display at the Hartford office of the American Automobile Association (Ref. 2.3) . At the
time Rentschler took over, part of the space was being temporarily used for storing tobacco. East
Hartford tobacco sheds were large wood sheds with slat siding that could be opened up on sunny
days to cure tobacco hanging inside. Nothing but dirt floors. Most folks around East Hartford could
not believe anything could be manufactured inside one of these, let alone a precision aircraft engine .
After four years of successful work for the Navy and other customers, more space was needed. A
large plot was purchased from East Haitford tobacco growers to build a larger manufacturing plant
and airport. Rentschler 's wife broke ground for this plant on July 16, 1929, which began operating
in 1930 with 400,000 square feet of manufacturing space and 30 engine test houses. New England
was a fo1tuitous choice due to the abundance of highly skilled labor. Many machine tool companies
were located in this part of the country. Industries such as gun making, and the manufacture of
precision instnunents sprung up in New England during the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries.
This in tum attracted the kinds of skills that Pratt & Whitney would require : tool & die makers,
machinists, pattern makers, fitters, etc.

During his tenure at Wright, Rentschler identified key people that he felt would be essential for his
new undertaking. Consequently, George Mead, Donald Brown, Andy Willgoos, Charlie Marks, and
John Borrop, all from Wright, jumped ship and came aboard with Rentschler. Mead eventually
ascended to vice president of Pratt & Whitney and Willgoos became chief engineer. With this
talented team in place, design work started on the fledgling new company's first engine .

Willgoos was a quiet man, a hard worker, and highly respected. As chief engineer, he was totally
engrossed in engine design and function. He would spend hours examining post-test engine parts
looking for signs of trouble missed by more junior engineers. Like any "engine" man, he realized
that a distressed part is trying to tell the engineer a story (Ref. 2.3). Later on, his contributions to
R-2800 development were key to its success. Luke Hobbs (Fig. 2.3) (more about Hobbs later), who
joined the company shortly after, relied on Willgoos as his right-hand man .

Earle A. Ryder, formerly with Aeromarine Plane & Motor Company joined in July. Ryder was
another early employee to enjoy a long and successful career with Pratt & Whitney. His accomplish-
ments included much of the cylinder development for Pratt & Whitney's last piston engine hurrah-
the R-4360 (Ref. 1.1) . He was gifted with a sharp mind, professional type personality, well read, and
had a solid grasp of mechanics. He had little patience for those whom he judged to be technically
incompetent. However, he was always kind enough to explain the facts (Ref. 2.3).

This small band of talented individuals was now faced with an enormous task: design a 400 horse-
power engine that weighed less than 650 pounds . At 1.625 pounds per horsepower, even modem
general aviation engines can barely match this achievement.

12
 Pratt & Whitney History and Background

Fig. 2. 3 Key to many Pratt &

Whitney piston engines and
gas turbines, Luke Hobbs led
their engineering efforts
through many difficulties and
obstacles. (Courtesy of Pratt
& Whitney.)

Design work started in August 1925. The displacement was quickly determined to be 1344 cubic
inches. This figure was derived from a cylinder bore and stroke of 5.75 inches and nine cylinders.
The military designation was R-1 340 derived from the fact it was a radial, which accounted for the
"R," and the displacement, rounded out to the nearest 5 cubic inches gave 1340 . Pratt & Whitney
bestowed the name "Wasp" onto it's first born. Rentschler 's wife-conjured up this name. Variations
on the Wasp name continued on into the gas turbine era: Wasp Jr. (R-985), the follow-on to the
R-1340; Twin Wasp (R-1830); Twin Wasp Jr. (R-1535) ; Double Wasp (R-2800), the subject of this
book; Wasp Major (R-4360); and Turbo Wasp . The last mentioned engine was Pratt & Whitney's
first foray into the totally new world of gas turbines. The Turbo Wasp was a license built Rolls-
Royce Nene (Fig. 2.4). As an interesting aside, the left-wing Marxist, British Labour government at
the time (194 7) authorized Rolls-Royce to sell 16 Nenes to the Russians, who immediately reverse
engineered it and installed it in the Mig-15 of Korean war fame (Ref. 2 .4).

One thousand three hundred and forty-four cubic inches was more displacement than that used by
Pratt & Whitney's closest rival, Rentschler 's former employer, Wright. The Wright Simoon, in
competition for the same Navy contract, had a displacement of 1176 cubic inches. The rationale for
this disparity was the difficult task of meeting the stringent Navy weight requirement. Pratt &
Whitney had a couple of aces up its sleeve to meet the 65 0-pound weight limit. In the early 1920s,
Roy Feddon of the Bristol Aeroplane Company had developed the forging process for radial engine
crankcases, initially for the Bristol Jupiter (Ref. 2.5) and then all subsequent Bristol piston engines.
Willgoos, who was doing the lion's share of design work, utilized this concept for the R-1340. This
allowed for a considerable weight saving compared to a cast crankcase. This weight saving was then
taken advantage of in the form of greater displacement. The Wright Simoon on the other hand
utilized a cast crankcase and its designers were forced into a smaller displacement. Even though the
internal combustion engine had been in common use for about 50 years when the R-1340 was designed,
numerous difficulties still plagued it, one of the more vexing being valve spring life. Operating at
high temperatures, valve springs are subjected to tremendous fatigue loads. Cam profiles had not
been perfected to the point of gentle lift-offs from the valve seat and similarly gentle valve closure.
The rapid acceleration of the valve from the harsh cam profiles caused numerous valve spring fatigue

13
Chapter 2

Fig. 2. 4 As their first foray into the mamifacture of gas turbines, Pratt & Whitney manufactured
the Rolls-Royce Nene under license. Interestingly, the left-wing British socialist government in
power at the time of the Nene s development- the mid to late J 940s- also had Rolls-Royce ship a
number to Russia. Without benefit of a mamifacturing license, the Russians immediately put
Nenes into mass production and used them to power Mig l 5s of Korean War fame . Of course the
"Georgian Cockroach, " aka Joseph Stalin, had no respect/or niceties such as manufacturing
licenses. (Courtesy of the Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust.)

failures. Exacerbating the problem was a lack of high quality, vacuum refined valve spring wire and
inspection techniques such as Magnafluxing for crack detection. These problems resulted in valve
trains being exposed to the elements in most, if not all, early internal combustion engines. This
exposure gave improved cooling and allowed easy detection of any failed valve springs. Willgoos
felt he could design around the requirement of exposed valve springs. As a result, all Pratt & Whitney
engines featured enclosed valve gear. Initially, the lubrication requirements were taken care of via
grease fittings requiring replenishment after each flight, resulting in the familiar grease splotches on
windshields. Another key design decision, which differed from the Simoon, was the use of a one-
piece master connecting rod and a built-up crankshaft. Wright went the other route and used a one-
piece crank and split master connecting rod (Ref 1.2). Due to its lighter weight compared to a
two-piece component, the one-piece master rod allowed Pratt & Whitney to run the R-1340 at higher
rpm, 1900, compared to the Wright Simoon's 1650 rpm. This contributed significantly to the perfor-
mance of the engine by allowing it to reach its power peak and by allowing more radical valve
timing, i.e., earlier opening and later closing. Additionally, the lighter one-piece master rod allowed
for lighter counterweights contributing to a lower overall weight. Having said that, Pratt & Whitney
did employ split master rods and one-piece cranks on its first two-row engines, the R-1535 and
R-1830, as a conservative design feature. The R-4360 also featured a split master rod design, in all

14
 Pratt & TiVhitney History and Background

probability because of the difficulty in designing and manufacturing a built-up crank for a four-row
engine . Aircraft engines of this time period, the mid-l 920s, typically ran at a brake mean effective
pressure (BMEP) of 120 pounds per square inch. The R-1340 was designed from the outset to run at
a BMEP of 130 pounds per square inch.

As Willgoos finished his detail designs, the drawings were immediately dispatched to the machine
shop or foundry. Assembly of the new engine occurred on Christmas Eve, 1925 , a Thursday, and the
first run occurred on December 28, a Monday. Willgoos obviously did his calculations well: the
engine produced 380 horsepower straight from the drawing board. The two subsequent runs pro-
duced 410 hp and 425 hp. Although designed for a forged crankcase, the first prototype, in the
interest of speedy development, used a cast crankcase (Fig. 2.5) .

Fig. 2. 5 This is how it all began- the first Wasp undergoing a test run. Initially rated at 420
horsepower, later variants were rated at 600 horsepower and up to 900 horsepower for racing
applications. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

15
Chapter 2

On May 5, 1926, the new Pratt & Whitney R-1340 flew for the first time, ironically, in a Wright
Apache (Ref. 2.6). The performance was so superior to that of the Wright Simoon, Wright did not
pursue its development any further. Although both engines weighed the same, the R-1340 was rated
at 410 horsepower compared to the Simoon's rather anemic 325. So enamored was the Navy with
the R-1340, a production order for 200 engines was immediately given. This was the kick-start
Rentschler had hoped for-and needed for his new venture . On the heels of the massive Navy order,
Pratt & Whitney received a request for 28 engines to power Boeing Model 40 mailplanes. These
orders ensured the early success of Pratt & Whitney. Within a few short years an amazing 90 percent
of cmmnercial aircraft flew behind Pratt & Whitney power. In another touch of irony, the R-1340
was the first engine to be produced and one of the last piston engines manufactured by Pratt &
Whitney. Production ran into 1960. The Wasp powered many military and civilian aircraft, but it is
probably the North American T-6 that has given it lasting fame.

Although the R-1340 Wasp design was a hard act to follow, Pratt & Whitney managed such a feat.
This was accomplished by way of the Hornet, a larger version of the R-1340 displacing 1690 cubic
inches. Initially rated at 575 horsepower, developed versions of the R-1690 Hornet were rated at
800 horsepower. Hornets were later manufactured under license by BMW in Germany to power
aircraft for the fledgling Luftwaffe. Other variations on the single-row Wasp theme included the
Wasp Jr. (Fig. 2.6). Displacing 985 cubic inches, the R-985 was the smaller sibling to the R-1340,
even sharing the same bore/stroke ratio of 1: 1. Tens of thousands of 985s would be manufactured
before production ended-most being installed in various models and permutations of the ubiquitous
Beechcraft model 18. Many Boeing Stearmans were converted to R-985 power, resulting in the
so-called 450 (for 450 horsepower) Stearman.

Fig. 2. 6 The Wasps smaller sibling, the

Wasp Jr. Sharing the same design features
as the R-1340 Wasp, the R-985 Wasp Jr.
enjoyed a long and successful production
run. Rated at 450 horsepower, its conser-
vative rating contributed to its longevity.
(Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

16
 Pratt & Wh itney History and Background

Rentschler 's business and management foresight was apparent in many ways. One of his more
astute moves was the decision to subcontract out 50 percent of production. With a well developed
network of subcontractors, Pratt & Whitney was in good shape to handle the exponential increase in
business during the late 1930s and throughout World War II. Furthennore, competition among
subcontractors kept costs under control.

With the company on a secure financial footing, the restless and ambitious Rentschler made the
decision to expand his horizons. This was accomplished in 1928 when Rentschler joined forces with
Boeing and Vought. The resulting corporation from this merger was named United Aircraft & Trans-
port Corporation. Later, Hamilton Propellers joined the corporation. This in tum caused other
mergers within the new corporation such as Hamilton's merger with Standard Steel Propellers, thus
creating Hamilton Standard Propellers. By the mid-193 Os the size of the organization was weighing
heavily on Rentschler. Serious problems were on the horizon. Spread too thin with all his responsi-
bilities, Rentschler relinquished the presidency of Pratt & Whitney to Don Brown. Brown's and
Rentschler 's relationship went back to the Wright days. He was another ofRentschler's early recruits
for Pratt & Whitney. This decision allowed Rentschler to fry larger fish in the form of running
United Aircraft and freed him from the day-to-day responsibilities of Pratt & Whitney. This may
have planted the seed of discontent that ultimately led to the resignation of George Mead in 1940
(Fig. 2. 7). Always a sickly man, Mead suffered a nervous collapse after the R-1340 type test in
1926. And again in 1928 Mead suffered serious health problems in the form of chronic ear, nose
throat, and mouth infections, and a hernia operation. Mead 's ill health as well as his discontent with
Pratt & Whitney management became a trend which, in all likelihood, contributed to his decision to
resign when he did.

As with many successful startup companies, Pratt & Whitney sta1ted to feel its oats in the form of
venturing outside the scope of its now established area of expertise and taking on too many projects.

Fig. 2. 7 Being one of the origi-

nal employees of Pratt &
Whitney, George Mead made
many significant contributions
until he got off on a tangent in
the late 19 30s developing liquid-
cooled sleeve valve projects. The
failure of his sleeve valve devel-
opments contributed to his
resignation Ji-om Pratt &
Whitney in 1940. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)

17
Chapter 2

Fig. 2.8 Not all early Pratt &

Whitney engines were a success. The
water-cooled, twenty-cylinder R-2060
was beset with problems. Pratt &
Whitney wisely chose to drop this
project soon after it became apparent
it was not going anywhere. (Courtesy
of Pratt & Whitney.)

These forays included some less than stellar engine projects such as the ill-starred R-2060 (Fig. 2.8).
The most obvious deviation from the tried and true, for Pratt & Whitney, was water cooling. It was
a twenty-cylinder engine composed of four inline rows of five cylinders. An overly complex engine
considering its displacement and horsepower, it also suffered from excessive frontal area. Fortu-
nately, this project was shelved before it could drain significant resources. However, other projects
did drain significant resources and talent when these resources and talents were most needed. In
193 7 Mead took a trip to England. Whilst there, he checked out the British aircraft engine business
and came back totally captivated with the sleeve valve concept. Although sleeve valve engines had
a lot to justify them, as witnessed by the fact that almost 50 percent of the total horsepower of Royal
Air Force aircraft in World War II were sleeve valve engines, they took inordinate amounts of devel-
opment time and skill to manufacture. Nevertheless, upon his return, Mead ventured into the sleeve
valve camp. This caused his undoing. Conceptually based on the Napier Sabre, the X-1800 2 dis-
placed 2240 cubic inches . Built to an Army contract, even though the contract was not signed until
May 1939, Mead consumed himself with this engine. Pratt & Whitney also hoped Douglas would
use this engine for a medium bomber, despite the fact Douglas had intended for this airplane to be
powered by an air-cooled radial. Several variations on this H-24 sleeve valve theme were manufac-
tured. None ever flew. The last of them, H-3740, displaced 3740 cubic inches and produced
3500 horsepower (Fig. 2.9). Mead's health had deteriorated to the point where he was forced into
running the liquid-cooled sleeve projects from his home-literally in his sickbed.

Luke Hobbs was another brilliant engineer recruited in the early days-1927 in his case. Born in
Carbon, Wyoming, in 1896 he died at age eighty in 1977 . In 1916 he graduated from Texas A&M
with a bachelor 's degree. Shortly after graduating he did a stint in the Army serving in the famous
42nd (Rainbow) Division in France during World War I. After the war, Hobbs obtained a master 's

2
The X-1 800 de signated "X" for experimental and 1800 for the projected horsepower output.

18
 Pratt & Whitney History and Background

Fig 2.9 The result of

George Meads hard work
on the sleeve valve
projects, Pratt &
Whitneys H-3740. Con-
figured in a similar way to
the British Napier Sabre, it
featured 2-1 liquid-cooled
cylinders with sleeve
valves. The Navy contin-
ued to fimd this project
into the early 1940s, but
to no avail; no H-3 740
ever flew. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)

degree in science at Kansas State. The years 1920 to 1923 were spent at McCook Field where he
worked with luminaries such as George Mead . In 1923 , he moved onto Bendix, who at that time
supplied most of the carburetors installed on military aircraft engines . His crowning achievement at
Bendix was the development of the superlative Bendix injection carburetor, unsurpassed before-or
since-for its ability to accurately meter fuel , resistance to "G" loading, and anti-icing capabilities .
By 1938 Hobbs had risen through the ranks to Engineering Manager at Pratt & Whitney (Refs . 2.7
and 2 8). Watching Mead flail away at the liquid-cooled sleeve valve project disturbed Hobbs. To
him it was a waste of resources at a critical time when efforts should have been concentrated on Pratt
& Whitney's core of knowledge-air-cooled radials. In 1940 Hobbs persuaded General "Hap"
Arnold that the X-1800 project should be dropped. Arnold agreed, however, the H-3740 project
continued on for several years to satisfy a Navy contract (Ref 1.2). Also, in 1940, Mead resigned
from Pratt & Whitney due to increasingly failing health and his dissatisfaction with Pratt & Whitney.
In 1953 Hobbs was awarded the prestigious Collier Trophy for his work on the J-57, an engine that
powered many of the Air Force's 1950s era aircraft including the B-52, and in civilian guise was
known as the JT-3 that powered the Boeing 707.

In the mid- l 930s a 2600 cubic inch, two-row, eighteen-cylinder air-cooled radial was designed.
This was the company's first engine with this number and configuration of cylinders. Design work
was complete and an engineering mock-up started . However, Hobbs decided to up the ante by
increasing displacement to 2800 cubic inches. Perhaps a contributing factor to this change of heart
was Wright's R-2600. Thus, the famous R-2800 was born.

References
2.1 The Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Story, Pratt & Whitney Div. , United Aircraft Corp. , East Hart-
ford, Conn. , 15 May 1952.

19
Chapter 2

2.2 Frederick Rentschler and His Legacy, notes from a presentation made by Harvey Lippincott.
2.3 Interviews and correspondence with Larry Carlson, 1998-1999 .
1.1 Ryder, Earle A. , "Recent Developments in the R-4360 Engine," paper presented at the SAE
Summer Meeting (French Lick, Ind .), Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa., June
1950.
2.4 Banks, Air Commodore FR. (Rod), "I Kept No Diary," Airlife, 1978 .
2.5 Gunston, W.T.,ByJupiter, R.Ae.S. , London, 1978.
1.2 Schlaifer, Robert and Heron, S.D. , Development ofAircraft Engines and Fuels, Harvard Uni-
versity, Boston, 19 5 0.

2.6 Harvey Lippincott, former Pratt & Whitney archivist, correspondence and interviews with
author, 1993-1994 .

2.7 Current Biography 1954, Hobbs, Leonard S(inclair), Dec. 20 1896- Business Executive
Engineer.

2.8 New York Times , obituary section, Thursday, November 3, 1977 .

20
 Chapter 3

R-2800 Development

Designated "Double Wasp" by Pratt & Whitney and the civilian market, and R-2800 by the military,
this remarkable engine garnered a special place in aviation history. This v,;as an acknowledgment of
the engine's superb reliability, maintainability, power, economy, and low weight. Interestingly,
R-2800s did not excel in any one of the above mentioned attributes . But its combination of those key
attributes spelled success, both militarily and commercially, for this formidable power plant.

Luke Hobbs, the man most responsible for the development of the R-2800, enjoyed a long and
successful career with Pratt & Whitney. It could be argued that the R-2800 was his crnwning achieve-
ment despite the fact he went on to design many of the early gas turbines to come out of Pratt &
Whitney. Chief engineer for the R-2800 project was Andy Willgoos . Unlike Hobbs, Willgoos
involved himself with every detail design of the engine. He had a large design board in his office and
approved every design layout before parts went to detail design. Willgoos maintained this position
right into the gas turbine era. Alas, like this author, his interest in the new-fangled gas turbines did
not motivate him to the extent piston engines had . He died of a heart attack in the early development
of the PT-2 gas turbine without ever having seen it run. At the time of his death Pratt & Whitney had
partly completed the construction of a new gas turbine lab. At its completion, in honor of a great
engineer, it was named the Willgoos Gas Turbine Lab. Another key contributor to the R-2800 was
Perry Pratt. He was the project engineer from approximately 1939 until war 's end when he was
pulled off to establish a gas turbine research and design group. During this period he and his group
were responsible for initiating all design, development work, and coordination with the airframers
using the R-2800. As project engineer, he was essentially the chief on the project. He was a
dynamic and driven engineer involved in everything all hours of the day and night. Everyone involved
in the R-2800, including customers regarded him as "Mr. R-2800 ." Praise indeed (Ref. 2.3) !

Design of the company's eighteen-cylinder R-2600 was complete and the engineering mock-up almost
complete when events overtook this project. Deciding 2600 cubic inches was insufficient (Ref. 1.2),
Hobbs wisely shelved this engine . Instead, he set his sights on bigger fish in the fom1 of 2804 cubic
inches . By this time, mid-l 930s, Pratt & Whitney had considerable air-cooled, two-ro'"' radial expe-
rience. This experience had been achieved through the following fourteen-cylinder engines: R-1535,

21
Chapter 3

R-1830 and the stillborn R-2180-even though the latter engine was ready for production. The
R-2800 would be the first, and as it turned out the only, eighteen-cylinder radial developed and
manufactured in quantity by Pratt & Whitney.

Starting with a clean slate, many key decisions are required before serious design of a new engine
can commence. These include: one-piece master rods with a built-up crankshaft vs. two-piece mas-
ter rods and one-piece crank, number, and arrangement of cylinders, crankshaft design, cooling
method, type of propeller reduction gearing, combustion chamber design, number of valves per
cylinder, supercharging method, carburetion, lubrication, accessory drives, etc. Hobbs decided upon
eighteen cylinders situated in two rows of nine. Each cylinder would have a bore of 5. 7 5 inches and
a stroke of 6.0 inches. Reduction gearing was a must for such a large and powerful engine. In the
same vein, supercharging was also a given. During its production life, five design series were devel-
oped: "A," "B," "C," "D," and "E" series with many variations and sub-variations on these basic
themes. Of the five above-mentioned series, by far the most numerous were the "B"s and "C''s.
"A"s and "B"s were very similar. The "C" was a total redesign of the "A"/"B" with two significant
subsets: "CA" and "CB. " A subset known as the "CE" was produced in relatively small numbers.
The "D" was a one-off dash number variation based on the "B. " The "E" used a modified "CB"
power section with hydraulically driven superchargers.

Developing a large multi-cylinder, high performance aircraft engine is a painstaking, step-by-step

process. Initially, single-cylinder engines are developed for cooling studies, valve timing, combus-
tion chamber design, compression ratio, etc. Once the cylinder design has started to evolve, the next
step is the building of a multi-cylinder engine . Authorization of the first R-2800, or Double Wasp as
Pratt & Whitney referred to it, was made when an order was sent out on March 21 , 193 7, for the
release of crankshaft and crankcase forgings and castings. This first engine, designated X-77, became
the first of the "A" series. As a proof of concept engine, a number of concessions were made such as
employing direct drive and parts modified from an R-183 0. Interestingly, at this very early stage of
development, Pratt & Whitney experimented with the use of eighteen separate intake pipes and
compared this configuration to the "forked" or "Y" shaped intake pipes . "Y" pipes won out over the
eighteen individual pipes based on improved mixture distribution (Ref. 3 .1). On April 21, 193 7, the
early specifications were released as follows:

Number of cylinders ...................... 18

Cylinder arrangement ................... Two-row radial
Bore and stroke .............. ................ 5:X in. bore, 6.0 in. stroke
Displacement .................. ............... 2804 in.3
Estimated weight ......... ..... ... ..... ..... 2100 lbs

Rating on 100 octane fuel :

Takeoff power ...... ....... ................ . 1650 hp at 2500 rpm

Normal power ........ ..... .. ............. .. 1300 hp at 2300 rpm to 10,000 ft
Max. crnising ......... ....................... 952 hp
Normal cruising .... .. ..................... 850 hp

22
 R-2800 Development

Fuel consumption:

Max. cruising .... .............. .... ........ .. 0.45 lb/bhp/hr

Normal ....... ...... ... ........................... 0.42 lb/bhp/hr

Approximate dimensions:

Overall length ... .. ................... ........ 69 in.

Diameter ............. ...... ... ...... ...... ...... 52Yz in.

Looking into the future, Pratt & Whitney configured the engine to incorporate a turbosupercharger
or use a two-stage supercharger. Clearly, these latter two requirements were aimed at the military;
turbosupercharging for the Army Air Corps and two-stage supercharging for the Navy. Four proto-
types were built designated: X-77, X-78, X-79 and X-80.

X-80 was a single-row, nine-cylinder engine representative of half an R-2800. This nine-cylinder
engine was built and ready for testing in February, 1938 . Over the course of the following year,
X-80, along with X-77, X-78, and X-79, took on the role ofa development mule (Ref 3.2) . As is the
case in most development efforts, these four engines bore the brunt of much abuse, catastrophic
failures , and of course, the necessary learning curve. By March, 1939, X-80 had amassed 695 .92
hours, countless rebuilds and the honor of making a major contribution to the R-2800 program . All
major components went through their initial development cycle inside X-80. This included master
rods, knuckle pins, bearings, oil pumps, reduction gearing and the crankshaft. In addition, the oil
pressure and scavenging systems were optimized with this test engine. This included: ideal oil
flows , oil pressure, oil temperature, and oil viscosity. Like many historically significant artifacts,
after its useful life was over X-80 was unceremoniously scrapped.

Following is a description of the first R-2800 model series manufactured, the "A" series (Fig. 3.1).

Cylinders

Cylinders are where the engine's power is generated and the majority of the heat rejection require-
ments take place. The R-2800 's cylinder design was, by now, well proven and tried on many previ-
ous engines. Thanks to Sam Heron 's and the pioneering work, many of the pitfalls could be avoided.
S.D . Siddeley of Armstrong Siddeley developed the classic screwed and shrunk cylinder assembly.
Heron 's original design called for an integral aluminum head and finned muff shrunk over a steel
liner. However, Heron, at Siddeley's instructions, had this design altered to an aluminum head
screwed to a steel barrel by a short thread. This type of construction, which became universally used
within a decade, had been first tried by Siddeley in his water-cooled Puma. Two major components
made up the R-2800 cylinder assembly: the cylinder barrel and the cylinder head . The cylinder
barrel, manufactured from an SAE 3140 chromium-molybdenum forging, featured a male screw
thread machined on its outer circumference at the top (Fig. 3.2). The cylinder head, manufactured

23
Chapter 3

G EARED A4 DOUBLE W ASP

Fig 3.1 Three views of an "A " series R-2800. Many early f eatures are shown: the two-piece
pushrod tubes, stamped steel intake manifolds, and rubber couplings for the front cylinder intake
manifolds. These features were soon dropped and replaced with improved designs.
(Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

from an aluminum casting, featured a corresponding female screw thread machined on its inner
diameter. The aforementioned threads were designed to produce an interference fit. By heating the
cylinder head and cooling the cylinder barrel the two could be assembled. To ensure that the cylinder
head and barrel assembled in the correct relationship, the threads were "timed," i.e., in the final,
tightened position the head was correctly positioned in relationship to the barrel. A hemispherical
combustion chamber with two valves was the, by now, accepted design concept, not only for Pratt &
Whitney but most air-cooled radials from other manufacturers . The most notable exception to this
design philosophy was from the inventive genius of Roy Feddon at Bristol. He initially used a pent

24
 R-2800 Development

Fig. 3. 2 Beautifully
machined R-2800 cylinder
barrel. Manufactured from
a chrome-moly forging, it
was nitrided for additional
durability. Note the lack of
holes in the lower flange,
these were drilled in after
the cylinder head and
cooling muff were screwed
and shrunk into position.
The aluminum cooling muff
is shown to the left.
(Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

roof, four valves per cylinder design in engines such as the Jupiter, Mercury, and Pegasus . Later,
Feddon was smitten by the sleeve valve concept and all his later engines featured this valve system
with its own unique combustion chamber shape (Ref 3.3).

Valves and valve problems were the cause of many engine failures in the early days . Particularly
hard-hit were exhaust valves. With temperatures as high as 1800 degrees Fahrenheit, it is little
wonder that exhaust valve life was limited. Although it is taken for granted today, the development
of high temperature steel alloys was in its infancy from the tum of the century and into the 1930s.
Once again, our old friend Sam Heron came to the rescue with an internally cooled valve (Ref 1.4).
Several materials were experimented with, including mercury; however, sodium won out over the
coolants tried. As with many "wonder" solutions, some problems are created by internally cooled
valves, one of the more severe being "coking" of the oil in the exhaust rocker boxes. Additional heat
rejection into the valve stem is transferred into the valve guide and rocker box. Oil coming into
contact with temperatures in excess of its coking temp can cause early oil contamination. Overall,
however, the advantages of reducing severe valve bum are worth any coking problems created. The
R-2800 's 2.75 inch diameter exhaust valve was manufactured with a stellite face and a hardened tip
pressed into the end of the stem. The exhaust valve seat, also manufactured from stellite welded
onto a parent steel, was a thermal press fit into the hemispherical combustion chamber and finally
swaged into position. The 2.975 inch diameter inlet valve was solid, i.e., not internally cooled. It
seated on a bronze insert pressed into the combustion chamber. The rocker arms, featured a 1.5: 1
ratio, i.e. , for every 0.100 inches of lift from the cam, the valve would lift 0.150 inches. They were
manufactured from steel forgings and pivoted on a two-row ball bearing. It is interesting to note that
the R-2800 used plain bearing almost exclusively throughout, a departure from its previous design
practice. The only exceptions to the foregoing being the aforementioned rocker pivot bearings and
the propeller thrust bearing. Fine adjustment of valve clearance was achieved with a conventional

25
Chapter 3

threaded stud and lock-nut (see below for description of the pushrod). One end of the stud had a
screwdriver slot, the other end a ball socket to accommodate the ball end pushrod. A swiveling pad
on the valve stem end ensured surface contact between the rocker and valve stem (Ref 3.4). This
is in contrast with many designs that do not accommodate the geometry of the rocker and valve stem.
This resulted in a concentrated line contact between the end of the rocker arm and the valve stem.
Other woes associated with this arrangement included high thrust loading on the valve guide leading
to excessive valve guide wear.

A steel pipe connected the two rocker boxes for pressure equalization and oil drain. Tubular steel
pushrods actuated the rocker arms . Pressed-in ball joints at both ends mated with a corresponding
socket on the rocker arm and tappet. Oil holes in both ball joints fed lubricant to the rocker arm pivot
and valve stem pad. Copious amounts of leakage contributed to cooling the rocker box and valve
components. Of course this was more critical on the exhaust side. The pressed-in ball joints seated
on shims. These shin1s gave coarse adjustment for the valve clearance. Fine adjustment, i.e. , 0.010
inches or less, was dialed in with the rocker ann screw adjuster. Telescoping pushrod tubes attached
at the cylinder head end and the crankcase via gland nuts sealed the valve gear. As an interesting
aside in the R-2800 development story, Thompson Products, manufacturers of many aircraft engine
related items in the 1930s and 1940s, developed a "selfadjusting" pushrod for the R-2800 (Ref 3.5) .
In a similar manner to hydraulic lifters, it was intended to automatically adjust the valve clearances to
the correct value. It never worked . In a similar vein, during the Thompson self adjusting pushrod
experiments in 1941 , Pratt & Whitney investigated the use of n;vo position tappets in order to improve
the flexibility, fuel economy, and power of the R-2800 . During development of the "B" engine it
was found that improved fuel economy in cruise condition was possible by using "A" valve timing
and improved power and detonation characteristics were possible with "B" valve timing . After
exhaustive tests with various forms of hydraulic tappets, the whole idea of variable valve timing/self
adjusting tappets was dropped. However, during these tests, it was found that to optimize the vari-
able valve timing/self adjusting tappets some form of adjustable ignition timing was necessary. These
tests may well have prompted the adoption of variable ignition timing for the "C" engine. Ironically,
the variable ignition timing feature was disabled on all R-2800s during the 1950s.

Cooling, or lack thereof, of a high performance air-cooled radial is key to its success-or dismal
failure. In the case of the R-2800 great care was taken to ensure overheating would not be one of its
Achilles ' heels. Consequently, the "A" and "B" series R-2800 pushed the envelope of cylinder head
casting technology to the limit. By the standards of the late 1930s the R-2800 was a masterpiece.
The deep and closely spaced cooling fins handled the heat rejection requirements asked of them. It
is in the cylinder head where the majority of the heat is generated and therefore this component
received special attention . But it takes more than designing in deep, closely spaced fins-the avail-
able cooling air must be taken full advantage of To achieve this goal, aluminum sheet metal baffles
were snugly fitted over and around the cylinder (Fig. 3.3). The depth and quantity of cooling fins
was optimized to ensure even cooling. Earl Ryder, one of Pratt & Whitney 's early recruits, did much
of the research into cylinder design and the assurance of even cooling. Blast tubes formed part of the
baffling to cool rear spark plugs . Even so, it was, and still is in some cases, necessary to install plugs
with a cooler heat range in the rear position (Ref 3.6) . Among Ryder 's other accomplishments were
testing machines for master rod bearings during the panic of 1937 when they suffered a rash of

26
 R-2800 Development

INTER-EAR .OEFLECTOR

'--INHR·CYL . DEFLECTORS_j
0EFLECTORS FOR A FRONT
CYLIHDER

Fig 3.3 One of the lessons learned in the 1930sfor radial engine cooling was to take full advan-
tage of the available cooling air. Baffles wrapped around the cylinder ensured even cooling and
the most efficient use of cooling air. Pratt & Whitney expended huge amounts of resources on
cooling studies, particularly as specific power approached one horsepower per cubic inch. (Parts
Catalog for Mode ls R-2800 Series -27, -31, -43, -59, -71, -75 and -79 Aircraft Engines. Author :S
collection.)

failures. This was the period when Pratt & Whitney desperately searched for the definitive master
rod bearing solution as related later in the text.

Each cylinder had two spark plugs-one at the front and one at the rear. It has often been assumed
that the use of two spark plugs per cylinder was as a safety backup . In fact this is not the case at all-
at least for highly supercharged, high performance engines . The primary reason for two plugs per
cylinder, not only on the R-2800, but all other large displacement, high output aircraft piston engines,
is one of performance. Running on one plug at anything above a low cruise power setting could
cause serious internal engine damage, the culprit being detonation-uncontrolled burning of the
fuel-air mixture. With two sources of ignition, two flame fronts are established, therefore the fuel/air
charge is burned in less time. With one source of ignition, the single flame front takes more time to
bum the fuel/air charge. This slower bum time allows the unburned mixture ahead of the flame front
to heat up to the point where it will ignite uncontrollably, i.e. , detonate (Ref 3.7). Further bolstering
the foregoing argument is the fact that many ignition systems, including many for the R-2800, fea-
tured only one dual magneto, albeit with two distributors and two sets of points. Therefore if that one
magneto failed the entire ignition system was shut down and as a consequence, the engine. However,
it should be pointed out that drive failure to the R-2800's dual magneto is almost unheard of Most
automobile engines get by with a single ignition source for several reasons: they have much smaller
diameter cylinders, therefore the flame front has less distance to travel and secondly, most auto
engines run naturally aspirated, i.e., they are not supercharged.

27
Chapter 3

The nitralloy, later chrome-molybdenum, cylinder barrel started life as a forging and was then machined
and ground on its outer diameter and honed on its bore . An aluminwn forging with closely pitched
cooling fins was shrunk onto the barrel. A mounting flange near the base formed the method of
mounting the cylinder to the crankcase. Fifteen holes were drilled into the mounting flange allowing
clearance for 3/s inch diameter studs fitted into the crankcase. On top of each mounting nut a "Pal"
nut was attached for locking purposes. Cylinders were "choked" (Fig. 3.4) (Ref. 3.8), in other
words the inside bore had three diameters. Each diameter would transition to the next dimension
over approximately Yi inch, the smallest diameter being at top dead center. The cylinder choking was
accomplished via the interference fit of the cylinder head screw thread and the interference fit of the
cooling muff That is, the barrel was ground and honed round and parallel. The interference fit of the
cooling muff was optimized to shrink the barrel and obtain the desired choke. Choking served several
purposes: it more effectively sealed the cylinder towards top dead center where the highest pressure
was experienced and conversely reduced piston drag towards the lower part of the cylinder where
pressure was considerably lower and consequently sealing concerns were less of a problem.

Front and rear cylinders were similar but not interchangeable. Front cylinders had the puslu·ods at
the front and intake and exhaust ports at the rear. Rear cylinders had pushrods, and both ports at the
rear. Valve covers ensured total enclosure of the valve gear and yet give access to the valve stems for
valve clearance checking .

Cooling Baffles

Incorporating adequate cooling fin area for the cylinders only represents a small part of the overall
cooling requirements of the cylinder and by default the entire engine. If the available cooling air is
not utilized to the full then all is for naught. Metal bafiles made from sheet aluminum wrapped
around the cylinder barrel and over the cylinder head ensures cooling air is evenly distributed, par-
ticularly around hot spots such as the exhaust valve area . The forward speed of the aircraft induces
a pressure differential between the front and rear of the cylinders. Additional bafile seals are pro-
vided for between the gaps forn1ed by the front and rear cylinders. In this way, all air that enters the
cowl is forced through the cylinder cooling fins.

Pistons

With the piston 's role of transferring the heat and pressure of combustion from a high performance,
supercharged engine, this was not the area to cut costs or incorporate an inadequate design. The
highest quality materials and manufacturing were givens. In the case of the R-2800 the piston
started life as an aluminum forging. Slightly domed on top with two valve relief cut-outs, it resulted
in a compression ratio of 6.65 : 1. This seemingly low compression ratio is typical of a highly super-
charged engine. High manifold pressures demand a reduced compression ratio-even when running
on high performance fuel. Despite the deceptively low compression ratio, BMEP (brake mean effective
pressure) was quite high-typically running at 150 psi. These characteristics conspired to make the
piston's life difficult at best. Ribs were machined into the inside ski1t areas for improved heat
rejection and rigidity.

28
 R-2800 Development

Fig. 3.4 "Chokin g" of cylinders was used in all R-2800 variants. It was accompl
ished by
the shrink fit of the cylinder head screwed onto the barrel. As the heated cylinder
head
cooled and assumed the same temperature of the barrel it contract ed enough to choke
the
barrel's bore. This illustrati on graphica lly shows the contour of the barrel bore dimensio
n.
It can be seen that a maximum of 0. 006 inches choke was obtained at top dead center.
(Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines [R-2800 -8, -10, -8W, and -JOW], Second
Edition.
Authors collectio n.)

Rings

It was only in the early 1930s that any semblance of good ring design had evolved. Prior
to this,
aircraft engines and any other engine for that matter, tended to suffer from excessive oil
consump -
tion. This was a result of the piston ring's steam engine ancestry. The two primary functions
of
piston rings are (1) to seal the piston against the enonnous gas pressure s generated during
the power
stroke and (2) to reduce the flow of oil into the combustion chamber to a minimum.
Always a
difficult design challenge , ring development tended to progress on an empirical basis. The
spring
tension in a ring is not very important, since the major component of the radial pressure for
sealing
is provided by gas pressure behind the ring exerting pressure against the cylinder wall.
Spring
tension, however, does play a more important role in the case of a badly worn cylinder. Side
clear-
ance in the piston ring land is a key dimension. Sufficient clearance needs to be provided
for to

29
Chapter 3

allow gases to flow over the top face of the ring and pressurize it against the cylinder wall . On the
other hand excessive clearance will result in hammering of the ring against the lands, resulting in
premature failure. This is especially true of the vulnerable top ring land. Early engine designers
failed to realize the importance of sufficient land clearance. This resulted in collapsed rings, i.e. , the
gas pressure would tend to force the ring inwards thus destroying the seal. Sir Harry Ricardo (Fig. 3.5)
(Ref. 3.7) was one of the pioneers to realize this anomaly with a tank engine he developed during
World War I. As a quick expedient he had grooves machined into the top faces of the rings to allow
the gas pressure to get to the back of the ring. Ring face width was another area of controversy. The
proponents of a wide ring face argued that there was less chance of the oil film being squeezed out,
particularly towards the top of the stroke where boundary layer lubrication exists. This, of course,
resulted in less cylinder barrel wear. On the other hand, a wider ring carries more inertia, resulting in
a greater tendency to ring flutter. Ring flutter is the phenomenon caused at high piston speeds,
typically 2500 feet per minute and higher, when the ring will float off the lower ring land conse-
quently destroying the gas seal. This results in violent blow-by and significant loss of power. For
many years this phenomena was thought to be caused by radial vibration of the ring . Paul Dykes, for
whom his piston ring is named, demonstrated what really occurred. Under normal circumstances, as
the piston rises on the compression stroke, the ring is held, at first by inertia, and later by gas pres-
sure, against the lower ring land. In this way, the full clearance above the ring is available for gas
pressure to seal the ring against the cylinder wall. And at the same time the lower land is completely
sealed. At some critical piston speed, however, the ring 's inertia will exceed both friction and gas
pressure during the compression stroke and allow the ring to float off the lower land. Under these
running conditions the ring will lose the gas seal and collapse resulting in the classic case of "ring
flutter. " The foregoing gives an idea of the idiosyncrasies involved in ring design. Most of it
resulted from trial and error. Rolls-Royce ran afoul ofring problems developing the 1931 Schneider
trophy "R" racing engine. At one time during this engines development, oil consumption reached an
unheard of rate of 112 gallons per houri

Fig 3.5 Sir Harry Ricardo,

one of the early engine
development pioneers.
Ricardo made numerous
contributions to engine
development during his
long and illustrious career
(Courtesy of Ricardo
Consulting Engineers.)

30
 R-2800 Development

For the R-2800, five piston ring grooves were provided for six piston rings (Fig. 3.6). The top three
grooves contained compression rings of the "wedge" type. These rings were originally developed
for the hyper perfom1ance Napier Sabre in England. Its advantages include less susceptibility to
ring sticking from oil coking, and a better seal. Typically, the ideal included angle is 15 degrees.
The top ring was manufactured from a chrome faced, gray cast iron material, the lower compression
rings were similar in design but did not include the chrome facing.

A dual oil control ring resided below the top three grooves. At the bottom of the piston, below the
wrist pin, an oil scraper ring resided. A fully floating, hollow steel wrist pin made from a centerless
grinding operation was used with aluminum plugs pressed into its ends for cylinder barrel protection.

Cam Rings

It would be impracticable for a radial engine to have a conventional camshaft such as those used for
inline engines. Therefore a cam ring was employed. It performs the same function as a camshaft but
in a slightly different manner. The engine does not care how the valves are opened and closed just as
long as these events occur at the correct time with the correct acceleration/deceleration and valve

SIDE SIDE
END GA P CLEARANCE END GAP CLEARANCE

.o9e5 - . 1035 .004 - .0 06 .06!!5 -.0735 .002 - .004

. 0985 -.1035 .004 - .006 .0665 - .0735 .002 - .004

. 0665 - .0735 .002 - .004 . 06&5 - .0735 .0 02 - .004

. 0665 -.0735 .0685 - .0735

.004 - .007 .004 - .007
.05 6 5 - .0735 .O!l!l5 - . 0735

.0665 - .0 735 . 003 - . 005 .062 -.074 .003 - .005

LEGEND
CC-CHROME PLATED COMPRESSION RING IF A PLAIN COMPRESSION RING IS
C-PLAIN COMPRESSION RING USEO IN THE TOP GROOVE , A RECT-
DO- DUAL OIL CONTROL RING ANGULAR -SECTIONED COMPRESSION
S- SCRAPER RING RING MUST BE USEC IN THE BOTTOM
GROOVE.

Fig 3. 6 Cross section showing the R-2800 s piston ring configuration. (Double Wasp B Series
Two Stage Engines [R-2800-8, -1 0, -8W, and -1 OW], Second Edition. Authors collection.)

31
Chapter 3

lift. As its name suggests, a cam ring is basically a ring with two tracks precision ground onto its outer
diameter with four (in the case of the R-2800) cam profiles on each track (Fig. 3. 7) . One cam track
operates the intake valves and the other cam track operates the exhaust valves . For the early series
of R-2800 described herein the timing was as follows:

Intake opens 20 degrees BTDC

Intake closes 76 degree ABDC
Exhaust opens 76 degrees BBDC
Exhaust closes 20 degrees ATDC

A four stroke engine completes a cycle every 720 degrees or two revolutions. That is why the inline
engine uses 2: 1 reduction gearing between the camshaft and crankshaft. On the other hand a radial
engine designer has a number of options at his disposal. In the case of the R-2800 with its four lobes,
8: 1 reduction gearing is required. Each row of cylinders has a dedicated cam ring . Some n;vo-row

ENGINE LIFTING LINKS

MAGNETO INlERMEDIATE - , UPPER CAM REDUCTION

\ GEAR REAR BUSHING ~
ORIVESPURGEAR
UPPER CAM \ _,r--- FRONT CAM
OISTRIBUTOR DRIVE
IDL£R GEAR REDUCTIOrt GEAR

DISTRIBUTOR DRIVE
IDLER GEAR

COUN.ll:RBALANCE
INTERMEBIATE
DRIVE GEAR SHAFT

CIRCLED NUMBERS REFER TO

POSITION NUMBERS ETCHED ON PARTS

Fig. 3. 7 Front cam ring and support plate. The R-2800 used four cam lobes per cam track
and consequently 8: 1 reduction gearing from the crankshaft. Note the roller cam followers .
(Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines [R-2800-8, -JO, -8W, and -JOW], Second Edition.
Authors collection.)

32
 R-2800 Development

engines would use one cam ring located in the front. While this obviously helped to reduce the
complexity and weight of the engine, it was a compromise at best. For the pushrods to reach the rear
row of cylinders, a severe angle was introduced . This was detrimental to valve timing and valve lift
because of the different geometry compared to the front row. Furthermore, heavy thrust loads were
introduced, particularly at the tappets. The R-2800 's cam ring, running at one-eighth crankshaft
speed, was supported in a large diameter, narrow bronze bushing. Due to the necessary clearance of
this large diameter bushing, it was essential that the cam ring be centered in this bushing during
valve clearance adjustments. This was accomplished by simply depressing the diametrically oppo-
site valve.

A compound gear train emanating from the crankshaft drove the cam ring. Final drive was via a
pinion gear driving an internal gear machined into the cam ring (Fig. 3.8). Drive arrangements were
similar both front and rear. Cam followers were steel with rollers riding on the cam track (Fig. 3.9).
The tappets ran in aluminum tappet guides shrunk into the front and rear sections of the main crankcase.

PISTON PIN

VALVE TA P P ET

MASTER ROD BEARING· VA LV E TA P PET ROLLER

AND KNUCK L E PIN
RETAINING PLATE

CRAN K SH A FT
COUNTERWEI GHT FR ON T GE AR

COUNTERWEIGHT
ROLLER

MASTER ROOS

Fig. 3.8 With four cam lobes, 8:1 reduction gearing is required. This illustration shows how
Pratt & Wh itney achieved this reduction ratio. (Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines
[R-2800-8, -1 0, -8W, and -lO W}, Second Edition. Authors collection.)

33
Chapter 3

CRANKSHAFT FRONT GEAR

ENGINE LI FTING LINK

VALVE TA PPET ROLLERS

Fig. 3.9 Tappet chest

and roller cam fo llowers
shown to good advan-
tage in this front view.
(Double Wasp B Series
Two Stage Engines
FRONT MAIN CRANKCASE [R-2800-8, -10, -8W, and
VA LVE TAPPETS
-JOW], Second Edition.
Authors collection.)

The outer ends of the tappet guides are supported in the outer wall of the crankcase and the inner
ends are anchored in bosses forged integral with the crankcase section.

Crankshaft

One of the key considerations when designing a crankshaft is vibration, specifically torsional and
linear vibrations, the bane of many engine designers. Torsional vibration is induced by a slight
twisting and untwisting of the crankshaft along its longitudinal axis. Each time a cylinder fires , a
sudden surge of energy is imparted to the crankshaft. Total elimination of torsional vibration is
impossible; however, keeping it within reasonable bounds, i.e., less than one degree, will contribute
to the crank enjoying a long life.

If a crankshaft were infinitely rigid, torsional vibration would not be an issue. Unfortunately, no
such ideal material exists, so in the real world of highly stressed, lightweight engines, things bend,
stretch, and twist. Linear vibration is the perceived "shaking" of the engine . The final fix for the

34
 R-2800 Development

R-2800 's linear vibration problems was the incorporation of two second order counterweights rotat-
ing at twice crank speed.

The following is a brief discourse on some of the background surrounding crankshaft development
and its associated quirks.

Torsional Vibration Background

A bitter rivalry between carmakers Frederick Lanchester and Henry (later Sir Henry) Royce
(Fig. 3.10) (of Rolls-Royce fame) (Ref. 3.7) evolved in the early part of the century, each claiming
to be the inventor of the crankshaft torsional vibration damper. Both men understood the problem and
attacked it in similar ways, a torsionally resilient flywheel at the front of the crank . Royce later used
a clutch pack on his first aircraft engine, the water cooled V-12 Eagle. It was installed in the nose
case as part of the epicyclic reduction gearing. Although it worked well, one disadvantage was that
the positional relationship between the crank and propeller was constantly changing, which negated
the possibility of using a gun synchronizer. In addition, Royce used a spring drive at the rear similar
to the R-2800 's blower drive, i.e. , axially disposed compression springs in a two-piece drive gear, with
the hub of the gear being cushioned by the springs. Without these torsional vibration attenuation
devices the Eagle could not operate at its optimal speed of 1750 rpm. As engine powers climbed way
beyond the Rolls-Royce Eagle's 360 to 400 horsepower something more effective was required. In
the United States, Pratt & Whitney, Curtiss-Wright, and Lycoming, all of whom were developing
radials, ran into crankshaft torsional vibration problems at about the same time controllable pitch
propellers were introduced. It has been argued that the relatively loose mounting of blades in their
hubs compared to rigid fixed pitch propellers "detuned" previously stable crankshafts. This resulted
in reducing the effective inertia of the propeller resulting in some cases of harmonic torsional vibra-
tion periods. Two lieutenants working at Wright Field zeroed in on this phenomenon: Lt. Orval Cook
and Lt. Turner A. Sims, both of whom worked in the Wright Field Propeller Branch. A counterargument
suggests that rather than the loose mounting of the propeller blades detuning crankshafts, a more

Fig. 3.10 Henry Royce (later Sir

Henry Royce), co-founder of
Rolls-Royce, was a contempo-
rary of Lanchester :S. Like
Lanchester, Royce recognized
the destructive forces at play
with crankshaft torsional
vibration. (Courtesy of the
Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust.)

35
Chapter 3

plausible explanation might be that controllable props had considerably greater mass than previously
used fixed pitch propellers or test clubs. The severity of the problem peaked in 1934 when Wright
suffered serious problems with the R-1820 including broken propeller shafts. During this time frame,
E.S. Taylor of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology proposed that a pendulum type damper
should be incorporated into the crankshaft webs. His first proposal was the "Salomon" or hockey
puck type as used in the "A," "B," and "D" series R-2800. Roland Chilton of Wright used a floating
counten¥eight supported on two pins and consequently was called the bifilar-the same type used on
the R-2800 "C" and "E" series. Independently of the work taking place at Wright Field, MIT, Wright,
etc. , the French also had an understanding of this problem. According to Taylor, " Salomon was the
first to understand the principle of the pendulum damper. " Also according to Taylor, another French-
man, Sarazin, had designed a device almost identical to Chilton's, which influenced Hispano-Suiza
and their aircraft engines (Ref. 3. 9).

With the incorporation of Salomon type dynamic counteraeights, this took care of the more imme-
diate problem of crankshaft torsional vibration. But it had little effect on the perceived and actual
smoothness of the engine. It took the introduction of the second order linear vibration damper to
smooth out the engine, rather than crankshaft torsional, vibration. Contributing to second order vibra-
tion, as with all engines, was the variation in connecting rod geometry. The master connecting rod
was the only one describing a true circular path. The link rods described an elliptical path. For this
reason the link rod knuckle pins were tucked in as tightly as possible to the master rod. Even so, the
distance between the center of the master rod journal and the center of the link rod knuckle pin
created a differing geometry, resulting in a second order vibration being set up due to the "whirling"
effect of the link rods.

In practice, many variations were used to attenuate this second order vibration resulting from the
differing rod geometries. Pratt & Whitney took a fairly simple route. Two disks, approximately
one-third the diameter of the engine's crankcase, mounted co-axially to the crankshaft, one at the
front and one at the rear was their chosen solution (Fig. 3.11). A lead bronze bearing pressed into the
counteraeight runs on an extension to the number one crankshaft main bearing journal for the front
counte1weight and number three main journal for the rear counteraeight. To attenuate second order,
the counteraeights need to run at twice crank speed. The 2:1 gearing is achieved through a gear
attached to the crankshaft and intermediate gears. Driving a massive counten¥eight at up to 6000
rpm-and sometimes greater, takes some thought in the design process . Torsional vibrations ema-
nating from the crankshaft, propeller, and other internal engine parts could excite the counteraeight
and its drive gears. In order to attenuate this tendency, compression springs, disposed axially around
the crank gear offers the appropriate amount of cushion to ensure the system lives in harmony with
its neighbors. This solution was also used for the supercharger drive. With the two aforementioned
second order counteraeights installed, things smoothed out considerably (Fig. 3.12). Contributing
to second order linear vibration was the fact that the cylinders did not share the same stroke . This is
due to link rod knuckle pins not being located at the crankpin center. The first two on either side of
the master rod have the same stroke but not the same as the master rod. The next two pistons have
the same stroke, but again different from the others. The last pair likewise have the same stroke but
different from the others. When analyzing the inertia of all pistons and reciprocating portion of the

36
 R-2800 Development

5:375
DIA.
SILVER 5. 180

5 .7 95
P.O. 4.8755
4.8745

THESE SURFACES
MUST BE PARALLEL
WITHIN .0 0 1 AND SQUARE
WITH THIS DIA WITHIN
.002 FULL INDICATOR
STEEL RE ADING BEFORE ANO
AFTER PLATING
SILVER

SECTION A-A

FRONT COUNTERBALANCE
ENCLOSED AREA CASE HARDENED
81 TO 84 ROCKWELL "A" SCALE

5180

THESE SURFACES MUST

BE PARALL EL WIT HIN .OOI
A FULL INDICATOR READING STEEL
AND. SQUARE WITH THIS DIA. ____ SILVER
WITHIN 002 FULL INDICATOR
READING BEFORE AND
AFTER PLATING
SECTION A-A

REAR COUNTERBALANCE

Fig 3.11 Second order counterweights rotating at twice crank speed were essential in ensuring
the survivability of the R-2800 crankshaft. These second order counterweights attenuated linear
vibration. (Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines [R-2800-8, -10, -8W, and -lOW}, Second
Edition. Author '.s collection.)

37
Chapter 3

Fig. 3.12 Even the second order counterweight gear drive needed protection from torsional
vibration. This was accomplished via the compression springs shown in this illustration. A
similar cushioning drive was used for the supercharger drive. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp B
Series Two Stage Engines, 1944. Authors collection.)

rods, an inertia force that rotates twice at twice crank speed results in a 2X force. This non-uniform
stroking is an incentive to pull the knuckle pins in as close to the crankpin center as possible . As a
typical example of the out of balance forces that had to be contended with, the bare R-2800 master
connecting rod weighs approximately 15 pounds. Part of this 15 pound mass is reciprocating and
part rotating and constantly changing geometry. Even so, Pratt & Whitney went through many
variations on twice crank speed second order counterweight design before settling on one that was
dependable and yet smoothed things out for the engine. Nevertheless, the second order counter-
weight and its drive continued to keep Pratt & Whitney 's finest engineers on their toes. At a critical
stage of World War II, Eighth Air Force P-47s were grounded because of a manufacturing problem
with this key component (Ref 3.10).

As mentioned previously, another key design decision for the crankshaft is the choice of one piece
with split master rod, or built up with one-piece master rod. Hobbs clearly favored the latter. But it
did introduce design challenges which, fortunately, Pratt & Whitney engineers were up to. The most
basic of these challenges was how to assemble the crankshaft and ensure it would hold together
under punishing loadings . Secondly, how many major components should the crankshaft be made
from ? Either design route was littered with compromises and mechanical booby traps for the unwary.

38
 R-2800 Development

With a one-piece crank and split master rods, the compromise is the lower BMEP and rpm capability
of the rod. A higher structural weight of a two-piece master rod also increases the weight of the
counterweight necessary to balance the engine. The one-piece master rod and built up crank intro-
duced problems of integrity of the crankshaft. Subjected to enormous bending, vibratory, and tor-
sional loads, the joints were susceptible to " creeping" and fretting. The design that finally evolved, at
least for the "A" and "B" series engine being described here, was as follows : A three-piece, three
main bearing crankshaft was developed. The front and rear sections comprised the front and rear
main bearings. They also incorporated half the master rod bearing journal for the front and rear rows
of cylinders. The center section comprised the center main bearing journal and the remaining halves
of the front and rear master rod bearing journal. Each of these major components was machined
from a chromium-molybdenum forging. Furthermore, each component was polished all over for
fatigue resistance. The bearing journals were micro polished. A pair of massive counterweights took
care of static out of balance forces for each crank throw. Additional weights, manufactured from
tungsten, were riveted to the pair of crank cheeks for the front master rod journal. The rear master
rod journal still had tungsten counterweights riveted to the front crank web. Additionally, the rear
crank web featured dynamic Salomon "hockey puck" type weights, again, made of tungsten. The
dynan1ic counterweights took the fonn of circular pucks allowed to float on the rear crank cheeks.
These hockey puck dynamic weights attenuated 4Yz order vibration modes. Holding a heavily loaded
crankshaft together required ingenuity and bolts of the highest precision and strength . The split
journals featured a male and female spline for location and transmission of torque. A force fit
required the use of a jack to assemble the crankshaft components. A precision bolt then held the
splined couplings together. All in all, a tricky design and manufacturing job (Fig. 3.13 and Fig.
3.14).

The front of the crankshaft was bored out to accommodate a steel-backed bronze bearing. The tail
end of the propeller shaft ran in this bearing. The weight of the propeller, up to 600 pounds, plus
gyroscopic loads during aircraft maneuvers conspired to place heavy loads on the front main bear-
ing. Under extreme operating conditions, such as violent combat maneuvers, premature front main
bearing failure could result. Although adequate (barely) for the " A" and "B" series R-2800, the
master rod journals could distort under heavy load. This deficiency was corrected in the "C" and
"E" series engine with their face splines described in the next chapter.

Notches on the Telephone

As indicated in the foregoing description, nothing comes easy in life, particularly when it pertains to
design of the R-2800 crankshaft. George Meloy, one of Pratt & Whitney's experimental test engi-
neers in charge of crankshaft development testing, probably suffered more through these trying
times than any one . Meloy quickly rose through the management ranks at Pratt & Whitney, and even
today he is fondly remembered by his co-workers as one of the few people who could spend time in
a test cell wearing a crisp white shirt and not get a drop of oil on it! Born in 1916 in Chicago, hi s
family moved to New York four years later, eventually settling in Teaneck, New Jersey, ironically
Curtiss Wright territory. After graduating high school in Teaneck, Meloy successfully pursued a
bachelor of aeronautical engineering degree from New York University. In 1938, even though this

39
Chapter 3

Fig 3. 13 Built up crank for the "A " and "B " series R-2800. Note the "hockey puck" type
Salomon dynamic counterweights on the right and male/female splines for holding the
sections together. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines, 1944.)

was in the depths of the Great Depression, Meloy found employment with Pratt & Whitney. Starting
as a test engineer, his managerial talents were quickly recognized. In an effort to inject some humor
in a serious situation, one of George 's co-workers cut a notch in his telephone each time a crankshaft
failed. His phone soon ran out of space to add notches! As can be imagined, a crankshaft failure
was a devastating blow requiring a root cause analysis and then a redesign (Ref. 3.11).

Obviously, many of the crank failures were associated with metallurgy problems. To attack the
problem from this angle, Pratt & Whitney employed metallurgists to investigate crank failures and
other metal fatigue related design problems. Two names that came to the forefront during interviews
for this book were A.W.F. Green, or as he was better known, "Awful Green. " Despite this rather
disrespectful moniker, he was key in helping George Meloy overcome the serious crankshaft failures
with his innovative metallurgical solutions. Herb Noble was another key metallurgist working dili-
gently on improving materials .

The recognized guru of vibration is Den Hartog, who wrote the definitive work on the subject,
Mechanical Vibrations. At the time of the R-2800's development, Hartog was a professor at MIT.
He consulted with Pratt & Whitney during the development phase of the R-2800 crankshaft.

The following table is a synopsis of Short Memorandum Reports (SMRs). They give some idea of
the tremendous effort required to get something that would not fail under the abuse of propeller
loads, gyroscopic loads, attenuating various orders of vibration, etc. As an example of what can go
wrong, Dana Waring witnessed a typical catastrophic failure in the test house. A rear crank cheek
failed between the Salomon dampers. At the time of failure, the engine was running at takeoff
power. This failure immediately locked the engine solid. Of course the laws of physics take over in
situations like this and the engine tore itself off the mount, and rotated in the test cell until the carbu-
retor stopped its rotation. The propeller, in the meantime, tore itself loose and continued to slam itself
against the walls of the test house. When everything had settled down, the scene was that of utter
destruction!

40
 R-2800 Development

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT

Report Engine Test Report Results/Conclusions/

Number Serial # Date Date Object/Process Recommendations

393 X-78 1/31 /38 217138 Determine amplitude and frequency Ax amplitude +/- 0.19 de., crank
(Ref. 3.12) of crankshaft vibration . Wood club, natural frequency - 90 Hz, no
1500 hp, 700 to 2100 rpm, measure- marked resonance , test stopped at
ments taken at front of accessory 2100 rpm due to an unspecified
drive shaft (rear of crank) . bearing failure

408 X-78 2/16/38 3/11/38 Continuation of SM 393. 2:1 reduc- Safe to run. 4.5X resonance at
(Ref. 3.13) tion gear, wood club, 1500 hp, 1000 1200 rpm+/- 0.49 de (ax). Natural
to 2400 rpm, measurements taken at frequency not sharply defined ,
front of accessory drive shaft (rear of seems about 90 Hz, 2.5X-5.5X
crank). vibration throughout the rpm range.

410 X-79 3/22/38 3/25/38 Determine resonant speeds of tor-
(Ref. 3.14) sional vibration on "Z" dynamometer,
2:1 reduction gear, motoring 500 to
2100 rpm, firing 400 to 2600 rpm,
load of 1800 hp at 2600 rpm, lack of
torsiograph adapters for starter shaft
prevented gathering data on acces-
sory shaft twist.
Accessory drive shaft failure .
Unsafe to operate this
dynamometer-engine combination
below 1500 rpm. Serious reso-
nance at 800 and 1300 rpm .

415 X-79 3/30/38 4/12/38 Investigate torsional vibration with
(Ref. 3.15) direct drive on "Z" dynamometer,
concentrating on accessory drive
and crank motion . Data taken at
front of accessory drive shaft and
generator drive 300 to 2000 rpm
motoring , 500 to 2200 rpm firing,
and load of 1800 hp at 2600 rpm.
Serious 1X at 1000 and 1400 rpm.
Unsafe to operate from 800 to
1600 rpm . Suggests installing first
order pendulum damper on
dynamometer coup ling . Suggests
placing master rods near O de, but
points out that unbalanced second-
ary torque would necessitate tear
down before and after dynamometer
run and the need for special even-
firing mags.

418 X-79 4/19/38 4/27/38 Investigate torsional vibration with Natural frequency is 5200 rpm. Ax
(Ref. 3.16) wood club and single-pinion 2:1 torsional vibration amplitude is
reduction gear, 60-spline prop shaft. 0.32 de . Slight resonance at 2600
1200 to 2600 rpm , load of 1800 hp rpm. "With the master rods set at
at 2600 rpm. 100 de on this engine , the second
ary torque harmonic is practically
balanced out."

420 X-79 4/26/38 4/39/38 Investigate destructive vibration that
(Ref. 3.17) resulted in carburetor mount, air
chute, and exhaust stack failures.
Steel and aluminum air chutes were
tried unsuccessfully. Metal prop and
wood prop were tried , no change . Ax
amplitude is 2600 rpm (endurance
operating speed).
Whirling motion at twice engine
speed with a node at the center
main bearing indicates unbalanced
second order inertia forces. A 1.5X
vibration at higher speed thought to
be due to prop interference. Sug-
gests variation in piston weights
between cylinders or three master
rods spaced at 120 de on each
crankpin as possible solutions.

(continued)

41
Chapter 3

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued

Report Engine Test Report Results/Conclusions/

Number Serial# Date Date Object/Process Recommendations

431 X-70 4/26/38 5/ 17/38 Torsional vibrati on investigation with Safe to operate. Ax tors ional
(Ref. 3.18) 3-blade metal prop. 1200 to 2600 vibration at 2600 rpm at 0.64 de.
rpm, load of 1830 hp at 2600 prm , Natu ral frequency -100 rpm less
2: 1 reductio n, 1T prop , double- than with wood club.
pinion, 60-spline prop shaft.

432 X-78 5/11 /3 8 5/18/38 Investigate the fix proposed in
(Ref. 3.19) SM 420. Heavier pistons, solid pins,
and bronze caps in master cy linder
and 3 adjacent on each side.
Primary balance maintained by
increasing master balance weight.
Found impractical for achieving
secondary inertia balance. An
incorrect assumption in original
ca lcu lations predicting 80%
improvement was actually 10%
with a 75 lb increase in engine
we ight. Suggestion of second order
counterbalance method.

442 X-78 6/17/38 7/1/38 Test of second order counterbalances Inconclusive but promising. Front
(Ref. 3.20) to 6/2 1/38 front and rear, designed to counter- co unterbalance drive broke. Sug-
balance -80% of combined secondary gestion of flexible drives for co un-
couple and shaking force, load of terba lances. Suggestion of 180-de
1800 bhp at 2600 rpm, wood club. master rod orientation.

449 X-7 8 7/2/38 7/ 15/38 Torsional vibration with 180 de master Excessive second order tors ional
(Ref. 3.21) rods (6 & 15) , single pinion, 2: 1 vibration (1 .32 de with 180 de spac-
reduction , 60-spl ine prop shaft, ing as opposed to 0.30 de with 10
wood club . de spacing) , both at 2550 rpm,
amplitude of the second order
whirling was not red uced . 3.5X
resonance attributed to valve inertia
was observed.

450 X-78 7/1/38 7/15/38 Linear vibration with 180 de master No change in li near vibration. Prop
(Ref. 3.22) to 7/5/38 rod placement. Investigation of test co ntribution to second order linear
club role inducing second order vibration deemed insign ificant.
vibration investigated by indexing 3.5X resonance in air chute is
club. deemed destructive.

454 X-78 7/15/38 8/5/38 Linear vibration with 50-spline prop Resonant speed with wood club
(Ref. 3.23) to 7/26/38 shaft and Ham Standard Hydromatic dropped to 2050 rpm due to less
prop with 6159-0 blades. 2: 1 reduc- stiff prop shaft. Amplitudes of
tion , 100 de master rods , 1800- 2600 0.0 15" to 0.0 17" With Ham Stan-
rpm , wood club then metal prop . dard Hydromatic prop , resonance
at 2550 rpm , amplitude of .013"-
.016". Prop interference resonance
at 1800 and 2400 rpm 0.023". No
resonance but high amplitude of
3.5X linear vibration.

(continued)

42
 R-2800 Development

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued

Report Engine Test Report Results/Conclusions/

Number Serial# Date Date ObjecUProcess Recommendations

455 X-78 7/22/38 8/9/38 Torsional vibration with 50-spline Wood club: crank natural frequency
(Ref. 3.24) to 7/26/38 prop shaft and Ham Standard Hydro- reduced from 5200 cpm to 4600
matic prop with 6150-0 blades . 2:1 cpm , amplitude went from 0.30 to
reductio n, 100 de master rods , 1.02 de. Prop: reduced natural
1200 to 2700 rpm , load of 1800 hp frequency to 4400 cpm , ax ampli-
at 2600 rpm. tude of 1.35 de. Second order
torsional in resonance at 2200 rpm
higher speeds, 1.5X and 1X are
outstanding. Suggests determining
if the 1X component is torsion of
entire engine.

462 X-78 8/8/38 8/22/38 Test second order counterbalances
(Ref. 3.25) to 8/16/38 (designed for 68% excitation reduc-
tion) with neoprene rubber drive
couplings in counterbalance drive,
50-spline prop shaft, wood club,
1600 to 2600 rpm , load of 1800 bhp
at 2600 rpm , Ham Standard Hydro-
matic 14 · prop (23E50 hub, 6159-0
blades) .
Six and fifteen drive buttons were
tried. Counterbalance drive failed in
each case (sheared buttons and
bearing failure) . Data that was
gathered indicated 60% (wood club)
and 75% (prop) reduction in 2X
vibration (measured at the thrust
plate) and similar reduction at the
carb flange. 1.5X (prop interfer-
ence) and 3.5X (valve) vibration
remain. Suspect test house influ-
ence on 1.5X vibration. Suggests
spring counterbalance drive and
lead-plated bearings.

474 X-78 8/ 15/38 9/ 17/38 Torsional vibration tests with 15-
(Ref. 3.26) button rubber counterbalance drives
and Ham Standard Hydromatic prop
(23E50 hub, 6159-0 blades), 2:1
reduction , 50-spline prop shaft,
1200 to 2500 rpm , load of 1800 hp
at 2600 rpm.
Torsional vibration ax amplitudes:
2.5X of 1.20 de at 1200 rpm; 2X of
0.88 de at 2000 rpm ; and 1X of
0.96 de at 2300 rpm. Crank natural
frequency reduced 400 cpm to
4000 cpm. 1X vibration peaks at
2300 rpm. Torsional motion of
engine may contribute to 1X vi bra-
tion. Overall improvement in tor-
sional vibration except for 1200 rpm
resonance.

475 X-78 8/31 /38 9/28/38 Linear and torsional vibration test with
(Ref. 3.27) leaf spring drive counterbalances and
wood club. 2:1 reduction, 50-spline
prop shaft, linear measurements from
1500 to 2400 rpm, torsional measure-
ments 1050 to 2450 rpm , load of
1800 hp at 2450 rpm .
2X linear vibration down to .0095"
at 1600 rpm (60% reduction same
as rubber-drive counterbalances).
3.5X resonance is now biggest
vibration. A 5.5X resonance is
believed due to flexible sensor
mounting . Reduction of 2X linear
vibration not as good as theoretical
due to additional 2X interference
from the 4-blade test club.

(continued)

43
Chapter 3

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued

Report Engine Test Report Results/Conclusions/

Number Serial# Date Date Object/Process Recommendations

476 X-78 9/2/38 9/28/38 Torsional vibration with leaf spring
(Ref. 3.28) to 9/ 10/38 counterbalances and Ham Standard
Hydromatic prop 2:1 reduction,
50-spline prop shaft. 1200 to 2700
rpm , load of 1800 hp at 2600 rpm.
Sensor to determine 1X torsional
vibration of entire engine applied ,
found to be 0.1 O de , also 0.18 de
at .5X.
Ax torsional vibration of 1.60 de at
2700 rpm (1.5X and 1X). Variation
in torsional vibration attributed to
prop interference and interaction
with other engines running in the
test house. 2X component peaked
at 2150 rpm indicating slight reduc-
tion in crank natural frequency.
Torsional vibration is too high above
2400 rpm , but 1.5X is probably
prop/test house interaction and will
not be as noticeable on airplane.
Since only a small torsional vibra-
tion exists for the entire engine,
most torsional vibration is in the
crank, reduction gearing , and prop
shaft. Suggests higher speed tests
for 1.5X and 1X to see if it peaks
below 3000 rpm .

479 X-78 9/2/38 10/7/38 Test of linear vibration with spring-
(Ref. 3.29) to 9/10/38 drive counterbalances. Ham Stand-
ard Hydromatic 14 · prop (23E50 hub,
6159-0 blades). 2:1 reduction , 50-
spl ine prop shaft, 1700 to 2650 rpm ,
load of 1800 hp at 2600 rpm . Corre-
lation of prop blade stresses at con-
slant BMEP of 195 and full throttle .
1200 to 2700 rpm.
60% reduction in linear vibration
corre lates wel l with 68% theoretical
prediction. 2X linear vibration ax of
0.012" in vertical direction at carb
flange, resonance of entire engine
at 2500 rpm . 1X and 1.5X vibration
gave largest amplitude, but the 3.5X
that is in resonance at 2400 rpm is
the most serious. Carb resonance
up to .010" at 2050 , 4.5X and 5.5X
vibration exist through the range ,
but shows no resonance. Blade tip
stress peaks of 5X at 1500 rpm, 4X
at 1900 rpm , and 3X at 2500 rpm
(highest at 11500 psi) . No crank
torsion at 3X , 4X or 5X. Prop shank
showed peaks of 1X, 1.5X and 3.5X
vibration (1900 and 2400 rpm) with
amplitude up to 3000 psi. Prop tip
stresses exceed limits of 4 to 5000
psi , but excitation source is
unknown. Prop shank stress is
acceptable.

487 X-79 9/30/38 10/31 /38 Find source of high prop tip stresses Vertical and transverse linear vibra-
(Ref. 3.30) to 10/5/38 by sensing vertica l, transverse , and lions were nearly identical to SM
fore-aft linear vibration , and observe 479. 2X peak at 2500 rpm , 3.5X
1X torsional vibration from 2600 to peak at 1600 rpm , and 4.5X peak at
2800 rpm. Ham Standard Hydromatic 2300 rpm were all in resonance .

(continued)

44

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued
Report Engine Test Report
Number Serial # Date Date Object/Process
487 14· prop (23E50 hub, 6159-0 blades),
(Cont) 2:1 reduction , leaf-spring drive
counterbalances, 50-spline prop
shaft, 100 de master rods , 1200 to
2600 rpm at 196 BMEP, 2600 to 2800
rpm with load of 1800 hp.
488 X-78 10/11/38 11 /8/38 Crank torsional vibration character-
(Ref. 3.31) to 10/21 /38 istics with 1X damper. 2:1 reduction,
leaf spring counterbalances, double
link 1X crank damper, 50-spline prop
shaft, 100 de master rods , wood club
and Ham Standard Hydromatic 14·
prop (23E50 hub, 6159-0 blades) .
1200 to 2600 rpm, load of 1800 hp at
2600 (wood); 1200 to 2200 rpm at
148 BM EP, 22 to 2800 rpm at 196
BMEP (prop). Note that galling of the
damper links caused friction and
decreased function. Clearances and
oil supply were reworked, but mecha-
nism continued to give trouble.
45
R-2800 Development
Results/Conclusions/
Recommendations
5.5X linear vibration was not. Fore-
aft linear vibration shows reso-
nance of 3X at 2500 rpm (highest
blade-tip stress) , and 4.5X at 1500
and 2300 rpm. Torsional vibration
of 0.79 de is within spec. 1X tor-
sional vibration component still
increasing at 2800 rpm with no
indication of peaking below the
4000 cpm crank natural frequency.
Subsequent tip stress runs have
failed to duplicate 3, 4, and 5X
stresses reported in SM 479. All
runs show a 4.5X resonance at
2300 rpm and some a 4.5X at 1500
rpm. There is excitation at all the
usual harmonic orders, with the
4.5X being the one resonating in
this application. While it is destruc-
tive to the prop, it probably has no
effect on the engine. A 4.5X
damper would remove the 4.5X
stress, but may introduce worse
3.5, 4, 5, 5.5X stresses. Suggests
redesign of cra nk to decrease in
natural frequency to 500 to 1000
rpm , combination of torsional flexi-
bility and damping, and centrifugally
coup ling . Suggests a 4.5X cra nk
damper to reduce prop tip stresses.
Linear vibration and 1X torsional
vibration unaffected, 1.5X and 2X
torsional vibration were higher at
196 BMEP, but at 148 BMEP 1.5X
was practically negligible and 2X
was below 0.20 de. No clear indi-
cation of damper effectiveness due
to friction. Increase of 1.5X and 2X
torsional vibration probably due to
high prop blade angle and amplifi-
cation of higher orders by 1X
damper motion. Again , test house
conditions seem to influence 1.5X
torsional vibration. There is still a
large 4.5X torsional vibration at
2300 rpm. This is the source of
high blade tip stresses reported in
SM 487.
(continued)
Chapter 3
TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued
Report Engine Test Report
Number Serial # Date Date Object/Process
489 X-79 10/20/38 11 /8/38 Linear vibration characteristics when
(Ref. 3.32) operated outside the test house.
2:1 reduction, 50-spline prop shaft,
100 de master rod, leaf spring cou n-
terbalances , Ham Standard Hydro-
matic 14' prop (23 E50 hub , 6159-0
blades). 1400 to 2800 rpm , load of
1800 hp at 2600 rpm.
490 X-78 10/3 138 11/10/38 Test of 1X damper with needle bear-
(Ref. 3.33) to 11 /3/38 ing links. 2:1 reduction , 50-spline
prop shaft, 100 de master rods,
spring drive counterbalances, Ham
Standard Hydromatic 14 · prop
(23E50 hub , 6159-0 blades). 2000
to 2800 rpm at 196 BMEP.
515 X-79 11 /23/38 2/ 1/3 9 Comparison of linear vibration with
(Ref. 3.34) to 12/5/38 light, medium , and heavy counter-
balances , with wood and metal props .
Tests of heavy counterbalances
(2.82 lb/in. weight x radius product)
were made from 1500 to 2600 rpm ,
load of 1800 hp at 2550 rpm. Two
cranks, P/N 32550, center-split
crankpins, and similar crank with
splined plug joining th e crankpins.
Flexibility of the sensor mounts
affected 4.5X and 5.5X resonant
peaks with Ham Standard Hydro-
matic prop (6159-0 bl ades). These
are to be made stiffer in the future .
46
Results/Conclusions/
Recommendations
Vibration characteristics are similar
to test house co nditions, with the
largest vibration at 1.5X, 1800 rpm ,
.027" transverse , indicating a large
propeller interference , particularly in
the transverse plane. 2X vibration
was higher than the last test and
teardown revealed broken leaf
springs in both counterba lances .
First run 1X tors ional vibration
amplitude was 0.96 de compared to
0.48 de without dampers. Second
run 1X torsional vibration was 1.12
de, proving 1X damper unsuccess-
ful. Rear counterbalances incor-
rectly assembled, requiring rework.
Front counterbalance drive failed .
Some test house effects observed-
the more engines running, the less
1.5X vibration. Postulation that 1X
damper failed because it was oper-
ating far from the resonant fre-
quency of the system, and phase
relationships between disturbing
force , cran k motion , and damper
motion are important, causing more
crank motion in the off-resonant
condition.
Runs of counterbalances with Wx R
of 2.0 are reported previously in
SM Rs* 462 and 475. This test
explores W*Rs of 2.82 and 2.41.
No difference in reduction was
noted with the wood club , but with
the metal prop and 2.82 counterbal-
ances , 2X vibration dropped below
1.5X prop interference vibration.
No metal-prop runs were made
with 2.4 1 counte rbalances, since
the intent of this test was to check
heavier counterbalances for over
correction. Indexing of the 4-blade
test club , a result of uncontrolled
reduction gear assembly variations,
induces 2X interference indistin-
guishable from unbalanced sec-
ondary inertial forces. Although
(continued)
 R-2800 Development

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued

Report Engine Test Report Results/Conclusions/

Number Serial# Date Date Object/Process Recommendations

515 qualitatively better with heavy coun-

(Cont) terbalances, quantitative assess-
ment is impossible due to 1.5X
(prop) and 2X (club) vibration. A
50% reduction in 1X whirling motion
was observed and believed due to
better balance of the P/N 32550
crank over P/N 27985.

519 X-83 12/2 1/38 2/15/39 Torsional vibration, linear vibration,
(Ref. 3.35) and prop blade tip stress with qu ill
shaft drive. 20 de master rods (8 &
9) to reduce 1X torsional vibration.
New counterbalances, P/ Ns 33612 &
33698 with spring drives to reduce
larger unbalanced secondary inertia
forces caused by 20 de master rods ,
P/N 32550 crank with splined plug ,
club runs from 1200 to 2600 rpm,
load of 1800 hp at 2600 rpm , prop
runs at 196 BMEP from 1200 to
2600 rpm.
High blade tip stresses at 4.5X led
to this attempt to isolate the prop
and crank with a quill shaft. Though
successful at this, 4X and 9X
stresses combined to produce
excessive tip stress. Further, it was
determined unsafe to operate the
engine below 900 rpm , between
1600 and 1900 rpm , and above
2600 rpm because of torsional
resonance. Similar results were
obtained with the test club. Addi-
tional damping must be installed to
make the system safe to operate. A
leaf-spring accessory drive is being
considered.

521 X-79 1/23/39 3/2/39 Torsional vibration with 2 wood clubs,
(Ref. 3.36) crank assembly P/N 32550-B
(3-piece , split crankpin), no dampers,
P/N r-27000 counterbalances, 100
de master rods (8 & 13). 1200-2600
rpm with a load of 1800 hp at 2600
rpm , 2000 to 2800 rpm with a load
1840 hp at 2800 rpm .
0.55 de torsional vibration 2500 to
2600 rpm with load of 1800 hp at
2600 rpm. Principal frequency
components were 1X and 2X . 2X
was resonant at 2250 rpm, 2.5X
was resonant at 1950 rpm. 1X
increasing toward 2800 rpm. This
test was done in preparation for the
test in SM 522.

522 X-79 1/20/39 3/2/39 Measurement of torsional vibration in Ax torsional vibration 1 .04 de at
(Ref. 3.37) to 1/23/39 accordance with Army torsional vibra- 110% rated speed (2640 rpm).
lion spec 95-28184. Ham Standard Principal component was 1X. Natu-
Hydromatic 14 · prop (23E50 hub, ral frequency of 4200 to 4500 cpm.
6159-0 blades). Same engine as For a continuous run at 196 BMEP,
SM 521 . ax torsional vibration was 1.05 de at
2800 rpm . The 1X resonance is a
resonance of the whole engine, and
not a result of crank windup.

530 X-79 2/24/39 3/14/39 Torsional vibration with Ham Standard Ax torsional vibration of 1.08 de at
(Ref. 3.38) to 2/27/39 Hydromatic 13 '6" prop (23E50 hub, 2700 to 2800 rpm. Natural Ire-
6159-6 blades). Same engine as quency of 4100 to 4300 cpm.

(continued)

47
Chapter 3
TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued
Report Engine Test Report
Number Serial# Date Date Object/Process
530 SM 521. 1200 to 2800 rpm , load of
(Cont) 196 BMEP.
531 X-83 1/4/39 to 2/ 14/39 Torsional vibration and linear vibration
(Ref. 3.39) 2/1/39 with independently supported prop
and 2/8/39 shafts (rear of shaft not supported by
to 2/24/39 crank, but case web instead) . Crank
P/N 32550-B, 100 de master rods
(8 & 13), Ham Standard Hydromatic
14 ' prop (23E50 hub, 6159-0 blades) ,
1200 to 2800 rpm , load of 196 BMEP.
Test 2 replaced plain bearing on prop
shaft tail with ball bearing , held drive
gear concentric inside pinions with
roller bearing on prop shaft, and used
a fi x gear held instead of one floating
on the spline . Test 3 replaced prop
with Ham Standard Hydromatic 15 ,
(23F50 hub, 6183-0 blades).
544 X to 78 12/28/38 3/24/39 Torsional vibration , linear vibration ,
(Ref. 3.40) to 1/28/39 and tip stress with 4.5X crank
and 2/2/39 dampers . Engine mounted rigidly
to 2/10/39 and on radial rubber engine mounts.
100 de master rods (8 &13).
TEST 1-2 ea . 4.5X damper on rear
counterweight, light counterbalances,
Ham Standard Hydromatic HX-3
prop (6159 to O blad es) , torsional
vibration tests from 1200 to 2800 rpm
with load of 196 BMEP, linear vibration
tests from 1400 to 2800 rpm, load of
196 BMEP, rigid mounting.
48
Results/Conclusions/
Recommendations
Nearly identical to 14' prop. Unac-
ceptable 4.5X tip stress resonance.
Discovery that misfiring cylinder
induces erroneous torsional vibra-
lion measurement.
Believing that bearing clearances
between crank and prop al lowed
excessive prop whirling , these tests
sought to isolate prop shaft and
crank. Test 1 tors ional vibration at
4.5X was 35% worse, tip stress was
much higher, and linear vibration
was indeterminate due to sensor
mounting. This was believed due to
clearances in the plain bearings, so
Test 2 sought to eliminate clear-
ances via rolling element bearings.
Torsional vibration at 4.5X was 35%
lower, with large 1.5X and 2X
peaks. Linear vibration was
unchanged. Prop tip stress was
unchanged and excessive. Test 3,
with a 15 , prop , used the same
bearing plan as Test 2. Ax torsional
vibration of combined 1X and 1 .5X
was 1.38 de at 2600 rpm. Natural
frequency at 4000 cpm. Linear
vibration from 1600 to 2400 rpm
reached resonant 1.5X peaks of
0.050 to 0.060 (probably misfire?) .
Tip stresses were reduced but still
excessive. No benefits from this
design.
TEST 1-4.5X torsional vibration
down to -0.07 from -0 .14 de. 4.5X
blade tip stress not reduced .
TEST 2-4.5X torsional vibration up
to -0.1 O de , an increase over Test
1. 4.5X blade tip stress not
reduced .
TEST 3-4.5X torsional vibration
stays at -0 .1O de, no change in
prop tip stresses. More evidence
that 1.5X torsional vibration is due
to misfiring. Suggestion that new
4.5X dampers be designed that are
(continued)

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued
Report Engine Test Report
Number Serial # Date Date Object/Process
544 TEST 2-4 ea. 4.5X dampers on
(Cont) front and aft counterweights . Normal
counterbalances. Ham Standard
Hydromatic prop with dynamically
balanced hub and 6159-0 blades,
torsional vibration tests from 1200
to 2800 rpm , load of 196 BMEP, rigid
mounting .
TEST 3- as above except 9 radial
rubber mounts and Ham Standard
Hydromatic HX-13 prop (6159-0
blades).
547 X-78 2/27/39 to 3/31 /39 Torsional vibration of two -
(Ref. 3.41) 3/8/39 and counterweight crank (center coun-
2/14/39 terweights removed) , P/N 34169-70
to 2/17/39 MP with and without prop paddle
dampers. R-27000 counterbalances,
100 de master rods (8 & 13). 1200
to 2800 rpm , load of 196 BMEP.
TEST 1-Ham Standard Hydromatic
14 · prop with balanced hub and
6159-0 blades.
TEST 2-Ham Standard Hydromatic
HX-16 with paddle dampers and
6159-0 blades.
569 X-83 6/ 12/39 to 6/27/39 Torsional and linear vibration with
(Ref. 3.42) 6/22/39 clamp-type crank LD-3403. 2:1 reduc-
lion, third-design secondary counter-
balances LD-3197. Ham Standard
Hydromatic HX-17 prop with 6159-0
blades . Torsional runs from 1200 to
2800 rpm with load of 196 BMEP.
Linear runs from 1200 to 2800 rpm
with load of 196 BMEP.
49
R-2800 Development
Results/Conclusions/
Recommendations
symmetrical about the crank center-
line , that in the future engines have
CHT on all cylinders to detect mis-
firing , and that the effect of missing
cylinders in various locations
around the crank be investigated to
correlate transient vibration evident
in several previous tests .
TEST 1-Ax torsional vibration of 1.0
de , crank natural frequency of 4500
cpm .
TEST 2-no change from previous
test. Two-counterweight shaft is
no different torsionally, but is lighter,
has a higher natural frequency, and
eliminates the split center case.
Paddle dampers have no effect on
engine torsional vibration.
On first torsional runs , irregular
1.5X, 0.90 de vibration attributed to
misfiring . Teardown revealed
slipped front counterweight. Sec-
ond runs produced ax torsional
vibration of 0.55 de at 2800 rpm
and resonant peaks of: 1.5X, 0.32
de at 2700 rpm ; 2X, 0.31 de at 2300
rpm ; and 2.5X, 0.19 de at 1700 rpm .
1X was a ax of 0.32 at 2800 rpm.
4.5X ax of 0.06 de at 1500 rpm and
0.07 de at 2300 rpm. Blade tip
stress of 6000 to 7000 psi was
resonant at 4.5X and 2300 rpm .
Blade shank stress was resonant
at 1.5X and 2400 .
Vibration characteristics of the
clamp-type crank are not different
from the four-counterweight split-pin
crank. Blade stress was identical to
two-counterweight split-pin crank,
and somewhat lower than the four-
cou nterweight crank.
(continued)
Chapter 3
TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued
Report Engine Test Report
Number Serial# Date Date Object/Process
588 X-79 3/30/39 to 8/8/39 Overload endurance test to ascertain
(Ref. 3.43) 5/19/39 durability of components at 1850 hp
take-off rating . 6.7:1 compression
ratio , 7.6:1 impeller drive , 2:1 reduc-
tion , and wood test club . Considerable
experimentation with cooling arrange-
ments resulted in forced-air cooling
for the majority of the testing. Initially,
engine was a stock single-stage
engine with the following changes :
lightened crankcase; different second
order counterbalances (LA-3333 and
LA-3334); 4.5X damper 34674M/P;
special exhaust valves in cylinders
13-18; heavy valve springs on rear
bank.
At the 43 hour rebuild the following
were changed: 34169-70MP, two-
counterwe ight crank (no 4.5X
dampers); "Aero" thread cylinders in
9 positions; cam oiling changes;
heavy and light va lve springs
interchanged.
607 X-80 10/18/39 10/27/39 Torsional vibration and linear vibration
(Ref. 3.44) of single-row X-80 . 9-cylinder (Y,
R-2800) test engine; 2:1 reduction;
wood test club (load of 850 hp at
2600 rpm) ; no dampers or counter-
balances. 1200 to 2600 rpm.
50
Results/Conclusions/
Recommendations
Five failures occurred: #8 inlet push
rod at 9.25 hours; #6 inlet push rod
at 13 hours; #4 exhaust rocker arm
at 29.5 hours; center main crank-
case at 43 hours , and two-
counterweight crankshaft at 50.75
hours. Inspection at 43 hours
revealed a split reduction gear,
center crankcase cracked (#12-14
pad broker out) , numerous cracked
piston pin bosses, numerous cracks
in tappet rollers ; severe gall ing on
secondary counterbalance drive
gears. Inspection at 50.75 hours
revealed crank broken through rear
counterwe ight at bottom of rear
crankpin fillet.
Observations: case failure due to
thin wall sections as a result of
lightening operations that were
discontinued; fixed reduction gear
shou ld strengthened; piston pin
bosses should be heavier; tappet
roller material , processes, and
inspection should be carefully
controlled ; rocker arm failure was a
material defect; failed crank was a
reworked unit; valve spring change
was to see if light springs played a
role in push rod failures-inconclu-
sive; counterbalance drive gear
gal ling fixed by lead plating of
trouble spots.
Endurance running resulted in
several crank failures, but no linear
vibration troubles. Ax 2X torsional
vibration of 0.64 de at 2600 rpm.
Ax linear vibration of 0.006". A 2X
damper is required to prevent crank
failure at 2600 rpm and to reduce
tors ional vibration at lower power.
Linear vibration is satisfactory, no
counterbalances required.
(continued)
 R-2800 Development

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued

Rep ort Engine Test Report Results/Conclusions/

Nu mber Serial# Date Date Object/Process Recommendations

609 X-83 5/1/39 to 11/20/39 Investigation of two-counterweight, Torsional vibration and linear vibra-
(Ref. 3.45) 10/7/39 clamp-type crankshaft, no dampers , tion characteristics are no different
7.6 :1 impeller ratio, 6.7:1 than four-counterweight, split-pin
compression ratio , 2:1 reduction. crank. Slight galling of clamp sur-
faces after each teardown. Special
assembly jigs required . Frequent
crank rebuilds will necessitate
drilling new cotter pin holes in the
clamp bolt. Design changes are
required to prevent clamp surface
galling and crankpin regrinding due
to plug insertion. This crank con-
cept was intended to eliminate
weakness of the split-pin type crank
and a 7.5-lb reduction in weight
from the four-counterweight crank.
Face-spline type cranks promise a
32-lb reduction.

611 X-79 7/17/3 9 to 11 /23/39 Torsional vib ration and linear vibration TEST 1-Ax torsional vibration of
(Ref. 3.46) 8/ 14/39 with Curtiss props. 2: 1 reduction , 0.67 de at 2500 rpm (1 X and 1.5X),
3-piece crank (32548, 32549, 35076), 4200 to 4500 cpm natural fre -
4.5X rear co unterweight dampers, quency, resonance of 1.5X at 2000
load of 196 BMEP. The fo llowing rpm and 1X at 2600 rpm . Ax dive
props were tested: torsional vibration of 0.68 de at
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (6) 3120 rpm.
Dia. Bids. Mat'I Bid. No. Hub No. Mfg. No. Test TEST 2-2X torsional vibration at
12 3 Steel 722Cc2 C-5325 958 2200 rpm exceeds the 0.50 de
13 4 Dural 89303-0 C-542D 2 AN-9504 Torsional Vibration Speci-
14.5 3 Dural 89304-6 1655 3 fication due to prop interference in
153 Dural 89316-0 1655 4 the 24· test house.
(1) Diameter of test propeller in feet TEST 3-torsional vibration and
(2) Numbe r of propeller blades linear vibration assumed to be very
(3) Prope ller blade material similar to TEST 4, no measure-
(4) Building number tests were per- ments other than dive tests taken -
formed in 0. 78 de at 3000 rpm with 1X and
(5) Curtiss Electric propeller hub 1.5X components.
assembly number TEST 4-Ax torsional vibration of
(6) Test number 0.68 de at 2600 to 2800 rpm with
1X and 1.5X components, 4200
cpm natural frequency. All props
tested exceed AN -9504.

612 X-78 8/7/39 to 11/7/39 Torsional vibration and linear vibration Serious .5X transverse linear vibra-
(Ref. 3.47) 8/ 14/39 characteristi cs on "Z" dynamo meter !ion of 0.039" at 1800 rpm, acces-
of the two-stage R-2800-A2G, 2:1 sory driveshaft fai led . 2:1 reduction
reduction and direct drive gear replaced with direct drive . 1X

(continued)

51
Chapter 3

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued

Report Engine Test Report Results/Conclusions/

Number Serial # Date Date Object/Process Recommendations

612 linear vibration of 0.025-0.035" at

(Co nt) -1100 rpm. 1X torsional vibration
of 1.20 de resonant at 1100 rpm .
Engine must be run on dynamom-
eter with direct drive adapter and
above 1400 rpm.

617 X-78 4/14/39 to 11 /21/39 See SM 547. Crank P/N 34169-70
(Ref. 3.48) 5/20/39 MP reworked from P/N 27984-5 with
total time of 301.4 hr. Previously
used for blade stress, carburetor,
calibration , and endurance runs.
Rebalanced to 36354-5 MP and
installed in X-79 for endurance runs
at 1850 hp and 2600 rpm.
Crank broke through rear crankpin
at total time of 453.2. Further
testing of the design is suggested.
Weight of 187.5 versus 221.9
pounds. Trial can not be considered
fair since this crank was reworked
from a hand forging that had previ-
ously failed. Metallurgical reports
describe the effect of poor grain
flow and structure on the failure.

6/30/39 First Air Corp type test successfully

completed.

619 X-83 11 /3/39 11 /22/39 Lin ear vibration and torsional vibration
(Ref. 3.49) using two-counterweight splined
crank P/N 37282 MP with loose
counterweight plugs in the 18 · Hori-
zontal Intake test house. 2:1 reduc-
tion , Ham Standard Hydromatic
14 · HX-2 with 6159-0 blades, 1200
to 2800 rpm, load of 196 BMEP.
Failure of two-counterweight splined
crank, attributed to bending vibra-
tion , led to design of a two-
counterweight crank with reduced
rear counterweight effective mass
via two cylindrical plugs that were
free to slide fore-aft . No difference
exists in the crank vibration charac-
teristics . 1.5X linear vibration is
reduced 40 to 60% in the new test
house. It is recommended that all
future flight-prop tests be done
there to allow accurate measure-
ment of other vibration components.

622 X-83 11 /15/39 12/5/39 Bending vibration of th e two-
(Ref. 3.50) counterweight P/N 37282 MP crank
with loose plugs in rear counterweight;
Ham Standard Hydromatic 14 ' HX-2 ,
6159-0 prop . Fore-aft motion of both
crank and engine measured from
1200 to 2800 rpm, load of 196 BMEP.
Fore-aft crank resonance : 4.5X at
1700 rpm = 0.0018" ; 9X at 1800
rpm= 0.0014"; 1.5X at 2300 rpm=
0.0014"; 5.5X at 2600 rpm=
0.0011 ". None of the above were
present on the engine. Natural
bending frequencies are 240 and
270 cps. The loose CW plugs seem
to have eliminated serious 4.5X
bending vibration. (Is this origin of
Solomon dampers?)

(continued)

52
 R-2800 Development

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued

Report Engine Test Report Results/Conclusions/

Number Serial# Date Date Object/Process Recommendations

636 X-79 3/8/40 3/ 19/40 Torsional vibration of R-2800-A6G 1X resonance of 4.0 de at 1100
(Ref. 3.51) (reworked for single-speed blower) rpm. Engine should not be oper-
on X-2 dynamometer (with long ated between 900 and 1200 rpm on
tubular shaft). 2:1 reduction , 900 this dynamometer due to excessive
to 2800 rpm, load of 1500 hp at torsional vibration .
2400 rpm.

651 X-78 4/8/40 to 5/22/40 Torsional vibration of R-2800-A5 on 1X resonance of 2.5 de on crank
(Ref. 3.52) 5/10/40 X-3 dynamometer, two-stage rear and 1 .28 de on rear accessory shaft
section with 7.8:1 primary ratio, 2:1 while motoring at 1100 rpm. Ax of
reduction , instrumentation on acces- 1.43 de at 2200 rpm while firing .
sory shaft and crank. rpm restriction on this dynamometer
in the 900 to 1400 rpm range .
Expect torsional vibration of -1 .5 de
on this dynamometer in the 2100 to
2200 rpm range while firing.

654 X-78 5/23/40 6/4/40 Determine if crank torsional vibration
(Ref. 3.53) of R-2800-4 on torque stand can be
measured at the rear of the acces-
sory drive shaft (starter dog). 2:1
reduction , 4-blad e Ham Standard
Hydromatic HX-28 prop with 6423-0
blades. 1200 to 2500 rpm , with a
load of 189 BMEP and 2000 to 2500
rpm with a load of 201 BMEP.
Accessory shaft torsional vibration
of 0.40-0 .50 de from 1200 to 2200
rpm. Increases to 0.79 de at 2500
rpm . Largely 2X below 1700 rpm
and 1X above . Accessory shaft
torsional vibration measurements
can theoretically be converted to
crank torsional vibration, but not
with enough accuracy to meet the
AN-9504 spec.

686 unknown unknown 10/29/40 Static tests were performed for Joints rank weak to strong as fol-
(Ref. 3.54) various types of R-2800 crank joints, lows: internal spline (0.0035" at
and the deflection verses force 15000 in. lb) ; clamp-type ; face-
results plotted. spline , big-bolt with 0.0018 stretch;
face-spline with plug; face-spline ,
big-bolt, no plug (0.002 at 50000 in.
lb). Joint bolt preload of 0.006-
0.007" required to prevent joint
opening . The clamp-type constru e-
tion is stiffer than the internal
spline, but not as good as the face
spline.

697 unknown 915140 11 /19/40 Torsional vibration of R-2800-7
(Ref. 3.55) (Army #10) with 6-pinion 16:9 reduc-
tion , 6.5:1 blower drive , and 2 ea.
4.5X dampers in the rear counter-
weights. Curtiss 11 '6" C-542-S
4-blade (#714 Cc2-24) , 1200 to
2600 rpm with load of 196 BMEP.
Resonant peaks: 3.5X at 1400 rpm ,
0.09 de; 2.5X at 1900 rpm, 0.13 de ;
2X at 2400 rpm , 0.12 de. Ax of
0.41 de at 2600 rpm . This arrange-
ment has cons iderably less tor-
sional vibration than 2:1, 3-blade
arrangement, and is satisfactory.

(continued)

53
Chapter 3
TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued
Report Engine Test Report
Number Serial# Date Date Object/Process
697
(Cont)
790 X-79 7/1/41 to 12/18/41 Effects of different 4.5X dampers on
(Ref. 3.56) 8/25/41 torsiona l vibration of R-2800-2SBG
{2-speed, 1-stage), 2:1 reduction,
Ham Standard Hydromatic 127"
HX-52 (33050 hub , 6257-6 blades) .
The damper config urations were:
1) Standard spool-type dampers of
P&Wdesign;
2) Roller dampers with gearing to
eliminate sl ip and improve tuning
accuracy;
3) Same damper configuration as
above, but with loose prop blade
bushings to see if any reduction in
vibration transferred to the blades
was achieved;
4) Two "Chilton" dampers, one in the
forward counterweight and one in
the rear counterweight.
Note : Rolland Chi lton of Wright Aero-
nautical invented "Chilton" dampers.
P&W later referred to them as "bifi lar''
dampers.
801 X-111 11 /4/41 to 12/22/41 Vibration characteristics of R-2800-
(Ref. 3.57) 12/12/41 D2G with dual-rotation props and
extension shaft. The engine had
crank PIN 52599 with two P&W 4.5X
dampers in the rear counterweight.
100 de master rods (8 & 13). Exten-
sion shaft to gearbox ran at crank
54
Results/Conclusions/
Recommendations
Natural frequency is 4400 to 4800
cpm. Improvement due to elimina-
tion of 1.5X prop interference exci-
talion which is resonant at 2600
rpm with 3-blade prop.
Test 1: Peaks of 0.042 de at 1400
rpm, 0.056 de at 2400 rpm , 0.40 de
at 2800 rpm. 4.5X blade stress
peak of 10,000 psi at 2400 rpm .
Test 2: Peaks of 0.045 de at 1800
rpm ; 0.054 de at 2400 rpm, ax of
0.044 de at 2800 rpm. 4.5X blade
stress peak of 10000 psi. Test 3:
4.5X peak of 0.090 de at 2400 rpm ,
same blades stress. Test 4: Peak of
0.040 de at 1500 rpm, no 2400 rpm
peak. 4.5X blade stress peak of
5400 psi at 2350 rpm, 4X blade
stress peak of 7000 psi at 2050
rpm, 5X peak of 5500 psi at 1550
rpm (caused by lateral reaction
inducing whirl?). Neither spool nor
geared dampers reduce prop stress
acceptably. Loose blades increased
torsional vibration and did not help
prop stress. While Chilton dampers
reduce both torsional vibration and
blade stress acceptably, they intro-
duce 5X-blade stress at 1550 and
2750. Recommend investigation of
5X stress with independent prop
shaft suspension, torsional vibration
and blade stress with tuned 4.5X
mechanical filter in nose, and tor-
sional vibration and blade stress
with one Chilton damper on rear
counterweight.
The system was rich in both tor-
sional and linear vibration har-
monies. The worst condition
resulted from flexible mounting of
the gearbox. The best condition
resulted from rigid mounting of the
gearbox and flexible mounting of
(continued)

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued
Report Engine Test Report
Number Serial# Date Date Object/Process
801 speed. Reduction of 26 :15 for both
(Cont) props. Fi xed pitch props used were
Curtiss 3-blade (40-spline hub, 512cc-
1.5 blades , 1o·; 60-spline hub, 551 cc-
1.5, 9'9" ) and Ham Standard 3-blade
(40-spline hub , 43A2-22T-14, 10 '; 60-
spline hub, 44A2-22T-14, 10 '). A load
of 2000 hp at 2700 rpm was used for
Curtiss props. Ham Standard props
we re set for a load of 1920 hp at
2700 rpm. The engine was restrained
torsionally and fore-aft at the blower
section and radially at the front acces-
sory section. The gearbox was
restrained in all directions . Provisions
existed to mount both engine and
gearbox either flexibly or rigid ly. Tor-
sional vibration measurements were
obtained via an adapter passing
through the accessory drive shaft to
the crank. Engine linear vibration
was measured with a pickup on the
vertical centerline of the front acces-
sory section , horizontal transverse
pickups on the rear cover case (one
above the engine axis , one at the
lower edge of the rear cover case).
Gearbox linear vibration was mea-
sured by two vertical pickups, one
on the vertical centerline and one
tangential to the bolt circle . No cool-
ing fan was installed.
805 X-79 11 /22/41 1/ 14/42 Investigation of torsional vibration and PROP CS-1: 2X resonance of 0.19
(Ref. 3.58) to 11 /25/4 1 blade stress with tuned 4.5X mechani- de at 1700 rpm; 1X of 0.47 de
cal filter. R-2800-BG , 100 de master increasing at 2600 rpm ; 4.5X of
55
R-2800 Development
Results/Conclusions/
Recommendations
the engine. In all cases, 1X tor-
sional vibration was most trouble-
some , and while not strong enough
to cause crank problems , would
result in accessory drive trouble. It
was anticipated that aircraft mount
ing would be more fle xible than the
test stand, exacerbating 1X vibra-
tion. It was expected that when the
rubber-coupled coo ling fan was
added , natural frequency would rise
to around 3000 rpm, possibly prov-
ing satisfactory (later tests did not
bear out this idea). A 4.5X torsional
vibration in the gearbox gave rise to
linear vibration that may fatigue
fittings and other gearbox protru-
sions. There was little difference in
the vibration characteristics of the
Curtiss and Ham Standard props .
Blade tip stress of the Ham Stan-
dard props was satisfactory.
Recommendations:
1) Investigate vibration character
istics with the cooling fan
installed and 100 de master rods
(8 & 13).
2) If 1X vibration is still excessive
and within the operating range
with the cooling fan installed:
A) Try to run the master rods in
adjacent cylinders to reduce
the 1X excitation (this may
require a 2X crankshaft
torsional damper) .
B) Employ a first-order crank-
shaft torsional damper and
leave the master rods 100
degrees apart.
3) Investigate the apparent 4.5X
gearbox vibration.
(continued)
Chapter 3
TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued
Report Engine Test Report
Number Serial# Date Date Object/Process
805 rods (8 & 13), 4-counterweight crank
(Cont) #38318 with two P&W 4.5X dampers
in rear counterweight, 2:1 reduction.
Heavy springs in place of oil in the
torque cylinders act with the ring gear
moment of inertia to prevent transmis-
sion of 4.5X torque impulses to the
prop. Two props were used: Ham
Standard Hydromatic 11 ' CS-1
(3E50 hub , 6105-24 blades); Ham
Standard Hydromatic 12 '6" HX-52
(33050 hub , 6457-6 blades) .
811 X-111 2/42 to 2/ 16/42 Investigation of crank torsional vibra-
(Ref. 3.59) 5/42 tion with the cooling fan attached and
of gearbox motion associated with
4.5X torsional resonance. Same
engine and mounting as in SM 801.
The cooling fan was a 22-blade
NACA design driven by a splined
adapter from the crank. The fan hub
was supported in bearings on the
front accessory housing . Natural
rubber damper assemblies isolated
the fan blades from the inner fan hub.
56
Results/Conclusions/
Recommendations
0.08 de increasing at 2600 rpm.
PROP HX-52: 2X of 0.34 at 1700
rpm; 1X resonance of 0.99 de at
1700 rpm ; 1X of 0.27 de increasing
at 2600 rpm; 1.5X resonance of
0.18 de at 2300 rpm ; 4.5X constant
at 0.05 de 2200 through 2600 rpm.
4.5X blade stress reduced to insig-
nificant level. The most serious
blade stresses is a 4X stress due
to 3.5X engine whirl , but this is
below the allowable stress limit.
Recommendation of continued
work on mechanical filter, and
further work on 3.5X whirl, radially
isolating crank from prop shaft if
necessary.
With rigid gearbox mounting, 1X
torsional vibration was 0.68 de and
increasing at 2700 rpm. With flexi-
ble gearbox mounting, 1X torsional
vibration was 1.44 de and increas-
ing at 2700 rpm. 4.5X torsional
motion of the gearbox was con-
firmed at 2400 rpm. While the addi-
tion of the cooling fan has moved
the torsional resonance upward
150-250 rpm in the speed range, it
is still within the takeoff range.
4.5X gearbox vibration produces
linear acceleration at the periphery
of the gearbox of about 25 g at 180
Hz, and is likely to cause fatigue
failure of fittings , vibration in the
aircraft structure, and excessive
prop blade stress. Suggests chang-
ing master rod locations or installing
a damper to address the 1X vibra-
tion, and investigating Chilton
dampers to reduce the 4.5X gear-
box resonance. Each combination
of engine, prop, and airframe must
be carefully checked for harmful
vibration.
(continued)

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued
Report Engine Test Report
Number Serial# Date Date Object/Process
812 #1061 1/30/42 2/25/42 Determine vibration characteristics of
(Ref. 3.60) to 2/1/42 the single-speed, single-stage
XR-2800-12 Navy Engine #1061 with
26:15 dual rotation nose and Curtiss
dual rotation props. Crank was four-
counterweight type with two rear-
mounted 4.5X dampers . 100 de
master rods (8 & 13). Front prop
used 3 each 512c1 .5 blades and a
40-spline hub . Rear prop used 3 each
551 c1 .5 blades and a 60-spline hub.
A check run was made with Ham
Standard 3-blade dual rotation props
with 43A2-22T-14 blades in front and
44A2-22T-1 4 blades in back.
819 #6 3/6/42 to 4/7/42 Crank torsional vibration of the simu-
(Ref. 3.61) 3/14/42 lated R-2800-D2G engine. See
SM Rs 801 and 811. Previous 1X tor-
sional vibration proved troublesome.
Th is special two-stage , two-speed
engine No. 6 was built with springs in
the torque meter cylinders to provide
torsional similitude to the R-2800-
D2G. Ham Standard Hydromatic
11 ·5" prop with 23E50 hub and three
6243-42 blades was used. Thi s basic
engine was built in three
co nfigurations :
1) 100 de master rods (8 & 13) , four-
counterwe ight crank P/N 52599
with two P&W rear-mounted
dampers and standard second
order counterbalances;
2) 100 de master rods (8 & 9) , same
crank as above, special second
order counterba lances P/N
52112 and 52113;
3) 20 de master rods (8 & 9), four-
counterweight crank with Chilton
2X dampers on front and rear
counterweight, same second
order counterbalances as in
(2) above.
57
R-2800 Development
Results/Conclusions/
Recommendations
A 1X torsional peak of 0.38 de was
observed at 2100 rpm. A 15/26X
linear peak of 0.022" at 2000 rpm
was observed at the starter pad.
The large 1X crank torsional vibra-
tion usually found at takeoff speeds
in single rotation engines was
absent in the dual rotation eng ine.
The crank natural frequency in this
application is about 5250 cpm
compared to 4600 cpm single rota-
tion engines with 16:9 reductions.
Single rotation engines frequently
show a large 1X peak at 1800 rpm.
No such peak was found with the
dual rotation engine, but a moderate
1X peak was observed at 2100 rpm.
Ham Standard prop was not signifi-
cantly different than Curtiss .
Test results in the three
configurations :
1) 1X tors ional vibration resonant
at 2600 rpm with an amplitude of
2.4 de . No large 2X resonance
was observed at low speed.
2) 1X tors ional vibration resonant
at 2500 rpm with an amplitude of
1.02 de. A second order peak of
1.14 de was observed at 1250
rpm. 2X linear vibration at the
starter pad reached 0.005" at
2700 rpm (about the same as
engines with 100 de master
rods.
3) 1X torsiona l vibration resonant
at 2500 rpm with an amplitude of
0.97 de. Second order torsional
vibration did not exceed 0.05 de
at any rpm.
Conclusions:
1X peak at 2500 rpm is not exces-
sive with 20 de master rods , and is
small compared to engines with 100
de master rods. 2X torsional peak
at 1250 rpm is larger in configura-
tion (2) than (1 ), but is still not
excessive . Chilton 2X dampers are
(continued)
Chapter 3

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued

Report Engine Test Report Results/Conclusions/

Number Serial# Date Date Object/Process Recommendations

819 highly effective. Since 2X dampers

(Cont) are not necessary, space wi ll be
available for 4.5X dampers if they
are necessary. Special second
order counterbalances prevented
abnormal linear vibration in configu-
ration (3) that would have otherwise
resulted from greater excitation with
master rods in adjacent cylinders.

823 X-1 11 4/6/42 to 4/21/42 Crank tors ional vibration of an actual
(Ref. 3.62) 4/7/42 R-2800-D2G with 100 de master rods
(8 & 9). See SMRs 801 , 811 , and
819 . Engine used four-counterweight
crank with two rear-mounted 4.5X
P&W dampers. Second order coun-
terbalances we re P/Ns 52112 and
52113. Ham Standard 3-blade dual
rotation tractor props were used.
Rear was 10 · 40-spline with 43A2-
22T-14 blades. Front was 1O· 60-
spl ine with 44A2-22T-14 blades. The
first test run was with rigid gearbox
mounting. The second test run was
with fle xible gearbox mounting. The
engine was flexibly mounted in both
cases.
Test 1: 1X crank torsional vibration
of 0.26 de at 2800 rpm was
observed . 2X torsional peak of 0.40
de at 2100 rpm was observed. Test
2: 1X crank torsional vibration of
0.66 de at 2800 rpm was observed.
Lin ear vibration , measured tangen-
tial to the port gearbox side had a
4.5X peak of 0.004" at 2500 rpm .
45/26X peaks of 0.011 " at 2100 rpm
and 0.013" at 2700 rpm were also
observed. Relocation of the master
rods to 8 & 9 reduced 1X torsional
vibration to an acceptable level.
Aircraft structural rigidity has a
fundamental influence on gearbox
and crank torsional vibration , partic-
ularly in regards to the 4.5X gear-
box torsional mode. Coincidence of
4.5X vibration with a natural prop or
aircraft structural mode will probably
produce objectionable vibration
amplitudes.

871 X-88 10/29/42 11 /27/42 Torsional vibration and linear vibration Torsional vibration: 2X of 0.76 de at
(Ref. 3.63) of R-2800-37 (2-speed, 1-stage) with 1900 rpm; 4.5X of 0.21 de at 2900
two-counterweight face-splined crank, rpm with higher peak. Vertical
4.5X bifilar damper on each counter- linear vibration: 1X-1.35X of 0.025"
weight, 20 de master rods (8 & 9) . at 1400 rpm ; 2X of 0.0077" at 2900
20 :9 reduction , Ham Standard Hydro- rpm . Horizontal linear vibration: 1X
matic 15 · prop (33E60 hub , 6243A-0 to 1.35X of 0.023 at 1400 rpm; 2X
blades). 1200 to 2900 rpm . Master of 0.0078" at 2900 rpm . 3500 psi
rod locations changed to eliminate prop stress of 2X at 1950 rpm and
the excessive 1X torsional vibration 2150 rpm . Inspection of damper
with the 100 de master rod showed galling of mating surfaces.
placement. This in conjunction with high 4.5X
torsional vibration indicates faulty
damper operation. Suggests endur-
ance runnin g to see if 2X torsional

(continued)

58

TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued
Report Engine Test Report
Number Serial# Date Date Object/Process
871
(Cont)
879 X-78, 6/11 /42 1/ 18/43 Tests of 2 engines with 100 de mas-
(Ref. 3.64) X-88 , to ter rods (8 & 9), #52112 front coun-
X-107 10/29/42 terbalance (4.00 in. lb unbalance) ,
#52113 rear counterbalance (4.20 in .
lb unbalance).
X-88 R-2800-37 (2-speed, 1-stage)
with two-counterweight face-spline
crank #72611 having bifilar 4.5X
damper on each counterweight, 20:9
reduction . Ham Standard Hydro-
matic 157.5" HX-35 prop (33E60
hub, 6243A-O blades).
X-78 R-2800-B2G (1-stage) with
2-counterweight LR-4866 crank with
2X bifilar damper on each counter-
weight, front damper locked. 16:9
reduction. Ham Standard Hydro-
matic 11 · HX-23 (23E50 hub ,
6159A-36 blades).
X-78 , same as above but rear bifilar
damper locked instead of front.
Measurements of second order
linear vibration with 100 de master
rods and various counterbalances.
X-107 R-2800-1 O two-counterweight
with two P&W 4.5X dampers . Stan-
dard "B" counterbalances having 2.46
in lb of unbalance , #37762 front and
#37763 rear. Ham Standard Hydro-
matic 11 '4 .5" HX-107 (23E50 hub,
A-6243-A-42 blades). 2:1 reduction .
59
R-2800 Development
Results/Conclusions/
Recommendations
vibration is destructive and to install
2X damper if so. Suggestion to
increase unbalance of rear counter-
balance to reduce 2X linear vibra-
tion. The large 2X torsional vibra-
tion is due to maser rod placement
allowing 2X inertia torq ues to add
nearly in phase.
Linear Vibration-Peaks
Horizontal transverse at right gener-
ator pad-2X, 0.0078" at 2900 rpm.
Vertical at starter pad-2X, 0.0077"
at 2900 rpm.
Horizontal transverse at right gener-
ator pad-2X , 0.0033" at 2700 rpm.
Vertical at starter pad- 2X, 0.0069"
at 2700 rpm.
Horizontal transverse at thrust
plate-2X, 0.021 O at 3000 rpm.
Horizontal transverse at right gener-
ator pad-2X , 0.021 O" at 3000 rpm.
Horizontal transverse at right gener-
ator pad-3.5X, 0.0075" at 1700 rpm.
Vertical at starter pad-2X, 0.0069"
at 3000 rpm.
Vertical at starter pad-3.5X,
0.0082" at 1700 rpm.
Horizontal transverse at right gener-
ator pad-2X, 0.0155" at 2710 rpm.
Vertical at thrust plate-2X, 0.0026"
at 2730 rpm.
(continued)
Chapter 3
TABLE 3-1 CRANKSHAFT DEVELOPMENT continued
Report Engine Test Report
Number Serial# Date Date Object/Process
X-107 Same as above but front
counterbalance , #54499 MP, with
3.00 in lb of unbalance and rear
counterbalance #54496 with 2.97 in
lb unbalance .
X-107 R-2800-8 Same as above but
with reworked counterbalances hav-
ing 3.20 in lb of unbalance. Ham
Standard Hydromatic 12 · HX-108
(23E50 hub, A-6243-36 blades).
X-107 R-2800-8 Same as above but
with reworked counterbalances with
3.35 in . lb of unbalance and 5:2
reduction.
X-99 R-2800-8 with "C" type counter-
balances #54496 and #54499, 2.57
in. lb unbalance. All other data same
as first X-107 above.
X-99 with vibration pickups mounted
on (stiffer) "T" brackets. Otherwise
same as above.
Notes:
1) Unless otherwise noted, all references to torsional vibration refer to crankshaft torsional modes. All references to
linear vibration refer to "shake" or wh irl of the entire engine.
2) * SM or SMR = Short Memorandum Report.
60
Results/Conclusions/
Recommendations
Horizontal transverse at right gener-
ator pad-2 X, 0.0079" at 2710 rpm.
Vertical at starter pad-2X , 0.0093"
at 2800 rpm.
Vertical at thrust plate-2X , 0.0021"
at 2740 rpm.
Horizontal transverse at thrust
plate-2X, 0.0230" at 2640 rpm.
Horizontal transverse at right gener-
ator pad-2X, 0.0042" at 2750 rpm.
Vertical at starter pad-2X, 0.0065"
at 2750 rpm.
Vertical at thrust plate-2X , 0.0016
at 2750 rpm.
Horizontal transverse at thrust
plate-2X, 0.0013 at 2800 rpm.
Horizontal transverse at right gener-
ator pad-2X, 0.0031" at 2880 rpm.
Vertical at starter pad-2X, 0.0028"
at 2880 rpm.
Horizontal transverse at right gener-
ator pad-2X, 0.0194" at 2650 rpm.
Vertical at thrust plate-2X, 0.0022
at 2710 rpm.
Horizontal transverse at right gener-
ator pad-2 X, 0.0013" at 2700 &
2900 rpm/ Vertical at starter pad 2X,
0.0025 at 2700 rpm.
Increasing the counterbalance
unbalance to 3.35 in. lb reduced 2X
linear vibration successfully in both
sing le and two-stage engines with
100 de master rods . An attempt
should be made to reduce 2X linear
vibration in engines with 20 de
master rods by increasing counter-
balance unbalance. Some attempt
is made to explain why theoretical
counterbalance unbalances do not
affect maximum vibration reduction.
Calculations assumed a completely
stiff engine , which is not true.
 R-2800 Development

1·

-
Fig. 3.14 "A "/"B " series crank shown assembled. Note the two Salomon dynamic counter-
weights on the left crank cheek. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp B Series Two Stage
Engines, 1944.)

Crankcase (Ref. 3.4)

As described in Chapter 2, Pratt & Whitney History and Background, all their piston engine crank-
cases were manufactured from aluminum forgings.

Being exposed to heavy vibratory, and fatigue loads, the crankcase assembly, like the rest of the
engine also needed to be sufficiently strong for the formidable loads imposed upon it and yet be
lightweight. For the R-2800 "A" and "B'' series, four aluminum forgings bolted together was the
chosen solution.

By way of comparison to a casting, forged aluminum exhibits an ultimate tensile strength of 65 ,000
pounds per square inch. Compare this number to an aluminum casting which exhibits a tensile
strength of 42,000 pounds per square inch. In other words, the forging is 50% stronger than a
comparable casting.

The crankcase assembly is made up in three main sections; front, rear, and center, all held together
by through bolts (Fig. 3.15) . Front and rear sections are one piece and contain the front and rear
main bearings. The center section is split along the horizontal diameter in order to accommodate
assembly onto the crankshaft center main bearing. The split center section also houses the center
main bearing. The parting lines for the three main sections was the center line for the front and rear

61
Chapter 3

WAGNE TO DRIVE
BEVE.L GEAR

PARTING LINE

PA!1TIHG LINE
REDUCT ION
GEAR IN G DRIVE £ET WEEN
COUPLING CENTER ANO
REAR MAIN
CRANKCASE
SECTIONS

SECONDARY
COUN TERBALANCE

CAM REDUCTION
GEAR SHAFT
OIL DRAIN ro MAIN SUMP

Fig. 3.15 "A "/ "B " series crankcase made up from three main sections; front, center, and
rear. The center section is split to allow assembly of the crank. (Overhaul Manual Double
Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines, 1944.)

rows of cylinders. Precision ground, wasted studs screwed into the hole cutouts for the eighteen
cylinders, fifteen per cylinder, supplied each cylinder's fastening requirements. A front support plate
is fastened to the front face of the main crankcase assembly and a rear support plate is fastened to
the rear face of this assembly.

Main Bearings (Ref. 3.4)

One-piece steel-backed lead bronze bearings are pressed into place and locked in the front and rear
sections of the main crankcase to support the front and rear crankshaft journals. The center main
crankshaft journal is supported via a split steel-backed lead/bronze bearing locked into place by the
center section of the crankcase.

62
 R-2800 Development

Tappet and Cam Ring Support (Ref. 3.4)

The front and rear cam ring bearings are supported in integral circular shelves on the front and rear
crankcase sections . The tappets and tappet guides are also housed in the front and rear crankcase
sections, respectively.

Front and Rear Support Plates (Ref. 3.4)

The front and rear sections of the crankcase house and support the front and rear cam reduction
gears, cam ring and tappets (Fig. 3.16). The support plates are manufactured from aluminum cast-
ings. In addition to supporting the cam rings and their drive trains and tappets, they provide support
for the twice crank speed second order counterweights. The front support plate also provides sup-
port for the magneto and distributors drive gears.

Master Rod Bearings (Ref. 3.4)

As previously noted, the majority of the bearings in the R-2800 were plain. And of course, this
included the crankshaft bearings . Unlike an inline engine, which typically has the load of one
connecting rod, the master rod bearing, with nine powerful cylinders acting upon it, bore the brunt of
some the heaviest loads in the engine. Always a difficult part to design, by the 1930s master rod
bearings were being loaded beyond what the existing state of the art technology would tolerate.
Babbitt was the bearing material of choice for all engine bearings through the 1920s. Although it
had excellent bearing qualities, babbitt was being loaded beyond its capabilities as BMEPs, oil tem-
peratures, and internal pressures increased. One of the early bearing design breakthroughs occurred
with the Allison company. They were tasked with improving the overhaul life of the World War I era
Liberty aircraft engine. The Liberty was hurriedly designed in 1917 in a Washington hotel room from
May 30 to June 4 (Ref 3.65). It was then rushed into production. Even though it made little impact
on the outcome of World War I, tens of thousands were manufactured by Packard, Cadillac, Lincoln,
and Ford. It also had the honor of being the only U.S. designed and built aircraft engine to see combat
during WWI. After WWI Liberty powered aircraft set numerous records including the first to make
a transcontinental flight across the U.S. and first crossing of the Atlantic. Surplus engines were also
used up by the fledgling U.S. Air Mail Service. Initially, their overhaul life was little more than
abysmal, typically 50 hours. An Allison engineer, Norman Gilman, studied the problem and finally
came to the conclusion that relatively soft bearing materials such as babbitt would fail in fatigue-it
was literally squashed out (Ref 3. 66). Connecting rod bearing failures in particular plagued the
Liberty. Gilman revamped the design by heating the rod and casting the bearing material into where
the bearing was located. After cooling, the bearing was machined to size. The bearing material wall
thickness was now substantially reduced. With the added strength of the steel connecting rod to back
it up fatigue failures were now almost eliminated. Due to this breakthrough, Liberty overhaul times
now improved to hundreds of hours . This breakthrough developed the cornerstone from which

63
Chapter 3

COUNTERBALANCE INTERMEDIATE
DRIVE GEAR
COUNTERBALANCE INTERMEOIATE
DRIVE GEAR SHAFT PRESSURE
Oil TRANSFER
PIPE
MAIN BLOWER
CASE

I • ,,
/Oil DISTRIBUTING
GROOVE

REAR
'--.. COUNTERBALANCE
~
L I

REAR SUPPORT
"-
~ PRESSURE Oil PASSAGE
TO REAR CAM COMPARTMENT
~
PLATE

Fig. 3.16 Rear support plate. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines,
1944.)

modern plain bearing technology was developed. Instead of pouring the molten bearing material into
the connecting rod or crankcase, it was poured into a steel shell that was then fitted to its application.
Now that the first and biggest hurdle was over, many improvements still lay ahead. Much experimen-
tation was done in these pioneering and fonnative years following World War I. Lubrication was
another technology in its infancy. Dynamic lubrication-what happens inside a high speed, heavily
loaded bearing running at high temperatures? Where is the ideal location for crankshaft oil holes?
Pratt & Whitney devoted vast resources in overcoming bearing failure and increasing bearing life.
From the first R-1340 to the introduction of the R-1535 fourteen cylinder two-row engine steel backed
babbitt had been the bearing material of choice. Adequate for the lower powered engines and even
in the R-1535 it held up well in testing. However, in-flight R-1535 master rod bearing failures became
increasingly common. Luke Hobbs was alarmed. With no immediate solution in sight he made it a top
priority to find one. Working with bearing companies, a steel-backed copper/lead bearing proved to
be far superior to the previously used babbitt. However, failures , especially in high speed dives still
occurred at an unacceptable frequency. When under power, the master rod bearing has some degree
of protection from the gas loads inside the cylinder. But, when power is reduced and the engine is
turning at high rpm and yet producing little or no power, all the reciprocating loads are now transferred
to the master rod bearing . These operating conditions could induce failure . And of course, fighter

64
 R-2800 Development

pilots love to wring out aircraft to their maximum capabilities. Numerous materials were tried includ-
ing tin, which is still commonly used in the automotive industry. Complete success still eluded Hobbs'
team and the bearing manufacturers. Pure silver was a known candidate for heavily loaded bearing
applications. In combination with a lead "flash" for good "embeddability" properties, it seemed to
finally solve the master rod bearing problem. But not quite.

Failures were still occurring. With all hands on deck to resolve this issue once and for all, many
experiments were performed on every known bearing material. Earl Ryder was at the forefront in
this desperate battle for a solution. He devised machines for accelerated testing. The result of all this
feverish activity was the classic "sandwich" layered bearing consisting of a thin layer of lead on top
of a thicker layer of silver. The application of a thin, 0.00 l inch, layer of lead produced a surface
which, unlike the fatigue-resistant silver, was wetted by lubricating oil. Every one involved breathed
a collective sigh ofrelief But, it was not over. Reports of failure still filtered in. Back to the drawing
board to figure out what the failure mode was. Assuming that the lead overlay was failing under
fatigue or erosion this v.1as, naturally, the path of investigation . It was not until Val Cronstedt, one of
the engineers assigned to work this issue, realized that perhaps it was not erosion or fatigue of the
lead but rather another failure mechanism was at play. That other failure mechanism turned out to be
corrosion. During the operation of any gasoline engine, the byproducts of combustion include sulfuric
acid, some of which escapes past the piston rings and contaminates the oil. Armed with this newfound
knowledge it was a fairly simple task to replace the lead overlay with a far more corrosion resistant
lead alloyed with 4 percent indium (Ref 2.1 and Ref 3 .67). At last, the master rod bearing problem
was resolved. This technology, developed in 1937, and known in the industry as the "Hobbs" bearing,
was a key contributor to the success of U.S. aircraft engines in World War II. Pratt & Whitney
shared the fruits of their effotis with its competitors. As an interesting aside, when Gennan engi-
neers investigated and studied aircraft shot down during World War II they were impressed by the
quality of American bearings-particularly plain bearings. But, they could not understand why the
silver bearings were "contaminated" with lead/indium! The above narrative often begs the question,
iflead/indium silver bearings are so great why aren't they used in today's plain bearing applications?
The answer is simple . Just about every lubricant manufactured today, with the exception of aircraft
engine oils, contains zinc compounds. Marvelous stuff as an anti-scuffing compound. Unfortunately,
it reacts badly with silver and results in accelerated corrosion.

Despite the foregoing recital and its happy conclusion, the master rod could still tum treacherous if
not understood and handled accordingly. As an example, master rod bearing longevity could be
reduced by "reverse loading ." In other words, cases where the propeller drove the engine. Examples
would be when a pilot or flight engineer pulled the power back suddenly, or the airplane was put into
a dive and the throttle was closed. Of course, in a fighter application this is common practice but
that is one reason why engines installed in fighter aircraft do not enjoy the same longevity as a multi-
engine transport. The position of the oil holes, approximately 30 degrees before top dead center in
the connecting rod journal was configured to supply the maximum amount of oil to the bearing
under load. The reverse situation, i.e. , reverse loading, could leave the most heavily loaded part of

65
Chapter 3

the bearing starved of oil. Therefore reverse loading could result in master rod bearing distress and
possible premature failure. Good flight engineers always ensure the engine is driving the propeller
and consequently under load rather than the opposite where the propeller drives the engine as would
be the case in a sudden descent or careless power reduction during landing.

The main bearings for the R-2800, or any other radial for that matter, did not present the degree of
difficulty experienced by the master rod bearings. Consequently, the R-2800 used steel-backed lead-
bronze bearings for the three mains.

Connecting Rods (Ref. 3.4)

As previously described, Luke Hobbs went with the one-piece master rod/built-up crank design
route (Fig. 3.17). Although complicating the crankshaft layout, it made for an easier master rod
design . Attached to each master rod were eight link rods to serve the remaining cylinders. Master
rod position varied with different series of the R-2800, however, the early ones being described here
used cylinder number 8 in the front row and cylinder number 13 in the rear row.

Starting out with an SAE 4140 chromium-molybdenum forging, many manufacturing processes would
be needed before it would be ready for installation. Typical of high performance aircraft engines, the
entire outer surface was machined and polished for greater fatigue resistance. The final polishing
operations were performed by hand by legions offemale workers at polishing stations. The design is
a classic "I" section with two flanges at the journal end. Eight 1 V4 inch diameter holes are arranged
around each flange to accommodate the link rod knuckle pins. A bronze bushing was press fitted into
the small end of the rod to accommodate the fully floating wrist pin. The one-piece steel-backed
lead/indium silver rod bearing is a light press fit into the rod. Each link rod is retained to the master
rod via a solid steel pin fitted to the above-mentioned holes in the master rod . A pair of "spiders, " one
on each side of the master rod retain the knuckle pins and also serve to transfer oil to the knuckle pins
and the bronze bushing pressed into the link rod.

Like the master rod, the link rods are of an "I" section manufactured from a chromium-molybdenum
forging, machined and polished all over.

It is easy to imagine the devastation caused when a link rod, or worse, a master rod fails. Although
rare, when it occurred, a master rod failure had the capability to slice an R-2800 in two.

An idiosyncrasy, not only of the R-2800 but most other radial engines, is the order of assembly/
disassembly of cylinders. It is key that the master rod cylinder is the first cylinder installed on
assembly and the last to be removed on disassembly. If this convention is not followed serious
problems will arise. The master rod controls the geometry of the link rods attached to it. Therefore,
for example, ifthe master rod cylinder is removed before any other cylinder, the other cylinder 's link
rods are no longer controlled by the master rod . If the master rod is allowed to swing back and forth

66
 R-2800 Development

Fig. 3.17 Master rod from raw forging to

finished article. Note exquisite finish.
Needless to say, a large number of high
precision manufacturing operations were
required. Final polishing was performed by
hand. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

within the cylinder opening in the crankcase, this potential movement would then be transferred to the
link rods and create a geometry, i.e ., movement, the engine was not designed for. The result will be
some lower oil control rings popping out of the bottom of the cylinder barrel. If this condition is not
noticed, the oil control ring and/or the bottom ring land is broken. Likewise, on assembly the master
rod cylinder is the first installed for the above-mentioned reasons unless a master rod holding tool is
temporarily installed (Ref. 3.68).

Nose Section (Ref. 3.4)

Numerous key engine functions were housed in the nose section: propeller reduction gearing, mag-
neto and its drive, distributors and their drives, scavenge pumps, propeller governor, and propeller
shaft (Fig. 3.18). The nose section housing was manufactured from a magnesium casting. Thirty-
six 3/s diameter studs in the front crankcase section attached the nose case housing. The propeller
shaft is supported at both ends. At the propeller end, a massive, deep groove ball thrust bearing
mounts in the front of the nose section. This bearing, one of the few rolling element bearings in the
engine, handled axial and thrust loads. These loads can be considerable, particularly in a fighter
plane application . The gyroscopic loads during violent maneuvers were immense. The tail end of
the propeller shaft has a precision journal ground on its outer surface that rides inside a pressed-in
lead bronze plain bearing located inside the number one crankshaft main bearing.

67
Chapter 3

Propeller Reduction Gearing (Ref. 3.4)

Transmitting over 2000 horsepower being generated from a high performance aircraft engine through
reduction gearing is a major design challenge. The history of aircraft engine development contains
many dismal failures with this key requirement. Numerous attempts were made during World War I
to incorporate reduction gearing with mixed results. What designers did not realize or understand at
the time was the fact that the engine/propeller combination is a mass/spring arrangement with each
reacting with the other component. Gear design, torsional vibration, materials, manufacturing tech-
niques, tooth finish, tooth form, and bearing design all conspired to make the job of developing a
successful reduction gear difficult at best.

The question is often begged, why go to the trouble of adding the weight, complexity, and mainte-
nance problems of reduction gearing? The answer, of course, is propeller tip speed. When tip
speeds exceed the speed of sound the laws of aerodynamics change profoundly. For a standard
atmosphere the speed of sound is 1070 feet per second. If the R-2800 did not have reduction gearing
the largest prop it could effectively swing without going supersonic at the blade tips would be 7 .3 feet
diameter. This would be totally inadequate from an efficiency standpoint. With the typical 13 foot
diameter propeller an R-2800 would swing, maximum tip speed would be 919 feet per second at

Fig. 3.18 "A "l"B" series

nose case manufactured from
a lightweight magnesium
casting. (Overhaul Manual
Double Wasp B Series Two
Stage Engines, 1944.)

68
 R-2800 Development

maximum rpm and 2: l reduction gearing. Designers typically try to keep tip speeds below 1OOOfeet
per second.

Numerous reduction ratios were developed fo r the R-2800 over its life . For each engine series the
design followed similar practice. In all cases it was of the planetary type. This makes sense because
the propeller shaft is co-axial with the crankshaft. However, there is always an exception to the rule
and in the case of radial engine reduction gearing that exception lay with the quintessentially British
manufactured Pobjoy. These small horsepower radials built in the 1930s featured spur reduction
gearing . Of course, this meant that the propeller shaft was not co-axial with the crankshaft resulting
in a rather odd appearance .

5:2 Propeller Reduction Gearing

The R-2800 's reduction gear consisted ofa coupling splined to the front of the crankshaft. A driving
gear (sun gear) was splined to the coupling . The drive gear meshed with six pinion gears (planet
gears) which in turn meshed with a fixed gear. By necessity, the fixed gear had internal teeth and
splines on its outer circumference. The splines mated with splines machined in the magnesium nose
case to lock it in place . The six pinions were mounted in a cage integral with the propeller shaft. A
bevel gear mounted on the cage provided drive to the nose section oil scavenge pump and the inter-
mediate gear for the propeller governor drive.

2:1 Propeller Reduction Gearing

Some "A" and ·'B" series engines featured a compound planetary reduction gear, similar to the
reduction gear described above, except in 2: 1 ratio only. The six pinion gears were of composite
construction. They consisted of a large 30-tooth pinion internally splined to fit over a portion of the
15-tooth pinion. The 15-tooth pinion meshed with the main drive gear and the 30-pinion meshed
with the fixed gear. All other features of the 2: 1 reduction gear were the same as the 5: 2 gearing. It
is interesting to note that heavily loaded gear train designs normally avoid numeric ratios. In the
case of the R-2800 the 2: 1 ratio caused more problems and suffered more failures than any other
ratio . The follO\v-on "C," "CB," and "E" series avoided this ratio and stuck with safer, non-numeric
ratios (Fig. 3.19).

16:9 Propeller Reduction Gearing

Still using a multi-pinion planetary setup, the 16:9 differed in some significant details. The main drive
gear (sun gear) had internal gear teeth with its hub splined to the crankshaft. Instead of six planetary
gears, this ratio used fifteen pinions mounted on in a cage integral with the propeller shaft and mesh-
ing with the drive gear and fixed gear. The fixed gear had external spur teeth with its hub splined to
a support ring mounted on the front inside face of the nose case. All other features remained the
same (Fig. 3.20).

69
Chapter 3

DISTRIBUTOR ~--IUONET O MOUNTINO PAD

ADAPTER
MA GNETO ORIV[ OEAR

OISTRIOUTOA DRIVE GEARS

COMPOUND
_ . . . - - - PINION OURS

REDUCTION
\._ DRIVE OUR

flX[D ANN ULAR

OUR--~

Fig. 3.19 Compounded 2: 1 propeller reduction gearing. This ratio was only used on
"A "/"B " engines. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines, 1944.)

Propeller Shaft (Ref. 3.4)

An SAE #50 spline drove the propeller. As an aside, it should be noted that the term SAE #50 spline
is somewhat of a misnomer. An SAE #50 spline actually has 16 splines and has a diameter of
3% inches. Likewise with an SAE #60 spline used on the "C" series, it actually has 32 splines and
has a diameter of 4.68 inches . The propeller shaft was hollow, not only to reduce weight but more
importantly to transmit oil to hydraulically operated propellers . In the case of an electrically operated
propeller, the end of the shaft was plugged off. As described above, the front of the propeller shaft
was supported in a ball thrust bearing. The rear of the propeller shaft was supported in a copper/lead
plain bearing fitted inside the front of the crankshaft. Although this made for a convenient location to
support the crankshaft, additional loads were transmitted to the front main crankshaft bearing. This
was inconsequential for transport aircraft but for fighter aircraft that were thrown into violent maneu-
vers, the propeller imposed unusually high loads on the rear support bearing and consequently, the
front main (Fig. 3.21).

70
 R-2800 D evelopment

A:i%a:~ ~~fe/s .;;,;:,d~;~on3gearing

(Pg. 3.20 Sin
Fi . g le stage 16 9 7- rzes R-2800
arts Cata! fi : R-2800
propell
Engines. ectzon.) , - 1, -43, _for _71 , "A
59, the - .)"/ "B
and" -se79 ·A ire raft .

71
Chapter 3

Ignition

As with all aircraft engines of this vintage, magneto ignition was used. A single Scintilla (Ref. 3. 69)
(Fig. 3.22) or American Bosch magneto (Ref. 3.70) (Fig. 3.23) was mounted on the center drive
pad of the nose section. The only purpose of this magneto was to produce high tension voltage. The
output was transmitted to two distributors mounted on both sides of the magneto (Fig. 3.24). The left
distributor sent high tension to the 18 spark plugs located at the rear position of each cylinder and the
right distributor fired the 18 spark plugs located in the front position. Radio shielding was, and still is,
critical to military and civilian aircraft fitted with radios. When the ignition points open and send
20,000 volts surging to the spark plug a powerful radio signal is generated. Without shielding, the
aircraft's radios would be rendered almost useless. Shielding was accomplished via metal-coated
harnesses and shielded plugs (Fig. 3.25).

Fig. 3.21 "A "/"B " series propeller shaft. Note the SAE #50 spline on the left and tail end
bearing journal on right. The tail end journal rides in a bearing pressed into the number one
main bearing journal of the crank. (Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines [R-2800-8, -10,
-8W, and-lOW], Second Edition. Author :S collection.)

72
 R-2800 Development

Fig. 3.22 Bendix-Scintilla DFl 8LN

magneto. It was mounted on the upper-
most center drive pad of the nose case.
(Bendix-Scintilla Aircraft Magnetos Types
DFl 8RN, DFl 8LN Service Instructions,
February 1943. Courtesy of Al
Type DF18LN Magneto
Marcucci.)

UPPER
BREAKER
MAGNETO - --
ASSEMB LY
HOUSING

HELICAL
PINION

HELICAL
GEAR
Fig. 3.23 Not used as
COIL
PROTECTION INDU CTOR extensively as the Scintilla,
COVER - ROTOR
Bosch magnetos were still
LOWER
MAGN ETO
HOUSING
excellent units. This
COIL
cutaway shows the inner
components of a unit.
(American Bosch Service
Instructions Aviation
Magneto DF18RU- l ,
issued August 1944.
Courtesy of Al Marcucci.)

73
Chapter 3

Right and left, clockwise and counterclocbvise, upper and lower, and similar directional references
apply to the engine as viewed from the rear with the propeller shaft in the horizontal position and with
number one cylinder at the top of the engine. In the case of accessory drives, the direction of rotation
is specified as it appears to an observer facing the accessory mounting pad. The normal direction of
crankshaft and propeller rotation is clockwise. Beginning with the top cylinder in the rear row, the
cylinders are numbered consecutively in the direction of crankshaft rotation.

The firing order is as follows : 1 - 12 - 5 - 16 - 9 - 2 - 13 - 6 - 17 - 10 - 3 - 14 - 7 - 18 - 11 - 4 - 15 - 8.

As can be ascertained for the foregoing firing order, the R-2800 followed radial engine convention,
i.e., every other cylinder fires in a row. Or, if the engine is split into two nine-cylinder engines we can
see that the front row (even numbers) firing order is: 12 - 16 - 2 - 6 - 10 - 14 - 18 - 4 - 8. And for the
rear row (odd numbers) firing order is: 1 - 5 - 9 - 13 - 17 -3 - 7 - 11 - 15. Viewed from the front,
reading counterclockwise, the front cylinders were numbered, starting from the top: 2 - 4 - 6 - 8 - 10
- 12 - 14 - 16 - 18. Likewise, reading counterclockwise, the rear cylinders were numbered, starting
from the top : 1 - 3 - 5 - 7 - 9 - 11 - 13 - 15 - 17.

The Scintilla ignition system was referred to as the DF18RN or in some cases DF18LN. This
designation was a code established by the military and known as the magneto type designation (Ref.
3.69).

H10HTENSIONCURRENTTO
SPARK PLUG ~
IW.GNElO CURRENT DURING
NORMAL OPERATION, OR
TRANSFORM<D OUTPUT OF
INDUCTION VIBRATOR BOOSTER
FOR STARTING

""'//~

1. CONTACT POINT ASSEMBLY

2. BREAKER CAM 12. TERMINAL BLOCK WITH SECONDARY CONDENSER
3. DISTRIBUTOR ASSEMBLY 13. SECONDARY WINDING OF COIL
4. GROUND TERMINAL 14. PRIMARY WINDING OF COIL
5. PRIMARY INSERT IN COIL HOUSING ,, 15. COIL CORE
6. PRIMARY CONDENSER 16. DISTRIBUTOR ELECTRODE
7. POLE SHOES IN MAGNETO HOUSING 17. TERMINAL BLOCK IN DI STRIBUTOR COVER
8. ROTATING MAGNET " 18. DISTRIBUTOR FINGER ELECTRODE
9. HIGH TENSION TERMINAL 19. DISTRIBUTOR FINGER
10. HIGH TENSION CONTACT IN TERMINAL BLOCK 20. HIGH TENSION INSERT IN COIL HOUSING
11. CONTACT BUTTON IN TERMINAL BLOCK

= SCHErMTJC DIA.GRAM OF
ELECTRJCANO IMGNETIC CIRCUITS

Fig. 3.24 Diagrammatic view of the Scintilla distributor showing how high tension gets to
the plug. (Bendix-Scintilla Aircraft Magnetos Types DFJ 8RN, DFJ 8LN Service Instructions,
February 1943. Courtesy of Al Marcucci.)

74
 R-2800 Development

UPPER RETAINER
FOR SHIELDING
BARREL INSULATOR
CORE CONTACT
CAP
SHIELDING
BARREL

SHIELDING ,_ __
BARREL
INSULATOR
CORE INSULATOR
THRUST
SPACER

i
LOWER RETAINER
FOR SHIELDING
WASHER BARREL INSULATOR

SHELL
SPRING

RESISTOR

COPPER-GLASS SEAL
Fig. 3.25 Cross section of
CENTER FOR CORE
ELECTROD a typical shielded massive
electrode plug. Shielding
GASKET COPPER CORE
FOR CORE
INSULATOR
was essential to prevent
GROUND ELECTRODE
radio interference.
(3 Prong)
(Engine Test Manual for
Aircraft Engines, Navy
Department of Aeronau-
tics. Author :S collection.)

"D" Indicates a double type magneto (one double magneto together with two separate dis-
tributor assemblies are required to provide dual ignition for an engine).

"F" Indicates flange mounting

" 18" Indicates the magneto will acco1mnodate an eighteen-cylinder engine.

"R" or "L" Indicates the rotation of the magneto as viewed from the drive end ("R" - right-hand
rotation or clockwise; "L" - left-hand rotation or counterclockwise).

"N" Indicates the magneto was manufactured by the Scintilla division of Bendix.

75
Chapter 3

"U" Indicates the magneto was manufactured by American Bosch.

"S" Indicates the ignition system was manufactured by General Electric.

The DF18RN/LN (DF18RU/LU for American Bosch) is designed to iun at 11/s times crankshaft
speed (Ref 3.70). This ratio is a result of the eight-pole design which produces eight sparks per
revolution of the magneto and nine sparks per crankshaft revolution are required (1 1/s x 8 = 9) . Two
separate coils are employed to serve the two sets (i .e., front and rear per cylinder) of spark plugs.
The high tension generated by the two coils within the magneto is conducted to the two distributors
mounted on the nose case on both sides of the magneto. The distributors run at half crankshaft
speed. Each distributor feeds eighteen high tension wires in a shielded harness-one distributor fires
the spark plugs in the front of each cylinder and the other distributor the rear plugs in each cylinder.

Two pivotless type, high speed contact breaker point assemblies are employed-each one being
connected to one of the coils in the magneto. The breaker assemblies are actuated by separate cams .
One can only assume dual breaker points were used in order to prevent points bounce at higher rpm.

The cams are secured at opposite ends of a transversely mounted shaft in the upper part of the
magneto. To accommodate fine adjustment of the cams, vernier adjusting ratchets are provided for.
Each cam has eighteen lobes, which are ground at unequal intervals to compensate for the minor
variation in geometry of the master connecting rod compared to the link rods. This type of cam is
known as a "compensated" or "even-firing" cam. The cam lobes are spaced so as to open the
contact points at the exact full advance firing of each piston.

The magneto's drive mechanism is an exquisite crown wheel and pinion. Drive for the pinion shaft
is provided by the nose case magneto drive. The crown wheel is driven off the pinion. The ratio of
the crown wheel and pinion is 4:9, i.e. , the crown wheel cross shaft turns at 4/9 the speed of the
rotating magnet and since the magnet is driven at 11/s or 9/s engine crankshaft speed the reduction
ratio of the crown wheel and pinion results in the cross shaft and breaker cam rotating one half
crankshaft speed (9/s x 4/9 = 1h). Lubrication requirements are self contained by being packed with
grease. As can be imagined from the foregoing description, setting up the drive train for a Scintilla
magneto is not for the faint of heart. The crown-wheel and pinion need to be adjusted and shimmed
in a similar fashion to the rear axle of a car or truck.

Pressurized Bendix-Scintilla Ignition System

Air is a good electrical insulator. And the converse is also true, a vacuum is not a good insulator.
Therefore, as atmospheric pressure reduces at high altitudes, the insulating quality of the atmosphere
is considerably reduced. When aerial combat reached into the stratosphere, and later, as commercial
airliners flew in the more efficient realms of the upper atmosphere, ignition woes became common.

76
 R-2800 Development

This phenomenon was caused by the high tension-20,000 plus volts, being fed through the distribu-
tor. Arcing across the distributor contacts resulted in misfiring or cross-firing. Several methods were
pursued to overcome this difficulty with limited success. One method was the use of the so-called
filled harness . In this method the entire ignition harness was filled with a dielectric solution. Another
method was to pressurize the ignition system with air. Or, both methods could be used, i.e., the so-
called cast-filled pressurized harness. These harnesses are easy to identify by the Pratt & Whitney
logo cast into them (Fig. 3.26). Scintilla also developed a simpler "tubular" harness which was not
filled with a dielectric gel. Fig. 3.27 and 3.28 show similar R-2800s except Fig. 3.27 is fitted with a
"cast-filled" harness and Fig 3.28 is fitted with a "tubular" harness .

The pressurizing or supercharging pump, as Scintilla referred to it, was a positive displacement vane
type pump (Fig. 3.29). Air is drawn into the pump from outside the distributor bowl through a filtered
intake, up through the base of the pump and into the suction port of the pump. Pressurized air from
the pump discharges into the distributor bowl. A tube from the distributor bowl feeds pressurized air
into the magneto. A small bleed hole in a plug provides ventilation for the system . This method of
high altitude ignition was adequate until the definitive low-tension system was introduced .

f HIGH TENSION LEAOS ~

AIR INLET ANO FILTER

MANIFOLD R ING AND COVER

Fig. 3.26 Line drawing of the so-called

cast-filled harness. It was identifiable
by the PRATT & WHITNEY script
cast into the manifold. (Overhaul
PROTECTOR CAPS Manual - Part No. 99339 Double Wasp
C Series Two-Stage Engines. Author :S
collection.)

77
Chapter 3

Fig. 3.27 Typical applica-

tion of a cast-filled harness
installed on an -1 8WA.
Cast ignition harnesses
were filled with a dielectric
solution to reduce cross-
firing at high altitude.
(Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

Fig. 3.28 Front view of a

Scintilla "tubu lar" ignition
harness fitted to an
R-2800-63. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)

78
 R-2800 Development

Fig. 3. 29 Pressurizing the harness

was another method of reducing high
altitude cross-firing. This was accom-
plished via a small, positive displace-
ment vane pump integral with each
distributor. (Bendix-Scintilla Aircraft
Magnetos Types DF18RN, DF18LN
Service Instructions, February 1943.
ROTATION DIRECTION Courtesy of Al Marcucci.)

General Electric Ignition System (Ref 3. 71)

Often referred to the "Turtleback mag" due to its distinctively shaped cast covers, GE. ignition
systems were not used as extensively as Scintillas. They were used primarily on "B" series. The
following engines used G.E . ignition: -59, -65 , -71, -73 , -75, -79, -81 , -83 , -85 , -85A, -85XA, -87,
-8 9, and -91. Unlike the Bendix/Scintilla system, G.E . chose to incorporate both functions of magneto
and distributor into one self-contained assembly (Fig. 3.30). This meant the center pad on the nose
case, reserved for the magneto drive, was now redundant so a simple blanking plate is installed. The
two magnetos are identical and interchangeable. General Electric designed this ignition system for
high altitudes. To accomplish this function , the entire harness is filled with a dielectric gel. The front
plugs in each cylinder are fired by the right magneto (looking from the rear) and the rear plugs of each
cylinder are fired by the left magneto. Many G.E. ignition systems were manufactured by Briggs &
Stratton in Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Fig. 3.31 shows a typical application of the GE. ignition system,
a "B" series R-2800-71 for a Douglas A-26.

Fig. 3.32 illustrates a typical ignition system for a twin-engined R-2800 powered aircraft, in this case
a Fairchild C-82 .

Carburetor

"A" and "B" series R-2800s used various dash number of the Bendix PT-13 injection carburetor.
For a more detailed description of this carburetor the reader is directed to Chapter 6, Carburetors.

79
Chapter 3

• Rotating parts

1. High-tension contact 4 . Coil connector 7. Primary coil 10. Magnet cell 13. Coil
2. Coil case 5. Clip 8. Magneto rotor 11 . Ground terminal 14. Molded-in conductor
3. Coil core 6. Secondary coil 9. Magnet 12. Spring 15. Electrode shield

Fig. 3. 30 Cutaway view of the General Electric ignition system. Both magneto and distribu -
tor functions were built into one unit. With no requirement for a separate magneto, a blank-
ing plate was installed on the nose case magneto pad. (18 Cylinder High-Tension Ignition
System [R-2800-B Series Engines}, General Electric, JO February 1945. Courtesy of Al
Marcucci.)

Lubrication (Ref. 3.4)

Often referred to as the lifeblood of the engine, no one would question the importance of this key
requirement. The dry sump system was employed. In other words, an oil pressure pump supplies
pressurized oil to the bearings and other components requiring lubrication. After performing its

80
 R-2800 Development

Fig. 3.31 R-2800-71

illustrating a typical
General Electric ignition
application. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)

---
~--
/
/
/ __ -::_ ~ --
____ 1 . . .....

-----\~~' '(·-:'7~:1
'~-~<~-,,
. '' '' ,, -
_,.

L. Igniclon Swiech 4 . Ignition Grounding Receptacle

2. Fuselage lgaition Junction Box ~. Ignition Harness
3. Fire Wall Ignition Junction Box 6. Disiributors
7. Magne10

Fig. 3. 32 This line drawing shows a typical twin-engined ignition system. The example
shown is a Fairchild C-82. (Fairchild C-82 Erection & Maintenance Manual AN Ol-
115CBA -2. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

81
Chapter 3

lubrication duties, the oil drained into strategically located sumps . Front and rear scavenge pumps
(Fig. 3.33) with larger displacements than the pressure pumps kept these sumps nearly empty, or
"scavenged." The scavenge pump discharged through an oil cooler mounted on the airframe and
finally to the oil tank, usually mounted on the aircraft firewall. After being thrashed around inside the
engine, the oil is thoroughly aerated . If it were piped back through the engine in this condition,
severely reduced engine life would result. De-aeration baffles in the oil tank ensure that most, if not
all, entrapped air is eliminated. In this way only "solid" oil is returned to the engine (Fig. 3.34).

All oil pumps on the R-2800 are of the gear type. A single pressure pump supplies oil to three main
branches (Fig. 3.35).

Oil is supplied from the tank to the pressure pump mounted on the back of the rear section. The oil is
routed to a chamber containing two screens . Spring-loaded check valves in this chamber prevent oil
from the tank leaking into the engine after shutdown. In the event that these screens become clogged,
bypass valves are incorporated. As with any pressurized lubrication system, a relief valve is pro-
vided. In the case of the R-2800 it is a little more sophisticated than the average relief valve. At low
temperature, i.e., below 40°F, a compensating valve overrides the relief valve to provide far more oil
pressure than normal. These pressures can momentarily exceed 400 psi at low temperatures . Of
course, under normal conditions and temperatures, these extremely high pressures are not experienced.

Single-stage "A"/"B" series engines employed three main branches on the pressure side of the
lubrication system. Fig. 3.36 shows an overall view of the lubrication system.

Fig. 3. 33 Front
scavenge pump
mounted at the
bottom of the nose
case. (Double Wasp
B Series Two Stage
Engines [R-2800-8,
-10, -8W, and -lOW},
Second Edition.
Author :S collection.)

82
 R-2800 Development

Fig. 3. 34 Baffles fitted in

the oil tank ensure that
most, if not all entrapped
air is eliminated. Note the
articulated oil pick-up arm
for aerobatics. Of course,
this feature would not be
required for a transpo rt
category aircraft. (Erection
& Maintenance Instruc -
tions for Army Mode ls
P-47B and RP-47C.
Courtesy of the Nationa l
Air & Space Museum.)

COVER ASSEl.! BLY

PUMP GEA RS
OIL SEAL
ENO PLATE RINGS

IDLER
DRIVE GEAR
SHAFT

PACKINGS

®@~
BOLT
l BOLT

Fig. 3. 35 Arguably the most critical component to the R-2800 :S longevity, the main oil
pressure pump. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft July 1945. Author :S collection.)

83
Chapter 3

Fig 3. 36 Cutaway showing the oil galleries, oil flow, and lubrication system. (Overhaul
Manual Double Wasp B Series Single Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft July 1945.
Authors collection.)

First Branch

The first branch of the pressure circuit supplies oil to the selector valve for operating the two-speed
supercharger clutches (Fig. 3.37), main oil pressure connection, and perhaps most importantly, the
crankshaft. The R-2800 used an end feed lubrication system, i.e. , it did not use galleries feeding the
mains as would be the case for most inline and automotive engines . Oil is fed inside the crankshaft at
the number three main bearing. This eliminated the requirement for an oil distribution groove com-
mon in most crankshaft main bearings. Therefore, the oil was fed right through the hollow crankshaft
in order to feed the main and master rod bearings. Excess oil thrown out of the master rod and main
bearings lubricated the pistons and cylinders. Continuing on through the crankshaft, the oil is fed into
the propeller shaft. As described in the nose case section, the end of the propeller shaft rode inside
the number one crankshaft main bearing. Once inside the crankshaft, the oil then lubricated the
support bearings, one plain lead-bronze and a rolling element thrust/radial bearing. Oil from the
crankshaft also lubricated the propeller reduction gearing.

Second Branch

The second branch received oil from an annulus machined into the main accessory drive shaft.
Galleries drilled into this annulus transfer the oil to the top, outer wall of the rear accessory case. Oil

84
 R-2800 Development

Fig. 3. 37 For R-2800s fitted with a two-speed supercharger, a control valve was installed to
direct oil to the appropriate supercharger clutch. (Parts Catalog for Models R-2800 Series -27,
-31, -43, -59, -71 , -75 and -79 Aircraft Engines. Authors collection.)

is routed to the heavily loaded blower drive gears. Another galle1y feeds oil to the drive gears and
tappets for the rear row of cylinders. Tappet oil is transferred through the hollow pushrods and thus
ends up inside the rocker boxes where it lubricates the rockers and valve stems. In the case of the
exhaust side rocker box, excess heat from the sodium-cooled valve is removed via the oil.

85
Chapter 3

Third Branch

Fed by the hollow propeller shaft, the third branch is configured with an oil pipe across the inside
diameter of the propeller shaft. It feeds oil into an annulus in the oil transfer bearing where it is
transferred via drilled galleries in the magnesium nose section. From here, a series of drilled galleries
transfer oil to the magneto and distributor drive gears . Valve gear for the front row of cylinders is
tapped off the third branch, which is similar in operation to the lubrication of the rear row of cylinders.
The propeller governor receives its governing oil from this branch where it is boosted to as much as
400 psi to operate the propeller. (See chapter on propellers for more detailed information).

Low Pressure Oil

High pressure oil is fed into the hollow fuel pump drive shaft mounted in the rear accessory section.
As the fuel pump shaft rotates, it registers with two holes which meter out the oil for the low pressure
circuit. The low pressure relief valve is mounted in the pressure pwnp cover and is connected with
the metered oil by a drilled passage . The bypassed oil from the low pressure and the temperature
compensated high pressure relief valve is returned through a co nun on passage to the inlet side of the
pressure pump. Low pressure oil is transferred through a series of drilled passages to the bearings of
the accessory drive gear train in the rear section.

Oil Pressure Relief Jillve

The oil pressure relief valve is mounted on the rear section. Pressure is adjustable via a bolt capped
off with an acorn nut. The acorn nut is safety wired with a lead seal (Fig. 3.38), to prevent mainte-
nance personnel from tampering with the adjustment. Once the oil pressure is set at engine installa-
tion, it should never be adjusted again until the next overhaul. Many mechanics keep raising the oil
pressure as the engine experiences wear. However, that is not the purpose of the relief valve. If the
engine will not maintain oil pressure, particularly when hot, it should be removed from service.

At a normal operating temperature of 180 to 200°F, the oil pressure stabilizes at 85 to 90 psi with an
oil flow of 30 to 35 gallons per minute .

Supercharger & Induction

Two key functions are served by the supercharger: (1) boosting manifold pressure, which of course
results in higher power output and (2) maintaining sea level power at high altitudes . Simply put, it
represents the concept of force feeding the fuel/air mixture to the engine. Reducing supercharging
to practice was an area of intense research throughout the piston engine era. Power output is depen-
dent upon the weight of the fuel/air charge entering into the cylinder during the intake stroke. Of
course, limits are imposed on how much can be forced into the cylinder, detonation being the most
significant. Even though high performance, large military aircraft piston engines such as the R-2800
were designed with relatively low compression ratios, under conditions of high supercharge, i.e., high
manifold pressure, detonation would set in. At the point of ignition, usually 20 degrees before top
dead center, a flame front is established. The flame front, traveling at about 400 miles per hour,

86
 R-2800 Development

COVER
VALVE SEAT

GASKET

S;:>RING

PLUNGER

GASKET
HOUSING

VALVE
GASKET
SPRING

Fig. 3. 38 Integral with the main oil pressure pump, a relief valve maintained correct oil
pressure, provided the engine has not experienced excessive bearing wear. (Overhaul
Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines. Pratt & Whitney Aircraft July 1945.
Author '.s' collection.)

spreads across the combustion chamber. As the flame front advances, the temperature of the portion
of the fuel/air charge still unburned is increased-it is also exposed to higher pressure, further
increasing temperature. Under conditions of detonation, the increase in temperature and pressure
can cause the unburned charge to burn uncontrollably, in other words detonate. Depending on the
severity of the detonation, serious damage can result in a short period oftime . This damage can take
the form of damaged pistons, eroded combustion chambers or in the most severe cases, blow the
cylinder head off the cylinder barrel. However, all is not lost in the quest for high manifold pressures
and consequently more power. Several remedies are at the disposal of the engineer and designer. If
a high degree of turbulence is promoted within the combustion chamber, the flame front \vill advance
more rapidly thus allowing less time for heat build-up for the unburned portion of the charge. From
the foregoing, it is apparent that a high rate of burn is desirable-indeed essential for peak perfor-
mance. If the incoming charge is relatively cool , two goals will be achieved: (1) a denser charge will
enter the cylinder and therefore offer more power and (2) the possibility of detonation will be reduced
due to the lower incoming charge temperature. Item (2) deserves a closer examination. One byproduct
of supercharging is compression heating. In other words, as the supercharger compresses the
fuel/air mixture, or air in some cases as we will see, the temperature is increased depending on the
degree of supercharge . Heat is also generated due to the turbulence created inside the supercharger
housing. However, the higher the supercharger efficiency, the lower the heat build-up. As an example,

87
Chapter 3

lets consider a difference of 2 l 2°F in charge temperature. In a spark ignition engine, the absolute
temperature at the end of compression, i.e., before the liberation of heat from combustion, will be
twice that of the initial temperature, or 224 °F The difference at this, the effective starting point of
the cycle, therefore becomes 224 °F and the flame temperature will be increased by nearly a like
amount. Consequently, both the direct heat losses and those due to increase of specific heat and
dissociation will be increased considerably, with a corresponding reduction in thermal efficiency.
From the foregoing it is apparent that low charge temperatures and high manifold temperature are
mutually exclusive-unless an intervening step takes place. Of course, that intervening step is
intercooling. Intercooling was used only on those Pratt & Whitney engines fitted with two-stage
supercharging. The two-stage supercharging could be accomplished via engine driven stages or one
engine driven stage supplemented by a turbosupercharger. Another method of taming high charge
temperatures due to boosting is the method of introducing atomized fuel into the air stream. As we
will see, this can make a significant contribution to keeping charge temperatures under control. Four
basic concepts were used in high perfonnance military aircraft piston engines for fuel distribution into
the engine: (1) conventional float type carburetor, (2) injection carburetor, (3) direct p011 injection, or
(4) direct injection into the combustion chamber.

Small to medium, i.e., 200 to 400 horsepower engines typically employ float type carburetors simi-
lar in design to those employed on automotive applications prior to the universal adoption of fuel
injection. By World War II the vast majority of U.S. manufactured military piston engines in the
higher horsepower range, i.e., over 400 horsepower, utilized injection carburetors. Although this
would seem to be a conflicting term, it simply meant that the carburetor measured mass air flow and
through various diaphragms, signaled the correct amount of fuel to be injected into the engine at a
single injection point. The location at which the fuel was injected was quite critical in order to take
advantage of the temperature drop due to evaporation of the fuel and thus offer significant cooling
effect. With scenarios (3) and (4) described above little or no fuel evaporation cooling is achieved;
however, these methods were employed for other reasons such as superior mixture distribution and
total freedom from induction icing. The German Luftwaffe, in particular, utilized direct port injec-
tion, manufactured by Bosch, Junkers, or Deckel, on all their front line aircraft engines. All produc-
tion R-2800s used various injection carburetors.

Superchargers utilized by Pratt & Whitney, as well as other manufacturers, were of the centrifugal
type. Deceptively simple in its basic design, the centrifugal supercharger, or compressor, took an
inordinate amount of development effort to perfect. In the case of the R-2800, a single stage, i.e.,
one impeller, with two speeds was employed on early engines.

Pratt & Whitney developed a unique and innovative way of introducing the atomized fuel into the
induction system. The fuel feed valve operated in a similar manner to the pintel valve for a fuel
injection system typically used on a diesel engine. The fuel feed valve discharged into a so-called
slinger ring, integral with the supercharger impeller. A series of small holes, 1I1 6 of an inch diameter
are drilled into the impeller between each vane. Exiting approximately halfway up the diameter of the
impeller, a significant degree of dynamic energy is imparted to the fuel as it exits the impeller. Tip
speeds are limited to subsonic speeds or typically 1300 feet per second. In the high temperature, high
pressure environment of the supercharger, the speed of sound is considerably higher than that

88
 R-2800 Development

experienced at normal atmospheric temperatures and pressures. At sea level a lower impeller rota-
tional speed is used compared to that employed at higher altitudes . This requires the use of two or
more impeller speeds and in some cases two stages of supercharging. As we shall see in subsequent
chapters, Pratt & Whitney utilized six approaches to this problem: (1) single-speed w·ith a single
supercharger stage; (2) single-stage with a variable impeller speed within a defmed rpm range; (3) two-
speed with a single stage; (4) variable speed auxiliary stage and a single-speed second stage; (5) single-
stage, single-speed engine driven blower with an exhaust gas driven supercharger; and (6) two-stage
with a single-speed main engine stage and a three-speed (neutral, low and high) auxiliary stage.

Early R-2800s utilized method (3), i.e. , single-stage, two-speed. The downdraft carburetor was
mounted on top of the intermediate rear section. Induction air was fed into the eye of the super-
charger impeller (Fig. 3.39). And as explained above, the fuel was injected into the slinger ring,
integral with the root diameter of the impeller. At takeoff power, for the early "A" series engine
described here, the impeller spins at 7. 6 times crankshaft speed- and this is in low gear. This results
in a rotational speed of 20,520 rpm. Consequently, the in-rushing induction air is suddenly forced to
rotate at this speed. In order to smooth the transition from a straight flow to an extremely high speed
rotational flow, rotating inlet guide vanes are incorporated. Many development engineers worked this
problem including those at General Electric and Wright Field. As the name suggests, they are vanes
curved in the direction of rotation, inducing a swirl to the air flow prior to it entering the impeller.
Once the induction air makes contact with the impeller vanes, it is violently flung outwards under the
powerful influence of centrifugal force. Along the way, fuel is mixed with the air. As the fuel/air
mixture exits the impeller, an enormous amount of kinetic energy has been imparted to the mixture .
However, kinetic energy is not going do the engine any good unless it can be converted into potential
or pressure energy-this is what produces manifold pressure. The conversion of kinetic into potential
energy takes place via a diffuser. Flung out at velocities of up to 1300 feet per second, the mixture
makes contact with airfoil shaped vanes which redirect the flow from a purely tangential flow into a
plenum chamber. Tapped into the plenum or supercharger collector section are nine intake manifolds
(Fig. 3.40). Tubular in design, each one incorporates a "Y" connection. The two branches feed
mixture to two cylinders: one rear and one front cylinder. As the intake valve opens, the mixture is
forced in under high pressure, up to 60 inches of mercury, and high velocity. Upon entering the
hemispherical combustion chamber, violent turbulence is induced, which is just what's needed for
subduing detonation. This is achieved without resorting to a squish area or squish band, the methods
of choice in many engine designs.

To achieve the 7.6:1 drive ratio for low blower and 9 .45 1 for high blower, step-up gearing and
clutches are required. With any piston engine, torsional vibration can take a terrible toll on internal
components . This is especially true for the supercharger drive. Drive requirements are severe in
that the high rotational speeds referred to above are involved. Furthermore, a considerable amount
of power is required, up to 400 horsepower to drive the supercharger in order to produce the necessary
mass air flow and manifold pressure. These requirements put additional emphasis on the importance
of protecting the complex gear train from potentially ruinous torsional vibration, high rotational speeds,
and heavy loads. The degree of speed increase required demands a two-stage gear train. Every step
of the drive line incorporates some form of torsional protection. A long, torsionally flexible quill shaft,
originating from the end of the crankshaft, initiates the supercharger drive train. Two large gears at

89
 ENGINE MOUNTING
BRACKETS

AUXILIARY STAGE
THROTTLE VALVE
CONTROL LEVER

"'---- OIL PASSAGE

COVER PLATE

Fig. 3. 39 The primary contributor to the R-2800 's power and excellent power to weight was its centrifugal
supercharger. This line drawing shows the impeller and difjitser. Nine circular ports in the supercharger
housing provided outlets to the nine intake manifolds. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage
Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft July 1945. Author:~ collection.)
 R-2800 Development

Fig 3. 40 R-2800s used nine intake manifolds that split off into two, thus feeding eighteen
cylinders. Early "A " series used a simple rubber coupling to connect the front intake pipe to the
"Y" manifold Later "B " series and all subsequent R-2800s used a split clamp sealed with an
"O " ring Both styles are shown in this illustration. (Parts Catalog for Models R-2800 Series -27,
-31, -43, -59, -71, -75, and -79 Aircraft Engines. Author's collection.)

91
Chapter 3

the end of this shaft incorporate two clutches. Integral with each clutch are radially disposed
compression springs. The hub of each gear "floats " on the periphery. As torque is applied to the
drive, the springs will compress, and at the same time take up torsional vibration. The clutches are of
the tapered cone variety, hydraulically operated via engine oil pressure. Drive output from the clutch
then goes to another set of step-up gears, which drive the impeller (Fig. 3.41). Although all gears are
in constant mesh, only one clutch is engaged at any time. Impeller speed is selected via a selector
valve mounted on top of the rear case. Nothing more than a directional control valve, flipping the
lever one way or the other directs oil, via drilled galleries to one clutch or the other. One undesirable
idiosyncrasy of the aforementioned blower drive system is severe sludging of the clutches . Operat-
ing at high rotational speeds, they serve as ideal centrifuges, i.e., sludge traps, for the lubricating oil.
Pilot/flight engineer technique could alleviate this problem simply by changing blower speeds momen-
tarily at regular one-hour intervals . However, this process needs to be done judiciously, particularly at
night, so as not to scare nervous passengers due to the spectacular sheet of flame produced out of the
exhaust stacks when performed carelessly.

Supercharger Collector Section (Ref. 3.4)

Manufactured from a magnesium casting, the supercharger collector section served two purposes:
(1) as an attachment point for the six engine mounts and (2) as the diffuser for the supercharger. It

FRONT SPRING PLATE GEAR (REAR SPR ING

® PLATE

LOCKWASHER
'
f •<
FLOATING BEARI NG

b6 ~ell
OCKNU

Z)~

mri

Fig. 3.41 Supercharger drive gear. Not only did the supercharger drive gears transmit a
prodigious amount of power, they had to dampen out any torsional vibration. This was
accomplished via the spring arrangement shown here. (Double Wasp [R-2800} CB Series
Maintenance Manual. Authors collection.)

92
 R-2800 Development

is attached to the crankcase rear section. In conjunction v,1ith the intennediate rear case, it houses
the supercharger impeller. The front face of the case incorporates a steel liner to accommodate the
impeller shaft front oil seal rings and a bushing to support the rear end of the rear second order
counterweight intermediate drive gear shaft. As discussed above, the function of the diffuser is key
to the efficiency of a centrifugal supercharger. For the R-2800 this vital component is secured to the
rear face of the collector section. The nine Y-shaped tubular fuel/air intake manifolds are equally
spaced around the periphery of the collector section. The intake pipes are attached and sealed to the
collector section via a castellated gland nut.

Intermediate Rear Section (Ref. 3.4) (Fig. 3.42)

The intermediate rear section is attached to supercharger collector section. It houses the impeller
and accessory drive shafts as well as providing support for the front end of the shafts in the various
accessory gear trains. Formed inside the intermediate section is one of the more key functions for
the performance of the engine. That function is transition from the carburetor to the impeller or
supercharger intake. High speed and high volume air flows demand a perfect transition from linear
flow to rotational flow. A web in the center of the supercharger intake houses a steel liner which
serves the dual purpose of accommodating the impeller shaft oil seal rings and providing a fuel
distributor for the fuel slinger. A carburetor mounting pad sits on top. The fuel feed valve is

Fig. 3.42 This cutaway photo shows to good advantage the supercharger collector section
and supercharger diffuser High and low speed clutches are also seen in this photo. (Cour-
tesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

93
Chapter 3

mounted just below the carburetor mounting pad . A drilled passage houses the fuel feed valve where
it terminates at the slinger ring.

Engine Mounts

With a typical installed weight, including propeller, of 3500 pounds, the design challenge of mounting
this mass to the relatively fragile structure of the airframe can only be imagined. Furthermore, it was
essential that obtrusive engine vibration did not get into the airframe and cause possible fatigue
failures. The solution was a masterpiece of engine mounting technology. The Lord Corporation, a
longtime specialist in mounting and vibration attenuation technology, consulted v.1ith Pratt & Whitney
and designed the mount for them.

Radially disposed around the supercharger collector section, six rectangular pads were provided as
suitable mounting points for the six engine brackets . The mount consisted of the following key
components: core assembly, housing, cover, snubbing disc assembly, and spring plate. The housing
and cover were attached to the engine bracket. These two components screwed together and in so
doing sandwiched the "core assembly" oflaminated rubber discs. A stud, molded integrally with the
core assembly attached to the engine bracket. The housing provided three mounting points for the
aircraft tubular engine mount (Fig. 3.43 and Fig. 3.44) One more key function was designed into
the mount, that of damping. This function was accomplished via the snubbing disc assembly, which
incorporated a steel diaphragm spring and clutch plate that bore against the cover. These six mount-
ing assemblies were designed with the dynafocal principle in mind, i.e. , an imaginary line drawn
through each mount converged at the center of gravity of the engine and propeller. Although the
basic design of the mount remained basically unchanged throughout the life of the engine, minor
changes such as rubber durometer was incorporated to optimize the mount for a particular aircraft
the engine was to be installed in. One interesting exception to the foregoing was the Vought F4U-5.
Powered by the fascinating " sidewinder" R-2800-32W, the engine was rigidly mounted .

Rear Section

Engines in the R-2800 's class have the additional requirement to drive a number of accessories. In
the case of the R-2800 these accessories are driven off the rear accessory case, manufactured from a
magnesium casting (Fig. 3.45) . As well as the aforementioned requirement to drive accessories, the
rear section also mounts the two-speed supercharger selector valve, oil pressure relief valve, oil
pressure pump, and rear section oil scavenge pump .

Gears driven off a quill shaft splined into the rear of the crankshaft provide drive requirements for
the accessories . Four of the drives are radially disposed around the rear section casting. Typically
those drives would be: (1) tachometer generator, (2) synchronizer or synchrophaser, (3) hydraulic
pump, and (4) 120 volt/400 hertz generator.

Item ( 1), the tachometer generator is a small alternator that produces an electric current fed to the
cockpit mounted tachometer. The tachometer is simply an ammeter graduated in rpm.

94
 R-2800 Development

Fig. 3. 43 A masterpiece of engine mounting, the R-2800 s six mounts attenuated vibration
and shock. The Lord Corporation, still heavily involved in engine mount development and
manufacture, contributed to its design and manufactured them for Pratt & Whitney.

Item Number Description Item Number Description

1 Core assembly 7 Cotter pin
2 Housing 8 Protector
9 5/s"nut
3 Cover
4 Snubbing disc assemb ly JO Cotter pin
5 Spring plate 11 Snap ring
6 Nut

(Engine Test Manual for Aircraft Engines, Navy Department ofAeronautics. Authors collection.)

Item (2) could be either a synchronizer or synchrophaser. The synchronizer could be used for syn-
chronizing a machine gun to fire through a propeller. Despite the fact that many R-2800 manuals
refer to a gun synchronizer, no R-2800 powered aircraft needed this feature. The more common
application for the synchronizer was for use in multi-engined aircraft for ensuring the same engine
speed for all engines. If the engines in a multi-engined aircraft are not running at the exact same rpm
an annoying drumming noise is created. More seriously, this can lead to structural fatigue in the
aircraft. For even smoother operation of a multi-engined aircraft, if the propellers are phased in the
same relative position, it results in less noise and fewer harmonics. In summary, ideally, multi-
engined aircraft have their propellers synchronized and synchrophased.

95
Chapter 3

...
,,,

...... :-j;:: :::··:·;"::·. ::\

.-... ·}::::-;

Fig 3. 44 A typical mount arrangement for an R-2800. Note the way all six mounts point
inwards. Convergence point for the six mounts coincides with the engines center of gravity. This
is known as the dynafocal principle of mounting. (Erection and Maintenance Instructions
for Army C-46 Airplanes, November, 1943. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

Item (3) : Most aircraft powered by the R-2800 required hydraulic power to perform various functions
such as landing gear operation, wing flaps , wheel brakes, and charging machine guns. Numerous
manufacturers supplied them. Although they always operated on the positive displacement principle
they could take the form of gear, varie, or swash plate type.

Item (4) used typically on commercial airliners, the 120 volt/400 he1tz generator supplied power to
cabin lighting . The high frequency of 400 hertz was used to protect the bulb filaments . The higher
frequency made the bulb less susceptible to filament breakage, especially in the high vibration envi-
ronment of an aircraft.

The remaining accessory drives, facing aft of the rear section, mounted the starter, 24 volt DC gen-
erator, vacuum pump, and fuel pump .

Starting a massive, eighteen-cylinder, big cubic inch engine such as the R-2800 takes a tremendous
amount of torque. In fact it takes a whopping 400 pound-feet of torque to get an R-2800 turning over

96
 R-2800 Development

......_. ;:::· ~~·

I
I '.'~
";\
Fig. 3. 45 Manufactured
'1 from a magnesium casting,
the rear section contained
all the drives and mounting
pads for accessories such as
generators, hydraulic
pumps, vacuum pumps, etc.
The large circular pad in the
--- center mounted the starter.
\ (Overhaul Manual Double
'

~
,/ ""' Wasp A and B Series Single
Stage Engines, July, 1943.
. -~
" Authors collection.)

sufficiently rapidly for a reliable start. Numerous methods were employed: (i) direct crank electric,
(ii) inertia/electric, and (iii) combustion. All of the above-mentioned starters mounted on the starter
pad.

Dates of Major Starting System Developments for U.S. Navy Aircraft (Ref. 3.72)

193 5-193 7 Development of cartridge starters and cartridges, Federal Laboratories-later Breeze
Corporation.

1935-1936 Tests on propane engine heater and electric heaters . Selas and General Electric .

1937 Test of A.C. starters on XPBY- 1. Eclipse.

1935 Lunkenheimer and Pesco-primers developed to meet Navy requirements. The Barker
primer had previously been made to Navy design.

1936 Development of booster coils by Eclipse .

1939 Electric primers developed at Navy request by Holley and Stromberg.

1939-1940 Low output thermostatically controlled oil inunersion heaters, both tank mounted and
filler neck type, developed for Navy by Cities Service Oil Company.

1939 Colvinex electric engine heaters made at request of Navy.

1939 Oil dilution tests by Navy on FF-1 and SP-1.

97
Chapter 3

1941 Oil dilution required on all combat aircraft.

1941 Gasoline burning engine heaters introduced into service-Herman Nelson, York.

1942 Starting vibrators installed on Naval aircraft-American Bosch.

1942 Flexible shaft hand crank extension for inertia starters-Jack & Heintz .

1943-1944 Navy investigation of most efficient starter-battery combination, which resulted in

redesign of direct cranking starters with decreased weight, size, and cost.

1943-1944 Double vibrators and single spark starting units developed for R-3350 and R-4360
engines respectively. Scintilla and American Bosch.

1943-1945 Development and investigation of various types of starters for turbo-jet engines and
gas turbines-Jack & Heintz, Eclipse, Westinghouse, General Electric, Airesearch,
Homelite, and Kiekhaefer.

Direct Crank-Electric (Ref. 3. 73)

As its name suggest, the electric direct crank engaged the starter dog, itself splined to the rear end of
the main accessory gear hub (Fig. 3.46). A powerful, high speed (12,000 rpm) 24 volt DC electric
motor drove through multi-stage planetary reduction gearing . An idiosyncrasy of radials that abso-
lutely must be catered to is hydraulic lock. Despite dry sump lubrication, which is somewhat of a
misnomer, up to 10 gallons of oil are trapped in an R-2800 after shutdown. Some of this oil will
inevitably find its way into the lower cylinders through leakage past the piston rings and oil trapped
in the rocker boxes leaking through the valve stems . Also, overpriming can cause excess liquid to
accumulate in the lower cylinders. Being incompressible, any excess oil or fuel trapped in the lower
cylinders has the potential to wreak havoc inside the engine. Bent connecting rods are not uncom-
mon. As a guard against this kind of catastrophe, a multi-plate clutch pack is incorporated into the
starter. At a predetermined breakaway torque, the clutch slips and in doing so saves the engine from
serious damage .

Electric Inertia

Electric inertia starters rely on kinetic energy built up in a flywheel. This kinetic energy is then
engaged with the engine to produce a powerful torque reaction to spin the engine. Upon engagement
of the starter, electrical power is disconnected. Once the kinetic energy has been dissipated the
flywheel has to be spun up to speed again if another attempt at starting is necessary. Some of the
more powerful inertia starters allow for continued application of power when it is engaged with the
engine. Flywheel speeds are typically on the order of 15 ,000 rpm with an output rpm of 75. As with
direct crank starters, a clutch is incorporated into the gear train for protection against hydraulic locks.
Few, if any, R-2800s being operated today use the inertia type starter. The fierce acceleration

98
 R-2800 Development

1. Sun Gear 12. Armature 23 . Oil Seal (Small )

2. Locking Ring 13. Terminal Post 24. Traveling Nut
3. Gear Section 14. Terminal Shield 25. Self-Lubricating Bronze Bushing
4. Planet Gears 15. Armature Pinion End Bearing 26. Oil Seal (Large)
5. Internal Gear 16. Clutch Spring Retainer Assembly 27. Planetary Carrying Arm
6. Intermediate Countershaft 17. Bronze Clutch Plates 28 . Spring
7. Electric Motor Assembly 18. Tubular Dowels 29. Jaw
8. Main Pole Shoes 19. Steel Clutch Plates 30. Conical Clutch Surface
9. Brush Inspection Cover 20. Sun and Internal Gear Assembly 31. Shaft Extension
10. Brush Holders 21. Clutch Plate Thrust Washer 32. Jaw Stop Retainer Assembly
11. Commutator End Armature Bearing 22. Planetary Springs 33. Jaw Engaging Spline

Fig. 3. 46 Cranking over an R-2800 takes a considerable amount of power Direct crank
starters are the more common type. Note the built-in clutch to protect the engine against a
hydraulic lock. Without this feature , the risk of a bent link rod exists. Compounded reduc-
tion gearing increases torque to the level necessary to turn over the R-2800. (Erection and
Maintenance Instructions, Fairchild C-82. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

99
Chapter 3

induced into the engine upon engagement of the starter can cause heavy internal loading, and that is
assuming nothing is amiss such as a hydraulic lock. Even with the protection of a clutch, serious
damage can result ifthe engine is "hydraulic-locked. "

Combustion

Perhaps the most interesting of all starters, the combustion starter takes advantage of the energy in a
shotgun shell. Two major assemblies make up the starter, the breech and the starter. Connecting the
two is a high pressure stainless steel pipe. The breech is remotely mounted, either in the cockpit or in
the cowling, easily accessible through an access door. A shell is fed into the breech, similar to bolt
action on a gun. When fired, the black powder inside the shell creates an immediate and dramatic
rise in pressure. The high pressure gases are piped to the starter. The starter assembly consists of a
sealed cylinder containing a piston. Integral with the piston is a helically cut ball screw, which is in
engagement with the output shaft. As the piston is forced down the cylinder under the immense
pressure of the gases from the shell, the helically cut ball screw spins the output shaft. It takes little
imagination to realize how violent this process is. The Navy favored combustion starters over other
types, possibly due to the fact they are relatively simple and light and do not rely on powerful storage
batteries .

Jack & Heinz and Eclipse supplied most of the direct crank and electric inertia starters . Breeze
Corporation supplied combustion starters, primarily for the Navy

Milestone Events in the Development of the "A" Series Engine (Refs. 3.1, 3.74
and 3.75)

March 31 , 1937 Design started.

June 3, 1937 Drawings released to Experimental Shop.

September 13, 193 7 First engine running in Experimental Test.

November 18, 1937 Completed 100 hours running time.

August 15, 1938 Completed 1000 hours running time .

July I, 1939 Completed military type tests: Engine No. 1 at Wright Field, Engine No. 2 at
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft.

July 12, 1939 Completed first flight test in Vultee Y-19 (Fig. 3.47).

November 23 , 1939 Production release (tools only).

February 12, 1940 Completed 5000 hours running time. Bill of materials released to production.

100
 R-2800 Development

March 25 , 1940 Completed model test of first contract model.

Engineering man-hours from initiation of project to completion of type test: 325 ,000 .

Total testing hours from initiation of project to completion of type test: 3300 hours-all ground
testing.

Manufacturing

From the foregoing description, it can be clearly seen the manufacture of the R-2800 was not an easy
task. Thousands of high precision components made up this complex and highly stressed power
plant. The finest manufacturing methods and materials had to be employed, otherwise engine failure
was a foregone conclusion. At 10,000 feet ifthe engine fails parking the airplane is not an option.

By 1929 it became apparent that Pratt & Whitney was running out of manufacturing space. This was
despite the fact Rentschler decreed that over 50 percent of production would be subcontracted out.
Although the old tobacco warehouse had served them well it was time to move on. The decision was
made in 1929 to move to a brand new facility on the Connecticut River in East Hartford. Built on
585 acres of land, which included an airport and with ample room to grow, this 2 million dollar
facility would be home for the foreseeable future (Fig. 3.48) . Contributing to this fortuitous state of
affairs was the fact Pratt & Whitney had garnered 60 percent of the total value of the aircraft engine
business as reported by the twenty five leading engine manufacturers in the country. However,
business did slow down during the depression to the point of just $3. 8 million worth of business in
193 8. By 193 9 the French government belatedly realized they were in dire need of 4000 military
aircraft. During a frenzied spending spree, the French literally purchased every military aircraft it
could-many of which were Pratt & Whitney powered. This prompted Pratt & Whitney to expand
by an additional 280,000 square feet to accommodate the French orders. Few of the French orders

Fig 3.47 First of many

aircraft to be powered by
the R-2800, the Vultee Y-19
served as an excellent test
mule during early develop-
ment days. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)

101
Chapter 3

Fig. 3.48 Aerial view of Pratt & Whitney's East Hartford facility. (Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

were satisfied before France fell to the German onslaught on May 19, 1940. The British took advan-
tage of this opportunity and assumed the French orders-and more. Such was the magnitude of the
additional business that even more manufacturing space was required. This requirement was satis-
fied by expanding still more. This time expansion was to the tune of a whopping 450,000 square
feet. Paid for by the British government, this latest expansion was started in June, 1940. In the
meantime Roosevelt saw the need to supply the U.S. military with aircraft. In fact he called for the
unheard of number of 50,000 airplanes (Ref. 2.1) . Therefore, on top of the British and French
funded expansions, an American expansion of 375,000 square feet was built. Even with these, by
now, frantic expansions, Pratt & Whitney needed to expand beyond the confines of East Hartford. In
January, 1942, work was transferred to nearby communities such as Willimatic and Southington,
Connecticut, and East Longmeadow, Massachusetts. Southington produced cylinders. Crankcases
and related production came out of Willimatic. Master rods, link rods, and propeller shafts were
produced in Long Meadow. In the meantime, the main plant in East Hartford performed final assem-
bly, test, and shipment (Ref. 2.3).

Manufacture of the R-2800 started in 1939 at the new East Ha1tford facility (Figs. 3.49, 3.50, 3.51,
3.52 and 3.53) . Almost immediately it was recognized that this engine would serve as a very
significant aircraft engine in the event that war broke out, which of course, for the United States it
did-on December 7, 1941 , "a day that will live in infamy," as Roosevelt so eloquently stated. Despite
expansion plans, demand for the R-2800 and other engines was far in excess of what Pratt & Whitney

102
 R-2800 Development

could supply. Immediately, plans 'vere put in place for sub-licensees to manufacture it. Ford Motor
Company was the first to take on this daunting challenge, followed by Chevrolet and Nash Kelvinator.

Ford Motor Company

The Ford facility for R-2800 production was nothing short of a construction miracle. On August 20,
1940, Ford Motor Company representatives responded to a request from William S. Knudsen, National
Defense Production Chief, to manufacture aircraft engines. An entourage of Ford executives, including
Edsel Ford, son of the founder, ventured forth to East Hartford (Ref. 2 .1). Although well versed in
mass production methods-indeed, Henry Ford is the acknowledged father of mass production
methods-several key differences existed between auto and aircraft engine production . In the case
of car production, once a model has been designed and tooled for mass production, the production
facilities tend to be inflexible. In other words, each manufacturing stage would typically have a
dedicated tool to accomplish one task. In the case of aircraft engines, many variations, as we will
see, would be required of the basic design. Although some changes would be fairly minor, others
would be major. Another key difference was the almost fanatical attention to detail. Eve1y part was
inspected at every stage of production from raw material to a finished part being installed in an

Fig 3. 49 Early "A " series R-2800 ~· rolling off the assembly line. (Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

103
Chapter 3

Fig 3. 50 A mixture
of "B " and "C"
series engines ready
for shipment.
(Courtesy of Pratt
& Whitney.)

Fig 3.51 "A " series ready

for shipment. Installing the
flying eagle logo on the nose
case was the last manufac-
turing step. By the time
engines entered service, most
of the flying eagle logos had
been purloined as keepsakes
or to make into belt buckles.
(Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

104
 R-2800 Development

Fig. 3.52 A "C " series

receiving some last minute
attention in a "posed"
photograph. The fact that
the eagle logo is in place
is a dead giveaway.
(Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

Fig. 3.53 "B " and "C"

engines ready to for
testing. Note that short
stub exhaust stacks are
installed for use in the test
cell. In this way, an
operator can "read" the
exhaust flame. Also note
that the eagle logo has not
been installed; this will be
done after testing, just
prior to shipping.
(Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

engine. Interestingly, this process, identical to ISO 9000, presaged this standard by a considerable
time period. Attention to detail included the precision finishing and hand polishing every surface of
every stressed part in the engine. In a car engine, for example, the only surfaces receiving a preci-
sion finish are those necessary for the functioning of the engine, e.g., for a connecting rod, the cap
faces , rod bolt holes, bearing hole, and wrist pin hole. The rest of the rod is left in its raw forged state.

105
Chapter 3

In the case of the R-2800 and most other aircraft engines, the entire external surface of the rod is
precision finished and polished . This accomplishes two goals: (1) No stress risers are left in the
finished product and (2) the fact that all dimensions are carefully controlled results in weights being
almost perfectly matched between rods. The final polishing process was perfo1med by, mainly,
female workers positioned at polishing and buffing stations . Notwithstanding the foregoing, Ford had
experience in the aircraft business, its most famous product being the Ford Tri-Motor, and therefore
they were not totally untutored in the unforgiving arena of aircraft engine manufacturing.

On September 17, 1940, Ford received $14 .3 million from the government to build and tool up a plant
dedicated to the production of ··A" and "B" series R-2800s. Not wishing to waste a minute, ground
was also broken on this day. Michigan winters are renowned for being harsh at best and totally
uninhabitable at worst. With this in mind and the requirement to get into production as rapidly as
possible, a unique solution was found to ward off the bitter cold and heavy snowstom1s. A huge box
was built over the construction site. Nine hundred thousand square feet of fiberboard covered with
tar paper accomplished this purpose . Huge charcoal burners kept the bitter cold out. In this way it
was possible for the permanent building to be completed inside this huge cocoon. By mid-March,
1941 , Ford 's Aircraft Engine Plant was ready. It included manufacturing and test facilities (Fig.
3.54). Right from the start, Ford had been cautioned they would be on their ov,rn with this massive
unde1taking v.1ith little help forthcoming from Pratt & Whitney. In the meantime Pratt & Whitney
was stretched to the limit trying to fulfill its own orders without worrying about Ford. This meant Ford
had to develop their own tooling. A team of fifteen top Ford executives headed up by Charles
Sorenson (Fig. 3.55), Ford 's general manager and production czar, spent two weeks studying Pratt
& Whitney's manufacturing line and production methods. Ford decided it would be tough to improve,
therefore they modeled the new Rouge plant, aka "Rouge River Plant," after Pratt & Whitney's. For
legal and contractual reasons, Ford was set up as a licensee of Pratt & Whitney, who in tum charged

Fig. 3.54 Ford Motor Company 's manufacturing facility for the R-2800. (From the collec-
tions of the Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village.)

106
 R-2800 Development

Fig. 3. 55 Charles Sorenson, mastermind

behind Ford's production of the R-2800.
(From the collections of the Henry Ford
Museum & Greenfield Village.)

a nominal $1 per engine. This license fee was charged for all license built Pratt & Whitney engines
during Word War II. Later, even this nominal fee was dropped.

Huge demands were immediately placed upon the Rouge plant for R-2800s. The first one rolled off
the production line on August 23 , 1941, less than a year from the time ground was broken for the new
facility. At peak production a staggering 186 R-2800s per day were produced. Of course, this
amazing production feat did not happen overnight. Ford, like any other licensee, was on a steep
learning curve for many months before any semblance of production smoothness took over. Table 3-2
documents Ford 's output of R-2800s.

As volumes increased prices came down. For example, by June, 1943, an R-2800-51 cost $26,400 .00
based on a contract for the procurement of 140 engines. Of course, this amount would be worth
considerably more in today 's dollars.

Summary of Ford's Key Milestone Events for R-2800 Production (Ref. 3.78)

8/22/40 Mr. Edsel Ford (Fig. 3.56) (Henry Ford's son) visited P&W plant in East Hartford.

9/17/40 Groundbreaking ceremony for Rouge aircraft engine plant.

9/3 0/40 E.J. Wedge and twenty other Ford personnel visited P&W to study manufacturing and
engine assembly techniques .
(continu ed on p. 109)

107
Chapter 3

TABLE 3-2 FORD'S PRODUCTION OF R-2800s* (REF. 3.76)

R-2800 Total 1st Month

Dash Number Applications H.P. Produced Produced
(Ref. 3.77) (Ref. 3.77) (Ref. 3.77) (Ref. 3.76) (Ref. 3.76)

R-2800-5 Douglas 8-23 1850 954 August, 1941

Martin 8-26
Martin 8-26A
Martin X8-26D
Curtiss XC-46

R-2800-21 Republic P-47G 2000 4671 December, 1941

Republic P-47C
Republic P-470
Republic RP-478
Republic RP-47C
Republic XP-47E
Republic XP-47F
Republic YP-47K

R-2800-51 Curtiss R5C-1,-2 2000 5152 February, 1942

Curtiss C-46A
Curtiss C-46D1 , D5
Curtiss C-46 E
Curtiss C-46F
Curtiss C-46G

R-2800-43 * Curtiss C-46 2000 12,559 February, 1942

Martin AT-23A, 8 (JM-1)
Martin 8-268, 81 , 83, 84,
810 through 875
Martin 8-26C (JM-1)
Martin X8-260
Martin 8-26E, F, G
Martin T8-26H (JM -2)

R-2800-27 Douglas JD-1 2000 262 November, 1942

Douglas 8-23
Douglas A-26 , 8 , C
Douglas XA-26A, 8 , C
Douglas XFA-26C
Fleetwings XA-39
Grumman XF6F-1
Grumman XF6F-4
Grumman F7F-1N
North American X8-28A

(continued)

108
 R-2800 Development

TABLE 3-2 FORD'S PRODUCTION OF R-2800s* (REF. 3.76) continued

R-2800 Total 1st Month

Dash Number Applications H.P. Produced Produced
(Ref. 3.77) (Ref. 3.77) (Ref. 3.77) (Ref. 3.76) (Ref. 3.76)

R-2800-3 1 Lockheed PV-1 2000 6088 November, 1942

Lockheed PV-2, A, 8, C, D
Lockheed R8-34
Lockheed R8-34A, 8

R-2800-79 Douglas JD-1 2000 6617 December, 1942

Douglas A-268
Douglas A-26C
Douglas XA-26C
Douglas XFA-26C

R-2800-63 Republic P-47D, C 2000 767 August, 1943

Republic XP-47L

R-2800 -59 Republic P-47D, C 2000 10,799 September, 1943

Republic XP-47L

R-2800-71 ** Douglas JD-1 2000 1726 June , 1944

Douglas A-268, C
Douglas XA-26C
Douglas XFA-26C

R-2800-75** Curtiss C-46A 2000 8042 September, 1944

Curtiss C-46D-10
Curtiss C-46E (R5C-2)
Curtiss C-46F
Curtiss C-46G
Curtiss XC-113

Total: 57,637

* Ford manufactured all their R-2800s during World War II.

** Denotes the fact that Ford was the only manufacturer of this dash number.

10/7/40 Contractors started driving steel piling for new engine plant (65 miles) .

10/29/40 Foundation work began. Original building was 39 bays at 25 feet long and one bay at
32 feet. Each bay was 360 feet wide and two floors. The original test houses occupied
75 feet by 625 feet consisting of one propeller test house, eight cold test houses, and
18 hot test houses. Machines and equipment ordered for 300 engines per month at a rate
of one engine per hour.
Total floor space required was 889,717 square feet. The south 57 feet of the building
was three stories, which housed aircraft training school, cafeteria, and general offices.
This gave a 20,000 square feet per floor or 60,000 square feet total. Machines and
equipment to produce 800 engines per month were ordered.

109
Chapter 3

Fig 3.56 Henry Ford's son Edsel

was also involved in the manufacture
of the R-2800 until his untimely death
in 1943. (From the collections of the
Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield
Village.)

10/31/40 Contract for 4236 engines was executed.

11/23/40 First building steel was erected.

01/24/41 Building steel erection was completed, four days ahead of schedule.

02/02/41 First machine tool was installed.

04101/41 Mechanics and engineers started work in new Rouge Plant building.

04/29/41 Partial production started.

06/01/41 Training school started.

06/25/41 Ford Motor Company received letter of intent for 4807 engines .

06/26/41 Ford Motor Company received letter of intent for an additional 1478 engines.

07/25/41 First test house went into operation.

08/24/41 First Ford built R-2800s assembled.

09/26/41 Contract for 6281 engines. Total contractual commitment now came to 10,51 7.

10/05/41 First Ford built R-2800 accepted by Government Inspection .

10/08/41 First engine assembled with cast cylinder barrels.

110
 R-2800 Development

10/30/41 First Ford built R-2800 reached Wright Field.

12/07/41 Pearl Harbor-this put additional emphasis on the project.

02101/42 400 foot extension to main building was completed with additional test houses under
construction for a total of 1,426,525 square feet in main building. 3800 square feet in
steel mill and six new cold test rooms, twelve test houses .

02/05/42 R-2800-43 production started.

02/17 /42 Ford Motor Company received contract for additional 9025 engines.

03/11/42 Casting of cylinder heads started.

06/04/42 Layouts and plans were approved for 1800 engines per month program. This program
required 2,618,817 square feet of floor space including 22 new test cells. This more
than tripled the original building's floor space.

09/11/42 First female employee started working in the Rouge Aircraft Engine Building.

09/12/42 Original contract for 4236 engines completed.

01/15/42 Layouts and plans approved for 3400 engines per month program which included 28
additional engine test cells and a total of 3,852,273 square feet.

11/20/43 R-2800 program cut back from 3400 engines per month to 3100

12/16/43 Magnesium fire caused severe damage to building.

07/08/44 Peak daily production reached-186 engines (Fig. 3.57 and 3.58).

Cast Cylinder Barrels (Ref. 3. 78 and 3. 79)

With such a prodigious production output it was not surprising that Ford developed innovative solu-
tions to difficult manufacturing problems. Perhaps foremost of these innovations was Ford 's method
of producing cylinder barrels. Original P&W specifications called for a SAE 4140 forging. Ford
developed a casting method using the same materials. Taking advantage of their expertise in mass
production methods eliminated 50 percent of the machining necessary compared to a forged barrel.
Furthermore, Ford claimed a better finished product resulted with higher bursting strength. Molten
steel was poured into a centrifugal mold that ran at 750 rpm. The molds were situated on an index
table-eight molds per table. The complete cycle took a scant 3 Yi minutes . As far as the eye can see
Fig. 3.59 shows Ford's finished cylinders waiting to be installed on engines.

111
Chapter 3

Fig. 3.57 Ford's peak

production of R-2800 "B "
series was reached on July
8, 1944, when 186 engines
were manufactured. (From
the collections of the Henry
Ford Museum & Greenfield
Village.)

Fig. 3.58 Ford's crank-

shaft production line.
(From the collections of the
Henry Ford Museum &
Greenfield Village.)

The Rocker Arm Pivot Bearing Crisis (Ref. 3. 78)

With such a complex piece as an R-2800 it was inevitable that shortages would occur. One of these
was rocker arm pivot bearings. In 1943 this shortage became a crisis to the point where Ford claimed
the shortage would cause cessation of production of the R-2800 . Made from a two-row ball bearing,
it was supplied by several subcontractors . Quality problems caused the rejection of many (Fig. 3.60).

112
 R-2800 Development

Fig. 3.59 Fords huge

output is shown in this
photo of "B" rear cylin-
ders . (From the collec-
Nons of the Henry Ford
Museum & Greenfield
Village.)

Fig. 3. 60 Rocker arm pivot

SHIELD bearings proved to be the gating
item for "A "l"B " series R-2800
production until quality improved
and additional manufacturing
tools became available. (Cour-
tesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

Shortage of desperately needed machine tools hampered increased production. However, like all
crises in the history of the R-2800, it was resolved when additional machine tools became available.
Interestingly, some of the tools required to resolve the rocker ann pivot-bearing crisis came from
Briggs & Stratton in Milwaukee. More came from International Harvester. Desperate times called
for desperate measures. It should be remembered that in 1943 , the outcome of the war was far from
certain. At one point Ford Motor Company ·was ordered by the federal government to place orders
for everything needed to resolve this problem and, quote, "assume your government will keep its
promises"-the kind of statement made by a government in dire need.

Rocker arm pivot bearings were not the only component to suffer through a lack of machine tools .
Ford, like any other subcontractor during World War II was entirely on its own regarding the acquisi-
tion of machine tools. These were always in short supply, pa1ticularly tools such as gear hobs, gear
shapers, precision boring machines, etc.

113
Chapter 3

Second Order Counterweight Crisis (Ref. 3.1)

Manufacturing cars is one thing; manufacturing high precision, high performance aircraft engines is
another. Much to Ford's chagrin, their learning curve involved some basics of high precision, high
volume manufacturing. Small amounts of casting sand left in some castings caused serious problems
in the field . The problem surfaced with the Eighth Air Force operating out of England. An epidemic
of second order counterweight bearing failures caused the grounding of P-4 7s for a short period .
After the burning of much midnight oil, Ford cleaned up their manufacturing process, both literally and
figuratively to eliminate contamination of the engine by sand. To further ensure this problem would
not arise again, Pratt & Whitney incorporated a «shielded" oil jet that supplied lubrication to the
second order counterweight bearing (Fig. 3.61). Unbeknownst to the development test engineers at

CRANKSHAFT FRONT
/ GEAR

PROPELLER SHAFT
PROPELLER REAR STANDPIPE
SHAFT

CRANKSHAFT ·-· · ··

REDUCTION DRIVE _J/ \

"--., TWO-PIECE OIL
SEAL RING ASS'Y
GEAR COUPLING
\_ - COUNTERWEIGHT
BEARING

Fig. 3. 61 When the R-2800 was rushed into production, it was inevitable that problems
would surface. Ford quickly realized that aircraft engine manufacture was a different
proposition from mass producing autos. Traces of casting sand left in the engine led to
second order counterweight bearing failures. Luke Hobbs devised a simple but effective
solution by incorporating a "top-hat " section oil shield over the oil jet that fed oil to the
second order counterweight bearing. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp A and B Series
Single Stage Engines, July, 1943. Authors collection.)

114
 R-2800 Development

Pratt & Whitney, Luke Hobbs had incorporated his shielded oil jet in test engines. The Pratt &
Whitney test engineers could not understand why they could not induce a second order counterweight
bearing failure despite pouring inordinate amounts of sand into the oil system. That is, until one day
Hobbs came by complaining about the amount of sand in the oil and making the comment "It's a good
job my shielded oil jets are installed! "

Power Recovery (Ref. 3. 78)

With a typical production output of over 100 engines per day, each engine required a break-in time of
5 hours . This was obviously an ideal opportunity to take advantage of the power being produced. To
this end Ford purchased twenty-eight 1250 kW 750 rpm power recover units (Fig. 3.62). In one fell
swoop, two birds were killed: (1) break-in of the engine and (2) electrical power was fed back into the
manufacturing plant. To further increase output, Ford developed a unique engine build stand that also
served as an engine mount when coupled to the power recovery units (Fig. 3.63). In this way, a
completed engine, mounted on its build stand, was simply rolled up to the power recove1y generator
and fired up still mounted on its build stand.

Fig 3. 62 With a prodigious daily output of R-2800s, it was only natural that Ford would
harness the energy othawise wasted in testing and run-in. Twenty-eight l 250KW genera-
tors were purchased to harness the R-2800 s power This electrical power was fed back into
the manufacturing facility. This photo shows a Ford built R-2800 being winched up to a
generator (From the collections of the Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village.)

115
Chapter 3

Interchangeability (Ref. 3.80)

With so many licensees and subcontractors, one serious concern was the capability of interchanging
parts between various sources. Considering that none of the licensees and many subcontractors had
no previous aircraft engine experience, these concerns were well founded, particularly in light of the
fact that different manufacturing methods were employed. Pratt & Whitney conducted a series of
tests in 1942 to establish interchangeability. To this end Ford, Chevrolet, and Nash engines were
shipped to Pratt & Whitney. Parts were mixed, mis-matched and intermingled . The test worked
perfectly, even to the point of shipping engines with mixed parts to combat units .

Manufacturing by Chevrolet

In 1943 Chevrolet was contracted to build "C" series R-2800s. As with Ford, Chevrolet's vast
experience in mass production methods came to the forefront.

Nash Total R-2800 Production by Year

1942 6
1943 2692
1944 9259
1945 5030
1952 5
1954 _filJ._

Total: 18,163

Serial Number Designations (Ref. 3.82)

In an effort to keep up with who was building what, Pratt & Whitney used a different alpha prefix for
the engine 's serial numbers. Therefore, the following code was implemented in 1943:

Licensee Code Letter

Buick* B
Chevrolet c
Continental Aviation* z
Ford F
Jacobs* J
Nash H

* These licensees did not build R -2800s, but they did manufacture other Pratt & Whitney piston engines.

116
 R-2800 Development

TABLE 3-3 CHEVROLET'S PRODUCTION OF R-2800s

R-2800 Total
Dash Number Applications H.P. Produced
(Ref. 3.77) (Ref. 3.77) (Ref. 3.77) (Ref. 3.81)

R-2800-57 Northrop P-61 C/D 2100 200

Republic XP-47J
Republic XP-47L
Republic P-47M
Republic XP-47N
Republic P-47N

R-2800-73 * Northrop F-15A 2100 2665

Northrop XF-15A
Northrop P-61 C
Northrop XP-61 F
Republic P-47N

R-2800-77* Northrop P-61 C 2100 500

Northrop XF-61 D
Republic P-47N
Convair T-29A
Chase C-1238

R-2800-83 Vought AU-1 2100 855

Chase XC-123
Curtiss XC-468
Douglas A-26D
Douglas DC-68
Douglas A-26F
Douglas XA-26F
Lockheed C-69E

R-2800-85 Fairchild C-82A 2100 62

Fairchild C-82N
Martin 202

Total: 4282

* Built by Chevrolet only

117
Chapter 3

TABLE 3-4 NASH'S PRODUCTION OF R-2800s

R-2800 Total
Dash Number Applications H.P. Produced
(Ref. 3.77) (Ref. 3.77) (Ref. 3.77) (Ref. 3.81)
R-2800-8 Vought F4U-1 2000 1790
Vought F4U-1 C
Vought F4U-2
Brewster F3A-1
Goodyear FG-1

R-2800-8W Vought F4U-1 P 2000 3090

R-2800-10 Curtiss P-60 2000 1690
Curtiss XP-60E
Grumman F6F-3E
Grumman F6F-3F
Grumman F6F-3H
Grumman F6F-3P
Northrop F2T-1
Northrop P-61 A
Northrop XP-61
Northrop YP-61

R-2800-10W Northrop F2T-1 2000 9900

Grumman F6F-5N
Grumman F6F-5P
Grumman F6F-5
Grumman F6F-5E

R-2800-52W Douglas R6D-1 2500 334

Douglas C-118A

R-2800-65 Northrop F2T-1 2000 517

Northrop XF-15
Northrop XF-15A
Northrop P-61 A
Northrop P-61 B
Northrop XP-61 E

R-2800-99W Chase C-1238 2500 842

Convair T-29C
Convair T-29D
Fairchild C-1238
Stroukoff XC-123E

Total: 18,163

118
 R-2800 Development

Fig. 3. 63 As an added improvement to production, Ford developed a build stand that could
double as a test stand This saved the step of removing an engine fi'om a build stand and
installing it on a test stand. At the conclusion of "B " series R-2800 production by Ford
Motor Company, this photograph was taken to record their phenomenal production run.
(From the collections of the Henry Ford Museum & Greenfield Village.)

References
1.2 Schlaifer, Robert and Heron, S.D. , Development of Aircraft Engines and Fue ls, Harvard
University, Boston, 1950.
2.3 Interviews and correspondence with Larry Carlson, 1998-1999.
3.1 Meloy, George E. , Report on History of R-2800 Engine Development, September JO, 1938
through May 30, 1939, internal report issued by Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 17, 1939.

119
Chapter 3

3.2 "P & WA Reciprocating Engines Historical Data," undated internal report generated within
Pratt & Whitney.

3.3 White, Graham, Allied Aircraft Piston Engines of World War II, SAE, Warrendale, Pa. , 1995.
I.4 Heron, S.D. , The History of The Aircraft Piston Engine, Ethyl Corp. , Detroit, 1961.
3.4 Overhaul Manual, Double Wasp A and B Series Single Stage Engines, Third Edition ,
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1943.

3.5 Engineering Department Experimental Test Condensed Log, R-2800 Thompson Automatic
Push Rods, May 20, 1940-July 22, 1940.
3.6 Sullivan, F. , R-2800 Engine Reliability, internal Pratt & Whitney report.

3.7 Ricardo, Sir Harry R. , The High Speed Internal Combustion Engine, Fifth Edition, Blackie
and Son Ltd., London, 1968 .
3.8 Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines (R-2800-8, -10, -8W, and -JOW) , Second Edi-
tion, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, January 1944.
3.9 Hartog, Don J.P. , Mechanical Vibrations, Fourth Edition, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1956.
3.10 Interviews and correspondence with Frank Walker, former Pratt & Whitney development test
engmeer.
3.11 Interviews and correspondence with George Meloy, retired Pratt & Whitney development test
engmeer.
3.12 Sprenkle, W.H., Torsional Vibration on R-2800 Engine X- 78, SMR No. 393, February 7,
1938, internal report published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.13 Sprenkle, W.H. , and Gorton, R.E. , Torsional Vibration on R-2800 Engine X- 78, SMR No.
408, March 11 , 1938, internal report published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.14 Sprenkle, W.H ., Torsional Vibration on R-2800 Engine X -79, SMR No. 410, March 25 ,
1938, internal report published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.15 Sprenkle, W.H., Dynamometer Torsional Vibration on R-2800 Engine X -79 with Direct
Drive, SMR No. 415 , April 12, 1938, internal report published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.16 Sprenkle, W.H., Crankshaft Torsional Vibration on R-2800 Engine X -79, SMR No. 418,
April 27, 1938, internal report published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.17 Sprenkle, W.H. , and Gorton, R.E. , Torque Stand Vibration of R-2800 Engine X-79 , SMR
No. 420, April 29, 1938, internal report published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.18 Sprenkle, W.H ., and Gorton, R.E. , Crankshaft Torsional Vibration on R-2800 Engine X-79,
SMR No. 431, May 17, 1938, internal report published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.19 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, May 18, 1938 .

120
 R-2800 Development

3.20 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, July 1, 1938.

3.21 Sprenkle, W.H., and Gorton, RE., Crankshaft Torsional Vibration on R-2800 Engine X-78
with 50 Spline Propeller Shaft, SMR No . 455 , September 9, 1938, internal report published by
Pratt & Whitney.
3.22 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, July 15, 1938.
3.23 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, August 5, 1938.
3.24 Sprenkle, W.H., and Gorton, RE., Crankshaft Torsional Vib ration on R-2800 Engine X -78
with 50 Spline Propeller Shaft, SMR No. 455 , September 9, 1938, internal report published by
Pratt & Whitney.
3.25 Sprenkle, W.H., and Gorton, RE., Linear Vibration of R-2800 Engine X-78 with Rubber
Drive Second Order Counterweights, SMR No. 474, August 22, 1938, internal report pub-
lished by Pratt & Whitney.

3.26 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, September 9, 1938.

3.27 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, September 28 , 1938.
3.28 Sprenkle, W.H., and Gorton, R.E., Crankshaft Torsional Vibration on R-2800 Engine X -78
with Spring Drive Second Order Counterweights and Hydromatic 61599-0 Propeller,
SMR No . 476, September 28, 1938, internal report published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.29 Sprenkle, W.H. , and Gorton, RE., Crankshaft Torsional Vibration on R-2800 Engine X-78
with Spring Drive Second Order Counterweights and Hydromatic 61599-0 Propeller,
SMR No. 479, October 7, 1938, internal report published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.30 Engine X-79 with Hydromatic 6150-0 Propeller, SMR No. 487, March 14, 1939, internal
report published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.31 Sprenkle, W.H., and Gorton, RE., Crankshaft Vibration of R-2800 Engine X -79 with First
Order Crankshaft Damper, SMR No. 488, November 8, 1938, internal report published by
Pratt & Whitney.
3.32 Sprenkle, W.H., and Gorton, RE., Linear Vibration of R-2800 Engine X -79 Mounted on
"O " Outside Stand, SMR No. 489, November 8, 1938, internal report published by Pratt &
Whitney.
3.33 Sprenkle, W.H., and Gorton, RE., Test of First Order Crankshaft Damper with Needle
Bearing Links on R-2800 Engine X-78, SMR No. 490, November 10, 1938, internal report
published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.34 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, February 1, 1939.
3.35 Gorton, R.E and AR. Crocker, Vibration Characteristic of the R-2800 Engine X -83 with
Quill Shaft Drive LE-3162, SMR No. 519, February 15, 1939, internal report published by
Pratt & Whitney.

121
Chapter 3

3.36 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, March 2, 1939.

3.37 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, March 2, 1939.

3.38 Gorton, R.E and A.R. Crocker, Torsional Vibration of the R-2800 Engine with Hydromatic
6150-0 Propeller, SMRNo. 530, March 14, 1939, internal report published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.39 Gorton, R.E and A.R. Crocker, Torsional and Linear Vibration of the R-2800 X-83 Engine
with Independently Supported Propeller Shaft Assemblies LE-3174 and LR-3260, SMR No.
531, March 14, 1939, internal report published by Pratt & Whitney.

3.40 Gorton, R.E and A.R. Crocker, Torsional and Linear Vibration of R-2800 Engine X-78
with 4-112 Crankshaft Damper Mounted Rigidly on Radial Rubber Engine Mounts, SMR
544, March 24, 1939, internal report published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.41 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, March 31, 1939.

3.42 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, June 27, 1939.
3.43 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, August 8, 1939.
3.44 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, October 10, 1939 .
3.45 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, November 20, 1939.
3.46 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, November 23, 1939.
3.47 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, November 7, 1939.

3.48 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, November 21, 193 9.
3.49 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, November 22, 1939.
3.50 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, December 5, 1939.
3.51 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, March 19, 1940.
3.52 SMRNo. 651 , published5/22/40.
3.53 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, June 4, 1940.
3.54 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, October 29, 1940.
3.55 Internal report published by Pratt &Whitney, November 19, 1940.
3.56 Pratt, R.W., Effect of Various Dynamic Dampers on 4-112 Order Crankshaft Torsional
Vibration of the Two Sp eed, Single Stage , R-2800-2SBG Engine X -79 with 2:1 Nose ,
SMR No . 790, December 18, 1939, internal report published by Pratt & Whitney.
3.57 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, December 22, 1941.
3.58 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, January 14, 1942.
3.59 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, February 16, 1942.

122
 R-2800 Development

3.60 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, February 25 , 1942.

3.61 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, April 7, 1942.
3.62 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, April 21 , 1942 .
3.63 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, November 27, 1942 .
3.64 Internal report published by Pratt & Whitney, January 18, 1942 .
3 .65 Dickey III, Philip S., The Liberty Engine 1918- 1942, Smithsonian Institution Press, National
Air and Space Museum, Washington, D .C., 1968 .
3 .66 Sonnenberg, Paul and Schonenberger, William A., Allison, Power of Excellence 1915- 1990,
Coastline Publishers, Malibu, Calif. , 1990 .
2.1 The Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Story, Pratt & Whitney Div. , United Aircraft Corp., East Hart-
ford, Conn., 15 May 1952.
3.67 Shaw, Milton C. , and Macks, Fred E., Analysis and Lubrication of Bearings, McGraw-Hill
Book Company, Inc ., New York, 1949.
3.68 Personal experience of the author. The first time I built up an R-2800 in my personal collection,
I was not aware of these idiosyncrasies, the result being several broken rings. After consulting
with an R-2800 overhaul facility, I was educated as to the correct sequence for disassembly
and assembly.
3.69 Bendix-Scintilla Aircraft Magnetos Types DFl 8RN, DFl 8LN Service Instructions , Febru-
ary 1943 .
3.70 American Bosch Service Instructions Aviation Magneto DF 18 RU-1 , issued August 1944 .
3.71 18 Cylinder High-Tension Ignition System (R-2800-B Series Engines) General Electric.
3.72 US Navy Progress 1935- 1945 Vo l. II- Power Plant Design , unpublished report compiled
by Daniel D . Whitney, 1999 .
3.73 Eclips e Aviation Series 34 Combination Electric Inertia and Direct Cranking Starter,
Bendix Aviation Corporation, December 1944.
3.74 Time Period Required to Develop the R-2800 "A " Engine, undated internal report by Pratt
&Whitney.
3.75 Close, W., Design Details of the R-2800 Double Wasp Engine, Symposium Lecture #9 .
3.76 Folder titled "Misc. Data" located in Henry Ford Museum, Greenfield Village.
3.77 Index of Double Wasp & R-2800 Designated Engines, Pratt & Whitney document revised
5/15/55.
3.78 Folder titled "Misc. Data," #596, Box 2. Located in Henry Ford Museum, Greenfield Village.

123
Chapter 3

3.79 Ford Development of Centrifugal Casting and Heat Treatment of Aircraft-Engine Cylin-
der Barrels, Industrial Heating, December 1944 .
3.80 Engines Built by Three Licensees Pass Interchangeability Tests , Pratt & Whitney, Bee
Hive, Vol. 17, September 1942.
3.81 Total R-2800 Double Wasp Shipments; R-2800 Com mercial, R-2800 US Navy, R-2800
USAF, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, East Hartford, Conn.
3.82 Service Bulletin No. 488, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, East Hartford, Connecticut, Division of
United Aircraft Corporation.

124
 Chapter4

Variations

Like any successful product, the R-2800 went on to be developed into an almost bewildering number
of variations . And as is usually the case with such products, the final ones bore no resemblance to
the first. The only design features that survived between the first and last was the use of eighteen
cylinders, cylinder bore dimension of 5.75 inches, cylinder stroke dimension of 6. 0 inches, and the
starter dog! Every other component was developed beyond all recognition. Another well-known
example of this design evolution was the equally famous Rolls-Royce Merlin. Again, every compo-
nent on the Merlin was redesigned during its production life.

Three major series were manufactured: "A," "B," and " C. " Within each series numerous dash
numbers were produced. Some of the changes could be relatively simple such as a different genera-
tor drive ratio whereas other differences were significant such as a totally different supercharger
configuration. In addition to the aforementioned "A, " "B," and "C" series, Pratt & Whitney also
developed a " D" and "E" series. These latter two were manufactured in far fewer numbers than any
other series. Still, they were fascinating developments that deserve close scrutiny for the creative
and innovative features incorporated into them for their respective missions .

"B" Series (Ref. 4.1)

The previous chapter described the "A" series . Being the first model to go into production, in 1939,
it soon became apparent that redesign of some components was necessary. The "A" and "B" engines
physically looked very similar, in fact the "B" was simply an evolution of the "A" (Fig. 4.1). How-
ever, sufficient changes were incorporated into the early engines to justify a new series designation.
Furthermore, the design tweaks incorporated allowed the R-2800 to be rated at 2000 horsepower for
the first time. Later "B" engines were rated at 2300 horsepower with war emergency power and
ADI (anti detonation injection; see ADI development at the end of this chapter)-a far cry from the
1850 horsepower of the "A" engine.

By May 24, 1940, 100 hours of development testing and 180 hours of "B" series endurance testing
had been completed. This early testing indicated that with a few exceptions, only small changes

125
Chapter 4

Fig. 4.1 A typical example

of an early production "B"
series R-2800. This -31,
manufactured by Ford
Motor Company, featured a
single-stage, two-speed
supercharger "B " engines
are identifiable by their one-
piece nose case and cast
cylinder heads. (Courtesy
of Pratt & Whitney.)

over the "A" series engine were required. Development work was required to meet the rating of
1800 horsepower at 2700 rpm and 13,000 feet, and valve and/or valve mechanism development
work to rectify problems experienced during the 15 0 hour simulated type test.

As part of the redesign to meet the planned increased rating, Pratt & Whitney incorporated the
following program for supercharger development:

(a) Testing to be continued to determine the optimum width of the diffuser design.
(b) Determination of the effect of the entrance blade angle on supercharger efficiency.
(c) Determination of the vaneless type diffuser 's efficiency at high tip speed. High tip speed would
normally be anything in excess of 1100 feet per second .
(d) Comparison of tangential and radial blower outlets on engine power outputs.
(e) Testing of the effectiveness of intake pipe intercooling radiators. Pratt & Whitney built small
air-to-air radiators into each "paired" intake pipe.

In addition to the above, work was also performed on the power section to improve volumetric
efficiency. Valve mechanisms for high performance engines have historically been difficult design
challenges . Pratt & Whitney found that improper valve action was taking place due to the tempera-
ture change from hot to cold clearances. Tests were conducted with a reduced diameter clearance
circle on the cam, work on zero clearance tappets were consequently planned. However, the zero
clearance tappet experiments ca.me to naught.

Oil scavenging of any high performance engine is crucial. If oil is allowed to build up inside, the
ferocious thrashing that ensues robs the engine of considerable power and furthermore oil tempera-
tures are increased. Increased oil temperatures require larger oil coolers which in turn robs the

126
 Variations

airplane of aerodynamic efficiency. Pratt & Whitney found, through a sectioned engine for measur-
ing oil flow, that scavenging of the power section was not up to par. Moreover, oil exiting the power
section was found to be excessively hot. Holes in the crankcase web sections were enlarged as much
as practicable to allow oil flung off bearings an easier escape route to the scavenge pumps located in
the nose and rear sections. Pratt & Whitney development engineers were delighted to find that the
heat rejection from oil was now down to the design level. This simple modification made a signifi-
cant contribution to the additional one hundred and fifty horsepower of the "B" engine compared to
the "A" engine. Furthermore, this one hundred and fifty horsepower was essentially "free" in that it
came at the same manifold pressure and rpm. As an added bonus, a smaller oil cooler could now be
used, further reducing cooling drag .

Other improvements for the "B" engine included a one-piece pushrod tube replacing the two-piece
unit used on the "A" engine. Intake manifolds on the "A" engine featured a rubber coupling for the
extension that extended the intake pipe to the front cylinder. "B" engines used a flanged coupling
held together and sealed with a pivoted clamp and 0-ring (Fig. 4.2).

On August 28, 1940, a bill of material was released describing the requirements for the "B" engine.
The following is a summary of the changes incorporated:

(a) Addition of metal to the front cylinder head between the rib and rocker box floor of the exhaust
side in a manner similar that used on R-1830 heads.
(b) A plain journal rocker and bearing similar to that used on the R-2000.
(c) Cap screws on the rocker box oil sump.

r-RUBBER SEAL
CLAMP

Fig. 4. 2 These so-called pork-chop

clamps replaced the "A " series
simple rubber hose coupling for the
front intake pipes. (Overhaul Manual
Double Wasp A and B Series Single
Stage Engines, July, 1943. Authors
CLAMP SCREW
collection.)

127
Chapter 4

(d) An intermediate distributor gear screw lock.

(e) Relocation of lifting eyes .
(f) Threaded inserts for ignition harness screws installed in front section of crankcase .
(g) A tighter fit for the generator drive shaft oil seal in the rear section.
(h) More secure closing of the blower drain valve.
(i) Large stem exhaust valves.
U) 0 .140 inch cold clearance cams.
(k) Dome headed pistons.
(l) Silver bushings for the reduction pinion gears.
(m) New starter dog oil seal.
(n) Silver with lead impregnation between second order counterbalances and the drive gear spring
retainer plates.
(o) Strengthened front anchor plate.
(p) Magnesium rear anchor plate.
(q) Stainless steel Aero Thread inserts for spark plugs.

On October 17, 1940, a bill of material was released to Ford Motor Company for production of the
R-2800 "B" single-stage engine. Coincidentally, on this date, the 150 hour model tests for the hvo-
stage engines was begun and subsequently completed on November 15 , 1940. On November 21,
1940, an order was issued to install and test the R-2800 BAG two-stage engine in a Vultee V-11 test
airplane to determine the following:

(A) Check engine cooling and critical altitudes at the following power ratings:

Nonna! Rated Power

Neutral blower 1675 horsepower at 2550 rpm at 5000 feet
Auxiliary blower - low 1625 horsepower at 2550 rpm at 15,000 feet
Auxiliary blower - high 1550 horsepower at 2550 rpm at 21 ,500 feet

Military Power
Neutral blower 2000 horsepower at 2700 rpm at 1000 feet
Auxiliary blower - low 1875 horsepower at 2700 rpm at 12,500 feet
Auxiliary blower - high 1650 horsepower

(B) Compare the fuel distribution of the B5G engine with the R-2800 A4G and B4G single-stage
engmes.
(C) Compare the cooling of the aluminum muff to the steel fin cylinder barrel.
(D) Check the performance of the ignition system at the service ceiling of the airplane and to com-
plete a development program for improving ignition system performance at high altitude.
(E) Check the starting and idling characteristics of the engine v,1ith various fuels .
(F) Determine and correct any engine installation and mechanical difficulties.

The model test for the "B" series engine was completed on New Year's Day, 1942.

128
 Variations

On January 27, 1941 , the decision was made to order parts for five R-2800-25 t\vo-stage engines. As
it turned out, they would be the only -25 engines manufactured. These engines were intended for
Northrop's still-in-development P-61 radar equipped night fighter for the USAAC. The engines
incorporated (i) 5:2 reduction gear; (ii) R-2800 A4G power section except for R-2800-21 cams,
pistons, and exhaust valves; and (iii) an R-2800-4 rear blower section modernized to include internal
rear cam oiling, B2G type primary and auxiliary stage supercharging, and a primary drive incorpo-
rating four damped intermediate spring drive gears.

On February 10, 1941 , an order was given to release to production for the procurement of tools for
the R-2800-8 (B2G) n vo-stage engine used in the F4U-1. In general, this engine consisted of an
R-2800-21 power section (2: 1 reduction gear) and an R-2800-25 rear and blower section. An offi-
cial 15 0 hour type test w·as conducted at Pratt & Whitney in East Hartford and witnessed by the
customer-the U.S. Navy.

An order was sent out on February 24, 1941 , to modify the design of the primary blower drive for the
R-2800-25. This engine was intended for the Northrop P-61 and needed downdraft carburetion.

On May 25 , 1941 , the R-2 800 "B" two-stage engine was released to production (Fig. 4.3). Septem-
ber 25, 1942 marked the date of the first sale of a " B'' engine to the Navy.

The first single-stage "B" engine was also shipped in September, 1941(Fig.4.4).

Ford Motor Company shipped their first "B" engine to the USAAF in December, 1941. Note: The
USAAC was reorganized and redesignated USAAF in June, 1941.

An order went out on April 24, 1942, authorizing the conversion ofnvo R-2800-4ls to R-2800-45
standard with fuel injection for delivery to the USAAC at Wright Field. The mixture control mecha-
nism was modified to prevent hunting and to provide more suitable means of acceleration. After
these nvo -41 engines were conve1ted, fuel injection experiments were terminated for the R-2800.
However, the idea was not buried. The R-2800's successor, the R-4360 featured several dash num-
bers with fuel injection that saw series production.

The bill of material for the R-2800-21 (Republic P-47) single-stage engine was released to produc-
tion by Ford on October 17, 1940.

The first R-2800-21 was sold to USAAF in December, 1941. Peak production for the -21 was
reached in May, 1943 .

The R-2800-8 (SSB2G, civilian designation) two-speed, two-stage engine was released to production
in East Hartford on May 25, 1941. Delivery of production engines began on November, 11 , 1941.
Peak production was reached in April, 1943.

129
......
w
0

Fig 4.3 First of the production two-stage engines, the -10 and -JOW when fitted with ADI Initially
installed in the F6F Hellcat, -lOWs were later installed in P-61Bs, one of the few occasions when a Navy
engine powered an Army Air Force aircraft. Compressed air, from the first stage, discharged from two
round flanges at the rear of the engine. One is shown in this left side view, the other is on the opposite side.
The compressed and heated air went through an air-to-air intercooler and then discharged into the Bendix
PT-13 carburetor shown mounted on top of the supercharger. Fuel was injected into the air stream through
the slinger ring and into the main supercharger stage. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)
 Variations

Fig. 4.4 September, 1941,

represented the first ship-
ment of a single-stage "B"
engine. This -% rear view of
a -63 is a single-stage,
single-speed "B " engine
installed in a Republic
P-47DIC (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)

The R-2800-10 two-speed, tvvo-stage engine was first tested on September 9, 1939. It utilized an
"A" power section. Pratt & Whitney shipped the first ten engines in March, 1942. In all, Pratt &
Whitney shipped 2931 -10s; others were produced by licensees.

Only one R-2800-20 (2SBG civilian designation) was produced-it was shipped in October, 1942.

Supercharging

General Electric, through the tireless work of Sanford Moss (Ref 4.2)(Fig. 4.5), pioneered the use
of superchargers for aircraft engines in the U.S. This work started at the tail end of World War I by
utilizing turbosuperchargers (Fig. 4.6).

General Electric, at the request of the Anny and through pioneering work by Moss, paved the way
for the successful development and use of turbos by the USAAC, USAAF and USAF. Moss devoted
his entire professional career to perfecting the turbosupercharger. As a boy he was a machinist
apprentice in a shop manufacturing compressed air machinery. Later, he advanced to be a draftsman
and engineer on several types of internal combustion engines . Interspersed with this work were
periods as student, graduate student, and instructor at the University of California and Cornell Uni-
versity with specializations in internal combustion engines and turbine machinery. These studies
resulted in his thesis for a master's degree at the University of California and his doctorate at Cornell.
In 1903, while at Cornell, he operated the first turbine wheel run on the products of combustion in the

131
Chapter 4

Fig 4.5 As an employee of

General Electric, Dr. Sanford
Moss probably contributed
more to US development of
aircraft turbosuperchargers
than any one else. (Karl
Ludvigsen Library. Courtesy
of Karl Ludvigsen.)

United States . After leaving Cornell, he continued with his turbo machinery development work at
General Electric specializing on gas turbines, steam turbines, and centrifugal compressors . This work
accelerated during World War I, particularly with turbosuperchargers . Among the many obstacles to
be overcome for the successful deployment of a turbosupercharger was finding a heat resistant steel
alloy for the turbine buckets. This was one of the more difficult to satisfactorily resolve. Starting his
experiments with a Liberty engine, Moss labored for years to understand and resolve the various
problems. His early testing included the mounting of his test mule, in the form of the aforementioned
Liberty and running it at the top of Pikes Peak in order to ascertain altitude performance. Beyond the
immediate requirement of developing heat resistant alloys for the turbine buckets, controlling the
speed and consequently its effect on boost pressure was another difficult hurdle. As turbosuper-
chargers were further developed and test flown, other issues became apparent. The turbo is in its
element at elevated altitudes, i.e., those above 20,000 feet. This placed an additional burden on the
propeller. One optimized for sea level and low altitude operation is totally worthless at high altitudes.
Vice versa, when the required coarse pitch wide chord blades for high altitude operation were designed
into the propeller, it barely produced sufficient thrust to get the airplane airborne. Consequently, this
forced the propeller manufacturers to develop variable pitch and later constant speed propellers .

With this early start, GE. soon monopolized this niche market, even though it only accounted for a
tiny fraction of their total business . With such a comfortable and dominant position in the market-
place it is little wonder that supercharger development in the U.S. lagged seriously behind the rest of
the world. Engine manufacturers, including Pratt & Whitney, did not realize how inefficient GE.
superchargers were or worse yet, how much it was costing in terms of engine performance. This
trend started to see a reversal in 193 7 when Wright chose to undertake its own supercharger develop-
ment. Wright's work was not pioneering and did not break new ground but rather caught up with the

132
 Variations

Fig. 4. 6 Moss started his

turbosupercharger work for
General Electric at the tail
end of World War I He used
this rig for altitude testing of
a turbosupercharged Liberty
engine at the top of Pikes
Peak. His turbo-
supercharger development
work continued on through
World War II with the result
that all production US.
aircraft fitted with turbos
were of GE. origin. (Karl
Ludvigsen Library Courtesy
of Karl Ludvigsen.)

rest of the world. Understandably, Pratt & Whitney also became disillusioned with G.E. 's super-
charger work and decided to do it in-house (Ref. 1.2).

As the "B" engine went through further development additional horsepower was pulled from the
engine. A major contributor to power increases was fuel development. As octane ratings and later
fuel performance numbers increased, a golden opportunity was handed to engine companies. Pratt &
Whitney, like its competitors at home and abroad, took full advantage of increased fuel performance.
This was accomplished via increased manifold pressure . Detonation, the killer of high performance
engines, thrived on elevated manifold pressure, or the converse was true : low performance fuel
forced engine designers to operate their engines at lower manifold pressures. High charge tempera-
tures exacerbated detonation. Two factors contributed to high charge temperatures: (1) high boost
pressure due to the adiabatic compression of the fuel/air mixture and (2) inefficient supercharger
design. Temperature increase due to adiabatic compression could be dealt with in two ways : (1)
incorporation of an intercooler and (2) anti-detonation injection or ADI for short. Improving super-
charger efficiency would take many years of experimentation and calculations. As the British found
out during the development of the 20 series Rolls-Royce Merlin, nothing could be taken for granted .
Stanley (later Sir Stanley) Hooker (Fig. 4.7) was given the assignment, upon joining Rolls-Royce in
193 9, to improve the efficiency of their superchargers. To his chagrin, all the prior calculations used
in supercharger design were incorrect (Ref. 4.3). With this background, Pratt & Whitney were
prompted to fu1ther develop superchargers offering higher manifold pressures and the ability to main-
tain manifold pressure at higher altitude. Along this line of development, Pratt & Whitney produced
some of the most sophisticated superchargers used in piston engines-aircraft related or otherwise.
For the "B" engines the more common method of supercharging was the by now ubiquitous single-
stage, two-speed; or single-stage, single-speed. Sometimes the latter configuration would be used in
conjunction with an exhaust gas driven turbosupercharger. For high altitude operation, a multi-speed

133
Chapter 4

Fig. 4. 7 Sir Stanley Hooker

revamped all previous notions on
centrifugal supercharger design.
While working/or Rolls-Royce,
Hooker was responsible for almost
doubling the efficiency of the
Merlin :S supercharger and conse-
quently doubling its power output.
(Courtesy of the Rolls-Royce
Heritage Trust.)

supercharger is a must. And preferably a two-stage, two-speed supercharger for optimal high alti-
tude performance. The U.S. Navy and U.S. Army Air Force had different views on how high
altitude performance should be achieved; the Navy clearly favored mechanical driven superchargers
whereas the Air Force tended to favor turbosupercharging as the preferred method of maintaining
boost at high altitudes. Both methods had their devotees with advantages and disadvantages in both
methods.

Generating high manifold pressures such as the R-2800 's 60 inches of mercury and greater creates a
tremendous end thrust on the supercharger impeller. This is due to the low pressure at the impeller
eye and the high-pressure at the tips of the impeller vanes . This pressure differential causes the end
thrust-or simply put, the impeller tries to get sucked out of the engine. To compensate for this
considerable end load, a thrust plate is incorporated. The first branch of the lubrication system
lubricates the thrust plate via a tube and drilled passage at the front face of the supercharger collector
case.

Two-Stage "B" Engines (Refs. 4.4 and 4.5)

Pratt & Whitney, like many of its competitors, realized the advantages of a two-stage supercharger-
they also realized the problems: complexity, weight, more power management requirements for the
pilot, sizing the two stages for optimal performance at all altitudes, power drain to drive the super-
charger, etc. Pratt & Whitney was also the only U.S. company brave (foolhardy?) enough to tackle
and put into production gear driven, two-stage superchargers for radial engines. Allison manufac-
tured a number ofV-1710 (Fig. 4.8) and V-3420s with two-stage supercharging but they were liquid
cooled inlines.

134
 Variations

As a first attempt, an experimental R-15 35 was fitted with a two-stage blower. This led to production
versions of the R-1830 (Fig. 4.9) fitted with a two-stage blower installed in the Grumman F4F-3
Wildcat. The improved performance offered by two-stage, intercooled supercharging, particularly at
altitude, came at a price. The two-stage supercharger was greater in overall length, additional weight
due to the extra supercharger stage, and the weight of an air-to-air intercooler and its associated
ducting . It should be noted, however, that the intercooler also reduced the amount of power required
to drive the main engine stage blower due to the cooler and denser air entering it. Many variations
and permutations are possible with two-stage superchargers; however, it all boils down to three
factors : (1) the path of the compressed air, (2) the method of driving the impellers and/or controlling
their rotational speed, and (3) the method of controlling induction-air pressure, i.e., manifold pressure,
and temperature. Clearly, other factors enter into the equation such as where the fuel is introduced
and in what manner it is introduced, and how the impellers are arranged, i.e., face -to-face, face -to-
back, sideways, etc. The latter consideration does not affect engine perfonn ance and is strictly
derived from an overall engine packaging viewpoint.

The path chosen by Pratt & Whitney for its "B" series two-stage engines was the face-to-face
impeller arrangement with an intercooler(s) between stages (Fig. 4.10, and Fig. 4.11). From an
engine performance viewpoint, an aftercooler would be desirable to cool the charge from the second
stage of supercharging because this is where the highest induction temperatures are realized. With
the R-2800 's design, this would have been impractical, without a total redesign of the engine, due to
space restraints . Furthermore, without direct port fuel injection, the fuel would come out of solution
if the fuel/air mixture was ducted to an aftercooler. However, Pratt & Whitney did experiment with
installing nine small air-to-air aftercoolers in the paired intake pipes, but it was not pursued .

The second stage is also referred to as the main stage or engine stage because it often functioned
alone as if it were a single-stage engine. Depending on the application, one or two intercoolers, in
parallel, for the auxiliary stage would be employed .

Fig. 4.8 An example of a

US manufactured two-stage
supercharged liquid cooled
inline, the Allison V-1 710
F32, conceptually similar to
a 60 series Rolls-Royce
Merlin. (Courtesy of the
Rolls-Royce Heritage
Trust.)

135
Chapter 4

Power management of large, high perf01mance aircraft engines can be accomplished in a number of
ways : changing engine rpm, via the propeller control; changing manifold pressure, accomplished via
the throttle or; changing supercharger speeds. Changing manifold pressure also affects induction
temperature. Manifold pressure and temperature is a result of impeller speed, atmospheric tempera-
ture, ram air, and throttle position. Clearly, an infinite number of variations is possible with the

Fig. 4.9 Pratt & Whitney:S

first foray into two-stage
supercharging, the
R-1830-86 installed in
Grumman :S F4F-3 Wildcat.
(Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft.)

Fig. 4.10 This cutaway

view shows an R-2800-lOW
supercharger. Note the
face -to-face impellers that
run independently of each
other. This is in contrast
to Rolls-Royce, who ran
both impellers on the same
shaft, i.e., they ran at the
same speed and both
impellers faced the same
direction. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft.)

136
 Variations

t.ll!THOOS Of
CRANKSHAFT
O"IVING
IMPELL!RS

IMPELLERS MOUNTED ON THE SAME SHAFT

CRANKSHAFT

SPEED CLUTCH
~--LOW SPEED CLUTCH

IMPEL LERS MOUNTED ON SEPARATE SHAFTS

Fig. 4.11 This line drawing shows, diagrammatically, two methods of two-stage supercharg-
ing. The top illustration was the method chosen by Rolls-Royce for two-stage Merlins and
Griffons. Pratt & Whitney, on the other hand, chose the method shown below, i.e., the
impellers faced each other and they rotated independently. One exception to this design
philosophy was the R-2800-32W (NACA Technical Notes, Two-Stage Supercharging,
February 1941. Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

foregoing; therefore, Pratt & Whitney introduced some automation into two-stage engines to relieve
pilot workload not to mention increased engine life. Overboosting would not and could not be toler-
ated by the R-2800-or any other aircraft engine for that matter. All but throttle position could be
automated. Pratt & Whitney accomplished this automation by installing valves ahead of the carbure-
tor. Fig. 4.12 shows that a considerable variation in pressure and density is possible in the air duct
containing the between-stage suction valve. When this valve is open, i.e. , at relatively low power
settings, the pressure within the duct varies with changes in atmospheric pressure. Without the
automatic control valves ahead of the carburetor, this action would upset the carburetor metering as
well as introduce unwanted power changes. The control unit may be provided with a selector valve
to allow the pilot to choose the combination of manifold pressure and fuel flow desired. For takeoff,
a high manifold pressure and rich mixture are desired. For cruising, the opposite are desired, i.e. ,

137
Chapter -I

relatively low manifold pressure and lean mixture-stoichiometric 1 or even leaner. The carburetor
mixture may be coordinated with the selection of manifold pressure by means of fuel jets opened and
closed with the selector valve. Fig. 4.13 shows the first stage throttle valve located immediately
ahead of the first or auxiliai)' stage supercharger and the second stage throttle valve is located
immediately ahead of the carburetor. A bellows, sensitive to the carburetor entrance, operates a
floating piston through an oil servomechanism. This piston operates both the first and second stage
throttle as follows: With the piston at the bottom of its travel, both valves would be closed. At low
altitudes, the valve ahead of the first stage supercharger is closed. Therefore, induction air is con-
trolled by the valve situated ahead of the second stage, which by default regulates the pressure at the
face of the carburetor. As altitude increases, the second stage throttle valve opens until the aircraft
reaches the critical altitude when it would be wide open . As the altitude is increased beyond the

A, PRESSURE-CONTROL OP[RATING

PISTON
B.Sf:RVOCONTROL VALVE
C. REGULATING BELLOWS
D,fVACUATED BELLOWS
E,SERVOOPERATING LEVER
liJ,~--
F. AIR-PRESS URE LINE
G, l/NKAGE TO AUXILIARY BLOWER
SCOOP AIR PR!SSURE CONTROL
VALVE
AIR INTAKE

SPRING LOADED (LIGHT) AUXILIARY STAGE GATE VA LVE

OPENING TO AIR BACK
OF [NGIN[
AUX . SUPERCHARGER REGULATOR / AUXIL.IARY BLOW!R
SENSITIVE TO ABSOLUTE LOWER BLOWER GEARS
CARB. AIR PRESSURE '\_HIGH BLOWER GEARS
CLUTCH

CLUTCH
II

INTER COOLER

H, CARBURETOR THROTTLE CONTROL

I, MANUAL MIXTURE: CONTROL
COOLING AIR
INTAKE

Fig 4.12 This line drawing from an NACA report on Pratt & Whitney two-stage superchargers
shows the complex valving and controls necessary for a successfitl installation. (NACA Technical
Notes, Two-Stage Supercharging, February 1941. Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

1 " Stoichiometric" simply mean s the fue l/air mi xture contains no excess fuel (rich) or excess oxygen (lean) .

138
 Variations

critical altitude, the first stage (auxiliary stage) valve starts to open. Provided the first stage super-
charger is operating, i.e ., it is not in neutral, the inwardly opening interstage suction valve will close
under the influence of positive pressure from the auxiliary stage discharge. The next critical altitude
is reached when the first stage valve is wide open. At this point the first stage supercharger is shifted
into high gear and again the first stage valve will partly close to keep the pressure at the carburetor
face at the same constant value (Ref 4. 6).

At less than 12,000 feet, the two-stage engine had the auxiliary stage in neutral, i.e., it was not driven.
When the aircraft reached the critical altitude for engagement of the auxiliary stage, some means had
to be provided to accelerate the supercharger impeller from a standstill to a speed that could reach
18, 000 rpm. If the clutch was simply engaged one of two things would occur: the clutches would
slip and burn out, or the drive gears would strip. To overcome this drive issue, a fluid coupling is
used to cushion the violent acceleration of the supercharger impeller. When the pilot selects low
blower, a time delay prevents oil flowing to the low blower clutch. Instead, oil is directed to the fluid

SECOND STAGE
(MAIN STAGE)
--- , F"IRST- STAGE THROTTLE VALVE

FIRST STAGE
(•UXIUARY STAGE)
MIXTURE

ENGINE AUXILIARY STAGE BLOWER

TWO-SF'EED
GEAR BOX
ANO CLUTCH CONTRO~

EMERGENCY

MIXTURE
--LEAN RICH -
CARBURETOR PRESSURE CONTROL:-o---

BACKF"IRE VALVE - - /
DRAIN /
ATMOSPHERIC CHECK VALVE
SECOND - STAGE THROTTLE VAL VE

Fig. 4.13 This NACA line drawing shows the first stage or auxiliary stage throttle valve and
second stage throttle valve. (Technical Notes, Two-Stage Supercharging, Feb ruary 1941.
Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

139
Chapter 4

coupling or "accelerator" as Pratt & Whitney referred to it as. Once the time delay timed out, the
impeller was at, or close to its geared speed, at which time the clutch was engaged with little or no
accelerating load to accommodate (Fig. 4.14).

In August, 1940, the first two-stage "B" engine was shipped to the U.S. Navy, the best-known
applications being the Grumman F6F Hellcat (Fig. 4.15) and Vought F4U-l Corsair (Fig. 4.16) .
Both engines were similar with one exception, the R-2800-8 installed in the F4U-l used an updraft
carburetor and the R-2800-10 primarily installed in the F6F Hellcat (the -10 was used in other aircraft
as well such as the Northrop P-61 Black Widow) used a downdraft carburetor.

Using the -8 and -10 as an example, the engine stage or second stage was a fixed ratio, 7.93:1. The
first or auxiliary stage had three options: neutral, i.e ., no drive; low blower with a ratio of 6.46: 1; and
high blower with a ratio of 7. 8: 1.

"B" series engine production peaked out in February, 1944. Total "B" series production was com-
prised of the following:

Supercharger
Configuration Pratt & Whitney Licensees Totals

Single stage 6564 54,225 60,789

Two stage 15,035 15,957 30,992

Grand Total: 91,781

"D" Series (Ref. 4. 7)

As a follow-on to the -8 and -10 Pratt & Whitney went on to develop a unique version of these
engines . Designed specifically for the Northrop XP-56 Black Bullet, the "D" series featured reverse
flow cooling via an engine driven fan, and a remotely mounted, dual rotation propeller drive. The
entire aircraft bucked convention; the airframe was a flying wing and the concept of an 18-cylinder,
air-cooled radial buried in the fuselage driving pusher propellers was considered radical at the time.
Postwar, hundreds of B-36s were manufactured with buried, fan assisted, air-cooled power plants
and pusher propellers.

The "D" series consisted of a total of four experimental engines, built under a special Army contract,
of which only two engines and two aircraft flew. The original "D" engine was the R-2800 -23 of
which none were manufactured . And in retrospect, it may have been a blessing. The -23 featured
every form of technology available at the time of its design- 1941. Beyond the reverse flow, fan
assisted cooling and dual rotation propeller drive, two-stage, intercooled supercharging, it also had
two-speed reduction gearing. Hundreds of hours were expended on a test rig doing endurance
testing on the two-speed reduction gearing . Interestingly, an eight-cylinder, supercharged Duesenberg
automobile engine was used to drive the test rig for initial testing . Must have been an exhilarating

140
 Variations

@HIGH RATIO GEAR

@ HIGH RATIO CLUTCH FACING
@ HIGH RATIO CLUTCH CONE

13 ) OIL CONTROL HOUSING COVE R @ AC CELERATOR DRIVEN IMPELLER

~J OIL CONTROL OUTER PISTON @ ACCESSORY DRIVE SHAFT @ACCELERATOR DRIVI NG IMPELLER

~ OIL CONTROL INN ER PISTON @ACCESSORY IMPELLER SHAFT @.) ACCELERATOR COVER

....._4.) CONTROL LEVER @ Low RATIO GEAR LOCK NUT (L.H. THO.) @ HIGH RATIO GEAR LOC K NUT

~I SELECTOR VALVE SHAFT @ Low RATIO GEAR @ACCESSORY DRIVE GEAR

:!} SELECTOR VALVE HOUSING COVER @ Low RATIO GEAR SUPPORT PLATE ~]CLUTCH PINION
( l J THER MOSTATIC VALVE A SSEMB LY @ LOW RATIO GEAR SUPPORT SPACER ~~C LUTCH PINION LOCK NUT
~ PISTON GUIDE @ suPPORT SPACER LOCK NUT @ ACCELERATOR THRU ST WASHER

® SELECTOR VALVE HOUSING @JLOW RATIO CLUTCH CONE @ CLUTCH SPRING

@ 1LARGE PISTON (TIME DELAY) @ Low RATIO CLUTCH FACING @ CLUTCH SHAFT

Fig. 4.14 Engaging the auxiliary stage blower from neutral on a two-stage engine would impose
unacceptably high loads on the drive train if it were not for the "accelerator " show here. Item
24 is the heart of the device, a fluid coupling that accelerated the impeller up to speed before the
clutch was engaged. Once the clutch was engaged and thus a "solid" drive ensured, the accel-
erator was automatically disengaged. The top line drawing shows the selector valve mounted on
top of the accessory case. (Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines, January 1944. Author :S
Collection.)

141
Chapter 4

Fig. 4.15 Grumman s F6F

Hellcat was the.first recipi-
ent of an R-2800 with two-
stage supercharging. This
photo shows the Hellcat in
its element, engine running,
ready for takeoff on board a
carrier in the midst of a
kamikaze attack. (Courtesy
of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 4.16 Vought F4U-l

Corsairs were powered by a
similar engine to the
Hellcat. The only differ-
ence between the F4U-l s
R-2800-8 and the Hellcats
R-2800-10 was that -8s
used updraft carburetion
and the Hellcats -10 used
downdraft carburetion.
(Cou rtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

experience to see and hear the supercharged eight-cylinder Duesy blasting away at full throttle
driving the test rig and presumably emanating an ear splitting scream from the straight-cut gears !
The second R-2800 built, X-78, was the first engine to receive the two-speed nose. Extensive testing
under load and shifting from hi to lo exposed numerous problems; however, at the end of the day, it
was decided to drop the idea of a two-speed nose. Improved propeller efficiency and design may
have contributed to this decision. After replacing the -23 for the XP-56 project, Pratt & Whitney
concentrated on the -29, same as the -23 except for the deletion of the two-speed reduction gearing.

The specific requirements called for a submerged installation, cooled by means of ducts and an
engine driven fan. A torque tube connected the engine to the reduction gears, with a tubular shaft
inside which transmitted power to the dual rotation reduction gear box . Due to the pressures of

142
 Variations

warfare and consequently the urgency to get the engine into production, Pratt & Whitney took full
advantage of existing parts . The two-stage supercharger came straight off a -10 (F 6F Hellcat engine).
Power section components, with the exception of cylinders, came from a -21. The cylinders were
based on "B" series with several modifications, one of which was quite significant. The ports faced
in opposite directions, i.e. , the intake p01ts faced towards the supercharger, as in any other R-2800;
however, the exhaust ports faced towards the propeller. Remember, this was a pusher installation so
this orientation of intake and exhaust ports made perfect sense. Exhaust was ducted to the rear
(propeller end) and exited at the same plane as the cooling fan . The remote gear box contained the
dual rotation planetary spur reduction gearing. Both concentric, opposite rotating propeller shafts
were driven at a 0.577 reduction ratio, the outer (larger) shaft having an SAE 60 spline turning
clockwise and the inner (smaller) shaft having an SAE 40 spline turning counterclockwise. A pipe,
running through the center of the hollow extension drive shaft, provided oil under pressure to the
reduction gearing . A scavenge pump in the base of the gear box returns oil to the engine via an
external pipe.

An interesting problem that had to be overcome was that of emergency egress from the airplane.
With six dual rotation propeller blades immediately behind the pilot, conventional bailout was out of
the question, unless the pilot wanted to risk being converted into instant minced meat. Clearly the
propeller had to be jettisoned prior to any bailout. This was accomplished by wrapping primer cord
around the gear box. Initially, three turns were tried. This turned out to be overkill; it blew everything
to smithereens. Finally, one turn of primer cord was adequate to blow the propeller free of the
aircraft. An interesting episode happened when this unique device was being demonstrated to Army
brass, including Charles Lindbergh, at Pratt & Whitney's East Hartford facility. A piece of shrapnel
pierced a sign standing right next to Lindbergh. Another couple of feet closer and the Lone Eagle
may have met an untimely end. The chief designer of the gear box and its jettison feature , Dana
Waring, was standing next to Lindbergh when this unfortunate incident occurred. Waring made
numerous contributions to the R-2800 program and continued to contribute to its development through
the late 1940s . Born in 1917 in San Francisco, California, he lost his father to the worldwide flu
epidemic of 1918. At age five he moved with his mother to New York City. After graduating from
high school, he attended Cornell where he majored in mechanical and electrical engineering. He then
moved to Cal Tech to take the position of an instructor; he also got a degree in metallurgy while there .
However, instructing didn 't pay well and at the time Cmtiss Wright was on a recruiting campaign.
This sparked an interest to work for an aircraft engine company. Even though Curtiss Wright was a
huge corporation at the time, Waring chose to go Pratt & Whitney instead. So, in 1940 a young Dana
Waring joined Pratt & Whitney as a test engineer. 1940 was also the year he got his pilot's license,
learning in a Taylorcraft. The war years saw him putting in long and difficult hours punctuated by
some "interesting" incidents with catastrophic failures in the test house. Postwar, he continued with
R-2800 development, primarily in the area of exhaust gas utilization via turbo-compounding or
turbosupercharging. Unfortunately, none of these projects saw production. From the late 1940s to
his retirement, all his efforts were aimed at gas turbine work. This included work on the JT-3 , JT-8D,
JT-9, and TF-30. At the time of his retirement, he had risen through the ranks to Manager, Product
Technology. Today, Dana is enjoying a well-deserved retirement in Connecticut.

143
Chapter 4

"C" Series (Ref. 4.8)

Military battles involve not only physical battles in the trenches and in the air; but just as importantly,
technological battles. Born just prior to World War II, the R-2800 was inunediately thrust into this
monumental conflict. The technology battle took many twists and turns . Germany developed some
excellent engines to rival the R-2800. The one that comes to mind immediately is, of course, the
magnificent BMW 801 fourteen-cylinder radial. When installed in the Focke-Wolf 190, this combi-
nation gave the Allies serious problems until a match could be found. For the British, the match would
be the Mk. IX Spitfire powered by the 60 series Rolls-Royce Merlin and for the United States the
Republic P-47 Thunderbolt fitted with ADI kits. Installation of the definitive "C" series R-2800
made aircraft such as the Thunderbolt even better when powered by this much improved power
plant. The "C" series represented a total redesign . The only part interchangeable between an "A"/
"B" and a "C" was the starter dog-every other component went through a major redesign. The
nose case was now developed into a two-piece component, reduction gearing was redesigned, all
power section components saw major revisions, supercharger components were "from scratch" new
designs, etc . Even physically, the "C" engine bore little resemblance to the earlier "A"/"B" series .

When fuel with higher performance numbers became available, Pratt & Whitney took full advantage
by increasing maximum allowable manifold pressure. This, of course, led to higher power outputs,
which in tum led to heavier internal loading-the engine was being stressed to the limit. Thus the
requirements for the "C" series were put in place. "C" series design work started in 1940 and
production commenced in 1943.

"C" Cylinders

Air-cooled radials do not enjoy the luxury of a massive thermal buffer such as that enjoyed by a
liquid-cooled engine. Consequently, the art of casting aluminum cylinder heads continually pushed
the envelope of what was possible in the way of cooling fin depth and pitch. With the luxury of
starting afresh, rather than attempting to further push the envelope of casting technology, Luke
Hobbs took an alternate path to the Holy Grail of one horsepower per cubic inch and less than one
pound of engine weight per horsepower. This alternate path was to use forged cylinder heads with
machined cooling fins (Fig. 4.17, Fig. 4.18, and Fig. 4.19). As an indication of how important
adequate cooling was to the performance potential of an air-cooled engine, Table 4-1 shows graphi-
cally how horsepower was directly related to cooling fin area.

After reaching the practical limitations of casting "B" cylinder, the next logical step was forging .
Roy Feddon, Chief Engineer, Aero Engine Division of the Bristol Aeroplane Company Ltd ., was
responsible for incorporating this manufacturing technique. Later models of the Bristol Jupiter were
the first recipients of this improved design. Feddon took a conservative route with the forged Jupiter
cylinder heads and consequently did not use the depth of cooling fin that could have been achieved.
Pratt & Whitney and Luke Hobbs in particular, took full advantage by utilizing closely spaced and
deep fins machined in with gang cutters-a very difficult manufacturing operation to perfect. Improved
heat rejection allowed the compression ratio to be bumped up from 6. 65: 1 for the "B" engine to 6. 75:1

144
 Variations

TABLE 4-1 HORSEPOWER VS. COOLING

Horsepower Cooling Fin Area, Cooling Fin Area per

Year per Cylinder square inches Horsepower, square inches
1927 45 1200 26.6
1932 67 1500 22.4
1940 100 3100 31
1946 125 4300 34.4
(Ref.1.1)

Fig 4.1 7 These four

illustrations show front
(top) and rear (bottom) "C"
series cylinders. Thanks to
the forging process, it was
now possible to dramati-
cally increase cooling fin
area, resulting in the ability
to run a slightly higher
compression ratio and
higher manifold pressures.
Note how the cooling fins
are machined in two orien-
tations: horizontal and
vertical. (Overhaul Manual
Double Wasp C Series Two
Stage Engines, Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft, July 1945.
Authors collection.)

for the "C" engine despite the "C engine running higher manifold pressures and rpm. A slight
improvement in specific fuel consumption also resulted from the slight increase in compression ratio.
Other features of the "C" cylinder remained the same as the "B" cylinder, i.e., the combustion
chamber design, valve configuration, etc.

145
Chapter 4

FRONT ROW REAR ROW

~I NTER -CY LINDER INTER- C YLIN DER
\ DEFLECTORS DEFLECTORS
INTER-EA R
DEFLECTOR'S

INT ER-C YLIN DER INTER-C Y LINDER DEFLECTOR

DEFLECTOR CLAMPS EXTENSION PLATE

DEFLECTOR ASSEMBLIES IN STA LLED ON FRONT AN D REAR RO W CYLI NDERS

Fig. 4.18 Simply having a large cooing fin area only goes partway to ensuring adequate
cooling. Un less the available cooling air is taken fit!! advantage of, additional cooling fin
area will do little. This line drawing shows how Pratt & Whitney sealed the cylinders inside
the engine cowling and directed air flow through bajjles manufactured from aluminum
stampings. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney
Aircraft, July 1945. Authors collection.)

146
 Variations

VALVE ADJUSTING
SCREW

INLET VALVE ASSEMBLY

f"'
OUTER

f'~

t ~
~

EXHAUST VALVE ASSEMBLY

Fig. 4.19 This line drawing illustrates inlet and exhaust valve assemblies for a "C" series
cylinder. Interestingly, Pratt & Whitney went to a plain bushing for the rocker arm pivot rather
than use the rolling element bearings used in "A "/"B " cylinders. (Overhaul Manual Double
Wasp C Series Two Stage Engine, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 19-15. Authors collection.)

147
Chapter 4

"C" Cylinder Head Manufacturing

Starting out with a round billet of aluminum that weighs 70 pounds, the finished cylinder head weighed
25 pounds . The forging process was done in four stages, each stage bringing the original billet looking
closer to a cylinder head. The first stage was accomplished via a pair of dies under 2000 tons
pressure. The next three stages required massive 4000 ton presses to finish the forging process. As
one could imagine, the tooling required for these operations was simply massive. Flash is trimmed off
between forging operations. Upon completion of forging, the heads are heat treated. At this stage,
initial machining operations take place, such as drilling and tapping for the numerous studs, machining
intake and exhaust ports, etc. Even by today's standards, the machine tools were impressive; Bullard
Mult Au Matic, Cincinnati Hydro Tel miller and Greenlee Transfer machines performed these com-
plex, high precision operations at a remarkable rate. And it was all automated. Finally, cooling fins
are machined in. Two axes of fins are incorporated, horizontal and vertical; therefore, this manufac-
turing step is done in two stages. Slicing is done by a gang of slitting saws rotating at high speed. A
template guides the saws while at the same time the head rotates slowly. By the time this machining
operation is completed, a total of 83 cooling fins have been machined into the head and 45 pounds of
aluminum has been machined off the original 70 pound billet. As with any high precision part requir-
ing multiple operations, inspection takes place at the completion of each manufacturing stage. The
foregoing gives an idea of the difficulty in manufacturing a "C" head; what is even more amazing is
the fact over one million "C" cylinders were manufactured. During World War II it was inevitable
that "C" series engines would fall into German hands from shot-down aircraft. Although the Ger-
mans recognized the advantages of a forged head, they did not have the manufacturing capability or
expertise to manufacture them. In fact, they were amazed that U.S. industry could produce such
huge quantities of high quality components so cheaply and rapidly. Clearly, this type of high volume
and high precision production engineering was beyond them (Ref. 4.9).

Cooling Comparisons

During the time period March 21 through June 23 , 1941 , Pratt & Whitney carried out extensive
comparison tests between forged and cast cylinder heads. Not surprisingly, due to the dramatic
increase in cooling fin area, forged cylinder heads proved superior in all respects. Various tests were
performed including two cooling conditions: constant air pressure drop across the cylinder baffies
and constant head temperature. In addition, tests were performed on detonation resistance and fuel
consumption. Tests were performed using 90 Octane and 100 Octane fuel. The forged head proved
superior in all respects despite the fact that both head configurations had the same volumetric effi-
ciency. With a constant cooling baffie pressure drop, forged heads showed lower temperatures. At
a constant head temperature, lower mass air flow was required for forged heads. In order to obtain
the same detonation resistance, cast heads required a richer mixture. This, of course, equated to
higher fuel consumption for cast cylinder heads. On average, it was possible to run the forged
cylinder head with a 10 percent leaner mixture at higher power settings . Or, conversely, it was
possible to run the forged head at higher manifold pressure under otherwise comparable operating
conditions. The constant air pressure drop tests prove interesting in that the limiting factor turned
out to be the cylinder base flange limiting temperature of 350°F being exceeded before the limiting
head temperature of 500°. In fact the forged head exhibited a relatively cool temperature of 425°

148
 Variations

when the base flange temperature was exceeded. This issue was fixed by increasing the cooling fin
area of the barrel muff In comparison, with a base flange temperature of 3 60° cast heads exhibited
an elevated temperature of 510°. Advantages in the real world of operating an airplane are obvious.
Lower specific fuel consumption resulted in longer range and/or lower operating weight. Lower
mass air flow through the cowling resulted in reduced cowl flap openings and consequently less
cooling drag (Ref. 4 .10).

"C" Crankcase (Ref. 4.8)

Because of the major redesign of the crankshaft, the ripple effect impacted the crankcase (see
below). With the elimination of two crankshaft counterweights, it was now possible to have a one-
piece center section crankcase. This was accomplished by snaking the center section of the crank
through the center section of the crankcase (Fig. 4.20). This resulted in a stronger crankcase and as

Fig. 4.20 With the "C " series redesigned crankshaft, it was no longer necessary to split the
crankcase center section. The crankcase center section is shown at the lower right of this
photo. (Double Wasp [R-2800} Maintenance Manual. Author's collection.)

149
Chapter 4

any student of high performance engines realizes, a strong and stiff crankcase is crucial to engine
longevity and survival.

"C" Crankshaft (Ref. 4.8)

Major changes were incorporated into the "C" crankshaft. It was still manufactured from three
forgings but that is where any similarity ended. Where the "B" crankshaft had used conventional
male/female splined couplings for assembly of the three major crank components, the "C" design
took a very different tack on this difficult design problem. Picking up on marine practice, the "C"
crank used involute face splines. Whilst this offered a stronger assembly, careful fitting of the face
joints was required (Fig. 4.21 and Fig. 4.22). As an interesting aside, Germany used this technology
quite extensively during World War II, not only with their built-up cranks but also with propeller
shafts . The "B" crankshaft design had illuminated a weakness that limited its rating. Under heavy
load, the split journal, despite the interference fit of the male/female spline, would flex leading to
master rod bearing distress. Master connecting rod location was changed. In the NB engine they
resided in cylinders 8 and 13 giving an 80 degree displacement, the idea being to get as close to 90
degrees as possible. In this way the engine could be balanced as if it were a vee-twin. Whilst this

Fig. 4.21 Involute face splines incorporated into the "C " crank replaced the "A "/"B"
series male/female splines resulNng in a much stiffer and stronger crankshaft assembly.
(Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July
1945. Authors collection.)

150
 Tariations

Fig. 4.22 "C " series crank assembly. The ji-ont "bifilar " counterweight attenuated second
order vibration and the rear "bifilar " counterweight attenuated -l 'h order vibration. (Parts
Catalog for Models R-2800-50, -50A, -52W, -54,- 99W and -1 03W Aircraft Engines.)

151
Chapter 4

arrangement was fine for attenuating second order vibration, it did little for first order. A rethink of
the vibration characteristics resulted in the master rods residing in cylinders 8 and 9 for the "C"
series. This resulted in a first order that needed to be attended to . This was accomplished by a total
redesign of the crankshaft's balancing and vibration characteristics . As a part of the "C" crank
redesign, the two fixed counterweights in the AJB series, straddling the center main bearing, were
eliminated.

Rather than using the two Salomon hockey puck type designs on the rearmost counterweight of the
"B" crank, bi.filar or "Chilton" weights were used suspended on two pins. Furthermore, the "C"
crankshaft utilized dynamic counterweights on both the front and rear crank cheeks-not just the
rear crank cheek as used in the "B" engine. In addition, the "C" dynamic counterweights were tuned
differently. The front dynamic counterweight was optimized to attenuate second order torsional
vibration and thus attenuated the vibration created by the new master rod locations. The rear was
optimized for 4Y2 order vibration as in the "B" engine. First order vibration was attenuated by
relocating the master rods twenty degrees apart (cylinders 8 and 9) (Refs. 4.11 , 4.12, 4.13, 4.14).
The second order, twice-crank-speed counterweights at the front and rear of the power section were
retained for addressing second order linear vibration. Each crankshaft counterweight was supported
by two large bushings secured to the crankshaft cheek through which two pins support the bifilar
damper encased within the counterweight halves . The pendulum travel of the front and rear counter-
weight bifilar damper was controlled by the two suspension pins . To compensate for the elimination
of the "B"'s two center counterweights, the front and rear "C" counterweights weighed considerably
more . However, an overall weight savings of 32 pounds, compared to a "B" crankshaft, resulted.

"CA" Crankshaft

Similar to the "C" crankshaft in that it attenuated the same orders of vibration, the "CA" crankshaft
incorporated some design tweaks to improve the longevity of the bifilar support pins and ensure that
the dampers remained tuned to their respective design requirements. Rather than suspending the
entire countenveight on the two "bifilar pins," the CA crankshaft suspended a much lighter portion
of the counterweight (Fig. 4.23).

Below is a brief summary of "C," "D," and "E" series crankshafts:

"CB" Crankshaft

"CB" crankshafts are the same as "CA" crankshafts .

"D" Series Crankshaft

Same as "A"/"B" components.

"E" Series Crankshaft

"E" Series crankshaft is similar to the "CA"/"CB" with detail design changes (Fig. 4.24).

152
 Variations

Fig. 4.23 "CA " and "CB " engines used longer master rods and a redesigned crank. This
illustration shows a "CB " crank. Although vibration attenuation characteristics were the
same as a "C " engine, i.e., second order at the front and 41h order at the rear, "CA "s and
"CB "s used a redesigned crank that featured lightweight dynamic counterweights. (CA-3,
CAI 8, CB3, CBI 6 and CBI 7 Engines Illustrated Parts Manual.)

153
Chapter 4

TABLE 4-2 SUMMARY OF R-2800 CRANKSHAFT EVOLUTION

Military Dash Number/ Engine Series/Type

Civilian Designation Crank Remarks

-8, -10, -65 B 4-counterweight, asm .spl ine in ce nter

of crankpin , two 4Y2 order Pratt &
Whitney/Salomon spool type dampers
in rear counterweight.

-14W, -22 , -22W, -28, -34, c 2-counterweight, face spl ine, 2nd order
-34W, -36, -57, -73 , -77, heavy bifilar damper on front counter-
-81, -83 , -83WA, -85 weight, 4Y2 order heavy bifilar on rear
counterweight.

-18 c 2-counterweight, face spl ine, 2nd order

heavy bifilar damper on front counter
weight, 4Y2 order heavy bifilar on rear
counterweight.

-27 , -31, -43 , -51 , -59, -71 , -75, -79 B 4- counterweight, asm . spl ine in center
of crankpin , two 4 Y2 order Pratt &
Whitney/Salomon spoo l type dampers
in rear counterweight.

-30, -32 E 2-counterweight, face spline , 2nd order

light bifi lar damper on front counter
weight, 4Y2 order light bifilar on rear
counterweight.

-42 CE 2-counterweight, face spline , 2nd order

heavy bifilar damper on front counter
weight, 4Y2 order heavy bifilar on rear
counterweight.

-44, -48, -97 CE , CB, CA 2-counterweight, face spline , 2nd order

heavy bifilar damper on front counter
weight, 4Y2 order heavy bifilar on rear
counterweight.

-50, -50A, -52W, -54, -99W, -103W CB 2-counterweight, face spline , 2nd order
heavy bifilar damper on front counter
weight, 4Y2 order heavy bifilar on rear
counterweig ht.

CA3,CA15,CA18,CB3, CB16, CB17 CA,CB 2-counterweight, face spline , 2nd order

heavy bifilar damper on front counter
weight, 4Y2 order heavy bifilar on rear
counterweight.

(Ref. 4.11)

154
 Variations

Fig. 4.24 "E " series used a similar crank to the "CA "/"CB" series with minor modifica-
tions. (Parts Catalog for Models R-2800-30 W and -32 W A ircraft Engines.)

155
Chapter 4

Summary of R-2800 Crankshaft Vibration Characteristics

Linear Vibration (Shake)

Inertia Forces for "B" and "C" Series: First order is counterbalanced by the main countenveights.
Second order vibration is counterbalanced by the twice-crank-speed countenveights.

Torsional Vibration

Inertia Torque. "B" Series: Pratt & Whitney felt that first order was not serious enough to require
counterbalancing. Second order is almost canceled by placing the master rods as close to 90 degrees
as possible, i.e., cylinders 8 and 13, which give an angular displacement of 80 degrees.

Inertia Torques. "C" Series : Because of the higher power output capability of the "C" series both first
and second order torques are counterbalanced. First order torque is attenuated by placing the master
rods in adjacent cylinders. This results in second order torque becoming larger. Second order torque
is attenuated by placing a bifilar damper on the front counterweight. This damper is tuned to a
frequency of twice crank speed or second order.

Firing Impulses. "B" Series: Dynamic dampers of the spool or Salomon type are placed on the rear
countenveight. They are tuned to the firing frequency of each nine-cylinder bank or 4 Yz times
crankshaft speed.

Firing Impulses. "C" Series: The "C" series attenuates firing impulse in a similar manner to the "B"
series, i.e. , a damper, mounted on the rear crank countenveight is tuned to 4Y2 times crankshaft
speed. However, instead of using the "B" series Salomon "hockey puck" damper, the "C" uses a
bifilar damper (Ref 4 .14) .

A summa1y of the R-2800 crankshaft would not be complete without a brief biography of Wright
Parkins, one of the key architects of the R-2800 crankshaft. He rose to fame during the master rod
bearing crisis . Like Luke Hobbs, he was a World War I veteran, serving as a "doughboy. " At the
conclusion of World War I he attended engineering school at the University of Washington. While
working on the engineering staff at McCook Field he first met Luke Hobbs and soon followed him to
Pratt & Whitney. He is remembered as a dynamo who made everyone cringe when a task completion
date was presented to him that he didn't like. Always a hard taskmaster, he demanded two weeks
work over a weekend. However, as is the case with many hard taskmasters, his bark was worse than
his bite. His ideas, motivation, and leadership were always appreciated by those who reported to
him. Of course his hard driving ways rippled over to the experimental machine shop and in particular,
Joe Ballard who ran it. As with many bright people, he had a sharp wit. Guiding a visitor through a
tour of the test house, the visitor remarked about the blue exhaust flames issuing from an engine on
test. The visitor made the remark, "Actually Mr. Parkins, you people are simply trying to contain and

156
 Variations

control fire, aren 't you?" "Yes," replied Parkins, who was not having a good day due to his usual
troubles, "and that's simply all the devil has to do in hell, too, as I understand it." Parkins rose through
the ranks and eventually succeeded Luke Hobbs (Ref. 4 .14).

"C" Connecting Rods

Although similar to its "A" and "B" series counterparts and dimensionally the same, the "C" master
connecting rods incorporated additional notches in the journal end- between each link rod hole.
Link rods remained the same.

"CA" and "CB" Connecting Rods

In order to reduce thrust loads on the piston skirts and to improve vibration characteristics, the "CB"
series used connecting rods one inch longer. This was accomplished by locating the wrist pin higher
in the piston and at the same time it kept the engine 's diameter the same (Fig. 4.25) .

EARLY"A" "A" "B" /"D" "C" "E"

Fig. 4. 25 This illustration shows the evolution of the R-2800 's master rod design. The
engine series are shown from left to right: early "A, " "A, " "B, " "C, " and "E. " Not shown is
the "CA "/" CB " series which is similar to the "E " except for the rib that goes up the center
shank of the H beam is not present on the "CA "/"CB " series. The "D" series master rod
was the same as the "B " series. Not surprisingly, as the engine developed more horsepower
the master rod was beefed up. Also noticeable is the additional length of the "E" series.
The "CA "/"CB" also featured this additional length. Engine diameter remained the same by
simply moving the wrist pin hole higher in the piston. (Courtesy of Kim McCutcheon.)

157
Chapter 4

"D" Connecting Rods

Same as "B" series connecting rods.

"E" Connecting Rods

Dimensionally similar to "CA"/"CB" rods except for the addition of a rib running up the shank of the
rod in the "H'' section beam.

"C" Nose Case (Ref. 4.8)

With increased power came increased responsibility for the pilot and/or flight engineer. Not only
was this individual now controlling potentially more power but the engine was more highly stressed.
Clearly, improved monitoring methods were required to keep an eye on how much power the engine
was developing at any one time. Indications such as rpm and manifold pressure, while useful, did not
come close to telling the whole story. The engine could be suffering a serious internal problem and
yet rpm and manifold pressure would not indicate a failure until it deteriorated into the catastrophic
category.

Therefore, the "C" nose was a vastly different and more sophisticated design than its "A" and "B''
forebears. With the "C" nose it was now possible to monitor torque or BMEP (see torquemeter
discussion in this chapter) which gave the vital infonnation lacking previously, i.e. , how much power
was being delivered to the propeller. In addition, an automatic spark advance for the ignition was
incorporated. These and many other detail design improvements made for a very different nose
section. With the additional requirements of the nose case it was now split into two major sections:
the front section and front accessory section. This resulted in vastly different appearance and is a
good identifier of what series engine is installed in an aircraft. Fig. 4.26 and Fig. 4.27 shows the
various sections of a "C" engine.

Front Section (Ref. 4.8)

Fig. 4.28 illustrates the front section. It incorporates a recessed liner at its front end which supports
the propeller shaft thrust bearing, still a rolling element ball bearing. Bosses are provided in the
front case for the installation and support of the propeller governor oil transfer tubes. These tubes
carry oil to the propeller shaft oil transfer bearing. A mounting pad is provided for a torquemeter oil
pressure transfer cover on the outside surface of the front case. Six circular, steel-lined recesses are
located in the rear of the front case . These six recesses perfonn the function of cylinders for the six
torquemeter pistons.

Propeller Shaft (Ref. 4.8) (Fig. 4.29)

With considerably more power to transmit, a larger diameter propeller shaft was required. The
former "A" and "B" series had got by with SAE #50 spline shafts. For the "C" series an SAE #60
spline shaft was incorporated. Integral with the propeller shaft was the reduction gear pinion cage.

158
 Variations

CYLINDERS
.~·.

,~f.V''''''''''''''"'"''"'"'"'%''XB''°"'''''*'"''"*'"'"""'""'1@
Tu
[~

l
~
}~
~~

LLL_L_~UJ
FRONT SECTION FRONT
ACCESSORY
CRANKCASE SECTION SUPERCHARGER INTERMEDIATE REAR
COLLECTOR REAR SECT ION
SECTION SECTION SECTION

Fig. 4.26 Shadow drawing illustrating the main sections of a "C " engine. (Double Wasp
[R-280} Maintenance Manual. Authors collection.)

As in the "A" and "B" engines the rear end or pilot end was supported in the hollow front of the
crankshaft via two steel-backed lead/bronze bearings. The front of the shaft was supported in the
propeller shaft thrust bearing. The bore of the propeller shaft is separated into two compartments by
the propeller shaft oil feed tube rear support. Oil from the rear shaft compartment lubricates the
reduction gearing and furnishes oil to the propeller governor. High pressure oil boosted by the
governor is directed to the front shaft compartment through the propeller shaft oil transfer bearing.
This boosted oil is used for the operation of a hydraulically controlled propeller. In the case of an
electric propeller being installed, the front shaft compartment is plugged off.

Reduction Gearing (Ref. 4.8)

Although still based on the planetary system the "C" reduction gearing was totally revamped com-
pared to the "A" and "B" series. Most ratios were .450:1 or .4375:1 although in some cases other
ratios could be used. The reduction drive fixed gear is a straight cut spur gear with helically cut
splines on its outside diameter. The helically cut splines mesh with corresponding splines machined

159
Chapter 4

2 6

INDEX DIDEX
NO. NO .

1 F~ont Section 5 Collector Section

2 Front Acces~ory Section 6 Intermediate Rear Se ction

3 Crankca9e Section ·r Rear Section

4 Cyltnder:>

Fig. 4.27 Line drawing illustrating a "C" series' ma_1or components. (Double Wasp fR-280}
Maintenance Manual. Author :S collection.)

into the reduction drive fixed gear support. Six reduction drive fixed gear retainers bolted to the
support hold the fixed gear in place (Fig. 4.30). A coupling, splined to the front end of the crank-
shaft, mates with internal splines in the reduction drive gear locked to the coupling by three bolts. The
coupling transmits power from the crankshaft to the drive gear. Teeth on the outside diameter of the
drive gear mesh with fifteen reduction gear pinions housed in the reduction pinion cage. This is in
stark contrast to the "A" and "B" reduction gears which used far fewer pinions . Each pinion meshes
with the teeth on the inside diameter of the fixed gear. Bearing support for each pinion is accom-
plished via a tri-metal bearing and a hardened steel pinion shaft. The tri-metal bearing was made up
of a lead flash on a silver bearing backed up with bronze.

Propeller Shaft Oil Transfer Bearing (Ref. 4.8)

The purpose of the oil transfer bearing was to get high pressure oil to the propeller and is mounted on
the propeller shaft in front of the reduction pinion cage (Fig. 4.31 and Fig. 4.32). Two governor oil
transfer tubes connect the bearing to bosses on the inside of the front case. High-pressure engine oil

160
 Variations

PINION OIL TRANSP'l.R TORQU[ INDICATOR OIL PR!SSUAE REDUCTION DRIYI!: l'IXl.D
PIPf:S TRANSFER COVl!:R GEAR SUPPORT

A!DUCTION ORIV[ f'tXED

~---- G!AR

R!OUCTION ORIV! PINIONS

THRUST B E ARING NUT

PRO PELLER OIL FEED PIPl.

PAOPfLLltR 5HAfT OIL

TRANSl'l.R Sf.ARIN(;

Fig. -1.28 Cutaway of a " C " series front section. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series
Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Authors collection.)

is further boosted by a (in some cases) double acting (some were single acting) governor and then
transmitted through the two transfer tubes and the transfer bearing into the front compartment of the
propeller shaft. In this way, hydraulic pressure was available for a hydraulically controlled propeller.

Propeller Shaft Thrust Bearing (Ref. 4.8)

Little imagination is needed to figure out that the propeller thrust bearing is a heavily loaded compo-
nent-the entire thrust of the propeller goes through this key bearing. It is a ball bearing with a split
inner race. The outer race seats on the front case liner. The thrust bearing cover retains the outer
race against the rear flange of the liner and the thrust bearing nut retains the inner race against the
spacer which seats against a shoulder on the propeller shaft. The thrust bearing nut carries one or
two oil seal rings which bear against the liner in the thrust bearing cover. An oil slinger is held
between the thrust bearing nut and the front face of the bearing inner race. This thrust bearing also
supports the front of the propeller shaft.

161
Chapter 4

REDUCTION DRIVE FIXED CEAR RETAINER

RCOUCTIQ N DR IVE PINION SHAfT

REDUCTION DRIVE PINIONS

C.O VERNOR OIL TRAN S FER PI PE BOSS

REDUCTION DRIVE PlNION OIL TRANSFER PIPE

PROPELLER SHAFT OIL TRANSFER BE ARINC.

PROPELLER SHAFT THR U S 'T BEARI NG

INNER RACE (REAR HALF)
PROPELLER SHAFT THRUST BEARING INNER RACE (FRONT HALF)'

PROPELLER SHAfT OIL TR ANSFER BEA.RING BR AC }o(ET

Fig. 4.29 "C" series propeller shaft. Note the larger SAE #60 spline required to transmit the
"C" s higher power output. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt
& Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Authors collection.)

Fig. 4. 30 Fixed gear

showing straight cut gears
on the inner diameter that
engage with the reduction
pinions and helically cut
teeth on the outer diameter.
Torque reaction from the
fixed gear generates an end
thrust through the helical
outer gear. This force was
then used to measure
torque or BMEP (Over-
haul Manual Double
Wasp C Series Two Stage
Engines, Pratt & Whitney
Aircraft, July 1945.
Authors collection.)

162
 Variations

Fig. 4.31 Oil transfer

bearing disassembled.
(Overhaul Manual Double
Wasp C Series Two Stage
Engines, Pratt & Whitney
Aircrap, July 1945.
Authors collection.)

Fig. 4. 32 Oil transfer bearing assembled

on the reduction drive gear coupling.

1. Counterbalance spring assembly

2. Spring plate
3. Crankshaft oil transfer bearing
4. Reduction drive gear coupling

(Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series

Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney
Aircraft, July 1945. Authors collection.)

Torquemeter System (Ref. 4.8)

The torquemeter system fitted to the "C engines finally made possible the accurate measurement of
actual power output to the propeller when the aircraft is in flight. It can be considered as a dynamometer
built into the nose case. When power is transmitted through the reduction gearing, the fixed gear
reacts to this power transmission by being thrust forward in the helically cut splines on its outer

163
Chapter 4

diameter. The forward thrust of the fixed gear is counterbalanced by pressure oil operating on the
gear through the six torquemeter pistons (Fig. 4.33 and Fig. 4.34). Each piston is sealed with two
oil seal rings-similar in appearance and operation to piston rings. A slipper bearing, which seats on
a ball end on the rear of each piston, maintains contact with the fixed gear. The pistons are retained
in their recesses by covers. Engine oil from the crankshaft oil transfer bearing is carried through an
oil transfer tube and a cored passage to the booster section of the oil pump mounted in the front
accessory case . From the booster pump, oil is carried to the booster pump relief valve in the front end
plate of the pump and also through passages in the front accessory case and front case to the front
end of the torquemeter master piston. Booster oil pressure is maintained at 270 to 330 psi by a relief
valve which bypasses excess oil back to the intake side of the booster pump. After acting on the
master piston, the oil passes through a passage in the front case to an annulus around the thrust
bearing liner seat. From this annulus, the oil is distributed to the remaining five torquemeter pistons
and to the torquemeter oil pressure transfer cover. Boosted oil pressure is received by the master
piston which by its own movement meters flow of oil to itself and the five other pistons in direct
proportion to the varying load applied to the six pistons through the reduction drive gear fixed gear.
In this way, the fixed gear is always balanced by oil pressure acting against the front side of the six
pistons . Oil pressure acting through the torquemeter oil pressure transfer cover transmits the pres-
sure through tubing filled with a low viscosity fluid to a pressure gage in the pilots cockpit or fight
engineers station. By calculating the oil pressure acting on the torquemeter pistons together with the
engine rpm and a previously determined torque constant, the pilot/flight engineer can determine the
horsepower being delivered to the propeller. However, the main purpose of the BMEP reading is for
the pilot/flight engineer to establish power settings, lean the engine, determine when and if ADI is
flowing, etc . For more detail, see Chapter 11 on operating.

Front Accessory Section (Ref. 4.8)

The above text describes the front case of the now two-piece nose case. The following will describe
the other half of the nose case-the front accessory section (Fig. 4.35) and its accompanying front
support plate. The front accessory case is provided with external mounting pads for a single dual
magneto, twin distributors, a spark advance adapter, a propeller governor and the scavenge oil pump
which also houses the boost pump for the torquemeter. On its inside surface, the front accessory
case supports the two distributor drive gears, the distributor intermediate drive spur and bevel gears
and a governor intermediate oil transfer tube.

Front Support Plate (Ref. 4.8)

The front support plate houses the spark advance piston and supports the intermediate gears for
driving the front accessories, the front cam ring, and the twice crank speed, second order counterweight.

Magneto Drive Gear Train (Ref. 4.8)

The single unit magneto is driven through a train of gears which start with the crankshaft front gear
(Fig. 4.36). This gear train runs through the spark advance gear system and the magneto intermediate

164
 Variations

TORQUEMETER PISTON AND MASTER Pl STON

VIEW FROM THE SJ DE

CYLINDER COVER
PISTON
SLIPPER
FIXED GEAR.
PISTON FIXED GEAR RETAINER

IN RUNNING POSITION ~~~

!O<L PRESSURE FROM

I THE MASTER PISTON

MASTER
PISTON IN SHUTDOWN POS IT ION

VARIABLE
ORIFICE

MASTER PISTON
IN RUNNING POSITION

Fig. 4. 33 Cross section through the torque pistons showing how the reaction of the fixed
gear acts upon them. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Authors collection.)

165
Chapter4

Fig. 4. 34 Front section showing the six torque pistons and a close-up of a piston assembly.
Note the ball joint in the center of the piston that picks up the reaction of the fixed gear via
a mating ball joint. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Author '.s' collection.)

drive gears mounted on the front support plate. From the intermediate drive gears the complex gear
train terminates at the magneto drive mounted in an adapter on the front accessory case.

Distributor Drive Gear Trains (Ref. 4.8)

Like the magneto drive, each of the two distributors is driven through a gear train that commences
with the crankshaft front gear. The gear train then runs through the spark advance gear system and

166
 Variations

~--- SPARK A.OVANCE OPERATING UN l'T

MAGNETO INT[Rt.IEO l ... TE

SPARK AOVANC.t PISTON CRUISINC AO VA HCC O IL f"EED PIPE ORtVC f'll'VEl GEAR SP""K ADVANCl PISTON ROO

S~AK AOVAHCI[
DIST"IBUTOR lNTlRMtDl"TE P I NION BRACKET YOKE
DRIVE $ PUA GEAR

OISTAllUTOlll DRIVI
IDLER OCAlll

GOVERNOR I NTEAMEDIATt DRIVE F'AONT SPUR GEAR

GOVERNOR IN TERMEDIATE OR I V[ rRONT BEVE L CEA.A f'AONT $UPPORT PLATt

GOVERNOR INTERMEDIATE DR I VE AtAR lt[Vf.l GEAR

GOV!RNOR INT(RMEDIATt DRIV[ REAR SPUR CCAA

Fig. 4. 35 Front accessory section and front support plate. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp
C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Authors collection.)

the distributor intermediate drive gears . These gears are mounted on the front support plate and on
the side of the front accessory case to the distributor drive gears mounted on the front accessory
case.

Spark Advance Operating Unit (Ref. 4.8)

Another characteristic that distinguished the "C" engine from the "A" and "B" engine was its adop-
tion of an automatic spark advance unit. The ignition timing of the "A" and "B" engines was fixed
at 20 degrees BTDC.

Mounted on the front accessory case, the spark advance operating unit is connected by a system of
tubing to the supercharger rim, supercharger throat and the spark advance control unit mounted on
the carburetor. Pressure differential between the supercharger rim and supercharger throat acts on
a diaphragm in the operating unit mounted on the front accessory section (Fig. 4.37) . The diaphragm
in turn actuates the operating unit selector valve. Movement of this selector valve, under the influ-
ence of the diaphragm, allows pressure oil to pass either the cruising advance or the normal advance

167
Chapter 4

DISTRIBUTOR INTERMEDIATE DRlllE

SPUR AND BEllEL GEARS MAGNETO ADAPTER

MAGNETO INTERMEDIATE
DRIVE BEVEL GEAR
PRESSURE OIL TRANSFER
PIPE TO GOVERNOR
DISTRIBUTOR DRIVE GEAR

GOllERNOR
DRIVE GEAR

SPARK ADVANCE PISTON

NORMAL ADVANCE OIL
PIPE

SPARK ADVANCE
OPERATING UNIT

-..l~~i--PRESSURE OIL TRANSFER

PIPE TO SPARK ADVANCE
UN IT SELECTOR llALVE

- CRANKSHAf"T OIL
TRANSFER BEARING

GOVERNOR
INTERMEDIATE
DRIVE GEARS COUPLING

REDUCTION DRlllE GEAR

COUPLING LOCK NUT

FRONT ACCESSORY CASE

FRONT SUPPORT PLATE - COUNTERBALANCE SPRING DRIVE GEAR

PRESSURE OIL TRANSFER PIPE

FRONT OIL SCAVENGE AND BOOSTER PUMP TO BOOSTER SECTION
OF FRONT OIL PUMP

Fig. 4.36 Front support plate and front accessory section showing the magneto drive train.
(Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July
1945. Author :S collection.)

side of the spark advance piston, which acts as a servo (Fig. 4.38), mounted in the front support
plate. The spark advance piston actuates a yoke, which houses four bevel gears (Fig. 4.39). As the
position of the piston changes, the position of the spark advance pinions change with respect to their
driving gear. However, the position of the driving gear is fixed in relation to the crankshaft. There-
fore, the change of position of the piston, acting through the pinions, the pinion driven gears, and the
distributor intermediate drive gears, advances or retards the ignition timing. In summary, the con-
cept of the advance and retard drive gears is that of a set of differential gears. Therefore, timing is
determined by internal supercharger conditions, i.e ., high rpm and low manifold pressure would give
maximum advance and low rpm high manifold pressure would give minimum advance.

168
 variations

1A"11AAGM INNER PLATE

I

6" ~ SP~l~G
Z
·~,
13
DIAPHRAGM

DIAPHRAGM ST EM NUT
LOWER ANO UPPER 14
DIAPHRAGM SPN:E:RS
UPPER BOD'!'

.!AF"ETY WIR ING or UNIT

Fig. 4.37 Spark advance unit which is mounted on front accessory section. All R-2800s
operating today have had this feature disabled. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series
Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Authors collection.)

Governor Drive Gear Train (Ref. 4.8)

As in the NB series, the propeller governor is driven through a train of gears that starts with the
crankshaft front gear. The gear train drives through four intermediate gears on the front support
plate to the governor drive gear mounted on the front accessory case.

Valve Timing (Refs. 4.8 and 4.4)

Compared to the "A" and " B'' engines, the "C" engine shifted valve timing, i.e., the intake opens 16
degrees earlier but closes 16 degrees earlier. Likewise, the exhaust opens 6 degrees later and closes
6 degrees later.

Intake opens 36 degrees before top dead center (20 degrees)

Intake closes 60 degrees after bottom dead center (76 degree)
Exhaust opens 70 degrees before bottom dead center (76 degrees)
Exhaust closes 26 degree after top dead center (20 degrees)

For purposes of comparison, the parenthetical numbers are those for the "A" and "B" engines .

169
Chapter 4

! PISTON BOSS PISTO N PIN PISTON ROD GUIDE

~·

PISTON ~SPRING SEAO SPRING

Fig. 4. 38 Spark advance servo piston assembly. This servo assembly shifts the position of
the spark advance pinion bracket. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage
Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Author s collection.)

,-- · VIM RWUC1 10N GEAR SPACER SPARK ADVANCE PINION SHAFT
I
I CAM REDUCTION AND

II /SPARK ADVANCE GEAR

ASSEMBLY SHAFT

I
I
I
I
~~) 'l
I
I
____j

I
SPARK ADVANCE PINION DRIVEN GEARS

SPARK ADVANCE PINION DRIVE GEAR BEARING

I
SPARK ADVANCE PINION DRIVE GEAR _ _ J _) I
CAM REDUCTION DRIVE GEAR _}

<".AM REDUCTION AND SPARK ADVANCE GEAR ASSEMBLY LOCK NUT

Fig. 4. 39 Spark advance gear drive uses a differential gear assembly to alter the relative
position of the crank to the magneto. The spark advance servo piston assembly makes the
adjustment depending on manifold pressure. A very ingenious design. (Overhaul Manual
Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Author s
collection.)

170
 Variations

Direct Drive Noses (Ref. 4.15)

Prior to the gas turbine's domination in helicopters, piston engines were the only alternative. Rather
than develop an entirely new engine, existing aircraft engines were used- this included the R-2800 .
Due to the relatively low rpm of a helicopter's main rotor, the standard propeller reduction gearing
was totally mismatched. Rather than try and incorporate the appropriate reduction gearing into the
nose case, the R-2800 dispensed with any reduction gearing and instead used direct drive (Fig. 4.40).
The helicopter 's required reduction gearing was incorporated into a separate transmission mounted
under the main rotor. In this way, a relatively small diameter drive shaft could be used due to the lack
of torque multiplication being transmitted. Instead, all the torque multiplication and speed reduction
took place at the main rotor 's transmission.

Helicopter engines all featured "C" series power sections with single-speed, single-stage super-
chargers. Physically, they looked like any other single-stage "C" series engine. The primary differ-
ence lay in the inside of the front section. Where the 15 propeller reduction gear pinions once
resided, they were replaced by a simple extension shaft coupled to the engine crankshaft thus accom-
plishing the desired direct drive. In a similar fashion to the propeller shaft, the crankshaft extension
shaft featured an SAE 60 spline on the output end and a journal on the opposite end fit into the
number one crankshaft main bearing journal. The big difference now was that no relative motion
took place between the crankshaft extension shaft and the crank-they both rotated at the same
speed and in the same direction. After their useful life powering helicopters came to an end, their
power sections were often used in aircraft such as DC-6s and Convair twins.

Scavenge Oil and Booster Pump Gear Train (Ref. 4.8)

The integral nose case scavenge and torquemeter booster pumps are driven through a train of gears
from the crankshaft front gear. The gear train runs the lower cam ring reduction gear and the scavenge

Fig. 4. 40 Direct drive output shaft for helicopter applications. What appears to be a
propeller shaft is in fact coupled directly to the crankshaft via the two splined couplers
shown. This arrangement consequently dispenses with any reduction gearing. (Parts
Catalog for Models R-2800-50, -50A, -52W, -54, -99W and -103W Aircraft Engines.)

171
Chapter 4

oil and booster pump intermediate drive gear. The dual purpose pump assembly is mounted on the
front support plate (Fig. 4.41).

Lubrication (Ref. 4.8)

Lubrication was another area that underwent a major revision (Fig. 4.42). Perhaps the most signifi-
cant revision was the adoption of a seven-branch system compared to the three-branch system of the
"A" and "B" engines. As with the "A" and "B" engines, the main oil pressure pump is located on the
left face of the rear case. Integral with the pressure pump is the mounting boss for the "oil in"
connection, a relief valve, low pressure relief valve, and an oil screen chamber bypass valve . The
main oil pressure pump sends high pressure oil to the main oil screen chamber located in the lower
central portion of the rear case. A check valve in the top of this chamber prevents oil flow from the
oil tank into the engine when it is not running. In the event a major failure occurs within the engine
and metal particles are circulated and clog the screen, an oil screen bypass valve is provided. Oil
passes by the check valve at the top of the screen chamber to a smaller chamber directly above, from
which a passage connects with an annulus around the end of the oil transfer shaft. A passage from
this annulus runs to the front face of the relief valve.

TORQU~
UPPER BODY -·
r CENTER BOOY

I ND ICA T OR PIS T ON.,

BOOSHR PR ESSURE: GEARS \

IDLER GEAR SH.AFT l

I \I I
\

I
/
/

I
,
I
i
I
I
r
,- OIL Sf:A L RING

/;
FRONT SECT ION ORAi.
Oi L SCAVCNGE GEARS

\ \ I I I 1'
I LOV. ER BOOY

Q~ e- 1/ 0:1...· ~~
:_;.· - I ~~~
· ·~ t>~~~-
1' . t
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·~~t !~f-f ·mz-i-.;;J;
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I \_ flOOSTER BY- PASS

\ \ \
\ . I
.
I
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// I !
I

I! I.;
ROCK ER BOX CRAIN Oll
\ V.t. LVE
I ' \ SCAVENGE GEARS ___, I
I
\ BOOSTER ev-p,1,55
'--- VALVE SPRING
I / i/ :i
I i!
L BOOSTER BY-PASS Oil SEAL RING J \ COVER _J
!'
iiI :/
/f

I
VALVE CAP 9ASKET

i/
F'RONT CAM COMPAftTMENT ---1 11
j BOOS TER BY-PASS ORAJN OIL SC•YENGE GEARS OOW[L BO L TS I:

l
'--VALVE CAP

DRIVE GEAR BOLTS _ J

I

Fig 4.41 Front oil scavenge and torquemeter boost pump. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp
C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Author '.S' collection.)

172
 Variations

First Branch

Oil from the annulus around the rear end of the oil transfer shaft enters the transfer shaft and passes
forward through drilled passages in the intermediate rear and supercharger collector cases to the
crankcase rear section. The oil passes through a drilled passage in the crankcase rear section. It then
passes to the rear valve tappet boss ring and drilled passages in the tappet boss carry oil to each rear
row tappet. Pressure oil feeds the valve operating mechanism. Metered oil feeds the tappets which
in tum pressurizes the hollow pushrod tubes . The pushrod oil then feeds into the rocker arms to
lubricate the rocker pivot bearing, the valve clearance adjusting screw, and the end of the valve stem.
The drilled oil passage that furnishes oil to tappet boss ring continues to a well at the front of the lower
rear cam reduction gear front bushing. From this well oil enters an annulus around the cam shelf
where it passes through drilled holes in the cam bearing to lubricate the bronze cam bearing and cam.
The rear cam bearing shelf annulus feeds oil through a drilled passage into a well at the front of the
upper cam gear reduction gear front bushing. The hollow shafts of each cam reduction gear lubri-
cates the rear bushing of each gear. A drilled passage, fed by the rear bushing of the upper cam
reduction gear, feeds oil to the rear bushing of each gear. Oil that lubricates the upper cam reduction
gear also feeds oil to the rear second order, twice-crank-speed, second order counterweight interme-
diate drive gear and its support shaft.

Second Branch

The annulus formed around the rear end of the oil transfer shaft feeds oil through a passage to a
second annulus between the two bushings supporting the rear end of the accessory drive shaft. As
previously described, the two-speed supercharger is operated by engine oil pressure. This super-
charger operating oil comes through a gallery to the selector valve-essentially a directional control
valve. Two galleries are provided for, high blower and low blower, which then engage the appropri-
ate blower clutch. The annulus around the rear end of the accessory drive shaft branches off to
supply a reading for main engine oil pressure that is registered in the cockpit gage. Some applica-
tions, in addition to main engine oil pressure, may monitor nose case oil pressure as well.

Third Branch

As can be imagined, the crankshaft, the most heavily loaded part of the engine, also gets the lion's
share of available lubricating oil. The crankshaft is fed from the annulus around the rear end of the
accessory drive shaft, through the accessory drive shaft and into the rear of the crankshaft, which is
co-axial. Oil being fed to the crank also feeds the impeller shaft bearings via holes in the accessory
drive shaft. It should not be forgotten that the impeller can be rotating at up to 24,000 rpm and
demands several hundred horsepower to drive- a formidable lubrication chore.

Oil passes through drilled galleries and a "hat" type jet in the crankshaft rear section. This oil feeds
the rear main bearing, the rear second order counterweight and its associated spring drive compo-
nents, the rear counterweight bushings, and the rear crankpinjoumal. The rear journal feeds oil to the

173
Chapter 4

WITH SELECTOR VALVE

PRESSURE 01 L WILL E
WHEN MOVED FROM HI
APPLIED AS SHOWN Bl
01 L PRESSURE WILL Al
OR HIGH RATIO CLUTC

685aj
eee d

ee1
e10
811

Fig. 4.42 "C" series lubrication diagram. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two
Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Authors collection.)

174
 Variations

BLOWER AND ACCESSORY SECTIONS

DOUBLE WASP ENG I NE
RATIO POSITION AS SHOWN,
) TO THE HIGH CWTCH.
>W, OIL PRESSURE WILL BE
D CROSS SECTIONING . "THE
APl'UED TO EITHER THE LOW
r HER BEING OPEN TO DRAIN.

-11112
-1183
-6114

'l\J SELECTOR VALVE

SEC"TION "THRU IMPELLER DRIVE CLU"TCHES

(CREEPING DESLUDGER "TYPE)

694

704
705

SECTION THRU INTER. IMPELLER DRIVE CLUTCHES

'-676
'--- 677
'--678

F I GURES CONTAINED ON THIS CHART ARE REFERENCE NUMBERS

ONLY. CLE A RANCE VALU E S WITH THE I R CORRESPONDING REP'EJlt-
ENCE NU M BERS A RE CONTAINED IN THE T A BLE OF CLEARANCES
FOR THE SUBJECT ENGINE MODEL .
COL.ORS SHOWN ON TH I S CHART INDICAT E THE ENG I NE OIL C I R-
CUL~T I ON AS FOLLOWS :

- • PRESSURE OIL
E'::E'.) • L OW PRESSU R E O I L
- - RET U R N O IL

175
Chapter 4

CYLINDER HEAD OIL DRAJl'f SUMP

Fig. 4. 42 (Continued)

176
 Variations

POWER SECTION
DOUBLE WASP ENGINE

SECTION THRU
ROCKER SHAFT
374 ----~
37!>·- - - --.!ll>.I
376

SECTION THRU EXHAUST VALYE AND ROCKER

\ \~R CYL. HEAD SHOWN

343
344

3-4!>
347--'d---t:r'llR'-11
349
3!10

SECTION THRU VALVE TAPPET

REAR CYL. SHOWN

DRAIN C*... FROM INT.

REAR CRANKCASE

SUCTION OIL TO REAR

SCNENCE PUMP

SECTION THRU REAR

OF MAIN OIL SUMP

FIGURES CONTAINED ON THIS CHART ARE REFERENCE NUMBERS

ONLY. CLE A RANCE VALUES WITH THEIR CORRESPONDING REFER·
ENCE NU MBE RS A RE CONTAINED IN THE TABLE OF CLEARANCES
FOR THE SUBJECT ENGINE MODELS .
COLORS SHOWN ON THIS CHART INDICATE THE ENGINE OIL CIR·
CULAT I ON AS FOL LOWS :
- • PRESSURE OIL
- - RETURN O I L

177
Chapter 4

SECTION THR\J SIOC AUXILIARY PUMP ORIVE SECTION THRU SIOC llJJl

SECTION TH RU Gt:NERATOR I. SIDE

ANGULAR AUXLIARY DRIVE

SECTION THR\J .COMFEl<SATING

l THERMOSTATIC TIME DEL

F
15
BY~.SSOIL~ Rll..IEF
\lt.l.VET00l.IN...£T

Fig. 4. 42 (Continued)

178
 Variations

REAR SECTION
DOUBLE WASP ENGINE .
E

TO LUBRICATE
P DRIVE AU XILlARY PUMPS

SECTION THRU REAR AUXILIARY PUMP DRIVE

{MOUNTED ON GENERATOR PAD)

TO LUBRICATE
J!L rROM RtUEF
C.UN SYNCHRONIZER
Ol..l~T

.VE
L
20

1
I
2
I;

STRAINER CHA.UBER
BY· PASS VALVE

PUMP CRIVE AND POWER TAKE·Off

!MOUNTED ON GEN. PAO!

FIGURES CONTAINED ON THIS CHART ARE REFEREh..;E NUMBERS

ON LY . CLE ARANCE VALUES WITH THEIR CORRESPONDING REFER-
ENCE NUMBERS ARE CONTAINED IN THE TABLE OF CLEARANCES
FOR TH E SUBJECT ENGINE MODEL.
COLORS SHOWN ON THI S CHART INDIC A TE THE ENGINE OIL CIR -
CULATION AS FOLLOWS :
- - PRESSURE O il.
~ • LOW PRESSURE OIL
- - RETU RN OIL

179
Chapter 4

Fig. 4. 42 (Continued)

180
 Variations

REDUCTION GEARING
DOUBLE WASP ENGINE

FIGURES CONTAINED ON THIS CHART ARE REFERENCE NUMBERS

ONLY. CLEARANCE VALUES WITH THEIR CORRESPONDING REFER-
ENCE NUMBERS ARE CONTA INED IN THE TABLE OF CLEARANCES
FOR THE SUBJECT ENGINE MODELS .
COLORS SHOWN ON THIS CHART INDICATE THE ENG I NE OIL CIR-
CULAT ION AS FOLLOWS :
- • PRESSURE OIL
- - RETURN OIL

181
Chapter 4

rear master rod and its link rods via the spider. Oil thrown off the master rod and its link rods
lubricates the cylinder walls and pistons . Oil fed into the rear of the crank continues forward and
lubricates the most heavily loaded bearing in the engine-the center main. Again, oil continuing to
flow forward lubricates the front crankpin journal, link rods, cylinders, and front main bearing . As
described previously, the rear end of the propeller shaft runs inside the front of the crankshaft.
Crankshaft oil feeds the inside of the hollow propeller shaft. Two tubes fitted across the diameter of
the propeller shaft feed oil to the two rear, or pilot, propeller shaft bearings. A third, larger, oil tube
feeds oil through a gallery in the crankshaft front section to lubricate the front second order counter-
weight and its associated spring drive gear and bearings.

Oil continues forward through the hollow propeller shaft and passes through oil tubes at the reduc-
tion gear pinion cage and through galleries in the pinion cage and the pinion shafts. This oil then
lubricates the heavily loaded reduction gear pinions, pinion bearings, and the reduction drive gear.
Oil holes in the pinion cage sprays oil on the fixed gear.

Fourth Branch

The rear end of the propeller shaft, i.e., the end that locates in the front of the crankshaft feeds the
fourth branch via the large tube that feeds oil to the second order countenveight assembly. Oil is fed
through galleries in the crankshaft front section and the reduction drive gear coupling to the annulus
in the inside diameter of the crankshaft oil transfer bearing. Oil flows through this annulus through an
arm on the bearing to the front end of the upper cam ring reduction and spark advance gear assembly
bushing in the front support plate. This bushing then feeds oil to an annulus formed round its outside
diameter. This annulus then feeds oil to a number of critical areas: intermediate drive gears for the
magneto, distributor drive gears, propeller governor drive gears, and second order counterweight.
Through a series of galleries, the upper cam ring reduction gear shaft and the spark advance gear
assembly are lubricated. As oil reaches the rear bushing of the upper cam ring reduction gear shaft,
it flows through a gallery drilled in the crankcase front section to provide vital lubrication to the valve
timing and operating mechanism for the front row of cylinders, the front cam ring, the lower cam ring
reduction gear, and the front scavenge oil and booster pump intennediate drive gear. Valve timing
and operating mechanism lubrication is similar to that described for the first branch.

Fifth Branch

The annulus formed in the inside diameter of the crankshaft oil transfer bearing feeds through a
transfer tube running from the bearing to a boss in the right side of the front accessory case. Oil then
flows through galleries in the accessory case to the magneto drive gear, distributor drive, intermedi-
ate drive gears for the magneto and distributors, propeller governor drive gears, and the propeller
governor. The propeller governor feeds oil, via galleries in the front accessory and front cases, to two
oil transfer tubes to the propeller shaft. From here the oil is fed into the front section of the propeller
shaft for hydraulic operation of the constant speed propeller.

182
 Variations

Sixth Branch

Oil from the annulus formed in the inside diameter of the crankshaft oil transfer bearing is carried
through a second oil transfer tube which runs from the bearing to a boss adjacent to the scavenge oil
and booster pump in the front case. The booster pump is integral with the front scavenge pump.
This oil then feeds the booster pump via a short passage in the front accessory case. Discharge from
the booster pump goes to the pressure relief valve mounted in the front end plate of the booster
pump. Oil discharged from the booster pump also flows through passages in the front accessory and
front cases to the front end of the torquemeter master piston. As is typical in these kinds of high
pressure pumps with relief valves, oil bypassed via the relief valve discharges back into the intake
side of the pump . After acting on the torquemeter master piston, the oil flows through a drilled
gallery in the front case to a large annulus around the thrust propeller bearing liner seat. From here,
the oil is then distributed to the remaining five torquemeter pistons and the torquemeter pressure oil
transfer cover.

Seventh Branch

The primary purpose of the seventh branch is to lubricate and operate the spark advance mechanism.

The annulus formed in the inside diameter of the crankshaft oil transfer bearing flows oil to a third
oil transfer tube which runs from the bearing boss in the left side of the front accessory case. Oil
then passes through a short passage in the front accessory case to the spark advance operating unit
selector valve. From the selector valve the oil passes through a gallery in the front accessory case to
an oil transfer tube and short galleries in the front support plate to the outer side of the spark advance
servo piston.

Scavenge System

The "C" series featured two main scavenge systems, the front and rear. The rear (Fig. 4.43) scav-
enges the rear cam section, power section, supercharger collector case, intermediate and rear sec-
tions. The front system scavenges everything forward of the power section, i.e., front cam ring, front
accessory section, front section, etc.

As with the "B" series, the "C" series mounts a two-section scavenge pump on the right face of the
rear case. Drain oil from the crankcase section and rear cam ring compartment is collected in the
main sump . The main sump is attached to the rear main crankcase and supercharger collector case
between the two lower cylinders on the rear row, i.e., #9 and # 11. Oil in this sump is scavenged by
the main section of the scavenge pump via a gallery in the intermediate rear and rear cases. Located
on the right-hand gallery in the bottom of the intermediate rear case, the scavenge strainer collects
any particles that may be in the oil. If all is well, the only particles found will be carbon. On the other
hand, impending mechanical disaster announces itself in the form of small, metallic particles. Lead,
silver, or copper indicates bearing distress. Aluminum indicates a piston problem and steel, a gear
problem. Drain oil from the intermediate and rear sections that collects at the bottom of the rear case

183
Chapter 4

is scavenged through a gallery and the small section of the main scavenge pump. Integral with the
gallery feeding this scavenge pump is another strainer, this one being removable. In the event an
internal failure occurs, the evidence will reside in this strainer. Both sections of the main scavenge
pump discharge into the oil outlet passage of this pump .

The front cam ring compartment drain oil is scavenged through a connecting tube by the top scav-
enge section of the scavenge oil and booster pump. This pump, as previously described, serves two
purposes: scavenge and boost for the propeller governor. Oil draining from the front accessories
(propeller governor, distributors, magneto, propeller governor, etc.) and the reduction gears collects
at the bottom of the front accessory case. This oil is removed by the two lower sections of the pump.
Oil from the scavenge sections of the front scavenge pump is discharged through an external pipe
connected with drilled galleries in the supercharger collector section and intermediate rear case.
These in turn connect through an internal pipe to the discharge side of the main scavenge pump
mounted on the rear accessory case.

Low Pressure Oil

In an engine as complex as the R-2800 not all bearing loads or lubrication requirements are severe.
In order to service these less heavily loaded areas a low pressure system is incorporated.

ENO PLATE

DOWEL 8 0 L1'5
OIL SEAL RING

SCA.V(NGE OIL TRANSf Eq PIPE

OIL SCAL AING

F'UEL PUMP ORIV( Ct,a.R
OIL SEAL

JO LE R GE A R SHAFT REAR SECT ION 0Pt.Al 1N OIL

5CAVE:NGE. GE:ARS

UAl" OIL .SUt.<P

SCAVENGE GEARS

Fig. 4.43 Rear oil scavenge pump. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage
Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Author's collection.)

184
 Variations

Part of the discharge from the pressure pump enters the hollow fuel pump drive shaft, mounted on
the rear accessory case, from the chamber above the oil screen chamber. It is metered out as low
pressure oil through two holes which register alternately, as the shaft rotates, with two holes in its
bushing.

A relief valve, located in the pressure pump cover, is connected with the metered oil from the fuel
pump drive shaft by a drilled gallery. Bypassed oil, as with oil bypassed in the high pressure system,
is fed back into the suction side of the pump .

The annulus formed around the fuel pump drive shaft bushing flows oil through several galleries to
wells at the rear of the accessory drive gear rear bushing. From each of these wells oil flows into
four branches:

1. The hollow tachometer drive shafts and its associated bushings in the rear case.
2. Via drilled galleries, low pressure oil lubricates the rear bushings of the supercharger clutch shafts.
3. Diagonally upwards, the low pressure oil flows into an annulus around the rear bushings of the
generator drive gear shafts. After lubricating these drive shafts, oil flows to the bushings of the
side auxiliary drive gears.
4. Oil flows forward through the hollow accessory intermediate drive gear shafts to wells at the
forward end of each shaft bushing in the intermediate rear case. From these wells, oil flows
through drilled galleries to supply lubrication for the front bushings of the two generator drive
gear shafts. The bushings for the high and low supercharger ratio clutch gears are lubricated from
oil that entering the shafts from front bushings.

Supercharging Variations

As previously stated, the U.S. Navy did not believe in turbosupercharging; however, Naval aviation
often demands high altitude capabilities . Therefore, the only other alternative was a sophisticated
mechanical supercharging system. Pratt & Whitney responded to these requirements with some of
the most innovative superchargers ever fitted to any internal combustion engine.

-18W (Ref. 4.8)

R-2800-18Ws (Fig. 4.44, Fig. 4.45, and Fig. 4.46) were "C" series, the vast majority of which were
installed in various models of the Chance Vought F4U-4 Corsair and its Goodyear counterpart the
FG-4. Grumman installed the -18W in the XF6F-6. And a few were installed in the stillborn Curtiss
YP-60E. The -l 8W was a two-stage, intercooled engine. Induction air entered the auxiliary stage or
first stage, discharged through an intercooler and entered the carburetor. Mass air flow was mea-
sured by the injection carburetor and metered fuel discharged into the, by now familiar, fuel slinger,
into the second or main stage supercharger. From this point on the intake system was the same as
other "C" engines. Hydraulic couplings for the auxiliary stage accounted for one of the l 8W's unique
features . Capable of three positions, neutral, low, and high, it eliminated the necessity of clutches .
The second, or main stage, had a fixed ratio. At the time of the -18W's introduction in the early

185
 13

-
00
0\

9
0
Fig. 4.44 Right side view of R-2800-18W (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Authors collection.)
 Variations

INDEXTO FIGURE 4.44

1. Magneto Ground Terminal 9. Main Oil Sump Scavenge Passage Strainer Plug
2. High Tension Lead 10. Tachomecec Drive
3. Magneto Pressurizing Line 11. Side Auxiliary Mounting Pad
4. Governor Oil Transfer Pipe Plug 12 . Breather

5. Governor Mounting Pad U. Auxiliary Supercharger Outlet Port

6. Fronr Sraveoge Oil Return Duct ancl Transfer Pipe 14, Spark Advance Contrnl Unit
7. Auxiliary Supercharger lolet Pon 15. Spark Advance Tubing
8. Auxiliary Supercharger Regulator 1(). Primer Line Tubing
17. F ronc Exhaust Scack

1940s, hydraulic drive was touted as a panacea. The Germans in particular were enamored of this
form of supercharger drive. Daimler Benz and Junkers took the concept one step further and made
the hydraulic drive infinitely variable (Ref. 4 .16). However, as with any panacea, problems loomed
on the horizon. By their nature, hydraulic, or fluid couplings are not efficient; they produce large
amounts of heat. Not only is this an indication of the power-robbing tendencies of this device but it
also introduced a new set of concerns. Keeping engine oil temperature under control is difficult at
best with a high performance aircraft engine, but it is doubly so when additional heat load is imposed
upon the oil cooling system via a supercharger driven by a fluid coupling.

Non;vithstanding the above, Pratt & Whitney's fluid drive superchargers represented some excellent
engineering work and are worth a close look.

The auxiliary blower case is attached by studs to the rear of the supercharger inlet case. A mounting
pad for the water regulator unit of the war emergency power system is provided (see text on ADI) on
the left side of the case. The main engine breather, for blow-by gases, is located at the top of the rear
face of the case and a main oil scavenge strainer is provided in the right bottom side of the case . A
bowl shaped center wall forms an annulus which collects supercharged air from the auxiliary impeller
and discharges this now compressed and heated air to a pair of outlet ports, one on each side at
approximately the five 0 'clock and seven 0 'clock positions . An airframe mounted mtercooler reduces
the temperature of the air in preparation for it to enter the carburetor and the main supercharger
stage.

The auxiliary stage impeller diffuser is attached to studs on the front of the center wall of the case.
Bosses in the rear face of the wall support the front ends of the pressure oil transfer shaft and
bushings for the hydraulic coupling shafts. A web in the lower rear of the case supports the front

187
......
00
00

Fig. 4.45 Three -quarter rear view ofR-2800-1 8W (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage
Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Author 5· collection.)
 Variations

INDEX TO FIGURE 4.45

l. Automatic Mixture Control 17. Rear Section Scavenge Oil Strainer Drain Plug
2. Fuel Transfer Pipe 18. Main Oil Screen Drain Plug

3. Electric Primer Unit 19. Rear Section Drain Plug

4. Hydraulic Coupling Selector Valve 20. Main Oil Swnp Drain Plug

5. Vacuum Pump Mounting Pad 21. Auxiliary Supercharger Intake Port

6. Starter Mounting Pad 22. Tachometer Drive

7. Low Pressure Relief Valve 23. Distributor Air Intake
8. Oil Pressure Compensating Relief Valve 24. Auxiliary Supercharger Outlet Port

9. Fuel Pump Mounting Pad 25. Side Auxiliary Mouncing Pad

10. Oil Temperature Connection
11. High Speed Generator Mounting Pad
12. Oil Outlet
13. Main Oil Sc:rvenge Pwnp
14. Main Oil Screen By-pass Valve
15. Oil Inlet
Hi. Oil Pressure Pump
26. Thermocouple leads
27. Rear Cam Oil Transfer Pipe
28. Water Regulator Unit
29. High Pressure Oil Gage Connection
30. Engine Mounting Bracket Boss
31. Thermocouple Adapter
32. Manual Mixture Control

bushings for the vacuum pump, high speed generator drive-along with the three high speed genera-
tor drive pinions, and accessory intermediate drive gears. A steel liner in the center of the main wall
accommodates the four auxiliary stage impeller shaft rear oil seal rings.

Auxiliary Impeller Assembly (Ref. 4.8)

Housed between the supercharger inlet and auxiliary supercharger cases is the auxiliary supercharger
impeller assembly. Its hollow steel shaft has a bronze bearing pinned inside at each end. These two
bronze bearings support the assembly on the accessory shaft. Two sets of splines are machined on
the outside diameter of the auxiliary impeller shaft for the following drive requirements: auxiliary
impeller, and auxiliary impeller drive gear. In addition to the splines, lands are provided for the four
rear oil seal rings.

189
Chapter 4

INDEX TO FIGURE 4.46

1. Magneto Pressurizing Line 10. Front Oil Scavenge and Torque Pressure Booster Pump
2. High Tension Lead 11. Scavenge Oil Recurn Pip~
3, Distributor Housing Cover 12. Thrust Bearing Nuc
4. Automatic Spark Advance Tubing 13. Torque Indicator Oil Pressure Transmitter

5. Automatic Spark Advance Operating Unit 14. Distributor Air Intake Line

6. Inter-ear Drain Pipe 15. Distributor Air Intake Cover

7. Spark Plug Leads 16. Disuibutor Housing
8. Ignicion Manifold 17. Torque Pressure Gage Connection
9. Rocker Drain Oil Manifold Suction Pipe 18. Magneto

Fig. 4.46 Three-quarter front view of R-2800-18W (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C
Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Author~ collection.)

190
 Variations

Hydraulic Couplings (Ref. 4.8)

Two fluid or hydraulic couplings are incorporated: one for high blower and one for low blower* (Fig.
4.47). They are mounted on each of two shafts, which are supported on either side of the impeller
shaft in the rear and auxiliary blower cases. The two coupling shafts are in constant mesh with the
accessory drive gear through a pinion splined on the rear of each shaft. Each fluid coupling impeller
is splined to the shaft and the fluid coupling runners are splined to the respective coupling gears, i.e.,
high blower or low blower. Each coupling gear is free running in the coupling shaft and meshes with
the auxiliary impeller shaft gear. Unless oil is fed into a coupling it will not transmit power to the
supercharger impeller. When oil is fed into the high or low ratio fluid couplings via the pilot operated
selector valve, power is transmitted through the oil from the coupling impeller to the coupling runner.
The gear of the selected coupling accelerates as the coupling fills with oil until equilibrium is achieved,
i.e. , the gear rotates at the same rpm as the coupling shaft and consequently drives the auxiliary
supercharger impeller at the selected ratio. When shifting from the high ratio coupling to the low ratio
coupling, a circular sleeve valve located on the fluid coupling shaft between the low ratio coupling
runner and the impeller prevents the low ratio coupling from filling with oil until the auxiliary stage
supercharger impeller has slowed to a point where the low ratio coupling runner is rotating at a
slightly lower rpm than the low ratio coupling impeller. The low ratio coupling valve will rotate on the
coupling shaft when the rpm of the low ratio coupling impeller equals or exceeds the rpm of the low
ratio coupling runner. The distance the valve can rotate is controlled by a stop. When the valve
rotates on the shaft, the oil holes in the valve will line up with the oil holes in the shaft allowing
pressure oil from the shaft to enter the low ratio coupling. Shifting from low to high, the rpm of the
low ratio coupling runner will exceed that of the coupling impeller. This causes the valve to rotate to
the stop in the opposite direction. With the valve in this position, oil from the shaft will be blocked off
and prevented from entering the low ratio coupling. As can be gathered from the foregoing descrip-
tion, safeguards were designed in to prevent two ratios being selected at one time or oil to flow into
both couplings at the same time .

Early testing of the fluid blower drive indicated difficulties getting into high blower. It turned out that
oil flowing radially out through the shifter valve was developing a Coriolis force on these radial holes
sufficient to keep the valve from moving far enough to shut the oil off, thereby causing the low
coupling to buck the high coupling . Angled holes were incorporated to avoid this effect and thereafter
the system worked as intended. The inventive genius of a then-young Larry Carlson figured out the
Coriolis effect and thereafter some wag conjured up the nickname of "Coriolis Carlson. "

*The terms " high blower" and "low blower" refer to the two gear ratios of the crankshaft to the supercharger impeller.
Supercharged aircraft engines are designed to produce the same power at high altitude as they do at sea level. However,
even a supercharger cannot compensate for the reduced atmospheric pressure at extreme altitudes. At some point, the
"critical altitude" will be reached where the engine will no longer be capable of producing sea level power. To compensate
for this power loss, the supercharger shifts gears and is driven at a higher speed or " high blower." (Of course, the aircraft
will reach the critical altitude of high blower, as well, but this will be a higher altitude than ifthe supercharger were driven at
one speed.) Two-speed supercharger drives typically operate through gearing and clutches, somewhat akin to the
transmission in a car.
Some R-2800s were fitted with single-speed superchargers; however, these same engines were augmented by a turbo-
supercharger, acting as an infinitely variable speed blower. A few "E" series engines used an infinitely variable hydraulic
supercharger drive.

191
Chapter 4

G) LOW RAT IO COUPLING LOCK NUT

CD LOW RATIO COUPLING GEAR

@ LOW RATIO COUPLING COVER

© LOW RATIO COUPLING COVER SCREW

@ LOW RATIO COUPLll~G RUNNER

@ LOW RATIO COUPLING IMPELLER

(J) HIGH RATIO COUPLING GEAR

@ HIGH RATIO COUPLING COVER

® HIGH RATIO COUPLING COVER SCREVV

@ HIGH RATIO COUPLING RUNNER
@ HIGH RATIO COUPLING IMPELLER

@COUPLING PINION

@ COUPLING PINION TAB LOCK WASHER

@ COUPLING PINION LOCK NUT

@ COUPLING SHAFT OIL SEAL RINGS

@ COUPLING SHAFT

@ COUPLING SHAFT INSERT

@ HIGH RATIO COUPLING SPACER

@PIN
@) LOW RATIO COUPLING VALVE STOP

@ LOW RATIO COUPLING VALVE

@ COUPLING SHAFT INSERT PLUG AND PIN

@ Pll~
@ LOW RATIO COUPLING LOCK NUT PIN

Fig. 4. 47 R-2800-J 8W supercharger drive couplings. Two couplings are used: one for low
blower and one for high blower (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines,
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Authors collection.)

Carlson was born in 1920 in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Like many teenagers of his era, Lindbergh's
New York to Paris flight ignited his lifetime love of aviation. After graduating with a bachelor of
aeronautics engineering degree from the University of Minnesota in 1942, Carlson came aboard with
Pratt & Whitney. However, this was not his first exposure to Pratt & Whitney; he served there as an
R-2800 test engineering summer intern in 1941. From 1942 to 1946 he was an R-2800 test engineer

192
 Variations

responsible for engine and component development testing to meet performance and durability re-
quirements. The postwar years saw Carlson working on many of Pratt & Whitney 's gas turbines.
His gas turbine work included time as a project manager of the JT9D-15 , one of the most successful
high bypass gas turbines ever. At his retirement in 1983, with the position of Senior Technical Staff
Engineer, Carlson had amassed an amazing 41 years with Pratt & Whitney. His post-retirement
years saw him acting as part-time consultant for Pratt & Whitney. His practical skills are evidenced
by his construction of a Great Lakes biplane which he flew for 11 years. Currently, his airborne mode
of transportation is a Beechcraft Bonanza.

During the fluid drive development work, a system was refined for accurately measuring the slip of
the hydraulic couplings. This consisted of an induction coil pick-up mounted close to the driven
gear teeth, providing an oscilloscope trace of the gear tooth passing frequency. This was compared
to another pick-up to reference the driving side speed. Initially, both traces were recorded on a
single strip of recording tape and the waves were counted. Later, an accessory drive box with
several gears and pick-ups was added so that frequencies from the two sides could be compared with
frequency counters . This sophistication of equipment was necessary in order to measure impeller
speed accurately and consequently evaluate supercharger performance. Again, Larry Carlson was
responsible for developing this test equipment.

"C" Series Fuel Feed Valve (Ref. 4.8)

Pratt & Whitney fitted the fuel feed valve in front of the carburetor mounting pad on "A" and "B''
engines. Not exactly ideal for good flow, the injected fuel had to take an almost ninety degree tum
as it was in sprayed into the slinger ring. This was fixed on "C" engines by the simple expedient of
fitting the fuel feed valve behind the carburetor mounting pad. In this way, the fuel feed valve was
more closely aligned with the slinger ring (Fig. 4.48).

"CA" and "CB" Slinger Rings (Ref. 4.17)

Pratt & Whitney 's method of distributing the fuel, via the slinger ring, as it discharged from the fuel
feed valve has been described in the previous chapter. For the "CA" and "CB" engines, Pratt &
Whitney went one step further. Instead of having small holes drilled on its periphery, the slinger ring
now mated with the eye of the supercharger impeller. A small hole drilled between each impeller
vane matched up with the slinger ring. The impeller holes exited at approximately half its diameter.
In this way, fuel was now injected directly into the impeller and flung out at high velocity-and
remember, in high blower, the impeller tip could exceed the speed of sound. This resulted in consid-
erable kinetic energy being imparted to the fuel , contributing to its atomization.

Automatic Boost Control (Ref. 4.8)

With the boost potential of the R-2800, some means of controlling manifold pressure was not only
desirable, but essential in many military applications. Usually mounted on the intermediate rear case,
it provides automatic control of manifold pressure by regulating the carburetor throttle. In other
words, the pilot's throttle was connected to the automatic boost control, not the carburetor as would

193
Chapter 4

Fig. 4. 48 Cutaway photo

of a "C " series single-
stage, two-speed super-
charger By mounting the
fuel feed valve behind the
carburetor mounting pad,
note the much steeper and
more efficient angle for
injecting fuel compared to
a "B " series which mounts
the fuel feed valve in front
of the carburet01'. The
"C" series fuel feed valve
is also a lot easier to
service. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)

normally be the case (Fig. 4.49). An evacuated bellows, spring loaded, opposes another bellows
subject to manifold pressure . A change in manifold pressure causes the bellows to move which in
tum operates a servo actuated by engine oil pressure . Movement of the servo valve allows pressure
oil to flow to the servo piston, which then opens or closes the throttle through a linkage connected to
the piston . Provisions are designed into the boost control to allow higher manifold pressure with ADI.
Moreover, the automatic boost control also compensated for blower configuration, i.e., high blower,
low blower and war emergency power.

Milestone Events in the Development of the "C" Engine (Ref. 4.1)

Design of the "C" series was started on the same day design of the "B" series started-May 24,
1940. However, due to the total redesign of the C engine it was several years behind the "B" before
it saw mass production.

September 1, 1940 The first experimental engine was running .

194
 Variations

December 10, 1940 An engineering order for the R-2800 CG two-speed single-stage engine
was issued. It was similar to the "B" series BG engine except for the
following :
(i) Clamp type crankshaft with face splines
(ii) Forged cylinder head assembly
(iii) Split boss piston
(iv) Light 5:2 right-hand reduction gears
(v) Front accessory section
(vi) Cast type ignition harness
(vii) Two-position tappets
(viii) Increased fuel flow
(ix) 10,000 rpm generator drive
(x) 7.9:1 low blower ratio and 9.9:1 high blower ratio

January 1, 1941 Bill of material released for tooling the "C" series engine . Also on
January 1, 1941 , Model Test Engine was released to Experimental.

February 14, 1941 Order issued to make the "C" engine a two-speed, two-stage engine,
known as the R-2800 C2G.

April 1, 1941 Model Test engine was completed by Experimental Shop. Also on
April 1, 1941, the "C" engine bill of material was released to the
production shop.

September 2, 1941 Another bill of material was released for the CG. The C2G bill struc-
ture was used as a basis for establishing a list of parts for the power
section. The basic rear section was taken from the "B" series R-2800-27
bill structure with the following exceptions:
(i) 5:2 right-hand 12-pinion reduction gearing. This new design
provided for increased tooth width and splined attachment of
the drive gear on the crankshaft adapter, similar in the latter
respect to the 2: 1 reduction gearing used on the "B" engine.
(ii) Two-position spark advance control. Oil piping and carbure-
tor mixture control lever attaclunents were added.
(iii) Pressurized magneto and distributors. A seal was provided in
the magneto drive adapter and in each distributor drive. In
this way pressure could be applied from the auxiliary (in the
case of two-stage configuration) or turbo stage to the mag-
neto and distributors. Pressurizing piping was designed with a
suitable junction to provide a pressure connection from either
the turbo or auxiliary stage outlet or from a separate pump
depending on the type of engine used.

195
Chapter 4

(iv) "C" cast cylinder head assemblies.

(v) Rocker sump to fit "C" cast cylinder head.
(vi) Main sump as required by cylinder muff in increased finning .
(vii) Improved design secondary counterbalancer assembly to
reduce galling on the contact surface.
(viii) Blower and intermediate rear crankcase with improved oil
sealing.
(ix) 10,000 rpm generator.
(x) Bendix PT-13Gl carburetor.
(xi) Creeping desludger clutch assemblies . The desired ratios are
7.6 : l low gear and 9.89: 1 high gear assemblies.*

October 8, 1942 Bill of material released to production for the single-stage engine to
be built by Pratt & Whitney of Missouri.

January 1, 1943 Second model test for the "C" series scheduled. Engine was desig-
nated R-2800-2SC15G.

June 24, 1943 R-2800 "C" series two-stage -18W engine was released to production.
First -18W sold to Navy in 1944.

December, 1943 First "C" series R-2800-22 sold built by Kansas City.

January 17, 1944 150 hour model test on the single-stage engine was finished in Septem-
ber, 194 3, and the two stage, on January 17, 1944.

* Sludging of supercharger clutches bedeviled all manufacturers of high performance aircraft piston engines for years.
Due to their fast rotational speed, blower clutches would tend to trap contaminants contained within the oil. The
primary culprit for this was carbon formed from the byproducts of combustion that leaked past the rings and localized
hot spots within the engine that carburized the oil. The use of a cone clutch on the R-2800 made it especially suscep-
tible to this malady. Manufacturers such as Rolls-Royce, who used face type clutches fared slightly better, but they still
suffered the vagaries of blower clutch sludging as well. The immediate, quick remedy for the "A" and "B" engines
required the pilot to shift blower ratios on a regular basis. Of course, on many occasions this never happened, with the
result blower clutches soon became inoperative. With the " C" series, Pratt and Whitney were determined to overcome
this vexing problem once and for all with no intervention required from the flight crew. The initial efforts to flush this
sludge incorporated bleed holes drilled in the outer diameter of the clutch. This helped-but at a price. With so many
holes bleeding off precious oil, flow increased with additional demands on the scavenge, oil cooling, and pressure
systems. Then a Pratt & Whitney engineer, whose name has now been Jost to the annals of history, came up with the
bright idea of bleeding oil at many locations without increasing oil flow excessively by cutting the blower clutch gear
tooth width down sufficiently to add another, narrow, gear with one tooth more, or one tooth less. This meant that many
holes could bleed oil but only when the holes were lined up as the " creeper," i.e ., narrow, gear slowly moved relative to
the drive gear. The single vent hole in the "creeper" gear would line up at intervals with one of several corresponding
holes drilled in the high ratio clutch gear and in the low ratio clutch gear support. As these holes lined up, a spurt of oil
is allowed to escape from behind the cone, thus preventing the acc umulation of sludge (Ref. 2.3). Even with the
installation of the creeper gear, it is still a good idea to shift blower clutches on a regular basis.

196
 Variations

CONTROL UNIJ

PILOT '5 CONTRO L

LEVER - - - _ _ _ ;

Fig. 4.49 Late1~ more powerfitl military R-2800s needed a mechanism to protect the engine
from overboosting. This was accomplished via the manifold pressure regulator and linkage
shown here. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model AJ-1 Aircraft, 15 July 1953.
Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

197
Chapter 4

R-2800-18W (SSC22G) Two Stage Used in F4U-4 (Ref. 4.1)

March 7, 1943 First test

June 24, 1943 Bill of material production release to East Hartford
January 17, 1944 Completed AN-9502 model test
February, 1944 First engine shipped
Total number of engines shipped: 2484

R-2800-22 (2SC13G) Single Stage Used in F7F (Ref. 4.1)

October 8, 1942 Bill of material released in Kansas City

September, 1943 Completed AN 9502 model test
December, 1943 Production deliveries begin from Kansas City
June, 1944 Month of peak production

R-2800-34 (2SC14G) and R-2800-34W (Ref. 4.1)

Used in: Convair TBY-2, Curtiss C-46F (-34), Curtiss XC-46B (-34), Douglas XA-26D (-34W),
Douglas C-54E, Eastern XTBM-5 (-34W), Fairchild C-82 (-34), Fleetwings BT(-1) (-34W),
Grumman F7F-3N-3P (-34W), Grumman F7F-4 (-34W), Grumman F8F-l , lB (-34W)
Grumman XTB3F-l (-34W), Martin PBM-5A(-34W), Martin RM-1(404), MartinRM-1(404)-34W.

January 18, 1943 First test

November, 1944 First delivery
Total number of engines shipped: 1585

The R-2800 "C" series engine superseded the "B" series in production in January, 1944, and its mass
production was continued until V-J Day. It was at this time that the postwar version of the Double
Wasp engine, the R-2800 "CE" or "CA" series left the experimental stage and entered production. It
was the first 2400 hp engine available to non-military activities. This was also the first time that
water injection was planned for commercial engines and enabled the postwar airliners to operate
with a weight to horsepower ratio of less than one to one. Originally, the "CE" or "CA" series
engine was intended to be a revision of the R-2800 "C" but the magnitude and quantity of engineering
development changes involved necessitated classing this latest production Double Wasp as a new
engine . From the following list of improvements over the "C" series, reasons for such classification
became self-evident.

1. In an effort to guard against propeller shaft cage cracking, a strengthened integral shaft and
cage was developed.
2. A one-piece lower front cam idler gear was incorporated to replace the "C" series two-piece
gear and thus reduce the accompanying eccentricities between the two supporting journals.

198
 Variations

3. A t\vo-piece governor drive gear vvas used to elitninate the necessity of a snap ring to retain the
outmoded one-piece gear.
4. The propeller reduction gear pinion shafts were reinforced.
5. The tappet cups in the lip and cup section were strengthened.
6. As a measure to reduce crankshaft and crankcase deflection at higher powers, stronger main
crankcase through bolts were installed.
7. The rocker arms were "Parko-Luberized" to provide an improved wear surface on the rocker
shafts.
8. One of the major changes in the engine was the replacement of the "C" series 4 Yz order rear
bifilar crankshaft damper with a lighter weight version of the 4 Yz order damper to reduce pos-
sible wear on the counterweight support pins.
9. As a further development of the forged cylinder head, it was found possible to further lighten
the R-2800 "CA" head without decreasing its strength.
10. An improved piston was included in the "CE" or "CA" series engine. The piston pin boss was
raised higher on the piston skirt to reduce side thrust loads. Also a large fire land was added to
improve piston ring durability during extreme lean cruise conditions.
11. The raised piston pin boss necessitated lengthening the master rod cluster (including link rods)
as a part of the aforementioned design change.
12. Stainless steel tips were added to the exhaust valve guides to function as a scraper and reduce
the possibilities of valve sticking under extreme lean mixture cruise endurance conditions.
13. Internal engine steel parts were treated with a phenolic resin coating to prevent internal corrosion.
14. An improved spline lock was developed as an additional safeguard to lock the crankshaft bolts.
15 . A strengthened rear crankcase section with internal water injection passages was included to
eliminate the external water piping .
16. A variable water regulator was supplied with the "CA" series engine to provide variable anti-
detonant flow under varying high power conditions .
17. Flexible spark advance lines replaced the rigid type lines to guard against failures caused by
vibration.
18. In keeping with the increased demand for more powerful accessory drives, the "CA" series
embodied a strengthened tachometer and side auxiliary dual gears to transmit 50% more torque.
19. A stronger oil-in screen was developed to prevent oil screen failures.
20. As a step towards simplification of the pilot's mixture control, the auto-rich and auto-lean settings
were combined into a single position carburetor setting for all flight operation.

"E" Series (Ref. 4. 1) (Fig. 4.50)

Looking at the "E" engines from the front they are indistinguishable from a "C." This is attributable
to the fact that "E" engines used the same nose and a very similar power section as a "C." Design
work started on November 11, 1943, and the first engine completed on November 9, 1944. Hydraulic
drive to the main stage blower represented the main deviation from prior Pratt & Whitney practice.
Secondly was the placement of the auxiliary stage supercharger on the two-stage versions. Instead
of placing the auxiliary stage blower shaft parallel to the centerline of the engine, it was put on a line

199
Chapter4

Fig. 4.50 Three-quarter rear view of an "E" series engine. Note the updraft Bendix PR-64
carburetor and radically different, single-stage, variable speed blower section. This is the
supercharger that a then-young Larry Carlson diagnosed a serious problem with, which
turned out to be due to a Coriolis effect. The large blanking plate on the side of the blower
section accommodated the "sidewinder " blower for a -32W (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

perpendicular to it. Lastly, the "E" series utilized the much maligned Chandler Evans PR-64 carbure-
tor in its semi-production form . Production engines used the Bendix PR-64 . Another change ofless
significance but worthwhile nonetheless was that of reversing the orientation of the starter and gen-
erator. Instead of having these components mounted on the rear case oriented towards the rear of
the aircraft, they instead pointed towards the front of the engine. This change effectively reduced the
engine 's overall length.

Testing commenced in late November, 1944. The first 500 hours of testing were completed on May
14, 1945. Testing of the first two-stage "E" engine was initiated on March 10, 1945. The Navy was
impressed with the Turbo Engineering Corporation's supercharger impeller design; consequently, it
was incorporated into all "E" series engines . It featured mixed flow design, which meant it was a
combination of axial flow and centrifugal flow.

-32W "E" Series Used in F4U-5 (Refs. 4.18 and 4.19)

As a follow-on to the -l 8W, Pratt & Whitney, again at the Navy's urging, produced the most sophis-
ticated and complex of all the R-2800 supercharging systems: the -32W (Fig. 4.51). It represented
the zenith in complexity and high altitude capability of a Navy R-2800. An "E" series engine, it was

200
 Variations

Fig. 4.51 Three-quarter rear view of another "E " series, the awesome -32W Nothing ever
came close to the size and complexity of the -32Ws sophisticated supercharger system. It
was similar to the -30W except for the dual auxiliary supercharger, its sole application being
the Vought F4 U-5. Sadly, this magnificent engine is being replaced by CBI 6s in some
restored F4U-5s. The owners just don't understand what a magnificent engineering master-
piece the -32W is. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

installed in the Chance Vought F4U-5 . Often referred to as the "sidewinder" for obvious reasons,
this supercharger exemplifies the trend of superchargers in large reciprocating engines at the end of
their development. And as can be expected, only the military could afford the massive development
and operating costs of these complex mechanical masterpieces. In a similar fashion to the -18W
described above, the -32W used two stages of supercharging: an auxiliary stage and main stage. The
main stage supercharger always rotated at a fixed ratio . And as with other Pratt & Whitney two-
stage engines, the auxiliary stage could be selected in neutral, low blower, or high blower. The
primary difference between the -18W and -32W was the use, by the -32W, of two auxiliary super-
charger impellers operating in parallel. Attached to the same shaft, they were mirror images of each
other. Interestingly, the first experimental -32W built used two impellers of identical design. Engi-
neers could not figure out why the auxiliary blower was not operating efficiently until someone
realized they should be mirror images! The -32W's pair of impellers is in contrast to the single
supercharger impeller used for the -l 8W 's auxiliary stage supercharger. Furthermore, the -32W's
auxiliary supercharger impellers were rotated 90 degrees on the engine's axis giving rise to the
"sidewinder" nickname (Fig. 4.52). Drawing on the experience gained with the -18W, Pratt &
Whitney used a similar hydraulic drive system for the auxiliary supercharger with the addition of 90
degree bevel gears in order turn the drive train sideways. Other than this change the system oper-
ated the same, i.e., the two auxiliary stage supercharger impellers discharged through airframe mounted
intercoolers and into an updraft carburetor.

201
Chapter 4

-----AUXILIARY SUPERCHARGER COLLECTOR

AUXILIARY IMPELLER

AUXILIARY COLLECTOR SUPPORT

DRIVE GEAR

GROS

AUXILIARY IMPELLER DRIVE PINION

AUXILIARY IMPELLER DRIVE PINION

AUXILIARY IMPELLI

AUXILIARY IMPELLE I

AUXILIARY IMPELLER THRUST PLATE

AUXILIARY IMPELLER THRUST BEARING

AUXILIARY COLLECTOR SUPPORT BEARING

Fig 4.52 This line drawing shows the -32Ws cross shaft supporting the dual auxiliary super-
charger impellers. (Handbook of Overhaul Instructions for Aircraft Engines Models R-2800-30 W
and -32W, November 1948. Authors collection.)

202
 Variations

AUXILIARY IMPELLER CONNECTING SHAFT RETAINING NUT

AUXILIARY IMPELLER RETAINING NUT

LOW RATIO HYDRAULIC COUPLING DRIVE

HYDRAULIC COUPLING OIL TRANSFER TUBE

SUPPORT

r
CTING

FACE OIL SEAL

FACE OIL SEAL RETAINER

AUXILIARY IMPELLER HUB

203
Chapter 4

-30W ("E" Series) (Refs. 4.18 and 4.19) (Fig. 4.53)

Installed in the Grumman F7F-5 Tigercat, Grumman XF8F-2 Bearcat, F8F-2, XF8F-3 , the -30W was
closely based on the -32W. But the -30W was considerably simpler. Instead of the -32W's complex
sidewinder setup it employed a single-stage supercharger. Like the -32W, however, it still employed
a fluid drive to the supercharger and utilized updraft carburetion. Pratt & Whitney drew up concepts
for civilian applications of the "E" series both single stage and two stage. The single stage was
equivalent to the military -30W (Fig. 4.54) and the two stage was equivalent to the -32W
(Fig. 4.55). Apparently the airlines were not interested so neither concept progressed beyond the
drawing board.

-30W and -32W Engine Control (Ref. 4.18)

A combat pilot's life is busy enough at the best of times without trying to figure out the vagaries of a
complex supercharging system. To this end an automatic engine control unit is attached to a pad on
the left side cover of the accessory drive case on the -30W and a pad on the upper left side of the rear
cover of the accessory drive case on the -32W. It performs the function of an automatic boost
control by operating and correlating the carburetor throttle with the supercharger drive coupling
selector valve. This valve is an integral part of the engine control unit. Constant manifold pressure is
maintained regardless of the changes in altitude by means of an aneroid bellows arrangement that
regulates throttle position in conjunction with the supercharger impeller speed as required.

General Electric Turbosuperchargers

Turbosuperchargers serve as a very efficient, infinitely vari-

able speed supercharger. Driven by the otherwise wasted
energy in the exhaust gases, turbos are best utilized at high
altitudes (Fig. 4.56; see color section).

Although simple in theory, in reality the turbosupercharger is

a complex device that required state of the art technology
and materials to manufacture and control. Making the deci-
sion on how to take full advantage of the exhaust gas energy
is a difficult one and requires input on what the airplane's
intended mission will be. If weight and complexity were not
a factor, the decision would be considerably easier in favor of
the turbo. Of course, for an aircraft application, weight re-
duction is crucial. Even so, an argument could, and was,
made as to the effectiveness of turbos at high altitude despite
their weight and complexity. When the exhaust valve opens and allows superheated gases to escape
at supersonic velocities, these gases are ducted to the turbosupercharger nozzle box. The nozzle box
directs the gases in such a fashion to impinge upon turbine blades (buckets) which are attached to a

204
 Variations

Fig. 4.53 Side view of a

-30 W "E " series normally
installed in the Grumman
F7F-5 and F8F-2.
(Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

~t WAY SCOOP
CAMTVll - """' 1N l i l 4 C O [ -
.. DC. - OL COCM,..llls - - - -

TYPICAL ENGINE INSTALLATION SHOWING INDUCTION SYSTEM

SINGLE STAGE.. V>.A!ABLE SPEED - C>O\.el( WA S P E IZ

Fig. 4. 54 Pratt & Whitney tried, unsuccessfully, to sell "E " series R-2800s to the airlines.
This line drawing shows a single-stage, variable speed concept. Similar to the military
-30W, in civilian guise it was designated E l 2. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

205
Chapter 4

A.UlCtL IART
- 5UPt:RD<>.A(o(R AJA DUCTS

c u1n.". "'""'H.o.cc -
~ · 111s ·O.. coa.. c~' o. ... u,.~uu
CIXIL•lt<:.A<R --- -

TYPICAL ENGINE INSTALLATION SHOWING INDUCTION SYSTEM

DUAL 5 T"G( . VARIABLE SPf ED - DOUBLE WA.SP £. 2 l

Fig. 4. 55 It is probably fortunate that the airlines turned down the "E " series two-stage
engine. Only the mihtary with its bottomless budget could afford to operate such a sophisti-
cated engine. Similar to the military -32W, in civilian guise it was designated E22.
(Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

wheel causing it to spin at high velocity. The turbine wheel is mounted on one end of a shaft; the other
end mounts a centrifugal compressor, very similar to the engine driven supercharger impeller. If all
the exhaust gases, particularly at lower altitudes, were allowed to impinge upon the turbine, serious
problems would arise. Without some kind of control, the turbine wou ld overspeed and/or generate far
more manifold pressure than the engine could hope to deal with. Furthermore, due to the phenom-
enally high rotational speeds, mechanical loads and thermal stresses, failure of the turbine is a fore-
gone conclusion . Herein lies the rub: How does one regulate the awesome power of the turbo
without limiting its potential? Any number of methods could be, and were, used: controlling the "cold"
side, i.e., the compressor discharge or controlling the "hot" side, i.e ., the turbine. All successful
controls varied the mass flow of exhaust through the turbine. The mechanics were quite simple,
consisting of a butterfly valve mounted on the turbine casing that controlled how much of the exhaust
energy flowed through the turbine. The controls, however, were far from simple. The butterfly
valve's correct description is "waste gate ." With the valve closed, all exhaust gases were forced
through the turbine. This condition would exist at high altitude. As the butterfly valve opened, a
portion of the exhaust gases bypassed the turbine . This would be the condition at lower altitudes. As

206
 Variations

a measure of how much power a "C" type G.E. turbosupercharger was capable of, Pratt & Whitney
engineers figured out it was producing over 300 horsepower with the waste gate closed. On all
R-2800 applications, the heat of compression on the discharge side of the compressor was partially
removed via an air-to-air intercooler. This compressed and now partially cooled air was fed into the
carburetor. From here on in, the engine operated as though it had no turbosupercharger, i.e., the air
was fed into the engine's gear driven supercharger. The fuel was introduced via the fuel feed valve
and discharged into the slinger ring. After burning the fuel/air mixture, the exhaust gases were routed
to and fed into the turbine side of the turbosupercharger, thus the cycle started over again. The
installation of the General Electric Type C turbosupercharger in a Republic P-47 is described in
Ref. 4.21.

General Electric furnished all the turbosuperchargers for R-2800 applications that saw mass produc-
tion. Other turbosuperchargers were tried experimentally such as the unit manufactured by the
Turbo Engineering Company led by Birmann for use in the Vought XF4U-3 Corsair. Republic 's P-47
was the most prolific user of the Type C G.E. turbosupercharger, over 15,000 of this remarkable
airplane being manufactured . Northrop 's P-61C and XP-61D along with their photo recon counter-
parts were also turbosupercharged, R-2800 powered aircraft.

Controls

Once reliable turbosuperchargers had been developed, the next hurdle was controlling this monster.
Somewhat analogous to having a tiger by the tail, without a suitable control system, the turbo would
literally explode, scattering red-hot and deadly shrapnel, or overboost the engine to the point of
destructive detonation.

As altitude is increased, the atmospheric pressure at the compressor inlet decreases so it becomes
necessary to increase the speed of the turbosupercharger impeller to maintain the compressor dis-
charge pressure constant. To accomplish this, the waste gate must move to direct more of the
exhaust gases through the turbine wheel rather than dumping them overboard. The turbosuper-
charger regulator (Ref. 4.22) (Fig. 4.57) performs the function of operating the waste gate automati-
cally in order to hold the compressor discharge pressure constant with changes in atmospheric pres-
sure, i.e. , it acts as a form of automatic boost control. Holding constant compressor discharge
pressure is equivalent to holding constant intake manifold pressure, assuming that the engine speed
and throttle position are not changed. The turbosupercharger regulator also controls the limiting
turbosupercharger speed. It is evident that as altitude is increased, the turbosupercharger speed will
increase in order to maintain constant compressor discharge pressure. Since the turbosupercharger
speed is limited to normal rated and military rated speed, due to the mechanical strength of the turbine
wheel, it is necessary to reduce the compressor discharge pressure as altitude is increased above the
critical altitude in order to prevent overspeeding. During the early stages of World War II, General
Electric began to receive scathing reports from the British, who were operating Boeing B-17 s equipped
with G.E. type B turbos. One of the main criticisms was directed at their control system. The

207
Chapter 4

turbosupercharger regulators on these early B-17 installations did not provide any limiting speed
control. As a result, numerous turbine wheels were being oversped, resulting in loss of both turbine
buckets and turbine wheels. General Electric's first attempt to better this control system was to add
a flyball governor to their hydraulic Type N-1 turbosupercharger regulator. Before this regulator had
completed its tests, G.E. had come to the conclusion that it would be desirable to develop an electric
supercharger regulator, thus eliminating the trouble being encountered with congealed (due to cold
temperatures at altitude) and contaminated oil used with the hydraulic regulator. It was also apparent
that it was desirable to control the supercharger when sensing from the compressor discharge pres-
sure rather than exhaust pressure. Thus, G.E. went through the process of developing electric
turbosupercharger regulators in which various methods of stabilizing the system and various methods
of controlling speed were tried. Many P-47Ds were fitted with what G.E. referred to as the Unilever
Power Control. This control operated throttle, propeller, and regulated manifold pressure with one
lever. The electrical units were rated at 24 volt DC, with an operating range from 20 to 29. The
electrical power required was 75 watts intermittently with 150 watts maximum for less than three
seconds when the lower lever was advanced.

COMPRESSOR INLET

~ OVERSPEED GENERATOR

- COMPRESSOR DISCHARGE

EXHAUST U ~'

Fig. 4.57 Although the

waste gate was a simple
-PRESSURE
CONNE:CTION
device, just a pivoted
butterfly valve, controlling
the waste gate required a
sophisticated regulator.
The General Electric
PRE.SSURIZEO
BOX electronic regulator
illustrated is just one of
several types used. (The
1943 Supercharger
~--------- TO 24 VOLT POWER Symposium Lecture Book.
Authors collection.)

208
 Variations

G .E. claimed the Unilever Power Control enjoyed the following advantages :

1. It combined three functions of engine power control into a single cockpit lever to meet predeter-
mined power schedule: (1) turbo, (2) propeller, and (3) throttle.
2. It regulated manifold pressure without overlap between throttle and turbosupercharger opera-
tion. This ensured minimum exhaust back pressure for each power setting.
3. It controlled manifold pressure with a single regulator operating throttle and waste gate
sequentially.
4. It gave complete manual control of throttle in case of electrical power failure . The propeller
governor was operated through a direct mechanical linkage at all times .
5. It maintained relatively constant power settings as altitude was increased until the limiting turbo-
supercharger speed, i.e. , critical altitude, was reached.
6. It provided for war emergency manifold pressure control by overriding the UPC.
7. It controlled turbosupercharger speed to both normal and military speed rating.
8. It combined all the inherent advantages of electrical systems.
9. It provided smooth, continuous control of power over the range of cockpit lever motion.
10. It reduced the amount of control linkages and cables required from cockpit to engine.
(Ref. 4.23).

After reading the foregoing UPC control description, it may come as a surprise to many readers that
this technology was developed by the United States during World War II. It is a little understood fact
that the German Luftwaffe was not the first to develop single lever controls; G.E. was way ahead of
them!

Table 4-3 outlines turbosupercharged applications that saw series production.

Turbo-Compounding/Variable Discharge Turbine (VDT)

Taking advantage of the energy contained in exhaust gases has always been an interesting challenge
to aircraft engine designers. In the vast majority of cases the exhaust gases were simply dumped
overboard. Radial engine exhaust systems developed prior to World War II would typically collect
the exhaust in an aptly named "collector ring" and discharge the gases overboard through a single or
dual outlets. However, as engine and airplane performance increased, designers realized that a
tremendous amount of energy was being squandered. Some of the early attempts at recovering this
energy was in the form of individual pipes for each cylinder or in some cases siamesing two or more
cylinders and ejecting the gases in a rearward direction. These so-called ejector stacks were more
effective at higher altitudes and higher speeds .

Another method of utilizing exhaust energy was the turbosupercharger described above. Again, the
turbosupercharger was at its most effective at higher altitudes but what about lower altitudes and

209
Chapter 4

TABLE 4-3 G.E. TURBOSUPERCHARGER DESIGNATIONS

G.E. Turbosupercharger
Model R-2800 Model Application Comments

Type C-1 -17 later -35 XP-478

C-21 -21 P-478/C/O New regulator. Turbo rated at
20,000 rpm but limited to
18,500 rpm .
C-23 -21 P-470 C-23 introduced with
P-470-10-RE.

CH-3 -57, -61 XP-47J The -61 was similar to the -57
except the former featured
dual rotation propeller drive.

CH-5 -57 P-47M/N "C" series engine. Unilever

Power Control (UPC).

CH-5 -77 Northrop P-1 C -77s built by Chevrolet only.

especially takeoff? In this scenario the turbosupercharger was of little value due to the possibility of
overboosting. In fact, no energy was recovered at sea level from the turbosupercharger; most of the
exhaust gases were vented overboard through the waste gate.

Some method was required that took advantage of the exhaust gases at all altitudes without the
complex control systems required of a turbosupercharged installation. This method was turbo-
compounding. In its most basic form, the turbo-compound engine utilized the exhaust gases to drive
a gas turbine, in the same way as a turbosupercharger (Fig. 4.58) . However, instead of having the
turbine drive a compressor, the turbine drove the engine, i.e., it fed power back to the crankshaft.
This system eliminated all the concerns of controlling the boost levels of the turbosupercharger and
now all the exhaust gases could be utilized to drive the turbine. This, of course, negated the necessity
of a waste gate and its associated controls.

Rather surprisingly, only one aircraft piston engine ever saw series production in turbo-compounded
form-the Wright R-3350 turbo compound (Fig. 4.59) . The R-3350 turbo compound featured three
"power recovery turbines" or PRTs. Each PRT recovered approximately 120 horsepower or 360
horsepower per engine. Ostensibly, the turbo compound is a relatively simple system; however, in
reality many serious obstacles stood in its way.

Another method of utilizing exhaust gases explored by Pratt & Whitney was the variable discharge
turbine or VDT. In this method the internal gear driven supercharger was eliminated altogether and
all supercharging requirements were taken care of by a turbosupercharger. Rather than use a simple
butterfly valve for the waste gate, VDT engines used a far more sophisticated variable discharge

210
 Variations

Fig. 4.58 One way to fully utilize exhaust gas energy at all altitudes was by using turbo-
compounding. This illustration is part of a study conducted by NACA to investigate turbo-
compounding a "B" series R-2800. As can be seen, nine exhaust outlets drove a blowdown
turbine that was geared directly back to the R-2800. It is not known if any engines were actually
built with this concept. (NACA Study of the Utilization of Exhaust Gas ofAircraft Engines by
Benjamin Pinke!. For presentation at the SAE National Aeronautic Meeting [Spring] Hotel New
Yorker, New York, April 3- 5, 1946. Authors collection.)

nozzle . In this way, at lower altitudes, where boost levels can be high, if some fonn of boost control
is not incorporated, the variable discharge nozzle would open, bypassing some of the exhaust energy.
It would do it in such a way as to gain an appreciable amount of thrust. Pratt & Whitney explored
several variations on the VDT theme. Using different turbines, with and without aftercoolers, etc.

An internal report released by Pratt & Whitney on March 19, 194 7, summarized various methods of
turbo-compounding and variable discharge turbines. These combinations were compared to standard
engines with gear driven superchargers.

Although Pratt & Whitney's studies did not result in any engines being manufactured, the R-2800
studies were used for the development of the R-4360 VDT (variable discharge turbine) intended for
the "B" model of the B-36 bomber. As can be seen from Table 4.4, advantages, both in fuel economy
and takeoff power, are very apparent. Nevertheless, despite a vigorous sales campaign to the air-
lines, none was developed. Contributing to the lack of interest from the airlines was the fact that the
empty weight of a DC-6B would have increased by several thousand pounds . Furthermore, the
additional complexity would have introduced maintenance headaches the airlines did not need. By
1950 the whole idea was dropped and the airlines stuck with the relatively simple single-stage, two-
speed or single-stage, single-speed engines. In retrospect, this was a wise decision by the airlines,

211
Chapter 4

Fig. 4.59 Wright was the only engine manufacturer to successfully employ turbo-
compounding. Eighteen cylinder R-3350 turbo compounds used three blowdown turbines
geared back to the engine. Each turbine, or power recovery turbine as Wright referred to
them as, was driven by the exhaust gases from six cylinders. Both military and civilian
aircraft were powered by this sophisticated engine. This photo shows the QEC for a
Douglas DC-7. (Authors collection.)

who are driven by the bottom-line results, not the latest in technology. If enhanced technology
contributes to the bottom line then it is immediately incorporated; if not, then let the military, with its
almost unlimited budget, utilize it.

Low-Tension Ignition (Ref. 4.36)

The problem of high altitude ignition and its associated flashover problems has been previously
described for the "A" and "B" series engines. While various methods of overcoming flashover for
high altitude operation worked to a degree, such as pressurization and filling the harness with a
dielectric compound, a definitive solution was required . This solution came in the form oflow-tension
ignition used exclusively on "CA" and "CB" series engines. As described in the previous chapter, at
high altitudes, the atmosphere becomes a semiconductor. With over 20,000 volts being distributed
through the ignition system, the possibility for problems such as cross-firing, flashover and misfiring
are obvious. The low-tension system overcame these obstacles . Fig. 4.60 illustrates how the two
systems differ. Instead of generating over 20,000 volts, the low-tension magneto system generates a
more tolerable 300 volts (Fig. 4.61). In a similar fashion to the high tension system the output from
the magneto, in this case 300 volts, was fed into the pair of nose case mounted distributors. The

212
 TABLE 4-4 EXHAUST SYSTEM EXPERIMENTS

External Supercharger, External Supercharger,

Waste Gate Control Com- Waste Gate Control Com-
Two Speed, Single Slowdown Com- Pressure Feedback pounded with CB Power pounded with CB Power
Engine Stage CB-16 pounded with E12 Compounded with E12 Section, with Aftercooler Section; No Aftercooler
Method of Internal, gear driven Internal, gear driven Internal, gear driven Internal, gear driven Internal, gear driven
Supercharging supercharger supercharger supercharger supercharger deleted supercharger deleted
Exhaust System No turbine. Turbine calculated on same General Electric CT-5 turbine General Electric BH-1 General Electric BH-1
Single stack jet basis as used by Wright. with shaft efficiencies increased turbosupercharger. Waste turbosupercharger. Waste
exhaust system . Turbine geared directly to by 2%. Turbine geared directly gate nozzle and turbine gate nozzle and turbine
engine. to engine. Turbine hood hood jet exhaust. hood jet exhaust.
Turbine hood jet exhaust. jet exhaust.
Fuel Grade 100/130 100/130 100/130 100/130 100/130
Compression 6.7:1 6.7:1 6.7:1 7.5:1 6.7:1
Ratio
Cruise Spark 20 degrees 20 degrees 20 degrees 35 degrees 20 degrees
Advance
Altitude S.L. 12,000 20,000 S.L. 12,000 20,000 S. L. 12,000 20,000 S.L. 20,000 S.L. 12,000 20,000

N
BHP 2400 1700 1110 2735 1885 1285 2605 2255 1210 3020 1950 1357 2400 1700 1110
...... TIO wet max. max. T/Owet max. max. TIO wet max. max. T/Owet max. max TIO wet max. max.
w
cont. cruise cont. cruise cont. cruise cont. cruise cont. cruise
BSFC .620/ .795 .500 .540/ .690 .436 .533/ .413 .397 .525/
.240 .210 .193 .205
Jet Thrust, lbs 340 260 150 101 74 47.5 94 69 48 174
lntercooler N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A N/A 58 .5% 44.5% 62% 61 % 44.5%
Efficiency
Manifold Pres- 59.5 49.0 32.5 59.2 48.0 33.9 62.0 47.9 37.5 64.2 64.2 59.5 49.0 32.5
sure, in. Hg (est.) (est.) (est.) (est.) (est.) (est.)
Exhaust Pres- 31.0 25.0 14.25 56.3 42.5 26.6 56 .7 31.0 31.0 19.8 14.25
sure , in. Hg
Induction Air 17,900 13,500 8570 17,900 13,500 8570 17,900 13,950 9120 9300 17,900 13,500 8570
Flow lbs/hour
Garb.Air 60 16 -12.3 60 16 -13.3 130 100 100 130 100 100 60 16 -12.3
Temp ., ' F
Mixture 120 215 170 120 215 170 130 100 100 130 100 100 120 215 170
Temp., ' F (est.) (est.) (est.) (est.) (est.) (est.) (dry) (dry) (dry) (dry) (dry) (dry) (dry) (est.) (est.)
~
....
Fuel/Air Ratio .0835/ .100 .065 .0825/ .100 .065 .0825/ .098 .058 .083/ .098 .058 .0825/ .100 .065
.032 .032 .022 .030 .032
;:;·
:::;>:
0
(Refs. 4.24, 4.25, 4.26, 4.27 , 4.27, 4.28 , 4.29 , 4.30 , 4.31 , 4.31 , 4.32 , 4.33 , 4.34 and 4.35) ;:;;
"'
Chapter 4

HIGH TENSION IGNITION SYSTEM

MAGNETO DISTRIBUTOR
l
SPARK PLUG
INCLUDING SECONDARY COIL OPERATING IN THE HIGH
WHICH DELIVERS HIGH TENSION TENSION CIRCUIT,
IMPULSES .

(NOTE LONG HIGH TENSION LEAD)

HIGH ALTITUDE OR LOW TENSION IGNITION SYSTEM

SECONDARY COIL
TRANSFORMING CURRENT
TO HIGH TENSION,

MAGNETO DISTRIBUTOR
1
DEl.IVERING ONLY LOW OPERATING IN THE SPARK PLUG
TENSION IM PULSES. LOW TENSION CIRCUIT.

(NOTE VERY SHORT HIGH TENSION LEAD)

THICK LINES DENOTE HIGH TENSION CURRENT
THIN LINES DENOTE LOW TENSION CURRENT

Fig. 4. 60 After putting in place Band-Aids such as pressurizing the ignition harness, etc., it
became apparent that the only definitive solution for high altitude operation was the use of low
tension ignition. This illustration shows diagrammatically how low tension differs from high
tension. (Bendix-Scintilla Aircraft Magnetos Types DFl 8RN, DFl 8LN Service Instructions,
February 1943. Courtesy ofAl Marcucci.)

214
 Variations

NOTCHES IN WHICH COVE/VENTILATOR

TIMING PLUNGER WILL
ENGAGf-

ROTATING MAGNET
(2 MAGNETS ON
SAME SHAFT)

Fig. 4. 61 Cross section

0 IL SEAL through a DLN-10 low
tension magneto fitted to
many later R-2800s.
BALL BEARING
(Bendix-Scintilla Aircraft
( DR IVE END)

BE ARING ADAPTOR
Magnetos Types DFl 8RN,
BALL DFl 8LN Service Instruc-
BEARING
MAGN ET O HOUSING ---~ (U PPER) tions, February 1943.
SEALIN G STRI P - - - - - -
Courtesy ofAl Marcucci.)

ilistributors fed this 300 volts to the appropriate cylinder; however, it was not fed to the spark plug.
Instead, the 300 volts fed into a step-up transformer mounted on the cylinder head (Fig. 4.62) . This
is where the transition to 20,00 volts took place. Two output leads from the transformer fed the, now
high tension, to the front and rear plugs. Not only high altitude woes were overcome but maintenance
was now incomparably easier due to the lower voltage being produced inside the magneto . Items like
ignition points lasted considerably longer. Only " CA" and " CB" series engines enjoyed the advan-
tages oflow tension ignition because by the time this superior ignition system had been developed the
"A" and "B" series were considered obsolete. All R-2800 low-tension ignition systems were manu-
factured by Bendix/Scintilla and designated DLN-10. In a similar fashion to the DF18R/LN high
tension system, the DLN-10 is four-bolt, flange mounted double tandem magneto and two pairs of
coils. Gear ratios are the same as the DF18R/LN, i.e. , 11/s crankshaft speed. Placement of the
breaker points marks a significant difference between the low tension and high tension systems; the
low tension system mounts the breaker points in the distributors, the high tension mounts them in the
magneto. Fig. 4.63 shows a CB 16 with low-tension ignition.

Anti-Detonation Injection (ADI) (Ref. 3.7)

Frank Walker optimized theADI system for R-2800s . As early as pre-World War I, experiments had
been carried out with injecting metered amounts of water into the fuel/air mixture. However, it was
with the advent of supercharged engines running at high boost pressures that water injection came
into its own. By reducing the temperature of the compressed charge and cooling the flame front,
water was a surprisingly simple but effective method of quelling detonation. Consequently, water had
the effect of raising the performance number of the fuel being used. Although wonderful for detona-
tion prevention, ADI did nothing for preignition.

215
Chapter 4

Fig. 4. 62 The coil illustrated here was bolted to each cylinder head. Low tension was fed
from the magneto via a shielded lead which terminated at the coil. Low tension was boosted
to high tension in the coil. Two shielded leads fed high tension to the front and rear plugs.
(Bendix-Scintilla Aircraft Magnetos Types DFJ 8RN, DFJ 8LN Service Instructions, February
1943. Courtesy of Al Marcucci.)

As with many aspects of R-2800 development, its use came about due to an emergency situation.
When German FW 190s powered by the BMW 801 radial engine entered the fray in 1941, their
superior performance took everyone, particularly the British, by surprise. RAF Spitfire Mark Vs
were outclassed resulting in heavy losses. The same fate befell P-47s when they first tangled with
this formidable German fighter. The situation was so serious, Major General Oliver P. Echols visited
Wright Field for a session withA1my Air Force Engineers TE. Tillinghast of Pratt & Whitney was
also in attendance at these meetings. Tillinghast was a former Army Air Force pilot and prior to
joining Pratt & Whitney, was in charge of Wright Field's power plant laboratory. The meetings got
nowhere. Tillinghast then met with his old friend "Opie" Chenoweth who suggested the use of water
injection. From there, the rest is, as they say, history. Rather surprisingly, Col. Charles A. Bassett
designed a water injection system at Wright Field in 1934. He found that water injection not only
suppressed detonation but cooled the engine and saved fuel. As proof that his system worked,
Bassett boosted a standard R-1340 from 550 horsepower to 768 horsepower (Ref. 4.37). At the
conclusion of his experiments, Bassett wrote a report that simply gathered dust for eight years. One
reason Wright Field did not wholeheartedly embrace water injection was the fact 100 octane fuel was
becoming readily available and it was thought that this would be the panacea against detonation. As
it turned out, both solutions would be required : water injection and high performance fuel.

Initial tests were performed with plain water, which of course was a wonderful detonation suppres-
sant. Problem is, water freezes at a relatively high temperature, certainly higher than the extremely
cold temperatures experienced at the altitudes R-2800 powered aircraft were capable of achieving.
A conventional antifreeze such as ethylene glycol was out of the question because it does not bum.
Experiments with various alcohols yielded mixed results. But ethanol and methanol worked just fine
when mixed fifty-fifty with water. Isopropyl alcohol, on the other hand, did not work. Isopropyl
alcohol later caused serious problems with Eighth Air Force Republic P-47s fitted with ADI flying out
of England. Bill Closs, Frank Walker's boss was scheduled to fly over to England to investigate this
rash of P-4 7 engine failures. Just prior to his departure, Frank reported to Closs with his findings
using isopropyl alcohol. Sure enough, when he arrived in England he found out that the ground crew
was formulating its AD I from de-icing fluid, isopropyl alcohol. With the use of ethanol, not surprisingly,

216
 Variations

Fig. 4. 63 A CBI 6 fitted with low tension ignition. Ignition boost coils are visible bolted to
the sheet metal cooling baffle on top of each cylinder head. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

the problems went away (Ref 3.10) . During Frank's experiments in East Hartford with ethanol and
methanol, the stuff was consumed in huge quantities. Federal Agents always escorted these ship-
ments of alcohol to make sure no one drank it! (Refs. 3.10, 4.38, 4.39, and 4.40) .

If an R-2800 was set up to use ADI the letter "W" was added as a suffix to the dash number.
However, this only applied to the military versions, no such identifier was used for civilian R-2800s.
As an example, a CB-16, even though it was equipped with ADI, did not have a "W" suffix. Many
military R-2800s were modified in the field for ADI; therefore, even though an engine may not have
a "W" suffix, it does not mean that it never had ADI.

ADI flow varied as to how much power was being developed. The following table illustrates typical
flow rates :

Horsepower ADI Flow Rate

2400 9.2 pounds per minute
2500 11 .5 pounds per minute
1900 in high blower 7.8 pounds per minute

217
Chapter 4

As more experience was gained with ADI, Pratt & Whitney authorized the use of the following
mixtures:

(i) methyl alcohol 50% and water 50%,

(ii) methyl alcohol 60%, water 40%,
(iii) methyl alcohol 25%, ethyl alcohol 25%, water 50%, and
(iv) methyl alcohol 60 parts, water 40 parts, and one part anti-corrosion oil
(Ref. 4.41) .

As an interesting aside, our indomitable Frank Walker also had a profound effect on aviation fuel
used by the Army Air Force during World War II. After a grueling and sleepless seventy-two hour
marathon, Frank tested three aviation fuels for the Office of Petroleum Coordination (OPC). Even
though the perfonnance number or octane number may be the same, fuels could vary significantly.
Many additives are added to fuel such as bromides for lead scavenging, dyes for color identification,
stabilizers, etc., all of which affected the fuel and its performance. These tests included various
mixture and power settings. A clear winner emerged after about 100 hours of testing. At the
conclusion of testing, Frank hastily wrote a three-page report. Time was of the essence, which did
not afford Frank the luxury of writing a more detailed report. Nevertheless, despite his embarrass-
ment at having to prepare such a hurried report he presented it to the OPC. To his surprise, his was
the only report presented. Wright and Allison had perfonned a similar comparison test but did not get
their findings written up in time. Based on Frank's briefreport, the entire U.S. petroleum production
for the Army Air Force was modified to produce the most desirable aviation fuel (Ref. 3. 7) .

R-2800 vs. R-4360

As an interesting footnote in the development of the R-2800, during World War II Frank Walker was
charged with the task of testing the ADI system developed, in an emergency, for the R-2800. During
the same time period Pratt & Whitney was testing early development versions of the R-4360
(Fig. 4.64). Frank regarded the R-2800 as his baby and consequently wanted to prove to the world
there was still life left in it. He made it a personal goal to keep up with the power output of the R-4360
with "his" R-2800 . When reports came through that 3000 horsepower had been achieved with the
R-4360 he met that challenge by boosting the R-2800 to ever higher manifold pressures and feeding
it additional ADI fluid. With these changes, Frank met the 3000 horsepower challenge. Then the
R-4360 reached 3500 horsepower. No problem, Frank ran his R-2800 up to an amazing 140 in. Hg
manifold pressure and fed as much ADI fluid as the engine could tolerate. Again, he matched the
R-4360's 3500 horsepower. When the 3800 horsepower threshold was achieved by the R-4360,
Frank ran his R-2800 to a stratospheric 150 in. Hg to match the 3800 horsepower benchmark. How-
ever, Frank had to call it quits at 3800 horsepower; it would have been a difficult explanation to make
to his superiors if he had blown up his R-2800 in the test cell. What makes this story even more
remarkable is the fact that Frank's R-2800 was a lowly "B" engine! And as Frank found out, not
unnaturally, there is no replacement for displacement. Even so, for a while he gave the R-4360 and
its development team a good run for its money. It would be difficult to imagine this kind of friendly
rivalry and comradery in today's corporate, " design by committee" environment.

218
 Variations

Fig. 4. 64 The first R-4360 built. This engine differed greatly from production engines. As a
proof of concept development engine, Pratt & Whitney engineers used off-the-shelf components.
Twenty-eight "B " series R-2800 cylinders were used and an H-3170 sleeve valve engine nose case
was fitted. Still, it proved that a four-row, air-cooled radial was feasible. (Courtesy of Pratt
& Whitney.)

As a further endorsement of the R-2800 's sound and rugged design, Frank made regular test runs of
3000 horsepower for one hundred hours (Ref. 3.7).

ADI Installation

A storage tank, typically 15 gallons, holds the ADI solution. An electrically driven pump delivers
the water/methanol mix to the engine. The water regulator with an integral solenoid, usually mounted
on the left side of the blower, meters water to the engine at a rate that depends upon fuel and air flow
through the carburetor. Fuel and water are discharged together into the induction system via the
impeller slinger ring. An external line between the water regulator and carburetor is necessary in
order to operate the de-richment valve. This de-richment valve is designed to reduce fuel flow when
the engine is operating with ADI. Of course, a water/methanol mixture is a very corrosive one;
therefore, battling corrosion is an ongoing maintenance headache with ADI systems (Refs. 4.40 and
4.42).

Sleeve Valve Ventures

During the R-2800 's early developmental stages, Pratt & Whitney investigated the idea of using
sleeve valves. On October 31 , 1938, a memorandum report was released extolling the virtues of a
sleeve valve R-2800. This report's timing coincided with what could be defined as Pratt & Whitney's
peak enthusiasm for the sleeve valve concept. George Mead bet his professional career on it culmi-
nating in the X-1800 series of engines-none of which ever flew. This also coincided with the time

219
Chapter 4

period when Roy F eddon, Bristol 's brilliant, albeit idiosyncratic chief engineer, was taking the sleeve
valve concept on the road by way of numerous presentations to engineering societies and publishing
a plethora of sleeve valve papers. Although Pratt & Whitney did not make any sleeve valve R-2800s,
it is apparent from the in-depth and detailed memorandum report that it was taken very seriously.
Interestingly, although it used the Burt McCullom single-sleeve concept it varied in some significant
ways. The classic Roy Feddon-developed single-sleeve engine used five ports: three inlet and two
exhaust. Furthermore, the port shape resembled a triangle with rounded sides. The R-2800, on the
other hand, used six rectangular shaped ports: two exhaust and four inlets. The exhaust ports were
situated on opposite sides of the cylinder. The intake ports were arranged in pairs between the
exhaust ports. The alternate exhaust and inlet port configuration reduced the possibility of hot spots
that could induce detonation. Pratt & Whitney also claimed in the report that an added benefit was
simplified piping for the exhaust and inlet manifolds. This design increased port area by a consider-
able margin compared to a poppet valve arrangement: 115 percent increase for the exhaust and a 200
percent increase for the inlet. The power section was to have remained the same as its poppet valve
counterpart with the exception of the sleeve drive requirements that replaced the cam rings and its
drive gears. In a related study, Pratt & Whitney looked at utilizing fourteen cylinders instead of
eighteen. Of course, the fourteen-cylinder configuration would have required larger cylinders with
a bore of 614 inches and a stroke of 6Yz inches. The resulting displacement would have been 2792 cubic
inches compared to 2804 cubic inches for the eighteen-cylinder engine.

Sixty plus years after these studies were conducted it is difficult to determine why the concept was
dropped. One can only infer that, although sleeve valves were showing great promise in the late
1930s, troubling reports associated with their difficulty to manufacture and their unreliability were
starting to surface. In the long run, sleeve valve engines turned out to be a viable and reliable
competitor to poppet valve engines . However, during the cash-strapped depression era of the 193 Os,
caution was the better alternative to new and unproved concepts (Ref. 4.43).

References
4.1 Close, W.J., Development of The R-2800 Engine, Pratt & Whitney internal report.

4.2 Moss, Ph.D., Sanford A. , Superchargers for Aviation, National Aeronautics Council, Inc .,
New York, 1944.
4.3 Hooker, Sir Stanley, Not Much of an Engineer, Airlife, England, 1984.
1.2 Schlaifer, Robert and Heron, S.D ., Development of Aircraft Engines and Fuels , Harvard
University, Boston, 1950.
4.4 Operators Handbook, Double Wasp B Series Engines (With Two Stage Supercharger) ,
Pratt & Whitney & Aircraft, East Hartford, Conn., November 1943.
4.5 Overhaul Manual. Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines , Pratt & Whitney & Aircraft,
East Hartford, Conn., January 1944.
4.6 Buck, Richard S., Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, Technical Notes National Advisory Committee
for Aeronautics, No. 794, Two Stage Supercharging, Washington, D.C. 1941.

220
 Variations

4.7 Description and Preliminary Operating Instructions R-2800-29, Submerged Double Wasp,
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, March 15, 1944.
4.8 Overhaul Manual. Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines , Pratt & Whitney & Aircraft,
East Hartford, Conn., July 1, 1945.
1.1 Ryder, Earle A., "Recent Developments in the R-4360 Engine," paper presented at the SAE
Summer Meeting (French Lick, Ind.), Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, Pa. , June
1950.
4.9 Open House, Chevrolet-Anderson, June 4, 1945.
4.10 Internal Pratt & Whitney Report, P&W Archives.
4.11 Parkins, W. , Symposium Lecture #4. Engine Vibrations, undated internal Pratt & Whitney
report.
4.12 Taylor, E.S., "Eliminating Crankshaft Torsional Vibration in Radial Engines," paper presented
at the Annual Meeting of the Society of Automotive Engineers, January 17, 1936 .
4.13 Crofts, John G., Torsional Vibration Data, report generated for the author in January, 1999.
4.14 McCutcheon, Kimble D., R-2800 "Double Wasp " Crankshaft Development, September 19,
1999.
4.15 Parts Catalog for R-2800-50, -50A, -52W, -54, -99 W and -103W Aircraft Engines, 15
April 1958.
4.16 vonGersdorff, Kyrill; Grasman, Kurt; Schubert, Helmut, Die deutsche Luftfahrt Flugmotoren
und Strahltriebwerke , Bernard & Graefe Bonn, 1995.
9.26 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Models P-61A and B, 30 December
1944.
2.3 Interviews and correspondence with Larry Carlson, 1998-1999.
4.18 Service Manual for Aircraft Engines Models R-2800-30W and -32W, published under the
authority of the Secretary of the Air Force, dated 1January1949.
4.20 Parts Catalog for Aircraft Engines Models R-2800-30W and -32W, published under the
authority of the Secretary of the Air Force, dated 1 January 1949.
4.21 Handbook of Instructions with Parts Catalog for Type CH5 Turbosupercharger, AN 03-
lOD-27, 1 March 1945.
4.22 The Turbosupercharger and the Airplane Power Plant, General Electric, January 1943.
4.23 The 1943 Supercharger Symposium Lecture Book, General Electric River Works, West
Lynn, Mass .
4.24 Waring, Dana B., Estimated Performance of a Doub le-Wasp R-2800-CA Variable Dis-
charge Turbo -Supercharged Engine Using 1001130 Fuel, March 19, 1947, Pratt & Whit-
ney Aircraft Division of United Aircraft Corporation, East Hartford, Conn.

221
Chapter 4

4.25 Internal Pratt & Whitney memo on turbo-compounding a DC-6, dated October 17, 1949 from
R.H. Hoff to Mr. R.L. Coleen.
4.26 Internal Pratt & Whitney report on turbo-compounding a DC-6 dated January 11 , 1950 from
C.B. Brame to Mr. A.H. Marshall .
4.27 Eight pages of handwritten calculations on turbo-compounding and turbosupercharging the
R-2800 located in P&W archives. No date, no author.
4.28 Internal Pratt & Whitney report on turbo-compounding and turbosupercharging the R-2800,
dated December 22, 1949 from R.H. Hoff to Mr. R.L. Coleen.
4.29 Internal Pratt & Whitney report on blowdown turbines, pressure feedback turbines, and com-
paring to CB-16. Located in P&W archives. No date, no author.
4.30 Handwritten meeting minutes dated 9/20/49, R-2800- Compound Studies. In attendance:
P. Hopper*, R.L. Caleen, R. Hoff *Hopper later made significant contributions to the R-4360
VDT
4.31 Internal Pratt & Whitney memo, R-2800 Compound Engine, dated March 13 , 1950, from
R.H. Hoff to Mr. Donald S. Conrad.
4.32 Ten-page handwritten calculations, External R-2800- Aftercooler Waste Gate Control . Located
in P&W archives. No date, no author.
4.33 Four-page handwritten calculations, R-2800 VDT & Compound Study. Located in P&W
archives . No date, no author.
4.34 Two-page handwritten calculations, Detonation Investigation. Located in P&W archives. No
date, no author.
4.35 Five-page handwritten calculations, Cruise (VDT) SFC Check. Located in P&W archives.
No date, no author.
4.36 Bendix-Scintilla Aircraft Magnetos Types DF18RN, DF18LN Service Instructions, February
1943.
3.7 Ricardo, Sir Harry R., The High Speed Internal Combustion Engine, 5th Edition, Blackie
and Son Ltd., London, 1968.
4.37 News article in Saturday Evening Post. Exact date unknown, but during World War II.
3.10 Interviews and correspondence with Frank Walker, former Pratt & Whitney development test
engmeer.
4.38 R-2800 B Turbosupercharged Engines with Water Injection, PWA 01.45 , March 14, 1944.
Revised May 29, 1944.
4.39 Internal Pratt & Whitney memo, Minimum Water Pressure Requirements for Double Wasp
CB Engines . Written by W. Howes, sent to J.F. Madden, March 2, 1955.

222
 Variations

4.40 Untitled P&W report No. PWA.OI.49. Covers equipment and operating procedures with ADI.
4.41 Pratt & Whitney Military R-2800 Series, 5E-8, February 26, 1954.
4.42 Schematic drawing of ADI system residing P&W archives.
4.43 Pratt & Whitney report No. 313, To Investigate the Application of the Sleeve Valve to the
R-2800 Engine.

223
 Chapter 5

Model Types & Specifications

It was only to be expected that when an aircraft engine as successful as the R-2800 entered produc-
tion that many variations on the basic theme would result. Consequently, Pratt & Whitney produced
an almost bewildering array of permutations of the R-2800. This is not surprising considering it
powered every type of military aircraft including transports, multi-engines bombers, Army Air Force
and Navy fighters , helicopters, and even a nuclear bomber! In the civilian market, the diversity was
just as great: twin-engined airliners, four-engined airliners, and even a purpose built fire bomber.
Each one of these applications demanded unique requirements from the engine. It may have been an
optimized propeller reduction ratio for a particular propeller; supercharger ratios optimized for the
altitude a particular type of aircraft would fly at, or multi-stage supercharging for high altitude
operation. Or in the case of the Army Air Force, single-stage, single-speed supercharging optimized
for turbosupercharging. And of course as Pratt & Whitney introduced improvements or a new series
this would demand a new designation. Sometimes the changes in dash number or model type would
be relatively minor such as a different manufacturer for the ignition system or a different drive ratio
for the generator. Other changes could be very significant such as the R-2800-8 and the R-2800-18W.
Both engines powered the F4U Corsair; the -8 powered the -1 Corsair and the - l 8W powered the -4
Corsair. Even though both engines were designed for the same aircraft family and both featured
two-stage supercharging, they differed significantly. The -8 was a "B" series and the -18W was a
"C" series. Additionally, the -8 used clutches for the supercharger drive whereas the -18W used
fluid couplings.

Pratt & Whitney Aircraft (Commercial) Engine Designations

Commercial Pratt & Whitney engines used an alphanumeric designation system. This convention
applies to all Pratt & Whitney piston engines ; it is not just reserved for the R-2800.

225
Chapter 5

Engines are classified according to takeoff horsepower and/or type variations by a letter designation
used in conjunction with the engine trade name. This letter designation indicating engine series is
modified to facilitate spare parts identification and to indicate model variations as follows:

During the year 1940, in order to clarify the identification of engines equipped with various types of
superchargers, the following symbols were adopted:

S for single-stage, single-speed

VS for single-stage, variable speed
2S for single-stage, two-speed
SS for two-stage, two-speed
TS for single-stage, single-speed with turbo
(Ref 5.1)

Example:

TABLE 5-1 DOUBLE WASP "C" SERIES

Series Letter Designation Example

Unmodified Letter designation c
Propeller reduction aearina G C-G
Supercharger-numerical suffix to letter designation :

Single-stage, single-speed 1 through 9 C1-G

Single-stage, two-speed 11 through 19 C11-G
Two-staae, two-speed 21 throuqh 29 C21-G
Variations in major parts Change in numerical suffix C12-G
to letter desianation
Model
(1) Sinale-staQe, sinale-speed ratina. Prefix S SC2-G
(2) Sinale-staae, two-speed ratinq. Prefix 2S 2SC12-G
(3) Two-staae, two-speed ratina . Prefix SS SSC22-G
(4) SinQle-staQe, single-speed ratina with turbosupercharqer. Prefix TS TSC2-G
(5) Variations in ratinas. Prefix modified 2S1C12-G
(6) Propeller Qear ratio. Suffix 2S1C12-G20:9

Complete model designation from example above: Double Wasp 2SC1C12-G20:9

(Ref. 5.1)

Supercharging Designations (model prefix)

Single-stage, variable speed and turbosupercharging: TVS

Single-stage, single-speed: Al through A9

226
 Model Types & Specifications

Single-stage, variable speed: All throughA19

Two-stage, variable speed: A2 l through A29
Multi-stage, variable speed: A3 l through A3 9
(Ref. 5.1)

Propeller Reduction Gearing (model suff1X)

Single rotation, single-speed -G

Single rotation, two-speed -G2
Dual rotation, single-speed -GD
Remote drive -RG, -RG2, etc.

As an example of how these designations would be used for the Double Wasp two-stage engine, the
following examples are outlined.

Single rotation, single-speed Double Wasp SSC22-G

Single rotation, two-speed Double Wasp SSC22-G2
Dual rotation, single-speed Double Wasp SSC22-GD
Remote drives (extension shafts) Double Wasp SSC22-RG
(Ref. 5.1)

Sample Designations:

Series Al-G

Model Wasp TSAJ-G

TS TS-Single-stage, single-speed and turbosupercharging
Al-G-A (2800 horsepower) power section with: single-stage, single-speed supercharger, single
rotation, single-speed reduction gearing.

The U.S . Army and Navy employed a numerical suffix, added to the military type designation (e.g.,
R-2800-43, etc .) to identify the complete engine model in accordance with the applicable model
specification as amended by contract change orders.

Up to 1940 the Army and Navy adhered strictly to the rule of using odd dash numbers for the Army
and even for the Navy. However, this policy was not always strictly adhered to . In the interests of
standardization, wherever an identical engine was used by both the Army and the Navy, the same
dash number was used. As an example the R-2800-10 initially procured by the Navy for the F6F
Hellcat and later used by the USAAF for the Northrop P-61 Black Widow.

The designation of an engine was changed whenever an engine modification was made which affected
either performance or installation in an airplane, or other modifications which required identification.

227
Chapter 5

Pratt & Whitney Aircraft designations identified (i) the engine series and (ii) the performance char-
acteristics of the particular model as defined above, and were applied for that purpose to develop-
ment or stock engines . Thus for individual customers, e.g., the U.S . Navy or USAAF, requirements
defined the equipment schedules covering such items as reduction gear ratio, supercharger param-
eters, accessory equipment, etc.

Pratt & Whitney Aircraft designations were also used to facilitate the identification of military des-
ignated engines (e.g., R-2800-43 is 2SB-G2: 1), and in such cases, the specifications applicable to
the military dash numbers defined the equipment schedules.

Pratt & Whitney Specification Forms

Note: the following specification forms were never used on the R-2800 but are included here for
reference purposes to identify Pratt & Whitney engines that did. An example would be the R-1340
AN-1.

Prefix Indicating Example

PW Standard Commercial (PW) form PW-100

A- AN form - Coordination with Army A-100
N- AN form - Coordination with Navy N-100
AN- AN form - Joint coordination with Army & Navy AN-100
N one Army form prior to AN specifications (1939) 100
(Ref. 5.1)

Horsepower Ratings

Horsepower ratings quoted in the following tables are from Pratt & Whitney sources. However, it
may be noticed that some of the military ratings appear to be low compared to previously published
figures. As an example, R-2800s powering P-47 Thunderbolts are often quoted as developing 2800
horsepower. This may have been true; however, to generate this much power, the recommended
manifold pressure is exceeded. And in the heat of combat it can be safely assumed that this is what
occurred. For engines with automatic boost controls, it was not unusual for crew chiefs to "tweak"
its adjustment to allow greater than recommended manifold pressure. This would obviously allow
the engine to generate considerably more power at the cost of reliability, exceeding safe limits on
cylinder head temperatures and oil temperature and shortening time between overhaul. Although
the R-2800 could be tolerant of excessive manifold pressure, provided severe detonation was avoided,
the same could not be said for over speeding. If the engine was spun up to 3000 rpm or greater,
immediate master rod bearing distress would result.

228
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP

Engine Model Double Wasp SA-G Double Wasp S1 A2-G Double Wasp A4-G
Specification Number PW-8000 PW-8001 8034
Enqine Series "A" Series "A" Series "A" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 1800 @ 2600 rpm 1800 @ 2600 rpm 1850 @ 2600 rpm
Rating : Military* 1850 @ 2600 rpm @ 2700 ft
1500@ 2600 rpm@ 14,000 ft
Rating : Normal 1500 @ 2400 rpm @ 7500 ft 1500 @ 2400 rpm @ 3800 ft 1500 @ 2400 rpm @ 7500 ft
1500 @ 2400 rpm @ 10,000 ft 1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft
1500 @ 2400 rpm @ 15,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 100 Octane 100 Octane
CuNes T-352 T-332 T-577
Weight, Dry 21521bs 23751bs 23001bs,23001bs, 22801bs
Prop. Reduction Ratio 2:1 2:1 .400:1, .500:1, .5625:1
Spline SAE50 SAE 50 SAE 50
Compression Ratio 6.66:1 6.7:1
Blower Ratio(s)
Carburetor Stromberg Stromberg Bendix/Strombera PT-13F1
Maqnetos Scintilla Scintilla DF-3
Installation Drwq. number R-28851 R-28293 R-38781
Dimensions Diameter: 52.00 in. Diameter: 52.00 in. Diameter: 52.00 in .
Length: 59.14 in . Length: 94.47 in. Lenqth: 75.56 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 0 0 0
Aoolications
Notes None manufactured. None manufactured. None manufactured.
*Refer to Table 5-4 CROSS REFERENCE OF CIVILIAN DOUBLE WASP AND MILITARY R-2800 MODELS (p. 293) .
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Enciine Model Double Wasp S1 A4-G Double Wasp S1 A4-G Double Wasp S1A4-G
Specification Number PW-8032A PW-8032A PW-8032A
Enaine Series "A" Series "A" Series "A" Series
Ratina: Takeoff 1850 @ 2600 rpm 1850 @ 2600 rpm 1850 @ 2600 rpm
Ratinq : Military
Rating: Normal 1850 @ 2600 rpm @ 2700 ft 1850 @ 2600 rpm @ 2700 ft 1850 @ 2600 rpm @ 2700 ft
1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 13,000 ft 1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 13,000 ft 1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 13,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 100 Octane 100 Octane
Curves T-525 T-525 T-525
T-687 T-687 T-687
N Weiaht, Orv 23001bs 2280 lbs 2300lbs
w
0 Prop. Reduction Ratio 5:2 16:9 2:1
Spline SAE 50 SAE50 SAE 50
Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.65:1 6.65:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.6:1 and 9.45: 1 7.6:1 and 9.45:1 7.6:1 and 9.45:1
Carburetor Bendix/Strombera PT-13F1 -4 Bendix/Strombera PT-13F1 -11 Bendix/Stromberq PT-13F1 -4
Maanetos DF18RN DF18RN DF18RN
Installation Drwa. Number R-38781 R-38781 R-38781
Dimensions Diameter: 52.50 in . Diameter: 52.50 in . Diameter: 52.50 in .
Lenqth: 75.72 in. Lenath : 75.72 in. Lenath: 75.72 in .
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 1239
Aoolications Vickers Warwick I Vickers Warwick I
Notes
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Engine Model Double Wasp S2A4-G Double Wasp A5-G Double Wasp SSA5-G
Specification Number PW-8033A PW-8020 PW-8045
Engine Series "A" Series "A" Series "A" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 1620 @ 2600 rpm 1850 @ 2600 rpm 1850 @ 2600 rpm
Rating: Military 1625 @ 2600 rpm @ 6500 ft 1850 @ 2600 rpm @ 1000 ft 1850 @ 2600 rpm @ 1000 ft
1250 @ 2600 rpm@ 16,800 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 12,500 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 12,500 ft
1600 @ 2600 rpm @ 21 ,000 ft 1600@ 2600 rpm @ 21,000 ft
Rating : Normal 1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 8500 ft 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 3500 ft 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 3500 ft
1200 @ 2400 rpm @ 1600 ft 1540 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,500 ft 1540 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,500 ft
1460 @ 2400 rpm @ 21 ,500 ft 1460 @ 2400 rpm @ 21 ,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 90 Octane 100 Octane 100 Octane
Curves T-524 T-490 T-643
T-687
N Weiqht, Dry
w 23001bs 2445 1bs 2445 1bs
...... Prop. Reduction Ratio .400:1, .500:1, .5625:1 5:2, 2:1 , 16:9 5:2, 2:1, 16:9
Spline SAE 50 SAE 50 SAE 50
Compression Ratio 6.7:1 6.7:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.6:1 and 9.45:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PT-13F1 Bendix/Stromberg PT-13 Bendix/Stromberg PT-13F1
downdraft, PT-13D2 updraft
Maqnetos DF3 DF18RN DF3
Installation Drwq. Number R-38781 R-39468 R-39468
Dimensions Diameter: 52.25 in . Diameter: 52 .00 in. Diameter: 52.25 in.
Lenr:ith: 75.56 in. LenQth: 88 .52 in. Length: 88.31 in.
A.T.C .
Number Manufactured
Applications
Notes .400:1 available with reverse rotation None manufactured. 5:2 prop ratio available with
at 40 lb weight increase. reverse rotation at 40 lb weight
None manufactured. increase.
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Engine Model Double Wasp S1A6-G Double Wasp S2A6-G Double Wasp 528-G
Specification Number PW-8030 PW-8031A PW-8057
Enaine Series "A" Series "A" Series "B" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 1850 @ 2600 rpm 1625 @ 2600 rom 2000 @ 2700 rpm
Rating : Military 1850 @ 2600 rpm @ 2700 ft 1625 @ 2600 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft
1600 @ 2700 rpm @ 13,500 ft
Rating: Normal 1850 @ 2600 rpm @ 2700 ft 1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 8500 ft 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft
1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 90 Octane 125 PN
Curves T-555 T-554 T-727

Weight, Dry 22651bs 22651bs 2300 lbs (5:2 prop ratio)

N 2280 lbs (16:9 prop ratio)
w
N
Proo. Reduction Ratio 2:1 5:1, 2:1 or 16:9 5:2, 2:1 or 16:9
Spline SAE 50 SAE50 SAE 50
Compression Ratio 6.7:1 6.7:1 6.65:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.60:1 and 9.89:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberq PT-13F1 Bendix/Strombera PT13F1 Bendix/Stromberq PT13G 1
Maanetos DF18RN DF3 DF18LN
Installation Drwq. Number R-41813 R-41813 R-49696
Dimensions Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 52.25 in. Diameter: 52.50 in.
Lenath: 75.72 in. Lenath: 75.56 in. Lenqth: 75.72 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured
Aoolications
Notes None manufactured. 5:2 prop ratio available with reverse None manufactured.
rotation at 40 lb increase in weight.
None manufactured.
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Engine Model Double Wasp 2SB-G Double Wasp TSB1-G Double Wasp 2SB3-G
Specification Number 8063 8054 8097
Enqine Series "B" Series "B" Series "B" Series
Rating: Takeoff 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2000 @ 2800 rpm
Rating: Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2000 @ 2800 rpm @ 2000 ft
1600 @ 2700 rpm @ 13,500 ft 1600 @ 2800 rom @ 16,000 ft
Rating: Normal 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 6500 ft 1675 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft
1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft 1450 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN 100/130 PN 100/130 PN
Curves T-727 T-699 T-906
Installation drwq ; 1684
N
w Weight, Dry 2290 lbs (5:2 prop ratio) 2260 lbs {2:1 prop ratio) 22001bs
w
2270 lbs (16:9 prop ratio) 2240 lbs (16:9 prop ratio)
Prop. Reduction Ratio 5:2or16:9 2:1 or16:9 .450:1
Spline SAE50 SAE50 SAE50
Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.65:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.60:1 and 9.89:1 7.60:1 7.29: 1 and 9.45:1
Carburetor Optional Optional Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E
Maqnetos Optional Optional DF18LN or DF18LU
Installation Drwq . Number R-49696
Dimensions Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 52.50 in.
Length: 75.72 in. Length: 75.72 in.
A.T.C .
Number Manufactured
Applications
Notes None manufactured . None manufactured . Similar to 2SB-G except light
cases . None manufactured.
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Enqine Model Double Wasp SSB2-G Double Wasp SSB2-G Double Wasp 2SC-G
Specification Number PW-8090 8070 PW-8055
Engine Series "B" Series "B" Series "C" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2000 @ 2800 rpm @ 2700 ft
Rating: Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1000 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1000 ft
1800 @ 2700 rpm @ 15,500 ft 1800 @ 2700 rpm @ 15,500 ft
1650 @ 2700 rpm @ 22,500 ft 1650 @ 2700 rpm @ 22,500 ft
Rating: Normal 1675 @ 2550 rpm @ 5500 ft 1675 @ 2550 rpm @ 5500 ft 1700 @ 2550 rpm @ 5000 ft
1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 17 ,000 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 17,000 ft 1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft
1550 @ 2550 rpm @ 21,500 ft 1550 @ 2550 rpm @ 21,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 125 PN 100/ 130 PN 100 Octane
Curves T-766 T-766 T712C
Weight, Dry 24801bs 24801bs 23101bs
2460 lbs for 16:9 prop ratio
Prop. Reduction Ratio 5:2, 2:1 or 16:9 2:1 5:2
Spline SAE 50 SAE 50 SAE 50
Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.65:1 6.7:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.80:1 , 6.46:1 and 7.93:1 7.8:1, 6.46:1, and 7.93:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberq PT-13G4 Optional Bendix/Stromberg PT-13F1
Maanetos DF18RN Optional DF3
Installation Drwq. Number R-49692 R-52017
Dimensions Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 52.44 in.
Lenath: 88.47 in. Lenqth: 88.47 in. Lenath: 76.25 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured
Applications
Notes None manufactured. None manufactured. None manufactured.
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Engine Model Double Wasp TSC2-G Double Wasp 2SC13-G Double Wasp 2SC14-G
Specification Number PW-8086 8084 8101
Enqine Series "C" Series "C" Series "C" Series
Ratinq : Takeoff 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rpm
Rating: Military 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 1000 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft
1600 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft 1700 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft
Rating : Normal 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 8500 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1700 @ 2550 rpm @ 5000 ft
1450 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,500 ft 1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN 100/130 PN 100/130 PN
Curves T-841 T-839 T-953
Inst. 1714 Inst. 1693
Weight, Dry 2320 lbs (.350:1 prop ratio) 2355 lbs (.350:1 prop ratio) 2364 lbs (.350:1 prop ratio)
2315 lbs (.450:9 prop ratio) 2350 lbs (.450:1 prop ratio) 2359 lbs (.450:1 prop ratio)
2322 lbs (.5625:1 prop ratio) 2322 lbs (.5625:1 prop ratio) 2366 lbs (.5625:1 prop ratio)
Prop. Reduction Ratio .350:1, .450:1 or .5625:1 .350:1 , .450:1 or .5625:1 .350:1, .450:1 or .5625:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 7.29:1 and 9.45:1 7.29:1 and 9.45:1
Carburetor Optional Optional Optional
Maqnetos Optional Optional Optional
Installation Drwq. Number 93601 51664 93601
Dimensions Diameter: 52.44 in. Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in.
Lenqth: 76.25 in . Lenqth: 78.39 in. Lenqth : 78.39 in.
A.T.C . 231
Number Manufactured 2
Aoolications Convair Model 11 O*
Notes None manufactured. *Experimental transport known as None manufactured.
"Flying Laboratory." Prototype for
Convair Model 240.
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Engine Model Double Wasp 2SC14W-G Double Wasp 2SC15-G Double Wasp 2SC15-G
Specification Number 8103 8105 8105 Appendix A
Enqine Series "C" Series "C" Series "C" Series
Rating: Takeoff 2100 @ 2800 rpm (dry) 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft
2400 @ 2800 rpm (wet) 1700@ 2800 rpm@ 10,000-16,000 ft 1700 @ 2800 rpm @ 10,000-16,000 ft
2400 @ 2800 rpm wet
Rating: Military 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft
1700 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft 1700@ 2800 rpm@ 17,500 ft
Rating: Normal 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 8500 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7300 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7300 ft
1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,500 ft 1500@ 2600 rpm@ 17,500 ft 1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 17,500 ft
1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6000 ft (stand-by) 1800@ 2600 rpm @ 6000 ft (stand-by)
1600 @ 2600 rpm @ 16,000 ft (stand-by) 1600 @ 2600 rom @ 16,000 ft (stand-by)
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN 100/130 PN 100/130PN
Curves T-953 T-964 T-964
Weight, Dry 2364 lbs (.350:1 prop ratio) 2355 lbs (.350:1 prop ratio) 2355 lbs (.350:1 prop ratio)
2359 lbs (.450:1 prop ratio) 2350 lbs (.450:1 prop ratio) 2350 lbs (.450:1 prop ratio)
2366 lbs (.5625:1 proo ratio) 2357 lbs 1.5625:1 oroo ratio) 2357 lbs 1.5625:1 oroo ratio)
Prop. Reduction Ratio .350:1 .450:1 or .5625:1 .350:1 , .450:1 or .5625:1 .350:1 , .450:1 or .5625:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 and 9.45:1 7.29:1 and 9.45:1 7.29:1 and 9.45:1
Carburetor Ootional Ootional Ootional
Maqnetos Optional Ootional Optional
Installation Drwq. Number 51664 93601 93601
Dimensions Diameter: 52.80 in . Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in.
Lenoth: 78.39 in . Lenoth: 78 .39 in. Lenqth: 78.39 in.
A.T.C. (231) for 2400 hp ratinq only (231) for 2400 hp ratinq only
Number Manufactured
Aoolications
Notes None manufactured. None manufactured. Spec. 8105 None manufactured. For airplane placarding .
Appendix A applied when water injection Spec. 8105 applied when water injection
eauioment was not incoroorated. eauioment was incorporated.
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Enaine Model Double Wasp SSC22-G Double Wasp CA3 (Fig. 5.1) Double Wasp CA5
Soecification Number 8085 8111 8116
Enaine Series "C" Series "CA" Series "CA" Series
Rating : Takeoff 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft (dry) 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 600 ft (dry)
2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 1000 ft 2400 @ 2800 rpm ( wet) 2400 @ 2800 rpm (wet)
Rating: Military 1900 @ 2800 rpm @ 14,000 ft
1800 @ 2800 rpm @ 23,000 ft
Rating: Normal 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft
1630 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,000 ft
1550 @ 2600 rpm @ 26,000 ft
Max. Continuous 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6000 ft 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6500 ft
1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 4000 ft 1900 @ 2600 rom @ 4500 ft
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN 100/130 PN 115/145 PN
Curves T-840 T-995 T-1003
Inst. 1716 Inst. 1747 Inst. 1749
Weight, Dry 2565 lbs (.350: 1 prop ratio) 23221bs 2322 lbs (.350:1 prop ratio)
2560 lbs (.450:1 prop ratio) 23171bs 2317 lbs (.450:1 prop ratio)
2567 lbs (.5625:1 prop ratio)
Proo. Reduction Ratio .350:1 .450: 1 or .5625:1 .450:1 .350:1 or, .450:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A SAE 60A
Comoression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.50 :1, 6.3:1 and 7.8:1 7.29 :1 7.29:1
Carburetor Optional Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E5-? Bendix/Strombera PR-58E5-?
Maanetos Ootional DLN-10 DLN-10
Installation Drwq. Number 76442 95301 95301
Dimensions Diameter: 52 .80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in.
Lenath: 94.03 in. Length: 78.39 in. Lenath: 78.39 in .
A.T.C. 231
Number Manufactured 64
Aoolications Martin 240 (North West Airlines)
Notes None manufactured. Structurally identical to CA3 . Sold
as CA5 but redesignated by Navy
to -46W.
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Engine Model Double Wasp CA 15 (Fig. 5.2) Double Wasp CA15A* Double Wasp CA 17
Specification Number 8112 8112 (Aooendix D) 8117
Enqine Series "CA" Series "CA" Series "CA" Series
Rating : Takeoff 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft 2100@ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 600 ft (dry)
2400 @ 2800 rpm (wet) 2400@ 2800 rpm (wet) 2400 @ 2800 rpm (wet)
1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 10,000 ft (wet)
Ratinq: Military
Rating : Normal 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6000 ft 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6000 ft 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6500 ft
1600 @ 2600 rpm @ 16,000 ft 1600 @ 2600 rpm @ 16,000 ft 1600 @ 2600 rpm @ 16,000 ft
Max. Continuous 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 4000 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 4000 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 4500 ft
1600 @ 2600 rpm @ 16,000 ft 1600 @ 2600 rom @ 16,000 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 14,500 ft
Cruise
Fuel Grad e 100/130 PN 100/130 PN 115/ 145 PN
Curves T-996 T-996 T-1 004
Inst. 1745 Inst. 1745 Inst. 1748
Weight, Dry 2355 lbs (.350: 1 prop ratio) 23501bs 2355 lbs (.350:1 prop ratio)
2350 lbs (.450: 1 prop ratio) 2350 lbs (.450: 1 prop ratio)
N
w Prop. Reduction Ratio .350:1 or .450:1 .450:1 .350:1 or, .450:1
00
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 and 9.45:1 7.29:1 and 9.45:1 7.29:1 and 9.45:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E5 Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E5 Bendix/Stromberg PR-58 E5-6
Bend ix/Stromberq PR-58E5 -8 , -9** Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E5 -8, -9
Maqnetos DLN-10 DLN-10 DLN-10
Installation Drwq. Number 95301 95301 95301
Dimensions Diameter: 52.60 in . Diameter: 52.60 in. Diameter: 52.80 in.
Lenath: 78.39 in. Lenath : 78.39 in . Lenqth: 78.39 in.
Number Manufactured 516 159 2
A.T.C. 231 231 231
Applications Convair Model 110 Douglas DC-6 Convair 11 O*
**Convair Model 240
Douglas DC-6A *
Canadair C-5**
Martin Mercury 202
Notes *Converted to CB 16. *Supercharger counterweights *CA 17s converted to CA 15s.
**Canadian built DC-4 powered by R- incorporated to eliminate propeller Structurally identical to CA 15 except
2800s. vibration . for carburetor settinq.
 Model Types & Specifications

Fig. 5. I CA3 rated at 2400 hp at

2800 rpm. This relatively simple
single-stage, single-speed engine is
still popular with commercial
operators. (Courtesy ofPratt &
Whitney.)

Fig. 5.2 CAI5, still used in com-

mercial operations. Note the water
regulator on the side of the blower
housing. The CAI 5 is similar to
CAI 8 except for high tension
ignition fitted to CAI 5. (Courtesy
of Pratt & Whitney.)

239
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Engine Model Double Wasp CA18 (Fig. 5.3) Double Wasp CA18A* Double Wasp CA19
Specification Number 8124 8124 IAnnendix A\ 8125
Enqine Series "CA" Series "CA" Series "CA" Series
Rating: Takeoff 2400 @ 2800 rpm (wet) 2400 @ 2800 rpm (wet) 2400 @ 2800 rpm (wet)
2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft (dry) 2100@ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft (dry) 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 600 ft (dry)
1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 10,000 ft !wet\ 2100 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft lwetl
Ratinq: Military
Rating: Normal 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6000 ft 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6000 ft 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6500 ft
1600 @ 2600 rpm @ 14,500 ft 1600 @ 2600 rnm @ 14,500 ft 1600@ 2600 rom@ 14,500 ft
Max. Continuous 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 4000 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 4000 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 4500 ft
1600 @ 2600 rom @ 13,500 ft 1600@ 2600 rom@ 13,500 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 11,500 ft
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/ 130 PN 100/130 PN 115/145 PN
Curves T-1016 T-1016 T-1017
Inst. 7277 Inst. 7277 Inst. 7322
Weight, Dry 2355 lbs (.350:1 prop ratio) 2350 lbs (.450:1 prop ratio) 2355 lbs (.350:1 prop ratio)
2350 lbs !.450:1 oroo ratio\ 2350 lbs (.450:1 prop ratio)
Prop. Reduction Ratio .350:1 or .450:1 .450:1 .350:1 or, .450:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 and 9.1 :1 7.29:1and9.1:1 7.29:1and9.1:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E5-4 Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E5-8 Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E5
Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E5 -8 *
Maqnetos DLN-10 DLN-10 DLN-10
Installation Drwo. Number 95301 95301 95301
Dimensions Diameter: 52.60 in . Diameter: 52.60 in. Diameter: 52.80 in.
Lenqth: 78.39 in. Lenath: 78.39 in. Lenath: 78.40 in.
A.T.C. 231 231 231
Number Manufactured 598
Applications Aero Sud Quest Douglas DC-6
S0-30-P "Bretagne"
Breguet BR-763 "Deux Pants"
Convair Model XT 29**
Convair Model 240
Douglas DC-6*
Martin Mercurv 202
Notes **CA 18 redesignated -97. Structurally *Supercharger counterweights Structurally similar to CA 18 except for
similar to CA 15 except for high gear incorporated to eliminate propeller carburetor setting. None
blower ratio. vibration. manufactured.
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Engine Model Double Wasp CB1 Double Wasp CB2 Double Wasp CB3
Specification Number 8133 8136 6140
Engine Series "CB" Series "CB" Series "CB" Series
Rating: Takeoff 2400 @ 2800 rpm @ 4000 ft (wet) 2500 @ 2800 rpm @ 2500 ft (wet) 2400 @ 2800 rpm @ 400 ft (wet)
2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 3500 ft (dry) 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 3500 ft {dry) 2050 @ 2700 rpm {dry)
1950 @ 2800 rpm @ 8000 ft (dry) (alt)
Ratina: Militarv
Ratinq: Normal 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @7600 ft 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6500 ft
Max. Continuous 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 8500 ft
Cruise
Fuel Grade 115/145PN 115/145PN 100/130 PN
Curves T-1083 T-1086 T-1126
Inst. 14829 Inst. 14829
Weiqht, Drv 2357 lbs* 2357 lbs* 2357 lbs*
Prop. Reduction Ratio .450: 1 or .4375: 1 .450:1 .450:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 7.29:1 7.29:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E5 Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E5 Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E5-4
Maqnetos DLN-10 L.T. DLN-10 L.T. DLN-10 L.T.
Installation Drwa . Number 136701 136701 136701
Dimensions Diameter: 52 .80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in . Diameter: 52.80 in.
Length: 81 .40 in. Length: 81.40 in. Lenath: 81.40 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 1 193
Applications Hamilton Standard test Martin 404 (Eastern Airlines)
Aero-Nord Model 2501 Convair 240 (North West Airlines)
Notes Similar to CA except 3 inches longer Similar to CA except 3 inches Similar to CB16 except single speed
due to large supercharger impel ler. longer due to large supercharger blower.
*Includes torque meter. impeller. *Includes torquemeter.
Additional weight: *Includes torquemeter. Additional weight:
Water regulator: 13 lbs Additional weight: Water regulator: 13 lbs
Fireseal diaphragm: 3 lbs. Water regulator: 13 lbs Fireseal diaphragm: 3 lbs.
None manufactured. Fireseal diaphraqm: 3 lbs.
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Engine Model Double Wasp CB4 Double Wasp CBS Double Wasp CB11
Specification Number 6141 8144 8131
Engine Series "CB" Series "CB" Series "CB" Series
Rating: Takeoff 2500 @ 2800 rpm @ 2500 ft (wet) 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 2400 @ 2700 rpm @ 4000 ft (wet)
2200 @ 2800 rpm @ 4500 ft (dry) 1900 @ 2700 rpm @ 10,000 ft (dry)
Rating: Military
Rating: Normal 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6500 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @7000 ft 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 10,500 ft
1700 @ 2400 rpm @ 15,000 ft
Max. Continuous 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 10,500 ft
1700 @ 2400 rpm @ 15,000 ft
Cruise
Fuel Grade 108/135 PN 115/145 PN 100/130 PN
Curves T-1127 T-1149 T-1076
Weight, Dry 2357 lbs* 23201bs 23901bs
Prop. Reduction Ratio .450:1 Direct drive .450:1 or .350:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29 :1 7.29:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E5 Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E5 Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E5
Magnetos DLN-10 L.T. DLN-10 L.T. DF-18LN
Installation Drwq. Number 136701 172301
Dimensions Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in . Diameter: 52.80 in.
Length: 81.40 in. Length: 81.40 in. Lenqth: 81.40 in.
A.T.C. 264 Militarv
Number Manufactured
Aoolications
Notes Similar to CB17 except single speed Similar to CB2 except direct drive This engine designation canceled
*Includes torquemeter. and ratings. Designed for no more and spec. No. used for CB13. None
Additional weight: than 20 degrees tilt from horizontal. manufactured.
Water regulator: 13 lbs None manufactured.
Fireseal diaphragm: 3 lbs.
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Enqine Model Double Wasp CB12 Double Wasp CB13 Double Wasp CB14
Specification Number 8130 8131 8136
Enqine Series "CB" Series "CB" Series "CB" Series
Rating : Takeoff 2400 @ 2800 rpm @ 4000 ft (wet) 2400 @ 2800 rpm @ 4000 ft (wet) 2500 @ 2800 rpm @ 2500 ft (wet)
2050 @ 2700 rpm @ 6000 ft (dry) 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 3500 ft (dry) 2300 @ 2700 rpm @ 3000 ft (dry)
Rating: Military 2500 @ 2800 rpm @ 2500 ft (wet)
2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 3500 ft (dry)
1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,000 ft (dry)
Rating : Normal 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 8500 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @7000 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft
1700 @ 2400 rpm @ 16,000 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,000 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,000 ft
Max. Continuous 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 8500 ft
1700 @ 2400 rpm @ 14,500 ft
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN 115/145PN 115/145 PN
Curves T-1075 T-1076 T-1087
Weiaht, Dry 2390 lbs* 2390 lbs* 2390 lbs*
Prop . Reduction Ratio .4375:1 or .450:1 .450:1 or .4375:1 .450:1 or .4375:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75 :1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1and9.1:1 7.29:1 and 9.1 :1 7.29 :1and9.1:1
Carburetor Bendix/Strombera PR-58E5 Bendix/Strombera PR-58E5 Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E5
Maanetos DLN-10 DLN -10 DLN-10
Installation Drwa . Number 136701 136701 136701
Dimensions Diameter: 52 .80 in. Diameter: 52 .80 in . Diameter: 52.80 in .
Lenqth : 81.40 in . Lenqth : 81.40 in. Lenqth : 81.40 in .
A.T.C. Military
Number Manufactured 2
Aoolications Chase XC-123
Notes Similar to CA except 3 inches longer Similar to CA except 3 inches longer Similar to CA except 3 inches longer
due to larger supercharger impeller. due to larger supercharger impeller. due to better supercharging.
*Includes torquemeter. *Includes torquemeter. *Includes torquemeter.
Additional weight: Additional weight: Additional weight:
Water regulator: 13 lbs Water regulator: 13 lbs Water regulator: 13 lbs
Fireseal diaphragm: 3 lbs. Fireseal diaphragm: 3 lbs. Fireseal diaphragm: 3 lbs.
None manufactured. None manufactured.
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Engine Model Double Wasp CB15 Double Wasp CB16 (Fig. 5.4) Double Wasp CB17
Specification Number 8137 8138 8139
Enaine Series "CB" Series "CB" Series "CB" Series
Rating: Takeoff 2500 @ 2800 rpm @ 2500 ft (wet) 2500 @ 2800 rpm @ 4000 ft (wet)(L) 2500 @ 2800 rpm @ 2500 ft (wet)(L)
2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 3500 ft (dry) 2050 @ 2800 rpm @ 6000 ft (dry)(L) 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 13,000 ft (wet)(H)
2200 @ 2800 rpm @ 4500 ft (drv)(Ll
Rating: Military 2500 @ 2800 rpm @ 2500 ft (wet) 1950 @ 2800 rpm @ 8000 ft (dry)( alt.)
2300 @ 2800 rom @ 3500 ft (drv) 1850 @ 2600 rom @ 13,500 ft (wet)(H)
Rating: Normal 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 8500 ft 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 8500 ft
1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 14,500 ft 1600 @ 2600 rom @ 16,000 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 14,500 ft
Max. Continuous 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 8500 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft
1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 14,500 ft 1750 @ 2600 rpm @ 13,500 ft
Cruise
Fuel Grade 115/145 PN 100/130 PN 108/135 PN
Curves T-1114 T-1115 T-1116
Inst. 14817 Inst. 16459
Weiaht, Drv 2390 lbs* 2390 lbs* 23901bs*
Prop. Reduction Ratio .450:1 .450:1 .450:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 and 8.56:1 7.29:1 and 8.58:1 7.29:1 and 8.56:1
Carburetor Bendix/Strombera PR-58E5 Bendix/Strombera PR-58E5 Bendix/Strombera PR-58E5
Maanetos DLN-10 DLN-10 DLN-10
Installation Drwa . Number 136701 136701 136701
Dimensions Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52 .80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in.
Length: 81.40 in. Lenath : 81.40 in . Lenath : 81.40 in .
A.T.C . Military 264
Number Manufactured 1568 1675
Applications Breguet BR-765 Douglas (on mark) A-26 Aero-Nord Model 2503
Canadair CL-215 Douglas DC-6A** Convair440
Convair C-131-D Douglas DC-6B Douglas DC-6A
Convair R4Y-1Z Howard 500 Douglas DC-6B
Convair 340A, B Martin 202A, 404
Convair 440 Martin B-26C
Notes Similar to CB14 except lower high Similar to CB12 except increase in normal Similar to CB13 except ratings and high
blower ratio and rating . and max. cont. rpm's and high blower ratio. blower ratio.
*Includes torquemeter. *Includes torquemeter. *Includes torquemeter.
Additional weight: Additional weight: Additional weight:
Water regulator: 13 lbs Water regulator: 13 lbs Water regulator: 13 lbs
Fireseal diaphragm: 3 lbs. Fireseal diaphragm: 3 lbs. Fireseal diaphragm: 3 lbs.
None manufactured . **Oriainal CB16 was converted CA 15.
 J\!fodel Types & Specifications

Fig. 5. 3 CAJ 8, similar to a

CA3 except for low tension
ignition and two-speed
blower. (Courtesy of Pratt
& Whitney.)

Fig. 5. 4 CBJ 6, one of the more popular R-2800s being operated today. Featuring low tension
ignition (note ignition coils on each cylinder head) and two-speed blower, it is rated at 2400 hp at
2800 rpm in low blower, wet at sea level. Its popularity has even spilled over into restored
warbirds. This is too bad because CBJ 6s were never installed in the military aircraft now being
restored and powered by this engine. Aircraft such as P-47s and F4Us are now sporting CBJ 6s,
which is okay for a sport aircraft but not for one being passed off as a "genuine " World War II
aircraft restoration. (Courtesy ofPratt & Whitney.)

245
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Enaine Model Double Wasp CB18 Double Wasp CE4 Double Wasp CE16**
Specification Number 8142 8113 8114
Enaine Series "CB" Series "CE" Series "CB" Series
Rating : Takeoff 2500 @ 2800 rpm @ 2500 ft (wet) 2300 @ 2800 rpm 2300 @ 2800 rpm
2300 @ 2800 rom @ 3500 ft (drv)
Rating : Military 2400 @ 2800 rpm (wet) 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 600 ft
2300@ 2800 rpm@ 600 ft (drv) 1800 @ 2800 rom @ 14,500 ft
Rating: Normal 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6500 ft 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6500 ft
1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 14,500 ft 1600 @ 2600 mm @ 16,000 ft
Max. Continuous 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft
1800 @ 2600 rom @ 13,000 ft
Cruise
Fuel Grade 115/ 145 PN 115/145 PN 115/145 PN
Curves T-1129 T-997 T-999
Inst. 1746
Weight, Dry 23901bs 2335 lbs* (.350: 1 prop ratio) 2365 lbs* (.350: 1 prop ratio)
2330 lbs* (.450 :1 prop ratio) 2360 lbs* ( .450: 1 prop ratio)
Proo. Reduction Ratio .450:1 .350:1 or .450:1 .350: 1 or .450:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE60A SAE 60A
Comoression Ratio 6.75 :1 6.75 :1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 and 8.58:1 7.29:1and9.1: 1 7.29:1 and 9.45 :1
Carburetor Bendix/Strombera PR-58E5 Bendix/StromberQ PR-58E5-5 Bendix/Strombera PR-58E5-5
Maanetos DLN-10 DF-18LN DF-18LN
Installation Drwa . Number 136701 95301 95301
Dimensions Diameter: 52.80 in . Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in .
Lenath: 81.40 in . Lenath: 78.39 in . Lenath: 78 .39 in .
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured
Aoolications
Notes Similar to CB17 except ratings, fuel *Includes torquemeter. *Includes torquemeter.
and 1100 max. Cruise hi gear. None manufactured. ** Was originally CA 16 but changed
None manufactured. *Includes torquemeter. to CE because of E rear section.
Additional weight: None manufactured.
Water regulator: 13 lbs
Fireseal diaphragm: 3 lbs.
None manufactured.
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

Engine Model Double Wasp CE21 Double Wasp VSE11-G Double Wasp VSSE21-G
Specification Number 8115 8106 8107
Engine Series "CE" Series "E" Series "E" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 2300 @ 2800 rpm 2200 @ 2800 rpm 2250 @ 2800 rpm
Rating : Military 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 1000 ft 2200 @ 2800 rpm 2250 @ 2800 rpm
2000 @ 2800 rpm @ 17,500 ft 1600 @ 2800 rpm @ 22 ,000 ft 1800 @ 2800 rpm @ 30,000 ft
1850 @ 2800 rpm @ 24,000 ft
Rating : Normal 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 5500 ft 1720 @ 2600 rpm 1900 @ 2600 rpm
1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 19,000 ft 1450 @ 2600 rpm @ 22 ,000 ft 1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 30 ,000 ft
1600 @ 2600 rpm @ 25,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 115/145 PN 115/145PN 115/145 PN
Curves T-1000 T-981 T-982
Weight, Dry 2548 lbs* (.350:1 prop ratio) 25151bs 26501bs
2543 lbs* (.450 :1 prop ratio)
Proo. Reduction Ratio .350:1 or .450:1 .450:1 .450:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.5:1, 6.3:1, and 7.8: 1 6.97:1 and 11.06:1 6.70:1 and 9.65:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E5-5 Chandler Evans CE-64CPC-8 Chandler Evans CE-64PC-8
Magnetos DF-18LNLU-4 Optional Optional
Installation Drwq. Number 97701 96801 96901
Dimensions Diameter: 52 .80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52 .80 in .
Length : 94.03 in . Lenqth : 92 .71 in . Lenqth : 98.03 in .
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured
Applications
Notes *Includes torquemeter. None manufactured. None manufactured .
None manufactured .
 TABLE 5-2 CIVILIAN VERSIONS OF THE DOUBLE WASP (Continued)

EnQine Model Double Wasp E12 Double Wasp E22

Specification Number 8120 8121
Enaine Series "E" Series "E" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 2250 @ 2800 rpm @ S.L. 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ S.L.
Rating: Military 2250 @ 2800 rpm @ S.L. 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ S.L.
1600 @ 2800 rpm @ 22,000 ft 1800 @ 2800 rpm @ 30,000 ft
Rating: Normal 1720 @ 2600 rpm @ S.L. 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ S.L.
1450 @ 2600 rpm @ 22,000 ft 1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 30,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 115/145 PN 115/145PN
Curves T-1009 T-1010
Weiqht, Dry 2560 lbs* 2685 lbs*
Prop. Reduction Ratio .450:1 .450:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 and 10.55:1 6.7:1 and 9.66:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberq PR-6482 Bendix/Stromberq PR-6482
Magnetos DF-18LN DF-18LN
Installation Drwq. Number 96801 96901
Dimensions Diameter: 53.00 in. Diameter: 53.00 in.
Lenath: 92.70 in . Lenqth: 98.40 in .
A.T.C .
Number Manufactured
APPiications
Notes *Includes torquemeter. *Includes torquemeter.
None manufactured. None manufactured.
Same as military -30W. Same as military -32W.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800

Engine Model R-2800 -1 * R-2800 X-2 R-2800 X-4

Specification Number EP-21
Enaine Series "A" Series "A" Series "A" Series
Ratinq : Takeoff 1800 @ 2600 rpm 1800 @ 2600 rpm 1850 @ 2600 rpm
Rating: Military 1500 @ 2400 @ 7500 ft
Rating : Normal 1500 @ 2400 rpm @ 17,500 ft 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 3500 ft
1540 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,500 ft
1460 @ 2400 rpm @ 21 ,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 100 Octane 100 Octane
Curves T-382 T-1087
T-515
Weiqht, Dry 2500lbs
Prop. Reduction Ratio 2:1 2:1 2:1
Spline SAE 50 SAE 50 SAE 50
Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.65:1 6.66:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.60:1 6.8:1 , 6.46:1 and 8.64:1 7.8:1 , 6.46:1 and 8.64: 1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberq PT-1382 Bendix/Stromberq PT-13D2 Bendix/Stromberq PT-13D2-5
Maanetos
Installation Drwq. Number R-8000 R-40409 R-44839
Dimensions
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 2 1 2
APPiications Convair XA-198 Vouqht XF4U-1 Vouqht XF4U-1
Notes *Also sold commercially. Two-stage, two-speed X-2 {A2-G) with A5-G supercharger.
experimental Navy test enq ine.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -5* R-2800 -6 R-2800 -7

Specification Number A-8019-C N-8042 A-8021-B
Enqine Series "A" Series "A" Series "A" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 1850 @ 2600 rpm 1850 @ 2600 rpm 1850 @ 2600 rpm
Rating: Military 1850 @ 2600 rpm @ 2700 ft
1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 14,000 ft
Rating: Normal 1500 @ 2400 rpm @ 7500 ft 1500 @ 2400 rpm @ 7500 ft 1500 @ 2400 rpm @ 25,000 ft
1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 13,000 ft 1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft with turbosupercharqer
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 100 Octane 100 Octane
Curves T-489 T-612 T-661
T-660 T-660
Weight, Dry 22701bs 23001bs 22701bs
Prop. Reduction Ratio 2:1 2:1 16:9
Spline SAE 50 SAE50 SAE 50
N Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.65:1 6.65:1
Vl
0 Blower Ratio(s) 7.6:1and10:1 7.6: 1 and 9.45:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PT-13F1-12 Bendix/Stromberg PT-13F1 -3
Magnetos DF-18RN DF-18RN
Installation Drwq. Number R-37258 R-43735
Dimensions Diameter: 52 .06 in. Diameter: 52.06 in. Diameter: 52.00 in.
Length: 75 .72 in . Length: 75.72 in. Length: 75.64 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 475 (P&W) 2 1
954 (Ford}
1,429 total
Applications Douglas B-23 Vought XTBU-1
Martin B-26
Martin B-26A
Martin B-26B
Martin XB-26D
Curtiss XC-46**
Notes *Also sold commercially. Similar to -5 except single-speed
Also built by Ford. Similar to -1 except blower with turbosupercharger.
carburetor and two speed blower.
**Replaced bv R-2800-43
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -8*, -SW (Fig. 5.5) R-2800 -9 R-2800 -10*, -10W (Fig. 5.6)
Specification Number N-8056 N-8056
EnQine Series "B" Series "B" Series
Ratina: Takeoff 2000 @ 2700 rom 2000 @ 2700 rpm
Rating: Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1000 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1000 ft
1800 @ 2700 rpm @ 15,500 ft 1800 @ 2700 rpm @ 15,500 ft
1650 @ 2700 rpm @ 22,500 ft 1650 @ 2700 rpm @ 22,000 ft
Rating: Normal 1675 @ 2550 rpm @ 5500 ft 1675 @ 2550 rpm @ 5500 ft 1675 @ 2550 rpm @ 5500 ft
1625@ 2550 rpm@ 17,000 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 15,000 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 17,000 ft
1550 @ 2550 rpm @ 21,500 ft 1550 @ 2550 rpm @ 21,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 100 Octane
Curves T-843 T-843
Inst. 1687 Inst. 1687
Weiaht, Drv 24801bs 24801bs
Prop. Reduction Ratio 2:1 2:1
Spline SAE 50 SAE 50
Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.65:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.8: 1, 6.46: 1, and 7.93: 1 7.8:1, 6.46:1, and 7.93:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PT-13D4 (-8) Bendix/Stromberg PT-13G2-10 (-10)
Bendix/Strombera PT-13D6 (-SW) Bendix/Strombera PR-13G6-10 (-1 OW)
MaQnetos DF-18RN DF-18RN
Installation Drwa . Number R-50425 R-52017
Dimensions Diameter: 52 .50 in. Diameter: 52 .50 in .
LenQth: 88.47 in. Lenath: 88.47 in .
A.T.C.
(continued on next page)
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -8*, -SW (Fig. 5.5) R-2800 -9 R-2800 -10*, -10W (Fig. 5.6)
Number Manufactured -8; (P&W) 2194 0 -10; (P&W) 2931
-8; (Nash) 1709 -1 O; (Nash) 1690
-8W; (P&W) 5574 -10W; (P&W) 3040
-8W ; (Nash) 3094 -10W; (Nash) 9900
TOTAL; 12,571 TOTAL; 17,561
Applications Brewster F3A-1 Curtiss P-60A (-10)
Goodyear FG-1 Curtiss XP-60E (-10)
Vought F4U-1 Grumman F6F-3E
N
Vought F4U-1 C Grumman F6F-3F (-10)
V1
N
Vought F4U-1 P(-8W) Grumman F6F-3H (-10)
Vought F4U-2 Grumman F6F-3N(-10)
Grumman F6F-3P (-10)
Grumman F6F-5, -5E (-10W)
Grumman F6F-5N (-10W)
Northrop F2T-1 (-10)
Northrop P-61 , -61A (-10)
Northrop XP-61 (-10)
Northrop YP-61 (-10)
Notes Updraft carburetor -8 and -8W None manufactured. Downdraft carburetor.
also built by Nash . Intended for Martin XB-27 - none *Also sold to Army.
built. -10 and -10W also built by Nash .
 Model Types & Specifications

Fig 5. 5 R-2800-8, one of the first two-stage, two-speed intercooled engines, this "B " engine
powered the F4U-l Corsair. (Courtesy ofPratt & Whitney.)

253
Fig. 5. 6 Sibling to the -8, the R-2800-10 shown was identical to the -8 except for downdraft carburetion. (Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -11 R-2800 -12 R-2800 -13

Specification Number A-8026-F A-8037-A
Engine Series "A" Series "B" Series "A" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm
Rating : Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 25,000 ft
with turbosupercharger
Rating: Normal 1625 @ 2250 rpm @ 3500 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm 1000 @ 2400 rpm @ S.L.
1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 25,000 ft (Part throttle)
with turbosupercharqer
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 100 Octane
Curves T-578 T-582
T-770
Weiqht, Dry 2415 1bs 22651bs
Proo. Reduction Ratio 5:2 15.5:1 Contra-rotatinr:i 2:1
Spline SAE 50 SAE50
Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.6:1 9:1
Blower Ratio(s) 6.46:1 7.6: 1 6.46:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberq PT-13 F1 Bendix/Stromberq PT-13F1
Magnetos DF-18RN DF-3
Installation Drwq. Number R-41637 R-52017
Dimensions Diameter: 52.00 in. Diameter: 52.00 in .
Lenr:ith: 80.00 in . Length: 75.72 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 4 1 1
Applications North American XB-28*
(Torquemeter)
North American XB-28A
Notes *Left engine was R-2800-15 . Hamilton Standard experimental. Wright Field S.L. test engine fitted
Torque indicator experimental. with torquemeter.
XB-28A crashed.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -14W* (Fig. 5.7) R-2800 -15 R-2800 -16
Specification Number N-8092 A-8026-F N-8077
Enaine Series "C" Series "A" Series "B" Series
Ratina : Takeoff 2100@ 2800 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm
Rating : Military 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 28,500 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 25,000 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft
with turbosupercharger 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 25,000 ft
with turbosupercharaer
Rating: Normal 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 26,000 ft 1625 @ 2250 rpm @ 3500 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 6500 ft
1625 @ 2250 rpm @ 25,000 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 25,000 ft
with turbosupercharaer with turbosupercharaer
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN 100 Octane 125 PN
Curves T-898 T-578 T-808
Inst. 1695 T-770 Inst. 1719
Weight, Orv 23151bs 24301bs 22651bs
Prop . Reduction Ratio .450:1 5:2 2:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE50 SAE 50
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.65:1 6.65:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 6.46:1 7.6:1
Carburetor Bendix/Strombera PR-58E-2, -3 Bendix/Strombera PT-13F1 Bendix/Stromberg PT-13G 1-9
Maanetos DF-18LN DF18RN DF-18RN
Installation Drw!'.:i. Number 87101 R-46239 R-58030
Dimensions Diameter: 53.00 in . Diameter: 52.00 in. Diameter: 52.50 in.
Lenath: 78.50 in. Lenath: 78.50 in. Lenath: 75.72 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 77 3 4
Applications Goodyear FG-3 North American XB-28* Grumman XF6F-2
Northrop XP-61 D** North American XB-28A * Vought F4U-3
Republic YP-47M
Vouaht F4U-3
Notes *Built at Kansas City. Ratings not *Right engine was R-2800-11. XB-
intended for use with 28A crashed. Similar to -11 except
turbosupercharger at S.L. counterclockwise rotation.
** Replaced by -57 .
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -17 R-2800-18, -18W* (Fig. 5.8) R-2800 -18WA
Specification Number A-8026F N-8082 N-8082 (Aooendi x C)
Enqine Series "A" Series "C" Series "C" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rpm
Rating: Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 25,000 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 1000 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 1000 ft
with turbosupercharger 1900 @ 2800 rpm @ 14,000 ft 1900 @ 2800 rpm @ 14,000 ft
1800 @ 2800 rom @ 23,000 ft 1800 @ 2800 rom @ 23,000 ft
Rating: Normal 1625 @ 2250 rpm @ 3500 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft
1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 25,000 ft 1550 @ 2600 rpm @ 26,000 ft 1630 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,000 ft
with turbosupercharqer 1550 @ 2600 rpm @ 26,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 100/130 PN 100/130 PN
Curves T-578 T-837 T-837
T-770 Inst. 1701 Inst. 1701
Weioht, Orv 24201bs 25601bs 2560 1bs
Prop. Reduction Ratio 2:1 .450:1 .450:1
Spline SAE 50 SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 6.46:1 7.50:1 , 6.30:1 and 7.8:1 7.5:1, 6.30:1 and 7.80:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PT-13F1 Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E1-1 (-18) Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E2-2, -3
Bendix/Strombera PR-58E1-2, -3 (-18W)
Maanetos DF-18RN DF18LU DF-18LU
Installation Drwa. Number R-47872 R-78401 94401
Dimensions Diameter: 52.00 in. Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in .
Lenqth: 80.00 in. Lenqth: 93.77 in. Lenath: 93.77 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 1 3257 32
Applications Republic XP-47B Curtiss YP-60E Vought F4U-4N
Goodyear FG-4 Vought F4U-4P
Grumman F6F-6 Vought F4U-4B
Vought F4U-4 Vought F4U-7
Vouqht F4U-4E
Notes Similar to R-2800-11 except Also sold to Army. No-18s Similar to -18W. Includes lengthened con-
reduction gear ratio and manufactured. necting rods and cylinder barrels, longer
experimental nose case with master rod, secondary counterbalances
torquemeter. redesigned, redesigned piston with
relocated wrist-pin hole and longer skirt,
and revised helicoil spark pluq inserts.
Chapter 5

Fig. 5. 7 R-2800-14W, designed for turbosupercharged applications, this early military "C"
engine powered aircraft such as the F4U-3, XP-61D, and YP-47M Note the cast-filled ignition
harness and top view of the Bendix PR-58 carburetor. (Courtesy ofPratt & Whitney.)

258
Fig 5.8 R-2800-18W, similar to an R-2800-JOW except the -18W uses a "C " power section. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -19 R-2800 -20 R-2800 -21*

Specification Number N-8079 A-80380
Enoine Series "B" Series "B" Series
Ratino: Takeoff 2000 @ 2700 rpm
Rating: Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft
1600 @ 2700 rpm @ 13,500 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 250,00 ft
with turbosupercharaer
Rating: Normal 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 6500 ft
1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 12,500 ft
with turbosupercharqer
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 100 Octane
Curves T-827 T-587
T-771 Inst. 1719
Weioht, Orv 2300lbs 2265 lbs
Prop. Reduction Ratio 2:1 2:1
Spline SAE 50 SAE50
Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.65:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.63:1 , and 9.89:1 7.6:1
Carburetor Bendix/Strombero PT-13G1 Bendix/Strombero PT-13G 1-13
Maonetos DF18RN DF-18RN
Installation Drwo. Number R-73201 * R-41981
Dimensions Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 52.50 in .
Lenath : 75.72 in . Lenath : 75.72 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 1 P&W: 1049
Ford: 4671
Total: 5720
Applications Republic P-47G (Built by Curtiss)
Republic P-47C
Republic P-470
Republic RP-47B
Republic XP -47E
Republic XP-47F
Republic XP-47K
Notes Was similar to -11 except two-speed Drilled crankcase. *Also sold commercia lly. Also built
and contra-rotating prop drive. None * Drawing was not released, planned by Ford Motor Company. Similar to -
manufactured. Replaced by -29. for Vought TBU-1. None 17 except for supercharger ratio and
manufactured. Same as -27 except accessory section.
incorporatina case harness.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -22* -22W (Fig. 5.9) R-2800 -23 R-2800 -24 & X-24
Specification Number N-8081 A-8047 N-8082 (Appendi x Al
Enqine Series "C" Series "D" Series "C" Series
Ralina: Takeoff 2100 @ 2800 rom 2000 @ 2700 rom 2100 @ 2800 rom
Rating: Military 2 100 @ 2800 rpm @ 1000 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1000 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 1000 ft
1600 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft 1875 @ 2700 rpm @ 12,500 ft 1900 @ 2800 rpm @ 14,000 ft
1800 @ 2700 rom @ 19,500 ft 1800 @ 2800 rpm @ 23,000 ft
Rating: Normal 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1675 @ 2550 rpm @ 5500 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 2700 ft
1450 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,500 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 15000 ft 1630 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,000 ft
with turbosuoercharaer 1550 @ 2550 rom @ 21 500 ft 1550 @ 2600 rpm @ 26 000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/ 130 PN 100/130 PN
Curves T-836 T-677 T-837
Inst. 1693 Inst. 1701
Weiqht, Dry 2359 lbs 2377 lbs without reduction qear box 25601bs
Prop. Reduction Ratio .450:1 Two-speed at 2700 rpm .444:1
Spline SAE 60A Contra-rotati na SAE 40 and 60 contra-rotatinq
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.65 :1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 and 9.45:1 7.80:1 6.46:1 and 7.93:1 7.50:1 6.30:1 and 7.80:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E1-1 (-22) Bendi x/Stromberg PT-13G2-1 O Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E2-2
Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E2-2, -3
(-22 -22W)
Maanetos DF-18LN DF18LN DF-18LU
Installation Drwa. Number R-77201 R-48374 R-82001
Dimensions Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 52 .80 in.
Lenqth: 8.134 in. Lenqth: 90.00 in. Lenqth: 105.90 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured P&W E. Hartford (-22): 2
P&W Kansas City ( -22): 1104
P&W Kansas City (-22W): 387
TOTAL: 1493
Applications Convair (TBU) TBY-2 (-22)
Fairchild C-82, A (-22)
Grumman F7F-2, -2N, -2P (-22W}
Grumman F7F-1 N (-22W)
Grumman XF7F-1 (-22W)
Martin XPBM-5, PBM-5 (-22)
Vought XTBU-1 (-22)
Grumman F7F-3 (-22W)
Notes No manifold pressure regulator in Army None manufactured. Engine designation For XR-2800-24 App. B of N-8082
installations. canceled in favor of -29 without two-speed changes prop ratio to .50:1 , Inst. Drwg. to
-22 also built in Kansas City. reduction gear. Submerged pusher with R-85001, and dry weight to 2640 lbs.
-22W built in Kansas City only. reverse flow coolinq. Redesiqnated -29. None manufactured.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -25 R-2800 -26 R-2800-27***

Specification Number A-8052-C N-8089 N-805 1-B
Enaine Series "B" Series "B" Series "B" Series
Ratina: Takeoff 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rom 2000 @ 2700 rom
Rating : Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1000 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft
1875@ 2700 rpm @ 12,500 ft 1600@ 2700 rpm@ 13,500 ft 1600 @ 2700 rpm @ 13,500 ft
1800@ 2700 rom @ 19,500 ft
Rating: Normal 1675 @ 2550 rpm @ 5500 ft 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft
1625@ 2550 rpm @ 15,000 ft 1450@ 2400 rpm@ 13,000 ft 1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft
1550 @ 2550 rpm @ 21,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 100/130 PN 100/1 30 PN
Curves T-697 T-696 T-696
Inst. 1687 Inst. 1720
Weiaht, Orv 25271bs 23001bs 23001bs
Proo. Reduction Ratio 2:1 16:9 2:1 **
So line SAE 50 SAE 50 SAE 50
Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.65:1 6.65:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.8:1, 6.46:1 and 7.93:1 7.60:1 and 9.89:1 7.6:1 and 9: 69:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PT-13F1 -118 Bendix/Stromberg PT-13G 1-9 Bendix/Stromberg PT-13G 1-9
(Exoerimental)
Maanetos DF-18RN DF18RN DF-1 8RN
Installation Drwa. Number R-49422 R-83801 R-50901
Dimensions Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 52.50 in . Diameter: 52.50 in .
Lenath: 89.31 in . Lenath : 75.72 in . Lenath : 75.72 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 5 P&W: 616
Ford: 262
TOTAL: 878
Applications Douglas JD-1 Fleetings s XA-39
Douglas B-23 Grumman XF6F-1
Douglas A-26, B, C Grumman XF6F-4
Douglas XA-26A, B, C Grumman F7F-1 N
Douqlas XFA-26C North American XB-28A*
Notes Two-stage, two-speed. Five None built. Planned for *Used with -11 and -15 noses and -21 ratings.
engines built. Experimental. Lockheed PV2. Same as -31 **British used 5:2 reduction gear.
except incorporating case ***Also sold commercially .
harness. Also built bv Ford.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Enr:iine Model R-2800 -28 R-2800 -29 (Fig. 5.10) R-2800 -30W (Semi-Production)
Specification Number A-8091 N-8047E N-8095
Enqine Series "C" Series "D" Series "E" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2300 @ 2800 rpm
Rating: Military 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 1000 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1000 ft 2300 @ 2800 rpm
1600 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft 1875 @ 2700 rpm @ 12,500 ft 1600 @ 2800 rpm @ 22,000 ft
1800 @ 2700 rpm @ 19,500 ft
Rating: Normal 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1675 @ 2550 rpm @ 5500 ft 1720 @ 2600 rpm
1450 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,500 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 15,000 ft 1450 @ 2600 rpm @ 22,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN 100 Octane 115/145 PN
Curves T-836 T-677 T-1006
Inst. 1693 T -710 Inst. 1687 Inst. 7250
Weight, Dry 23641bs 2377 lbs with remote reduction 2588 lbs*
qearbox
Prop . Reduction Ratio .5625:1 .577:1 .450:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A Contra-rotating SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75 :1 6.5:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29: 1 and 9.45:1 7.8:1, 6.46:1, and 7.93:1 Variable drive: 6.97:1 to 10.55:1 max.
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E1-1 Bendix/Stromberq PT-13G2-10 Chandler Evans Ceco 64CPC8-1
Maqnetos DF-18LN DF-18LN DF-18LN
Installation Drwq. Number R-86901 R-48374 86601
Dimensions Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 52.80 in.
Lenqth: 78.134 in. Lenqth: 90.00 in . Lenqth: 93 .50 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 8 4 12
Applications Curtiss SB2C-6 Northrop XP-56 Grumman F7F-5
Grumman XF7F-2
Notes 8 eng ines converted to -34W . Was -23. Four built for XP-56 *I ncludes torquemeter. Variable speed
program. Submerged pusher blower. Variable intermediate with fixed
installation with reverse flow high ratio main impeller couplings.
cooling and cooling fan. *Weight increases:
Front exhaust pipes: 24.5 lbs
Water equipment (ADI) : 1O lbs.
Chapter 5

Fig. 5.9 R-2800-22W (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 5.10 R-2800-29. This photo shows the -29 on display on March 16, 1943. The -10 blower is
clearly visible on this shot as is the cooling fan set up on a table. -29s were the only "D " series
built. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

264
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Enciine Model R-2800 -30W (Production) (Fig. 5.11) R-2800 -31 * (Fig. 5.12) R-2800 -32W (Semi-production)
Soecification Number N-8118 A-8051 B (Aooendix A) N-8094-B
Enqine Series "E" Series "B" Series "E" Series
Ratinq : Takeoff 2250@ 2800 rpm @ S.L. 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2300 @ 2800 rpm
Rating : Military 2250@ 2800 rpm @ S.L. 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2300 @ 2800 rpm
1600 @ 2800 rpm @ 22 000 ft 1600@ 2700 rpm @ 13 500 ft 1800 @ 2800 rpm @ 30,000 ft
Rating : Normal 1720@ 2600 rpm @ S.L. 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm
1450 @ 2600 rpm @ 22 000 ft 1450 @ 2400 rom @ 13,000 ft 1500 @ 2600 rom @ 30,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 115/145 PN 100/130 PN 115/145 PN
Curves T-1006 T-696 T-1007
Inst. 7330 Inst. 1720
Weiqht, Dry 2560 lbs* 22801bs 2715 lbs*
Proo. Reduction Ratio .450:1 16:9 .450:1
So line SAE 60A SAE 50 SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.65:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) Variable speed: 7.29:1 to 10.55:1 max 7.60:1 and 9.89:1 Main: 6.7 :1
Dual: 9.65:1 max
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PR-64B2-1 Bendix/Stromberg PT-13F1 Chandler Evans Ceco 64CPC8-2
Bendix/Stromberg PT-13F5-8
Bendix/Strombera PT-13G 1-9
Maanetos DF-18LN DF-18RN DF-18LN
Installation Drwa. Number 98401 R-52178 92501
Dimensions Diameter: 53.00 in. Diameter: 52.50 in . Diameter: 52.80 in.
Lenqth: 92.75 in. Lenqth: 75.72 in . Lenqth: 98.50 in .
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 592 P&W: 2500 6
Ford: 6088
TOTAL: 8588
Applications Grumman F8F-2 Lockheed PV-1 Vought F4U-5
Grumman XF8F-3 Lockheed PV-2, A, B, C, D
Lockheed RB-34
Lockheed RB-34A, B
Notes *Increases in weight: *Also sold to Navy and *Includes torquemeter. Dual Auxiliary
Water injection regulator: 10 lbs commercially. blower. Dual , "sidewinder" variable speed
Front exhaust pipes: 24 lbs. Also built by Ford. blower. Main stage variable speed.
*Weight includes torquemeter. Weight increases:
Front exhaust pipes : 24.5 lbs
Water eauioment: 10 lbs.
Chapter 5

Fig. 5.11 R-2800-30W, one of the few "E " series engines manufactured. Single-stage, variable
speed hydraulic blower drive and updraft Bendix PR-64 carburetion distinguishes this R-2800
from most others. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 5.12 R-2800-31, an example of Ford Motor Company s manufacturing capability. Most
-31 s were manufactured by Ford for the Lockheed PV-1 IPV-2/B-34 series of aircraft. (Courtesy
of Pratt & Whitney.)

266
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -32W (Production) R-2800-33 R-2800 -34, -34W, -34WA**
(Fig. 5.13)
Specification Number N-8119B A-8066B N-8081 (Aooendix A)
Enqine Series "E" Series "B" Series "C" Series
Ratin~:i: Takeoff 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ S.L. 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rpm
Rating: Military 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ S.L. 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft
1800 @ 2700 rpm @ 30,000 ft 25 ,000 ft 1700 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft
Rating: Normal 1900@ 2600 rpm @ S.L. 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 6500 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ S.L.
1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 30,000 ft ft without turbosupercharger 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 8500 ft
1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 115/ 145 PN 125 PN 100/130 PN
Curves T-1007 T-749 T-960
Inst. 7326 Inst. 1731
Weiqht, Drv 2705 lbs* 22651bs 2358 .5 lbs
Prop. Reduction Ratio .450:1 5:2 .450:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 50 SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.65:1 6.75 :1
Blower Ratio(s) Main: 6.7:1 min . 7.60:1 7.29 : 1 and 9.45:1
Main: 9.66 :1 max
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PR-64B2-2 Bend ix/Stromberg PT-13G1 Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E1-1 (-34)
Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E2-2 (-34, -34W)
Magnetos DF-18LN DF18RN DF-18LN
Installation Drwq. Number 98501 R-51417 R-77201
Dimensions Diameter: 53.00 in. Diameter: 52 .50 in. Diameter: 52.80 in.
Length: 98.50 in. Length: 75 .72 in. Length : 78.134 in.
A.T.C.

(continued on next page)

 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -32W (Production) R-2800-33 R-2800 -34, -34W, -34WA**
(Fig. 5.13)
Number Manufactured 818 P&W Kansas City (-34): 2082
P&W Kansas City (-34W): 3104
TOTAL: 5186
Applications Vought F4U-5 Convair T8Y-2
Curtiss C-46F(-34)
Curtiss XC-468 (-34)
Douglas XA-26D (-34W)*
Douglas C-54E
Eastern XT8M-5 (-34W)
Fairchild C-82 (-34)
N Fleetwings 8T(-1) (-34W)
0\
00 Grumman F7F-3N-3P (-34W)
Grumman F?F-4 (-34W)
Grumman F8F-1 , 18 (-34W)
Grumman XT83F-1 (-34W)
Martin P8M-5A(-34W)
Martin RM-1(404)**
Martin RM-1(404)-34W
Notes *Weight includes torquemeter. None manufactured. *-34W in nose and deHavilland H1 jet in
Weight increases: fuselage. Same as -22W with a new diffuser of
Front exhaust pipes: 24.5 lbs less capacity, giving high gear, higher altitude
Water equipment: 10 lbs. performance. Approximately 448 manifold
pressure regulators in Army -34W installations.
-34 and -34W built in Kansas City only.
American Airlines modified -34s into -34M1
(modification one) by addinQ water injection.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

En~ine Model R-2800 -34A, -34WA R-2800 -35 (Semi-production) R-2800-36

Soecification Number N-8081 None N-8091 (Armendix A)
Enaine Series "C" Series "B" Series "C" Series
Ratina : Takeoff 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rom
Rating : Military 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft
1700 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft 1600 @ 2700 rpm @ 25,000 ft 1700 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft
with turbosupercharaer
Rating: Normal 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ S.L. 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 3500 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 8500 ft
1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 8500 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 25 ,000 ft 15-0 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,500 ft
1500 @ 2600 rom @ 18,500 ft with turbosupercharger
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN 100 Octane 100/130 PN
Curves T-960 T-771 T-960
Inst. 1719
Weiaht, Orv 2358 .5 lbs 2364 1bs
Prop. Reduction Ratio .450:1 2:1 .5625:1
Soline SAE 60A SAE 50 SAE 60A
Comoression Ratio 6.75 :1 6.65:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratiols\ 7.291 and 9.45:1 6.46 :1 7.29 :1 and 9.45:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E2-2 Bendix/Stromberg PT-13G1-121 Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E1-1
Bendix/Strombera PR-58E2-3
Maanetos DF-18LN DF18RN DF-18RN
Installation Drwa. Number 94501 R-52925 R-86901
Dimensions Diameter: 52.80 in . Diameter: 52 .06 in. Diameter: 52.80 in.
Lenath : 75.134 in. Lenath: 75.72 in . Lenath: 78 .134 in.
A.T.C .
Number Manufactured 11
Applications Republic XP-47B
(fitted with torquemeter)
Notes None manufactured. Similar to -34 "B" series engine with "A" power None manufactured. Same as -28
and -34W. Includes lengthened section. Replaced by -21. with a new diffuser of less capacity
connecting rods , cylinder barrels, giving high blower gear, higher
long master rod , secondary altitude performance .
counterbalances, redesigned piston
with relocated piston pin hole, and
longer skirt; also revised helicoil
soark plua insert.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

En1:1ine Model R-2800-37 R-2800-38W R-2800-39

Specification Number A-8075C N-8082D A-8019-C (Appendix A)
Enqine Series "C" Series "C" Series "A" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rpm 1850 @ 2600 rpm
Rating: Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 1000 ft 1850 @ 2600 rpm @ 2700 ft
1600 @ 2700 rpm @ 13,500 ft 1900 @ 2800 rpm @ 14,000 ft 1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 14,000 ft
1800 @ 2800 rpm @ 2,3000 ft
Rating: Normal 1700 @ 2550 rpm @ S.L. 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1500 @ 2400 rpm @ 7500 ft
1700 @ 2550 rpm @ 5000 ft 1630 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,000 ft 1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft
1450 @ 2550 rpm @ 14,500 ft 1550 @ 2600 rpm @ 26,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 140 PN 100/ 130 PN 100 Octane
Curves T-603 T-837 T-489
Inst. 1701 T-660
Weight, Dry 23551bs 25601bs 23001bs
Proo. Reduction Ratio .450:1 .450:1 2:1
N
-...l
0
Spline SAE 60 SAE 60A SAE 50
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1 6.65:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.60:1and9.89:1 7.50:1, 6.30:1 , and 9.89:1 7.6:1 and 10:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PT-13F1 -1 26 Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E2-3 Bendix/Stromberg PT-13FG1-12
(Experimental)
Maqnetos DF-18LN DF18LU DF-18RN
Installation Drwq. Number R-56627 100701 R-56090
Dimensions Diameter: 52 .80 in . Diameter: 52.50 in . Diameter: 52.06 in.
Lenqth: 78.134 in. Lenqth: 93.77 in. Lenqth: 75.72 in .
A.T.C .
Number Manufactured 4 269
Applications Brewster XA-32,A Martin B-26A
Martin B-268
Martin XB-26D
Notes Four experimental engines None manufactured. Similar to Similar to -5 (S1A4-G) except for
manufactured. One sold -18WA with stronger propeller shaft. "8" series engine crankshaft on 5
commercially . Provisions for double acting engines.
governor and internal water
iniection system.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -40 & 40W R-2800 -41 R-2800 -42W (Fig. 5.14)
Specification Number A-8081 (Aooendix C) N-8051 -B (Appendix C) N-8110-A
Engine Series "C" Series "B" Series "C" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2300 @ 2800 rpm
Rating: Military 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 1000 ft
1700 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft 1600 @ 2700 rpm @ 13,500 ft 2000 @ 2800 rpm @ 17 ,500 ft
1850 @ 2800 rom @ 24,000 ft
Rating : Normal 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 8500 ft 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 5500 ft
1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,500 ft 1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 19,000 ft
1600 @ 2600 rpm @ 25 ,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN 100/130 PN 115/145 PN
Curves T-960 T-696 T-992
Inst. 1720 Inst. 1720
Weight, Dry 2358.5 lbs 23001bs 25431bs
Proo . Reduction Ratio .450:1 2:1 .450:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 50 SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.65:1 6.75 :1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29 :1 and 9.45:1 7.60 :1 and 9.89 :1 7.5:1 , 6.3:1 , and 7.8:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E2-2 Bendix/Stromberg PT-13G 1-9 Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E5-5
Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E2-3
Maqnetos DF-18LN DF18RN DF-18LU-4
Installation Drwg. Number 99201 R-56093 R-107101
Dimensions Diameter: 52 .80 in. Diameter: 52 .50 in. Diameter: 52.80 in .
Lenqth : 78 .14 in. Lenqth: 75.72 in. Lenqth : 94.03 in .
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 296 400
Aoolications Martin B-26B-2-MA Vouqht F4U-4B
Notes None manufactured. Similar to Similar to -38W. Provision for
-34A & 34W. Stronger propeller improved water injection, stronger
shaft, provision tor double acting propeller shaft and double acting
governor, internal water injection governor.
system.
Chapter 5

Fig 5.13 R-2800-32W, a remarkable example of aircraft supercharging. The dual auxiliary
"sidewinder" supercharger impellers offered a very compact design for a high output super-
charger. This engine had by far the highest altitude rating of any mechanically supercharged
R-2800. Only engines boosted by turbosuperchargers could match the -32W's altitude capability.
(Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig 5.14 R-2800-42W, similar to the -l 8W except -42Ws used longer connecting rods, indicating
it is a "CA" series. Other minor improvements were also incorporated. -42Ws were fitted with
American Bosch ignition. (Courtesy ofPratt & Whitney.)

272
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Enqine Model R-2800 -43* (Fiq. 5.15) R-2800 -44, -44W (Fiq. 5.16) R-2800 -45
Soecification Number A-8038 (Aooendix Fl N-8127 C
Enaine Series "B" Series "CE" Series "B" Series
Ralina: Takeoff 2000 @ 2700 rom 2300 @ 2800 rom
Rating: Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 31 ,250 ft*
1600@ 2700 rpm @ 13,500 ft
Rating: Normal 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 26 ,500 ft*
1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 115/145 PN
Curves T-804 T-1033 Inst. 1720
Inst. 1720 Inst. 7334
Weiaht, Orv 2300 lbs 2343.5 lbs***
Proo. Reduction Ratio 2:1 .350:1 5:2
So line SAE 50 SAE 60A SAE 50
Comoression Ratio 6.65:1 6.75:1 6.75 :1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.60:1 and 9.89:1 7.29:1 7.5:1 , 6.3:1, and 7.8:1
Carburetor Bendix/Strombera PT-13G1-9 Bendix/Strombera PR-58E5-5 Bendix/Strombera PT-13G1 -9
Maanetos DF-18RN OF 18LN DF-18RN
Installation Drwq. Number 99201 116801 R-75810
Dim ensions Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 53 .00 in. Diameter: 52 .50 in.
Lenath : 75.72 in. Lenqth: 78.50 in. Lenqth: 83.80 in .
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 12,559 All manufactured by Ford -44: 98 2
-44W: 319
Total: 417
Applications Curtiss C-46 Martin XB-260 North American AJ-1 Savage**
Martin AT-23A, B, (JM-1) Martin B-26E, F, G North American AJ-2, AJ-2P Savage**
Martin B-26B, B1, B3, Martin TB-26H
B4, B-10 through B-75 (JM-2)
Martin B-26C (JM-1) Martin TB-26H
Notes *Built by Ford only . *31 ,250 ft and 26,500 ft based on 100F, Two engines shipped to
C.A.T. and 31 in .hg back pressure . Wright Field.
**With two -44W and one J-33 water *Fuel injection calls for -140
injection removed during modifications . setting NACA tested one
*** Includes torquemeter. engine.
Weight increases: Converted from -41.
Fire seal diaphragm: 3 lbs No installation.
Water requlator: 13 lbs (-44W only).
Chapter 5

Fig. 5.15 R-2800-43. As Ford assumed greater responsibility for "B" series manufacturing, they
took on the role of being the sole manufacturer of several dash numbers, the -43 being one of
them. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 5.16 R-2800-44W This single-stage, single-speed engine was designed to be boosted by a
turbosupercharger for installation in North American AJ Savages. It also featured the lowest
propeller reduction ratio of any R-2800: . 350:1. This feature did not go unnoticed by Darryl
Greenamayer when he built his F8F Bearcat racer. Consequently, -44Ws nose cases are a much
sought after item, unfortunately relatively few were manufactured. (Courtesy ofPratt & Whitney.)

274
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -46 & 46W* R-2800-47 R-2800 -48

Specification Number N-8129 A-8051-B (Appendix D) N-8132D
EnQine Series "CA" Series "B" Series "CB" Series
Ratin!'.:i: Takeoff 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 600 ft dry 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 3500 ft
Rating: Military 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 600 ft dry 2000 @ 2000 rpm @ 1500 ft 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 1500 ft
1600 @ 2700 rpm @ 13,500 ft
RatinQ: Normal 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6500 ft 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 115/145PN 100 Octane 115/145 PN
Curves T-1071 T-696 T-1082
Inst. 7334 Inst. 1720 Inst. 7398
Weight, Dry 23271bs 23001bs 2367 lbs*
Prop. Reduction Ratio .450:1 5:2 .450:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 50 SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.65:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 7.63:1 and 9.89:1 7.29:1
Carburetor Bendix/StromberQ PR-58E5-6 Bendix/StromberQ PTR-13G 1-9 Bendix/Strombe rQ PR-58E5-5
MaQnetos DF-18LN DF-18RN DF-18LN
Installation DrwQ. Number 135201 R-70500 R-145301
Dimensions Diameter: 53.00 in . Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 52.80 in .
Lenath : 78.50 in . LenQth : 75.72 in . LenQth : 94.03 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 3 538 573
Applications Grumman AF-1S(-46W) Vickers Warwick II Grumman XTB3F-1S
Grumman AF-2S(-46W) Grumman AF-2W
Grumman XAF-1 S(-46W) Grumman AF-2S
Grumman XAF-2S(-46W)
Notes *Sold as Double Wasp CA5. Same as -31 except prop gear *Weight increases:
*Weight includes torquemeter. ratio. Front exhaust pipes: 24.5 lbs
Weight increases: *Sold commercially. Weight includes torquemeter. No
Front exhaust pipes: 24.5 lbs fireseal.
Water regulator 13 lbs (-46W only)
No -46s manufactured.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800-49 R-2800-50 R-2800-SOA

Specification Number N-8061-B aoolies N-8143-B N-8143-B
Enqine Series "B" Series "CB" Series "CB" Series
Rating : Takeoff 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2100 @ 2700 rpm @ 5000 ft 2100 @ 2700 rpm @ 5000 ft
1950 @ 2600 rpm ** 1950 @ 2600 rpm *
Ratinq: Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft
Rating: Normal 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 6700 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft
1800 @ 2600 rpm ** 1800 @ 2600 rpm*
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 115/145 P/N 115/145 PN
Curves T-696 T-1150 T-1150
Inst. 1720, low blower only Inst. 16510 Inst. 16510
Weiqht, Orv 23001bs 2300 lbs* 23001bs
Prop. Reduction Ratio 5:2 Direct drive Direct drive
Spline SAE 50 SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.60:1 , Blower selected wired to low 7.29:1 7.29:1
blower position.
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberq PT-13G-9 Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E5-26 Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E5-26
Maanetos DF-18RN DL-10 (low tension) DLN-10 (low tension)
Installation Drwq. Number R-56093 172301 172301
Dimensions Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 53.00 in. Diameter: 53.00 in.
Length: 75.72 in. Length: 81.50 in. Length: 81.50 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 3 154 154
Applications Hughes (02A) XA-37 Bell HSL-1 Bell HSL-1
Sikorsky S-56
Sikorsky HR2S-1
Sikorsky HR2S-1W
Sikorsky H37 A
Notes Same as -41 except for 5:2 Similar to -48 except direct drive Similar to -50 except for ratings,
reduction gearing. and low tension ignition. additional mounting studs, double
XA-37 canceled. *Fireseal 2.7 lbs extra. diaphragm, fuel feed valve and
No exhaust flanges or torquemeter. supply with vacuum relief valve.
**Alternate rating with 100/130 PN *Alternate rating with 100/130 PN
fuel. fuel.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -51* R-2800 -52W*** -52W A**** R-2800-53

Specification Number A-8038-D N-8145A A-8080
Enqine Series "B" Series "CB" Series "B" Series
Rating: Takeoff 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2500 @ 2800 rpm @ 2500 ft (wet) 2000 @ 2700 rpm
2200 @ 2800 rpm @ 4500 ft (dry)
Rating: Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1000 ft
1600 @ 2700 rpm @ 13,500 ft 1800 @ 2700 rpm @ 15,500 ft
1650 @ 2700 rpm @ 22,500 ft
Rating: Normal 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1675 @ 2550 rpm @ 5500 ft
1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 14,500 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 17,000 ft
1550 @ 2550 rpm @ 21 ,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 115/145 PN 125 PN
Curves T-804 T-1159 T-843
Inst. 1720 Inst. 16472 Inst. 1687
Weiqht, Drv 23001bs 2390 lbs* 25801bs
Prop. Reduction Ratio 2:1 .450:1 2:1
Spline SAE 50 SAE 60A SAE 40 and SAE 60, contra-rotating
Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.75:1 6.65:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.60:1 and 9.89:1 7.29:1 and 8.58:1 7.80:1 , 6.46:1 and 7.3:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PT-13G 1-9 Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E5-13 Bendix/Stromberg PT-13G2-1 0
Bendix/Strombera PR-58E5-16
Maqnetos DF-18RN DLN-10 (Low tension) DF-18RN
Installation Drwq. Number R-56697 176801 R-52017
Dimensions Diameter: 52.50 in . Diameter: 53.00 in . Diameter: 52.50 in.
Lenqth: 75.72 in. Lenqth: 81.50 in. Lenqth: 104.18 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 5152 All manufactured by Ford P&W: 926
Nash : 334
TOTAL: 1260
(continued on next page)
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -51* R-2800 -52W*** -52W A**** R-2800-53

Applications Curtiss R5C-1 , -2
Curtiss C-46A
Curtiss C-46D1 , D5
Curtiss C-46E
Curtiss C-46F
Curtiss C-46G
N
-..I Notes Same as -43 with new engine
00
mounts, planned for Fairchild XC-82
but -22 engines installed instead.
*Built by Ford Motor Co. only.
Postwar, this "B" series engine was
modified with "C" cylinders for
improved cooling. Resulting engine
designated R-2800-51 M1
(modification one).
-51 M1 used only on C-46s.
Douglas R6D-1 ** Curtiss P-60A
Douglas C-118A Curtiss XP-60A
Douglas A-26K (On Mark) Curtiss XP-60C
*Fireseal diaphragm 3 lbs extra -53 was similar to -10 except for
and water regulator 13 lbs extra. contra-rotating prop drive and
**Sold with DWCB-17 but single-speed reduction gearing.
redesignated by Navy to -52W.
***Also built by Nash.
Basically similar to -99W except
incorporation of one high speed
(3:1) generator drive.
****No clutch selector valve.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -54 R-2800 -55 R-2800 -57 (Fig. 5.17)
Specification Number N-8143-B A-8087* A-8088-E
Rating: Takeoff 2100 @ 2700 rpm @ 5000 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rpm
1950 @ 2600 rpm **
Enqine Series "C B" Series "C" Series "C" Series
Rating: Military 21 00 @ 2800 rpm @ 1000 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 28,500 ft
1900@ 2800 rpm@ 14,000 ft
1800 @ 2800 rom @ 23,000 ft
Rating: Normal 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 26,500 ft
1800 @ 2600 rpm** 1550 @ 2600 rpm @ 26,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 115/ 145 PN 100/130 PN 100/130 PN
Curves T-1150 T-837 T-838
Inst. 16510 Inst. 1701 Inst. 1695
Weioht, Drv 2300 lbs* 26501bs 23151bs
Proo. Reduction Ratio Direct drive .444:1 .450:1
Soline SAE 60A SAE 40 and SAE 60 (contra-rotatinq) SAE 60A
Comoression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 7.50 :1, 6.30:1, and 7.80:1 7.29:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E5-26 Bendi x/Stromberq PR-58E2-2 Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E2-2
Maonetos DLN-10 (low tension) DF-18LN DF-18LN
Installation Drwo. Number 172301 R-78901 R-78601
Dimensions Diameter: 53.00 in. Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in.
Lenath: 81.00 in. Lenath: 106.16 in . Lenoth : 78.39 in .
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 181 2 P&W E. Hartford: 2
P&W Kansas City: 895
Chevrolet: 200
TOTAL: 1097
Applications Sikorsky S56 Curtiss XP-60F (Converted to Northrop P-61 D, C* Republic P-47M
YP-60E with R-2800 -18W) Republic XP-47J Republic XP-47N
Republic XP-47L Republic P-47N
Notes Similar to -50 except for additional *Not guaranteed. Two engines **Also built by Chevrolet and Kansas City.
mounting studs and ignition. delivered to Wright Field . One -57 sold commercially.
*Fireseal 2.7 lbs extra. *Goodyear built the only two to be manu-
**Alternate rating with 100/130 PN factured (D), engines replaced by -77.
fuel.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -59* (Fig. 5.18) R-2800 -61 R-2800 -63* (Fig. 5.19)
Specification Number A-8038-D (Aooendix G) Similar to -57 A-8038-D applies
Enqine Series "B" Series "C" Series "B" Series
Rating: Takeoff 2000 @ 2700 rpm ** 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm **
Rating: Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1 500 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 1000 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft
2000 @ 2500 rpm @ 25 ,000 ft without turbosupercharger 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 25,000 ft
with turbosupercharger 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 30,000 ft with turbosupercharger
with turbosuperchan::ier
Rating: Normal 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 6500 ft
without turbosupercharger 1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 25 ,000 ft
1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 30,000 ft with turbosupercharger
with turbosupercharqer
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 125 PN 100/130 PN 125 PN
Curves T-587 T-838 T-587
Inst. 1719 Inst. 1695 Inst. 1719
N
00 Weight, Dry 22901bs 24001bs 22651bs
0
Proo. Reduction Ratio 2:1 .500:1 2:1
Spline SAE50 SAE 40 and SAE 60 SAE50
Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.75 :1 6.65:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.60:1 7.29 :1 7.60:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PT-13G5-13 Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E2-2 Bendix/Stromberq PT-13G5-13
Maonetos GES-18LG-P1 DF-18LN DF-18RN
Installation Drwq . Number R-86501 R-81901 R-41981
Dimensions Diameter: 52 .50 in . Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.50 in.
Lenoth: 75.72 in. Lenqth: 90.2 in . Length: 75.72 in .
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured P&W: 592 1 P&W: 1262
Ford: 10,799 Ford: 767
TOTAL: 11 ,391 TOTAL: 2029
Applications Republic P-47D , C Republic XP-47J Republic P-47D , C
Republic XP-47L Republic XP-47L
Notes Similar to -21 with G.E. Tubular Harness One engine only. Shipped without Similar to -21 with water injection.
and water injection . nose case . .450:1 nose installed *Also built by Ford Motor Co.
*Also built by Ford Motor Co. converting to -57. ** 2300 hp available with water
**2300 hp available with water injection. injection.
 Model Types & Specifications

Fig. 5.17 Bottom view ofR-2800-57

Another single-stage, single-speed
engine intended for boosting via a
turbosupercharger. Primarily built
by Pratt & Whitney's Kansas City
facility and Chevrolet. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 5.18 R-2800-59. Single-stage,

single-speed with boost assisted by
a turbosupercharger. Installed in
P-47Ds and P-47Cs. Note the G.E.
"Turtleback " magnetos. (Courtesy
of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 5.19 R-2800-63. This "B "

series built by Pratt & Whitney and
Ford was another P-47CID power
plant. Same as -59 except for
Scintilla ignition used on -63.
(Courtesy ofPratt & Whitney.)

281
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800-65 R-2800 -67 R-2800-69

Specification Number A-8096-A A-8051 A-8038-D aoolies
Enaine Series "B" Series "B" Series "B" Series
Ratina: Takeoff 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm
Rating: Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1000 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft
1800 @ 2700 rpm @ 15,500 ft 1600 @ 2700 rpm @ 13,500 ft 1600 @ 2700 rpm @ 13,500 ft
1650 @ 2700 rpm @ 22,500 ft
Rating: Normal 1675 @ 2550 rpm @ 5500 ft 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft
1625 @ 2550 rpm @ 17,000 ft 1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft 1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft
1550 @ 2550 rpm @ 21 ,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100 Octane 100/130 PN 100 Octane
Curves T-843 T-696 T-804
Inst. 1687
Weiaht, Drv 25081bs 23001bs 23001bs
N
Prop. Reduction Ratio 2:1 2:1 2:1
00 Spline SAE 50
N SAE50 SAE 50
Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.65:1 6.65:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.80:1 , 6.46:1, and 7.93:1 7.6:1 and 9.89:1 7.60:1 and 9.89:1
Carburetor Bendix/Strombera PT-13G6-10 Bendix/Strombera PT-13G5-9 Bendix/Stromberq PT-13G5-9
Maanetos S-18LG-P1 DF-18RN DF-18RN
Installation Drwg. Number R-87601 R-50901 R-56697
Dimensions Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 52.50 in.
Lenqth: 88.47 in. LenQth: 75.72 in. Length: 75.72 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured P&W: 1292
Nash: 517
TOTAL: 1813
Applications Northrop F2T-1
Northrop XF-15, A
Northrop P-61 A, B
Northrop XP-61 E
Notes Similar to -10 with G.E. Tubular Similar to -27 with water injection. Similar to -43 with water injection .
Harness and water injection . None manufactured. None manufactured.
Also built by Nash .
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -71* (Fig. 5.20) R-2800 -73* (Fig. 5.21) R-2800 -75** (Fig. 5.22)
Specification Number A-8051 -B (Appendix E) A-8088-E (Aooendix B) A-8038-D (Aooendix H)
Enaine Series "B" Series "C" Series "B" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm
Rating: Military 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 28,500 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft
1600 @ 2700 rom @ 13,500 ft 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,500 ft
Rating: Normal 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 26,500 ft 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft
1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft 1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN 100/130 PN 100/130 PN
Curves T-696 T-838 T-804
Inst. 1720 Inst. 1695 Inst. 1720
Weight, Dry 23251bs 2351 lbs 23251bs
Proo. Reduction Ratio 2:1 .450:1 2:1
Spline SAE50 SAE 60A SAE 50
N
00 Compression Ratio 6.65:1 6.75:1 6.65:1
w
Blower Ratio(s) 7.60:1and9.89:1 7.29:1 7.60:1 and 9.89:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberq PT-13G1-9 Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E2-2 Bendix/Stromberq PT-13G 1-9
Maanetos S-18LG-P1 S-18RG-P1 S-18LG-P1
Installation Drwa. Number R-91301 908801 R-91401
Dimensions Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.50 in.
Lenath: 75.72 in. Lenqth: 78.394 in. Lenath: 75.72 in.
A.T.C .
Number Manufactured 1726 All manufactured by Ford 2665 All manufactured by Chevrolet 8042 All manufactured by Ford
Applications Douglas JD-1 Northrop F-15A Curtiss C-46A
Douglas A-26B, C Northrop XF-15A Curtiss C-46D-1O
Douglas XA-26C Northrop P-61 C Curtiss C-46E (RSC-2)
Douglas XFA-26C Northrop XP-61 F Curtiss C-46F
Republic P-47N Curtiss C-46G
Curtiss XC-113*
Notes Similar to -27 with G.E. Tubular Similar to -57 with G.E. cast ignition *-75 in right nacelle (G.E.) TG-100 jet
Harness. harness and double acting in left nacelle. Similar to -51 with
*Built by Ford Motor Company governor. G.E. Tubu lar ignition harness.
only. *Built by Chevrolet only. **Built by Ford Motor Company only.
Chapter 5

Fig. 5.20 R-2800-71. "B " series,

single-stage, two-speed blower and
GE. ignition. -71 s powered
Douglas A-26s. (Courtesy of Pratt
& Wh itney.)

Fig. 5.21 Bottom view of

R-2800- 73. "C" series
single-stage, single-speed
designed for boost augmen-
tation via a General
Electric CH-5 turbosuper-
charger. (Courtesy of Pratt
& Whitney.)

284
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -77* (Fig. 5.23) R-2800-79* R-2800 -81 *

Specification Number A-8088-E (Appendix C) A-8051-B (Aooendix F) A-8088-E (Aooendix D)
Enqine Series "C" Series "B" Series "C" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2000 @ 2700 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rpm
Rating : Military 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 28,500 ft 2000 @ 2700 rpm @ 1500 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 28,500 ft
1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,500 ft
Rating : Normal 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 25,000 ft 1600 @ 2400 rpm @ 5700 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 26,500 ft
1450 @ 2400 rpm @ 13,000 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN 100/ 130 PN 100/130 PN
Curves T-838 T-695 T-838
Inst. 1695 Inst. 1720 Inst. 1695
Weight , Dry 2321 lbs 23251bs 23451bs
Prop. Reduction Ratio 0.450:1 2:1 0.450:1
N
00 Spline SAE 60A SAE 50 SAE 60A
Vl
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.65:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 7.60:1 and 9.89:1 7.29:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberg PR-58E2-2 Bendix/Stromberq PT-13G5 Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E2-2
Maonetos DF-18LN S-18LG-P1 S-18RG-P1
Installation Drwq. Number 91601 92001 90801
Dimensions Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.50 in. Diameter: 52.80 in.
Length: 78.39 in. Length: 75.72 in. Length: 78.39 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 500 All manufactured by Chevrolet 6617 All manufactured by Ford 362 All manufactured by Kansas
City
Applications Northrop P-61 C Douglas JD-1 Republic P-47N
Northrop XP-61 D Douglas A-26B
Republic P-47N Douglas XA-26C
Convair T-29A Douglas XFA-26C
Chase C-123B
Notes Similar to -57 with double acting Similar to -27 with water injection Similar to -57 with G.E. cast ignition
governor. and G.E. tubular ignition harness. harness.
*Built by Chevrolet only. *Built by Ford only. *Built at Kansas City only.
Chapter 5

Fig. 5.22 R-2800-75. Another "B "

series solely manufactured by Ford
Motor Company. Used primarily
on Curtiss C-46s. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 5.23 R-2800-

77. This "C" series
engine is similar to
a -57. All -77s were
manufactured by
Chevrolet. (Cour-
tesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

286
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -83*** -83A, -83WA**** (Fig. 5.24) R-2800 -85* -85A, -85XA ** R-2800 -85XA
Specification Number A-8104 - A A-8104-A (A-8104 - A App. A annlies)
Engine Series "C" Seri es "C" Series "C" Series
Ratinq : Takeoff 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rom
Rating: Military 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft
1700 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft 1700 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft 1700 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft
Rating : Normal 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7,300 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7300 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 7300 ft
1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 17 ,500 ft 1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 17 ,500 ft 1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 17,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN 100/130 PN 100/ 130 PN
Curves T-965, T-960F T-965 , T-960F T-965 , T-960F
Inst. 1731 Inst. 1731 Inst. 1731
Weiqht, Dry 2384 lbs* 2375.5 lbs 23751bs
Prop. Reduction Ratio 0.450:1 0.450:1 0.450:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 and 9.45:1 7.29:1 and 9.45:1 7.29:1 and 9.45:1
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E2-2 Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E2-2 Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E2-2
Maqnetos S-18RG-P1 S-18LG-P1 S-18RG-P1
Installation Drwq. Number 93101 93101 93101
Dimensions Diameter: 2.80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in . Diameter: 52.80 in.
Lenqth: 78.13 in. Length: 78.13 in. Lenqth: 78.13 in.
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 855 All manufactured by Chevrolet 62 All manufactured by
Chevrolet
Applications Vought AU-1 ***** Fairchild C-82A, N Douglas XC-112A
Chase XC-123**** Martin 202 (-85)
Douglas A-26D, DC-68
Douglas A-26F
Douglas XA-26F
Lockheed C-69E
(continued on next page)
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800 -83*** -83A, -83WA**** (Fic:i. 5.24) R-2800 -85* -85A, -85XA ** R-2800 -85XA
Notes ******-83 with water power & control. Similar to -34 with provision for Similar to -85 with additional
Purchased by Navy from Capitol Airlines as double acting governor. high speed generator drive in
-83A. G.E. cast ignition equipment. place of L.H. power takeoff.
*Includes torquemeter. No R.H. auxiliary drive. No
Similar to -34W with provision for double manifold pressure regulator.
acting governor. *Bu ilt by Chevrolet only.
G.E. cast ignition equipment. -85A was -34 except for G.E.
No R.H. auxiliary drive. Manifold pressure ignition and single acting
regulator. governor.
**With I 16 jet (G.E.). ** Same -85A plus a higher
***Built by Chevrolet only. -83A has DF-18LN ratio generator drive.
(Hi-Tension ignition) no water regulator.
****Test flown 10/14/49, Trenton, N.J.
Following modifications incorporated:
(i) -83AM2 : Same as -83A but has no high
ratio blower gears.
N
(ii) -83AM3: Same as -83A except modified by
00 American Airlines for water injection operation
00
at takeoff.
(iii) -83AM4: Same as -83A except for
installation of Double Wasp "CA" type
crankshaft dampers. When this engine is
equipped with a water regular, it is eligible for
ADI at takeoff.
(iv) -83AM4A: Same as -83AM4 but
modernized to include "CA"/"CB" long
connecting rods, cylinders, pistons, etc.
(v) -83AM5: Same as civil CB-16 except has
-83A nose section, crankcase, and accessory
rear section. Water regulator, either constant
flow or variable flow type . Only variable flow
type can be mounted on engine.
(vi) -83AM6: Same as -83A except for CB-16
high ratio gearing and carburetor settings.
(vii) -83AM7: Same as -83AM5 with power
ratings of -52W (civilian CB-17) using 108/115
fuel.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Engine Model R-2800-87 R-2800 -89 R-2800 -91

Specification Number A-8088-E (Aooendix E) A-8104 - A (Aooendix B) A-8104 - A (Aooendix C)
Enoine Series "C" Series "C" Series "C" Series
Ratinq: Takeoff 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rpm 2100 @ 2800 rpm
Rating: Military 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 28,500 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft 2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft
1700 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft 1700 @ 2800 rpm @ 16,000 ft
Rating: Normal 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 26,500 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 8,500 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 8500 ft
1500 @ 2600 rpm @ 18,500 ft 1500 @ 2600 rom @ 18,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN 100/130 PN 100/130 PN
Curves T-838 T-965, T-960F T-965, T-960F
Inst. 1695
Weiqht, Dry 2351 lbs 23841bs 2375.5 lbs
Prop. Reduction Ratio 0.450:1 0.450:1 0.450:1
Spline SAE 60A SAE 60A SAE 60A
N Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1 6.75:1
00
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 7.29:1 and 9.45:1 7.29:1and9.45:1
'° Bendix/Strombera PR-58E2-2 Bendix/Strombera PR-58E2-2
Carburetor Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E2-2
Magnetos DF-18RG-P1 S-18RG-P1 S-18RG-P1
Installation Drwq. Number 90801 93101 93101
Dimensions Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 52.80 in.
Lenath: 78.39 in. Lenoth : 78.39 in. Lenoth : 78.13 in .
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured
Applications
Notes None manufactured. None manufactured . None manufactured .
*Includes torquemeter. Provision for double acting No manifold pressure regulator.
Similar to -73 . governor. Similar to -85 with lengthened
Includes lengthened connecting Similar to -83 with lengthened connecting rods and cylinder
rods and cylinder barrels , long connecting rods and cylinder barrels , long master rod secondary
master rod secondary barrels , long master rod secondary counterbalances, redesigned piston
counterbalances , redesigned piston counterbalances, redesigned piston with relocated piston pin hole and
with relocated piston pin hole and with relocated piston pin hole and longer skirt; also revised helicoil
longer skirt; also revised helicoil longer skirt; also revised helicoil spark plug inserts.
spark pluq inserts. spark pluq inserts.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

En1:1ine Model R-2800-93 R-2800-95* R-2800 -97

Soecification Number A-8134-A
Enaine Series "C" Series "CA" Series "CA" Series
Rating: Takeoff 2400@ 2800 rpm@ S.L., wet (low)
1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 10,000 ft dry (high)
2100 @ 2800 rpm @ 3000 ft dry (low)
Ratinq: Military
Rating: Normal 1800 @ 2600 rpm @ 6000 ft
1600@ 2600 rpm @ 14,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 100/130 PN
Curves T-1085
Inst. 7382
Weiaht, Orv 2350 lbs**
Proo. Reduction Ratio 0.450:1 0.450:1
Soline SAE 60A
Comoression Ratio 6.75:1
Blower Ratiols\ 7.29:1and9.1:1
Carburetor Bendix/Strombera PR-58E2-2 Bendix/Strombera PR-58E5-11
Maanetos S-18RG-P 1 DLN-10 (low tension)
Installation Drwa. Number 95101 145901
Dimensions Diameter: 52.80 in. Diameter: 53 .00 in.
Lenqth: 78.39 in. Lenath: 78.50 in .
A.T.C.
Number Manufactured 9 408
Applications Douglas C-118** Chase X C-123***
Convair T-29A, B
Convair VT-29****
Notes None manufactured. *Sold as CA 15 Appendix "B." ****Similar to Convair 240 except
** Presidential DC-6. Designated by navigation trainer.
President Truman as "Flying White House." *Originally sold as Double Wasp CA 18 with
Later called "The Independence." Low ratio modifications.
right generator drive. High ratio left ** Includes torquemeter.
generator drive. Water injection, high ***Crashed at Eglin Field , Florida.
tension ignition , fire seal diaphragm. Right
vacuum pump drive 5" pad. Left vacuum
pump drive 17/s" pad.
 TABLE 5-3 MILITARY VERSIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

En!:!ine Model R-2800 -99W* R-2800 -101 * R-2800 -103W

Specification Number A-8146 - C A-8147
Enaine Series "CB" Series "C" Series "CB" Series
Rating: Takeoff 2500 @ 2800 rpm @ 2500 ft wet (low) 2500 @ 2800 rpm @ 2500 ft wet (low)
2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 3500 ft drv !low) 2200 @ 2800 rom @ 4500 ft dry (low)
Ratinq: Military 2300 @ 2800 rpm @ 3500 ft
Rating: Normal 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft 1900 @ 2600 rpm @ 7000 ft
1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 14,500 ft 1700 @ 2600 rpm @ 14,500 ft
Max. Continuous
Cruise
Fuel Grade 115/ 130 PN 115/ 130 PN
Curves T-1207 T-1253
Inst. 16801
Weiaht Drv 2390 lbs** 2390 lbs*
Proo. Reduction Ratio 0.450:1 0.450:1
So line SAE 60A SAE 60A
Compression Ratio 6.75:1 6.75:1
Blower Ratio(s) 7.29:1 7.29:1 and 9.45:1
Carburetor Bendix/Strombera PR-58 E5-22 Bendix/Stromberq PR-58E5-22
Maanetos DLN-10 (Low tension) S-18RG-P1 S-18RG-P1
Installation Drwa. Number 195601 249801
Dimensions Diameter: 53.00 in. Diameter: 53.00 in.
Lenath : 81 .50 in. Lenath: 81 .50 in .
A.T.C .
Number Manufactured P&W: 609 80
Nash: 842
TOTAL: 1451
Applications Chase C-123B Beech T-36A. Although the Convair C-131 B
Convair T-29C , D prototype was completed , it
Convair C-131A never flew.
Fairchild C-123B
Stroukoff XC -1 23E
Notes *Also Nash built. *Converted -57 with G.E. One hundred and eight -99Ws converted by
** Fireseal diaphragm 3 lbs. ignition harness and 2 high PAC to -103W. Similar to -99W except for
Water regulator 13 lbs additional. speed (3:1) generator drives substitution of high speed generator drive to
Includes torquemeter. (Fig. 5.25). -52W low speed generator drive and ratings .
Basically similar to -52W except incor- *Fireseal diaphragm 3 lbs additional.
poration of high speed (3:1) generator Weight includes torquemeter.
drive.
(Refs. 3.7, 5.2, 5.3)
Chapter 5

Fig. 5. 24 R-2800-83. Note the blanking plate for the magneto drive in this top view. General
Electric ignition dispensed with a separate magneto and instead incorporated both magneto and
distributor functions in one unit. The small "bumps " shown on the 11 16 rightfrontview on the
nose case house the torquemeter pistons. This feature was a part of all "C" and "E" series
engines. Interestingly, this engine powered the C-69E version of the Lockheed Constellation.
(Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 5. 25 A number of R-2800s were fitted with the so-called high speed generator drive. Typi-
cally they were geared 3:1, i.e., the generator was driven three times crankshaft speed. Epicyclic
gearing provided the necessary step-up speed. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two
Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Authors collection.)

292
 Mode l Types & Specifications

TABLE 5-4 CROSS REFERENCE OF CIVILIAN DOUBLE WASP

AND MILITARY R-2800 MODELS

Air Force R-2800 Navy R-2800 Double Wasp

-1 SA-G
X-2 A2-G
X-4 S8A5-G
-5 S1A4-G
-6 81A4-G
-7 A6-G
-8, -SW 8882-G
-9
-10 -10, 10W 8882-G
-11 A-G
-12 B-G
-13 A-G
-1 4W T8C2-G
-15 A-G
-16 T8B1-G
-1 7 a-g
-18 -18,-18W S8C22-G
-18WA 88C22-G
-19
-20 2SB-G
-21 TSB1-G
-22 , -22W 28C13-G
-23 88021-G
-24, X-24 8SC22-GO
-25 8882-G
-26 288-G
-27 2SB-G
-28 2SC13-G
-29 88021-G
-30W(8.P .) VSE11-G
-30W E12
-31 -31 2SB-G
-32W(8 .P.) VS8E21-G
-32W E22
-33 TSB1 -G
-34 -34, -34W, -34WA 2SC14-G
-34A, -34WA 2SC14-G
-35 TSB1-G
-36 28C14-G
-37 28C12-G
-38W 88C23-G
-39 81A4-G
-40 , -40W 28C14-G
-41 288-G

(continued on next page)

293
Chapter 5

TABLE 5-4 CROSS REFERENCE OF CIVILIAN DOUBLE WASP

AND MILITARY R-2800 MODELS (Continued)

Air Force R-2800 Navy R-2800 Double Wasp

-42W CE21
-43 2SB-G
-44, -44W CE4
-4S 2SB-G
-46 -46W CAS
-47 2SB-G
-48 CB2
-49 TSB-G
-so CBS
-SOA CBS
-S1 2SB-G
-S2, -S2WA CB17
-S3 SSB2-GD
-S4 CBS
-SS SSC22-GD
-S7 TSC2-G
-S9 TSB1-G
-61 TSC2-GD
-63 TSB1-G
-6S SSB2-G
-67 2SB-G
-69 2SB-G
-71 2SB-G
-73 TSC2-G
-7S 2SB-G
-77 TSC2-G
-79 2SB-G
-81 TSC2-G
-83, A 2SC14-G
-83WA 2SC14-G
-8S, A 2SC14-G
-8SXA 2SC14-G
-87 TSC3-G
-89 2SC1-G
-91 2SC14-G
-93 2SC14-G
-9S CA1S
-97 CA18
-99W CB17
-101 TSC2-G
-103W CB17

294
 TABLE 5-5 OPERATING CURVE INDEX- DOUBLE WASP COMMERCIAL ENGINES

CA3 CA 15 CA18 CB2 CB3 CB 4 CB16 CB17 MILITARY

Approximate Military Counterpart -95 -97 -48 -52W, -99W, -103W
Specification Number 8 111 8116 8 124 8 135 8140 8141 8138 8139
Installation Drawing Number 953 10 95301 953 10 13670 1 136701 136701 13670 1 13670 1
A.T.C. Number 231 23 1 231 M ILITARY 264 264 264 264
Specification Curve Number T -995 T-1003 T-1 0 16 T-1086 T-1126 T-1127 T- 11 15 T-1 11 6

Specification Operating Instruction No. 0.1.82 0.1.80 0. 1.84 0.1.91 0 .1.112 0.1.108 0.1. 11 3
Fuel Grade 100/ 130 100/ 130 100/130 115/ 145 100/130 108/135 100/130 108/ 135
Low & High Blower Gear Ratios 7.29:1 7.29 & 9.45:1 7.29:1 & 9.1:1 7.29:1 7 .29: 1 7.29:1 7.29:1 & 8.58:1 7.29:1 & 8 .58: 1
lmoeller Diameter - Inches 11 .5 11 .5 11.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5 12.5
Humidity Effect on BHP 7239 7239 7239 7239 7239 7239 7239 7239
% Best Power BHP vs. F/A - 20 Degrees SA 7243 7243 7243 7243 7243 7243 7243 7243
% Best Power BHP vs. F/A - 35 Degrees SA 7242 7242 7242 7242 7242 7242 7242 7242
% Best Economy BSFC vs. F/ A - 20 Degrees 7236
SA 7236 7236 7236 7236 7236 7236 7236
Exhaust Back Pressure Correction Curves:
Report Number PWA Inst. 198
(A) MFHP vs. rpm 7234 7234 7234 7234 7234 7234 7234 7234
(B) FA vs. PX/PM 7231 723 1 7231 723 1 723 1 723 1 7231 723 1
(C) PHP vs. PX-PM (Motoring) 7225 7225 7225 7225 7225 7225 7225 7225
(D) PHP vs. PX-PM (Firing) 7228 7228 7228 7228 7228 7228 7228 7228
CHT Correction Curve 16792 16792 16792 16792 16792 16792 16792 16792
Back Pressure Correction Curve 8749 8749 8749 16433 16433 16433 16433 16433
Operating Curve - Auto-Rich 1747, 12, 102 1745-2, -4, -12, -14 7277-2,- 4 7398-2 14829-2 16750-2 14817-2, -4 16459-2, -4
Operating Curve - Auto-Lean 1747-1 , -11 , -101 1745-1 , -3, -11 , -13 7277-1 , -3 7398-1 14829- 1 16750- 1 14817-1 , -3 16459-3, -4
Operating Curve - Best Power - Low Blower 1745-1B 1745-18 7277-18 16639-18 16639-18 16639-1B 16639-18 16459-1B
Operating Curve - Best Power - High Blower 1745-3B 7277-3B 16639-3F 16459-3B
Fuel Flow vs. BHP at Best Economy - Low 1745-1F 1745-1F 7277-1F 16639-1 F 16639-1 F 16639-1 B 16639-1F 16459-1F, -102F
Fuel Flow vs. BHP at Best Economy - High 1745-3F 7277-3F 16639-3F 16459-3F, -302 F

Air Flow Curve - Standard Conditions 1651 3- 1 16513-1 , -2 1651 3-1 16506-1 16506-1 16506-1 16506-1. -2 16506-1 , -2
Air Flow Curve -100 F Cat. 31 in. Hg. Back 8749 8749 8749 16433 16433 16433 16433 16433
Pressure
Carburetor Setting Curves:
PR-58-E5-4 7282 7282 7282
PR-58-E5-5 7256 7256
PR-58-E5-15
PR-58-E5-16
PR-58-E5-17
PR-58-E5-19
PR-58-E5-22
PR-58-E5-25
PR-58-E5-27
PR-58-E5- 174
PR-58-E5-29
 TABLE 5-6 YEARLY PRODUCTION OF R-2800

1939 1940 1941 1942 19431944 1945 1946 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1952 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960
E. Hartford 2 17 1469 5431 769616816 3819 472 11 72 956 478 546 817 1051 2028 1409 764 583 681 384 3 7
Kansas City 1 2744 5274
Chevrolet 327 3955
Ford 264 6403 13337 24196 13437
Nas h 6 2692 9259 5030 5 494 677
Totals 2 17 1733 11840 23726 44083 31515 472 1172 956 478 546 817 1056 2522 2086 764 583 681 384 3 7
Grand Total : 125,443 engines (Ref. 5.6)

2400

2300

a.;
N a: :!; 2200 - --+---i 1. 15 ::C
\D w
3:
$: ~
°' 0
0
0.. I
0..
w w 2100 I.I 0 i:
"'a:
0
VI
a:
0
(!)

w
J: :I: 3:
w 2000 1.05
u. u
"'
~
a: 1!:100
u.
0
I
LL
(3
ID
w
1900 1.00 ~
"'
~ "'
1800 .95

A B c CA A B c CA
Fig. 5. 26 This figure shows the dramatic improvement in power ENGINE SER I ES
and lower specific weight with the introduction of each series of
engine: "A," "B, " " C, " and "CA." For purposes of comparison,
Fig. 5.27 This .figure again shows the improvement in altitude
all engines were single-stage. (Courtesy ofPratt & Whitney.)
performance of "A, " "B, " " C, " and "CA" series. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)
 M odel Types & Specifications

Fig. 5.26 shows the dramatic improvement in power and lower specific weight with the introduction
of each series of engine: "A," "B," " C," and "CA. " For purposes of comparison, all engines were
single stage.

Fig. 5.27 again shows the improvement in altitude performance of "A," "B," " C," and "CA" series .

References
5.1 Symposium Lecture #2 General Pratt & Whitney Engine Specifications.

3.7 Index of Double Wasp & R-2800 Designated Engines, Pratt & Whitney document revised
5/15/55.

2.1 The Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Story, Pratt & Whitney Div., United Aircraft Corp. , East Hart-
ford, Conn. , 15 May 1952.

2.6 Harvey Lippincott, former Pratt & Whitney archivist, correspondence and interviews with
author, 1993-1994.
3.1 Meloy, George E. , Report on History of R-2800 Engine Development, September 10, 1938,
through May 30, 19 39, internal report issued by Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 17, 1939.
3.2 P&W A Reciprocating Engines Historical Data. Undated internal report generated within
Pratt & Whitney.
3.4 Overhaul Manual, Double Wasp A and B Series Single Stage Engines, Third Edition, Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft, July 1943.

3.8 Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines (R-2800-8, -10, -8W: and -lOW) , Second Edition,
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, January 1944.

4.1 Close, W.J. , Development of the R-2800 Engine, Pratt & Whitney internal report.
4.5 Overhaul Manual. Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, East
Hartford, Conn., January 1944.
4.6 Buck, Richard S. , Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, Technical Notes National Advisory Committee
For Aeronautics, No. 794, Two Stage Supercharging, Washington, 1941.
4.7 Description and Preliminary Operating Instructions R-2800-29, Submerged Double Wasp ,
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, March 15, 1944.
4.8 Overhaul Manual. Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, East
Hartford, Conn. , July 1, 1945.
5.2 Double Wasp (R-2800) CB Series Overhaul Manual, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Group, United
Technologies, March 1957, revised February 1980.
5.3 Double Wasp CA Series Overhaul Manual , Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Group, United Technol-
ogies, reissued January 1957, revised May 1974.

297
Chapter 5

5.4 Double Wasp CA-3, CA18, CB3 , CB16 and CBI 7 Engines Illustrated Parts Catalog, Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft Group, United Technologies, reissued May 1960, revised April 1982.

4.18 Service Manual for Aircraft Engines Models R-2800-30W and -32W, published under the
authority of the Secretary of the Air Force, dated 1 January 1949.

5.5 Handbook of Overhaul Instructions for the Model R-2800-5 , -27, -31 , -35, -41 and -43 Manu-
factured by Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, East Hartford, Conn ., and Ford Motor Company, Dear-
born, Mich. , published by Authority of the Conunanding General A1my Air Forces, June 20,
19424.

5.6 Lippincott, Harvey H. , A History ofthe Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp (R-2800) Engine ,
United Technologies Archives.

298
 Chapter 6

Carburetors

The whole purpose of an internal combustion engine is to bum fuel as efficiently and rapidly as
possible. A key component in this process is the carburetor. Unlike its road going brethren, the
aircraft carburetor has to deal with several additional requirements: leaning of the mixture at alti-
tude, and maintaining the correct mixture during aerobatics maneuvers. Furthermore, most aircraft
engines are run at positive manifold pressure, i.e. , above atmospheric even during cruise conditions.
Some of the requirements demanded of an aircraft carburetion system include:

(i) Despite the considerable flywheel effect offered by the propeller, a relatively rich mixture for
smooth and steady idling (or "tickover" as our British cousins like to refer to it).

(ii) A weak mixture, i.e., something approaching or even leaner than stoichiometric, for economi-
cal cruising.

(iii) A medium weak mixture for normal cruising.

(iv) A medium rich mixture at rated or METO (maximum except takeoff) power.

(v) A rich mixture for takeoff and emergency combat power.

(vi) A momentary rich mixture for acceleration, i.e., rapid power increase.

(vii) Automatic regulation of the mixture strength to sea level conditions at any mixture setting.

(viii) De-richment when ADI is employed.

Based on the foregoing, several choices are faced by the carburetion system designer. These include:
(a) conventional float type, (b) direct, timed multi-port injection, or (c) continuous single point
injection. Float type carburetors have their limitations, primarily sensitivity to aerobatics maneu-
vers. The British found this out during the Battle of Britain in the summer of 1940. Desperately

299
Chapter 6

warding off the ferocious daily German air attacks, the SU carburetor equipped Rolls-Royce Merlins
suffered from the effects of negative "G" maneuvers resulting in engine cut-outs. Although it is
possible to make a float carburetor operate under unusual "G" forces, as in fact the British did with
later SU carburetors, at best it is a Band-Aid. Whilst direct injection offers some key advantages
such as a total absence of induction or refrigerator icing and consistent mixture distribution, it suf-
fers a loss of performance compared to a float carburetor or continuous single point injection. Under
supercharged conditions, i.e., manifold pressures greater than atmospheric, the mixture is heated . In
fact the mixture is also heated under conditions of less than atmospheric due to the fact that no
supercharger is 100 percent efficient. Anything less than 100 percent efficiency is converted into
heat, along with heat generated from compression, which is transferred to the induction air. And we
know heat is the enemy of detonation resistance. Multi-port injection offers no evaporative cooling
to the fuel/air mixture. However, it has been argued that the volumetric efficiency of multi-port
direct injection is greater due to the absence of venturis located in the induction system . Clearly, in
order to run at the highest manifold pressure the engine can withstand, several conditions need to be
recognized: the requirement for a high performance fuel and a relatively low induction temperature.
Assuming the fuel requirements have been taken care of, the engine designer can run maximum
manifold pressure and low induction temperature by the following means: (i) the point at which the
fuel is introduced has a marked effect on induction temperature, (ii) the use of intercooler(s), (iii) the
use ofaftercooler(s), and (iv) application of ADI (anti-detonation injection). Pratt & Whitney chose
to use the single point continuous injection system for all models of the R-2800. And in all cases the
fuel was injected into the eye of the supercharger impeller. In a number of military and civilian
R-2800 applications ADI was also used.

The vast majority of R-2800s were carbureted by various models of the Stromberg injection carbu-
retor, a division of Bendix. All "A" and "B" series engines were equipped with various models of
the Bendix PT-13 (Fig. 6.1). "C" series were equipped with various models of the Bendix PR-58.
"E" series: -30W and -32W were fitted with the Chandler Evans CECO PR-64 carburetor in semi-
production configuration and Bendix PR-64 in production configuration.

PT-13 and PR-5 8 series of carburetors operated on the same theory. The PT-13 utilizes three round
barrels with a circular throttle plate in each barrel. As its name suggests, the PR-58 (Fig. 6.2) has 58
square inches of throat area. Instead of the more conventional round barrels it uses a pair of rectan-
gular barrels. Each barrel is throttled by a pair ofrectangular throttle plates-four in all.

Description of the Bendix/Stromberg Injection Carburetor

(Ref 6.1)

Fig. 6.3 (see color section) shows a schematic diagram of the fuel and air circuits . Fig. 6.4 shows an
exploded view of a PT-13. PR-5 8s are similar, the primary difference being the larger throat area.

Bendix injection carburetors are made up of the following major sub-assemblies: (i) the throttle
body unit, (ii) automatic mixture control or AMC, (iii) regulator body unit, (iv) fuel control body

300
 Carburetors

Fig. 6.1 Bendix PT-13 carburetor fitted to "A "/"B" series R-2800s. (Handbook Overhaul
Instructions for Stromberg Injection Carburetor Models PT-13. Authors collection.)

unit, and (v) adapter body unit. The engine driven pump, usually a Pesco positive displacement
vane type pump, delivers fuel to the fuel inlet connection of the carburetor. Fuel pressure is regu-
lated at the pump to 14 to 16 psi (Fig. 6.5) . Once the fuel enters the carburetor it is metered in
proportion to the mass air flow passing through the venturis and is then injected via the fuel feed
valve into the slinger ring at approximately 5 psi. Conventional throttle plates control mass air flow
into the supercharger; however, no fuel passes through the air circuits of the carburetor. The fact that
no fuel is discharged into the carburetor eliminates refrigeration icing on the throttle plates and
venturis. Flow of fuel into the carburetor is a system of flexible diaphragms. These diaphragms
respond to the pressure differential across the venturi assembly, i.e. , it compares the pressure inside
the venturi and the pressure in the impact tubes. Fuel is then metered by fixed jets . The carburetor
is fully automatic regarding changes in altitude, throttle position, power enrichment for high power
settings, atmospheric pressure, and temperature. Four operating positions are incorporated on the
pilot's mixture control: idle cut-off, automatic lean, automatic rich, and full rich. In full rich the
automatic mixture control is bypassed. An accelerator pump is incorporated to handle rapid power
changes.

301
Chapter 6

Fig. 6.2 Bendix PR-58 carburetor fitted to "C" series R-2800s. (Handbook Overhaul Instruc-
tions for Stromberg Injection Carburetor Models PR-58. Author :S collection.)

Description of the Major Sub-Assemblies

Throttle Body Unit

The throttle body unit (item 48 in Fig. 6.4) is the main casting to which the other four units attach.
It contains the main air passages or barrels, which contains the throttle butterflies. Precision needle
bearings support the throttle shaft. Situated at the top are the venturis, one set for each barrel that in
conjunction with the impact tubes read mass air flow via the pressure differential. This pressure
differential is used as a signal across the main air diaphragm system.

Automatic Mixture Control (AMC)

The AMC is a self-contained assembly shown sectioned in Fig. 6.6 and item 4 in Fig. 6.4. It
operates by restricting the channel between the impact tubes and chamber A by means of the auto-
matic mixture control needle valve (item 18 in Fig. 6.6), which has the effect of reducing the pres-
sure in that chamber. The key components are: the capsule with its calibrated spring and the contoured
needle. This assembly is housed in a cylindrical metal case ventilated to the atmosphere. This
ensures that atmospheric changes are registered on the capsule. The capsule is made from one piece
of thin, corrugated brass, partly filled with low viscosity oil as a damping medium. The remaining

302
 Carburetors

Fig. 6. 4(A) PT-1 3 throttle body. See key to this illustration on page 304. (Handbook Overhaul
Instructions for Stromberg Injection Carburetor Models PT-13. Authors collection.)

303
Chapter 6

KEY TO FIGURE 6.4

1. Plate - Specification
2. Screw - Sell tapping,
No. 2 by 3/16 in.
3. Decalcomania - Rubber
parts cure date
4. Automatic Mixture
Control Ass embly
5. Clamp - Automatic
Mixture Control
6. Gasket - Automatic
mixture control
7. Tube Assembly -
Acceleration pump
8. Elbow
9. Elbow
10. Tube Assembly -
Acceleration pump
11. Elbow
12. Elbow
13. Link - Throttle to Idle
14. Pin - Cotter
15. Nut - No. 10-32 31. Brace - Throttle body
16. Washer to fuel control (upper)
17 . Bolt - Throttle 32. Nut - Elastic stop
idle link 33. Washer
18. Washer 34. Washer - Brace aligning
19. Washer 35. Nut • Elastic stop
20. Washer 36 . Washer
21. Washer - Spring 37. Gasket
22. Bushing - Throttle idle 38. Fuel Control Assembly
link bolt 39. Nut - Elastic stop
23 . Valve Assembly - Electric 40. Washer
primer 41. Nut - Elastic stop
24. Nut - Elastic stop 42. Washer
25 . Washer 43. Nut - Elastic stop
26. Gasket - Electric 44. Washer
primer valve 45. Gasket - Regulator to
27 . Stud fuel control (upper)
28. Brace - Throttle body 46. Gasket - Regulator to
to fuel control (lower) fue l control (lower)
29. Nut - Eastic stop 47 . Regulator - Assembly
30 . Washer 48. Throttle Body Assembly

Fig. 6. 4(B) Above is the key to Fig. 6. 4(A).

space is filled with inert nitrogen. The nitrogen reacts to the changes in temperature and pressure.
The spring is specially calibrated and places a light pre-load on the capsule. The small rotary valve
is linked to the pilot's mixture control. When open, it bypasses the automatic mixture control conse-
quently giving full rich. A passage connecting air chambers A and B (see Fig. 6.3) together with the
small restriction jet known as the mixture control bleed provides a constant circulation of air from
the impact tubes, past the automatic mixture control needle orifice through chambers A and B to the
boost venturi. At ground level this small leakage is of no consequence because the area of the needle
orifice is considerably larger than that of the mixture control bleed . Therefore the full effect of the
pressure differential across the impact tubes and venturi is imposed across the air diaphragm. As the
aircraft ascends the capsule will expand under the influence of lower outside pressure. Expansion of
the bellows pushes the needle down into the orifice, paitly restricting its effective area resulting in
less air to pass into the chamber A. The higher the altitude the greater the expansion of the capsule
and the more the needle will restrict the orifice . Restriction of the orifice causes the pressure in
chamber A to come closer to the pressure in chamber B. As the pressure differential across the two
air chambers A and B reduces so does the fuel flow and consequently the mixture is leaned as the
aircraft ascends . The contour of the needle, the calibration of the capsule spring and the size of the
mixture control bleed are proportioned to produce the required changes in fuel flow with varying
altitudes . From the foregoing it is apparent that the AMC is a sensitive component that can have dire
consequences in the event that it is maladjusted. Therefore, the capsule assembly is secured with a
safety wired lock nut. The safety wire also has a tamper evident lead seal.

304
 Carburetors

I . By -pou Voh•e 11
2. Melo llic Sea l
3. 0 ;1 Seol
.4 . Rotot Shof1
5 . Seal Oroin
6. Steel BlodH
7 . S lee t liner 9
8. Rel ief '/olve
9 . Relief Valve Vent
10. Valve Ad ju1tin9 Screw
11 . Valve Cop Nu t

Fig. 6. 5 Typical engine driven fuel pump. All engine driven fuel pumps are of the positive dis-
placement vane type. They are regulated to a pressure of 15 psi to 18 psi. (Overhaul Manual
Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Authors
collection.)

Regulator Assembly

This sub-assembly is attached to the large circular flange on the side of the throttle body (item 47 in
Fig. 6.4). It contains the main fuel control valve, also known as the poppet valve, which together
with the large diaphragms control the amount of fuel entering the carburetor (in conjunction with the
AMC). It also proportions the metering head across the jets in accordance with the mass air flow
passing through the venturis and impact tubes. The regulator is divided into three separate cham-
bers: the strainer chamber, the fuel diaphragm chamber, and the air diaphragm chamber. The wire
mesh fuel strainer and vapor eliminator are housed in the strainer chamber.

305
Chapter 6

0 ADJUSTMENT THREAD \
r(lo) NEEDLE ADJUSTl.AENT
LOCKNUT

® DAMPING FLUI \ II/ 0 SCFtEEN

\ II
I 12 NEEDLE RETAINI NG
WASHER

© BELLOWS ASSEMBLY

0 PLUNGER----~~l>r-.
© FELT WASHER""""\ Fig. 6. 6 Cross section

0 FO.RM ICA BUSHING

\ through the AMC or auto-
matic mixture control. This
device maintained the same
®SCREEN . ......._____
mixture regardless of
altitude. (Handbook
Overhaul Instructions for
® RUBBER PACKING _ _ -@NEEDL E
Stromberg Injection Carbu-
retor Models PT-13.
Authors collection.)

Fuel Control Assembly

Item 38 in Fig 6.4 shows this unit in position on the left of the regulator body to which it is attached .
This assembly contains the metering jets, power enrichment system, idle needle, and pilot's manual
mixture control.

Principle of Operation (Refer to Fig. 6.3)

Regulator

The regulator is divided into two sections: air and fuel. The air section is divided into two chambers
A and B briefly described in the foregoing. The flexible air diaphragm is connected by means of a
rod with the poppet valve of the fuel section. This poppet valve controls the flow of fuel into the
carburetor. When the engine is running, a pressure differential is created across the impact tubes
(ram air from the carburetor air scoop) and the venturi . This pressure differential or signal, is con-
veyed across the air diagram. The venturi will show a lower pressure than that at the impact tubes.
Therefore chamber B, which is connected to the venturi will be at a lower pressure than chamber A,
which is connected to the impact tubes . This forces the air diaphragm to the right, opening the
poppet valve and admitting fuel into chamber D of the regulator 's fuel section.

306
 Carburetors

Fuel Section

The fuel section contains three chambers, the two on the left of Fig. 6.3 being separated by the fuel
diaphragm thus creating chambers C and D. On the lower right is the fuel strainer chamber. The fuel
diaphragm is the same diameter as the air diaphragm. The fuel diaphragm is also connected to the
poppet valve rod, as is the air diaphragm. Consequently, both diaphragms move in unison. On the
lower right is the strainer chamber which also houses the main fuel inlet connection. The middle
chamber, D, contains fuel that has flowed passed the poppet valve and is known as the unmetered
fuel chamber. Chamber C on the left contains fuel that has flowed through the metering jets in the
fuel control body and is called the metered fuel chamber.

Fuel Feed J;alve

After being metered by the carburetor, fuel is carried through the fuel transfer tube to the fuel feed
valve. It is housed in a machined passage in the intermediate rear case section of the engine. Fuel
flows , under the influence of approximately 5 psi pressure, to the fuel feed valve housing through a
passage in the case which connects with the fuel transfer tube from the carburetor. Although the
pressure of the metered fuel exerted outwardly against the fuel feed valve diaphragm (Fig. 6. 7) is
less than the force exerted by the fuel feed valve spring inwardly against the stem, the valve remains
sealed against the discharge end of the valve housing, consequently shutting off fuel flow. When the
fuel pressure acting against the fuel feed valve diaphragm exceeds the force of the spring, the valve
will rise off its seat. Under these conditions, fuel is sprayed into the supercharger insert liner, into
the slinger ring, into the base of the impeller, and is flung out at high velocity through the galleries
drilled between each vane of the impeller. At this point the fuel expands and mixes with the com-
pressed air resulting in a beneficial drop in induction temperature .

The fuel feed valve performs four key functions: (1) as a check valve it prevents fuel from leaking
into the supercharger when the engine is shut down, thus eliminating a source of hydraulic lock and
a fire hazard; (2) the fuel feed valve spring keeps the metered fu el under constant pressure, which
aids in preventing vapor from forming in the fuel transfer system and the carburetor jets; (3) the fuel
feed valve assembly ensures that fuel is injected under positive pressure rather than a partial vacuum
as would be the case in a conventional float carburetor-this improves fuel atomization and distribu-
tion; and (4) spring force exerted on the valve stem assembly is directly proportional to the metered
fuel pressure in chamber C. Consequently, the pressure of the fuel in chamber C is equal to, and
controlled by, the pressure required to open the discharge nozzle needle of the fuel feed valve. The
pressure differential between the metered fuel in chamber C and the umnetered fu el in chamber D
constitutes the fuel metering force . Because the area bet\veen the fuel feed valve cover and the
diaphragm of the fuel feed valve assembly and the area above the diaphragm of the fuel pump relief
valve are vented to the same pressure, a constant differential between the pressure of fuel discharged
by the nozzle and the pressure of fuel at the carburetor inlet is maintained regardless of altitude.

307
Chapter 6

COVER

·. tws ~

FRONT RUBBER OIL SEAL RING

OIL SEAL RING

4
1
GUIDE
SPRING

NUT
WASHERS

DIAPHRAGM
RETAINING RING
CAP SCREWS

ASSEMBLY
SAFETYING SCREWS

Fig. 6. 7 The fuel feed valve, shown here, injects fuel into the supercharger impeller. It operates
on the pintel valve principle, i.e., fuel pressure lifts a valve off its seat thus releasing the appropri-
ate amount offuel. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt &
Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Author's collection.)

Operation of the Regulator

Based on the foregoing it is now possible to trace the passage of fuel through the carburetor. As
noted above, the main engine fuel pump delivers fuel at 14 to 16 psi. The fuel is fed into the strainer
chamber shown in Fig. 6.3. After passing through the strainer fuel enters fuel chamber D through
the poppet valve. If the engine is running, fuel flows through the metering jets in the fuel control
body into fuel chamber C and then into the fuel transfer system and finally into the fuel feed valve.
Under steady state conditions, which means the air flow through the venturis and impact tubes
remains unchanged, the fuel delivery to the engine will be proportional to the mass air flow and the
regulator system will be balanced. If the throttle is opened and allowing more air to pass through the
venturis and impact tubes, the pressure differential will be increased. This will result in an increase
in depression in chamber B that is connected to the venturis and an increase in pressure in chamber
A which is connected to the impact tubes. This means the air diaphragm will move to the right-
opening the poppet valve a greater amount and admitting more fuel. As soon as the air flow change
is stabilized the regulator will come into equilibrium again and maintain the fuel flow constant in the
required relation to the air flow so long as the latter remains uniform. If the throttle is closed,
decreased air flow will reduce the pressure differential across the air diaphragm and the poppet

308
 Carburetors

valve will move towards the closed position, thus reducing the fuel supply, when conditions will
again become stabilized. This automatic balance in the regulator is the result of the air metering
force of the air section working against the fuel metering force of the fuel section. Under conditions
of constant air flow, the pressure differential across the fuel diaphragm (chambers C and D) will
always be of an equal force but in the opposite direction to that of the air section (chambers A and
B). As an example, if the throttle opening and air flow are such that a pressure differential of 1 psi
exists across the venturi system, i.e., the difference between the impact tubes and the venturis and
the absolute pressure inside the ram air scoop and the impact tubes is 15 psi, this pressure will be
transmitted to chamber A. Using the example cited above, the pressure in air chamber B will be 1 psi
less or 14 psi absolute. It has already been noted that the nozzle pressure at the fuel feed valve is
about 5 psi above atmospheric resulting in an absolute pressure in fuel chamber C of 20 psi . Since
at any constant air flow the pressure differential across the fuel diaphragm is equal and opposite to
that of the air section, fuel chamber D pressure will be 1 psi greater than in fuel chamber C, or 21 psi
absolute when the system is in equilibrium. The pressure existing in the strainer chamber will be
that regulated by the pressure pump or 14 to 16 psi or in this case 29 to 31 psi absolute.

Assuming the throttle is opened creating a pressure differential of 2 psi across the venturis and
impact tubes, the engine will demand more fuel. The absolute pressure in the various chambers will
therefore be 15 psi in air chamber A, 13 psi in air chamber B, 20 psi in fuel chamber C, and still 21
psi in fuel chamber D. The air metering force of 2 psi overcomes the existing fuel metering force of
1 psi and the diaphragm assembly moves to the right resulting in a wider opening of the poppet valve
which admits more fuel to the fuel feed valve (described as "discharge nozzle valve" in Fig. 6.3).
Upon stabilization of the air flow, the diaphragm assembly will assume equilibrium. Assuming a
stabilized equilibrium of 2 psi differential, the fuel metering force will also be 2 psi so that the
absolute pressures will be 15 psi in air chamber A, 13 psi in air chamber B, 20 psi in fuel chamber C,
and 22 psi in fuel chamber D. Consequently, at any stabilized condition of air flow the equilibrium
of the diaphragm assembly may be expressed as follows:

Air chamber A pressure minus air chamber B pressure = fuel chamber D pressure minus fuel cham-
ber C pressure

Therefore, the sum of the forces acting on one given side of the two diaphragms will equal the sum
of the forces on the other side-or:

A+C =B+D

For perfect equilibriwn in the regulator system, chamber D pressure is brought to the outside of the
poppet valve diaphragm by the two channels shown in Fig. 6.3 and also to the outside of the small
balance diaphragm at the extreme opposite end of the poppet valve stem by similar channels as
shuwn. A third small diaphragm forms a flexible seal between fuel chambers B and C. Chambers C
and D are vented internally to eliminate vapor or air in the system. Air chambers A and B are in
communication at the bottom via a small restrictor jet known as the mixture-control bleed. This

309
Chapter 6

channel plays a key function in maintaining automatic mixture control. The suction passage from
the boost venturi is also vented to the throttle barrel (drain bleed) so that any rain or other liquid
lying in chambers A or B is sucked out under the influence of intake suction.

Idle Spring and the Idle Needle

At small throttle openings when there is a minimum air flow through the venturis and impact tubes,
the pressure differential is insufficient to overcome hysteresis in the rubber diaphragms and thus
reliable metering is questionable. Under these conditions, the poppet valve is biased towards the
open position by the idle spring and the mixture corrected as required over this portion of the range
by the idle needle. This needle is placed in the main fuel passage from fuel chamber D to the jet
system and is linked to the throttle in such a manner that it performs the metering during the first ten
degrees of throttle opening, after which it is completely withdrawn and the diaphragms take over
control. The needle is contoured to produce the required fuel flow during this early travel.

Manual Mixture Control

Situated on the pilot's throttle quadrant or flight engineer 's panel, not to be confused with the auto-
matic mixture control, the manual mixture control determines the fuel/air mixture being injected
into the engine (Fig. 6.8). The flight crew's linkage operates a rotary plate valve on the carburetor
that provides four positions: idle cut-off, automatic lean, automatic rich, and full rich. In the idle
cut-off position all fuel is cut off from the engine. This is in contrast to a float type carburetor where
only the idle fuel supply is stopped at idle cut-off. When the carburetor is set to automatic lean, only
the auto-lean jet is open. In automatic rich, both auto-lean and auto-rich jets are open. With full
rich, the valve plate moves a relatively small amount allowing the automatic mixture control bypass
valve to open.

Fig. 6.8 Pilot's throttle

quadrant showing the classic
arrangement of throttle,
propeller, and mixture con-
trols. (Pi lot's Flight Operat-
ing Instructions for Army
Models B-26B-1 and B-26C.
25 December 1943, revised 30
April 1945. Author's
collection.)

310
 Carburetors

Metering System

Although the regulator assembly, i.e ., the air and fuel diaphragm assembly, in conjunction with the
AMC, ensures the delivery of a constant mixture ratio, this condition does not fulfill all engine
power requirements. In other words, different mixture strengths are required for different operating
and power conditions . Looking at Fig. 6.3 it can be seen that the fuel flowing from chamber D
through the metering jets first passes the idle needle, the contour of which controls fuel metering
during the first 10 degrees of throttle opening . Beyond this point the fuel delivery is governed by the
main metering system . As previously described, due to diaphragm hysteresis, the fuel diaphragm is
pre-loaded to give a rich idle mixture. The idle needle also fo1ms the means of adjusting the idle
mixture. This adjustment is provided ex.1:ernally whereby the initial position of the needle may be
moved in or out thus regulating the idle mixture . When the throttle is opened to the cruise range with
the pilot's manual mixture control set in auto-lean, fuel will flow past the idle needle, through the
auto-lean jet, past the manual mixture control valve plates to the fuel feed valve. ·If, under cruise
conditions, the mixture is set to auto-rich, fuel flow will take place through the power enrichment
and auto-rich jets (these jets being in series), through the appropriate orifice in the manual mixture
control plates thus augmenting the fuel flow from the auto-lean jet and increasing mixture strength.
Enrichment for high power is provided by the power enrichment valve, which, when open, permits
additional fuel to flow through the mixture control valve plates and the auto-rich jet. The enrich-
ment valve is a tapered needle working in an orifice, the movement of the needle being governed by
a small diaphragm . The diaphragm is operated by fuel differential pressure. The opening point and
rate of opening is controlled by the calibration of the enrichment valve spring and the needle's taper.
The diaphragm chamber is vented to eliminate vapor and airlock.

Accelerator Pump

Mounted on the throttle body unit, the accelerator pump (Fig. 6.9) compensates for the inherent lag
in fuel flow during sudden accelerations or rapid throttle opening. The throttle actuated accelerator
pump operates by momentarily unbalancing the poppet valve. It consists of a piston operating in a
cylinder. An inlet check valve allows fuel to enter the pump cylinder when the piston is retarded.
Upon opening of the throttle, the piston travels into the cylinder, forcing fuel through a channel to
the balance chamber in the regulator unit. This momentary increase in balance chamber pressure
opens the poppet valve increasing fuel flow to the fuel feed valve. The duration of the increased fuel
discharge is controlled by two bleeds located in channels leading to and from the balance chamber in
the regulator front body.

Anti-Detonation Injection (ADI)

Aircraft engine designers continually pushed the envelope regarding how much manifold pressure
to feed the engine. Pratt & Whitney were not alone in this elusive pursuit of the Holy Grail of
detonation free operation . Factors influencing detonation include: (i) supercharger efficiency, i.e. ,
an inefficient supercharger generates heat, (ii) fuel octane rating or performance number, (iii) fuel
air mixture, (iv) manifold pressure, (v) cylinder head temperature, and (vi) charge temperature.

311
Chapter 6

DIAGRAM OF DOUBLE DIAPHRAGM ACCELERATION PUMP

@ COTTER PIN /
""' 19 NOZZLE GASKET
FIL. HEAD SCREW
@SPRING CUP
@ DIAPHRAGM WASHER
@)HEX. N U T - - - - - - - - l

Fig 6. 9 Cross section through an accelerator pump. Like the carburetor, it operates off differen-
tial pressure between boost tube and venturi pressures. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series
Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945. Authors collection.)

312
 Carburetors

The transverse is also true of the above; increased supercharger efficiency creates less heat and
therefore allows higher manifold pressure before detonation sets in. Fuel performance is key to the
amount of manifold pressure. To a limited degree, a rich fuel/air mixture holds down detonation.
The limit is mixtures with 60 percent excess fuel; after this the trend reverses and the engine is more
detonation prone. Manifold pressure is another key element to detonation. Most high performance
supercharged aircraft engines are capable of generating more manifold pressure than is good for
them, i.e., the supercharger is capable of producing manifold pressures capable of causing detona-
tion. This is particularly true at lower altitudes. In the case of the R-2800, judicious pilot/flight
engineer technique must be used. Cylinder head temperature must be kept at the optimum. High
combustion chamber temperatures promote detonation; on the other hand too low a head tempera-
ture will cause poor combustion. High charge temperature caused by high manifold pressure and/or
an inefficient supercharger is another prime cause of detonation. Based on the foregoing the ques-
tion is begged, what can be done? The answer is water. When finely atomized and mixed with the
fuel it has wonderful anti-detonation characteristics. Several factors account for this: the water acts
as a coolant to the superheated and compressed charge when delivered into the intake system; and
secondly during combustion the water reduces the flame temperature. Therefore, an instant increase
in fuel performance number is available on demand or automatically. Furthermore, with water injec-
tion the requirement for running a rich mixture is now eliminated. This also allows the engine to be
tuned nearer to the maximum power point. Therefore, with the ADI system activated, an automatic
"de-richrnent" valve leans the carburetor. Clearly, high altitude operations create a problem with
water; temperatures are typically below freezing. To overcome this problem an antifreeze additive
was needed and preferably something that would contribute to the combustion process. The anti-
freeze of choice is methanol or in some cases ethanol.

Water Regulator

Now that a method has been devised for permitting higher manifold pressure, a reliable system
needs to be in place to deliver the water/alcohol or ADI mixture to the engine. In the case of the
R-2800 a sophisticated water regulator is used (Fig. 6.10).

Fuel Injection

From 1935 to 1941 the U.S. Navy gathered information on the pros and cons of fuel injection.
Contrary to popular belief, the Navy concluded that "at no time had fael injection shown itself to be
even moderately superior to carburetion in improvement of engine performance, while on the other
hand it had repeatedly indicated that fael injection would offer serious problems in manufacture,
maintenance, overhaul, and general reliability. " Clearly, it could be argued that some of the Navy's
findings were flawed. For instance, the Germans proved that direct fuel injection could be success-
fully implemented without the manufacturing, maintenance, overhaul, and general reliability con-
cerns expressed by the Navy. However, in 1941, as engines increased in displacement with engines

313
Chapter 6

UNM ETE.REO FUEL WAT ER lR ANSFER CHECK VALV E CHAMBER

OPENING PIPE PAD VENT PLUG

JET COVER
PLUG

POPPE T VALVE
COV ER

ELECTR ICAL
CONNECTION

Fig 6.10 For engines fitted with ADI capability, a water regulator is required. Usually
mounted on the side of the supercharger, it comes into play at high manifold pressures when
takeoff or war emergency power is required. The term "water regulator " is somewhat of a
misnomer because the fluid is actually a 50-50 mixture water and methanol. (Overhaul
Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft, July 1945.
Authors collection.)

such as the R-2800 and Wright R-3350, concerns were raised about even mixture distribution. The
problems of uneven distribution were well understood in 1941; however, the best way to resolve this
concern was to test it. Therefore, fuel injection deserved another look, the rationale being that a
controlled and precise amount of fuel could be injected into the combustion chamber thus ensuring
even distribution. In actuality, the opposite occurred I Whilst the same amount of fuel was injected
into the cylinder, differing mass air flows occurred within the intake system, therefore the problem
of uneven mixture distribution still existed. Again, the Navy concluded that the perceived advan-
tages of fuel injection simply did not exist. Exacerbating the negative effects of fuel injection was
the loss of charge cooling.

To further bolster the Navy's condemnation of fuel injection, tests \Vere conducted in 1945 with a
twin-engined aircraft powered by a pair of Wright R-3350s. The conclusions reached were:

(a) There was a loss in altitude performance of the fi1el injection engine as compared to the carbu-
retion engine.

(b) The cylinder temperature spread obtained with the fuel injection engine was less than that obtained
with the carburetion engine.

314
 Carburetors

Not surprisingly, fuel injection gave a more even cylinder temperature spread because of more accu-
rate fuel metering to individual cylinders, nevertheless these results confirmed still more positively
the previous conclusions reached by the Navy. There was no performance advantage to fuel injec-
tion, and some noticeable disadvantages (Ref. 3. 72).

Speed Density Fuel Metering

Unlike direct fuel injection, speed density fuel metering offered some real advantages . Although
tested on the R-2800 it was never implemented. Still, it's worth taking a look at this interesting fuel
system that started to dominate large, high horsepower piston engines towards the end of their era.
The Bendix injection carburetor described above measures mass air flow, which in tum determines
how much fuel is injected into the intake system. Speed density systems measure mass air flow
based on throttle position and engine speed. The Navy concluded that speed density systems were
more suitable for liquid cooled inlines rather than radials. History seems to have borne this out: no
large U.S . built radials employed this fuel system. A few British radials such as the Bristol Hercules
and Centaurus used it. Liquid-cooled inlines that employed speed density included: various dash
numbers of the Allison V-1710, Packard built Rolls-Royce Merlin V-1650-11, Rolls-Royce Griffon,
and 100 series Rolls-Royce Merlins.

References
6.1 Handbook Overhaul Instructions for Injection Carburetor Models PR-58E2, PR-58E5,
15 December 1953.

6.2 Handbook Overhaul Instructions for Stromberg Injection Carburetor Models PR-58E2,
PT-l 3D6, PT-l 3Gl , PT-l 3G5, PT-l 3G6, 1October1954.
6.3 Illustrated Parts Breakdown for Injection Carburetor Mode ls PR-58E2, PR-58E5 ,
15 December 1953.

6.4 Aircraft Carburetors and Petrol Injection.

3.72 US. Navy Progress 1935- 1945 Vol. II- Power Plant Design, unpublished report compiled
by Daniel D. Whitney, 1999 .

315
 Chapter 7

Propellers

So far we have discussed how the R-2800 and its various accessories operate. But without an outlet
for its 2000 plus horsepower, it's all for naught. The vast majority of R-2800s drove some form of
propeller, the most notable exception being the helicopter power plants . Propellers for the R-2800
can take a number of shapes and types. These include three-blade, four-blade, six-blade dual rota-
tion, toothpick propeller blades or paddle blades. They can be hydraulically operated or electrically
operated. All the propellers installed on R-2800s used some form of pitch control: (i) constant speed,
(ii) variable pitch, or (iii) both. It can be imagined that when over 2000 horsepower is being transmit-
ted to a propeller, the air loads on the blades are considerable. Therefore, powerful pitch change
forces are required to maintain the governed speed. All R-2800 propellers consist of blades, a hub
assembly to retain the blades, some form of pitch control mechanism to change the angle of the
blades, and a governor to control the speed of the engine through increasing or decreasing the load on
the propeller via a pitch change. The fundamental question is, what form of power is used to change
the angle or pitch of the blades? This is where the two primary manufacturers of R-2800 propellers
differed. These two manufacturers were, of course, Curtiss Electric and Hamilton Standard. A few
R-2800 applications used the Aero Products propeller manufactured by General Motors. Curtiss
Electric and Hamilton Standard had their advantages, disadvantages, and idiosyncrasies. As we shall
see, both companies used very different design philosophies. These differences centered on the
power source to change the blade pitch. In the case of the Curtiss Electric, an electric motor was
used and for the Hamilton Standard a hydraulic power was incorporated.

Historical Perspective-1935 to 1945 (Ref. 3.72)

Date Comments
1935 Hamilton Standard introduces two-blade, two-position counterweight propeller with 10
to 20 degree pitch range with diameters of 9 to 12 feet .
This year, the Navy instigated development of the Hamilton Standard constant speed
governor. Concurrently, Curtiss commenced development of a constant speed gover-
nor for electrically operated propellers. Curtiss also started developent of an electri-
cally operated feathering propeller for multi-engined applications.

317
Chapter 7

Date Comments

1936 Testing of Curtiss and Hamilton Standard two- and three-blade constant speed propel-
lers. Curtiss performed extensive testing of their electric propeller in a Navy P2Y-3.
It was during this testing that the brush and slip ring assembly and the electro-magnetic
power unit brake were perfected.
1937 Hamilton Standard embarked upon the development of their Hydromatic propeller. This
propeller design provided a greater pitch range, higher rate of pitch change, full feather-
ing, and self-lubrication of all moving pa1ts. The Navy conducted first engine endur-
ance tests with a three-blade, 14 feet diameter Hydromatic propeller. Development of
synchronizers was started for Cmtiss Electric and Hamilton Standard.
1938 First Hamilton Standard Hydromatic full feathering propeller. Use of full feathering
propellers was soon made mandatory for multi-engined Navy aircraft.
1939/1940 In 1940 Hamilton Standard contracted by Navy to conduct vibration stress surveys on
nine Navy airplanes . Tests completed in 1940 and served to establish conservative
stress limits under which aluminum alloy blades could be safely operated. These tests
resulted in the policy of requiring propeller manufacturers to conduct vibration stress
surveys on all new propeller installations, an operating safety measure .
In 1939, the Hamilton Standard double capacity governor for Hydromatic propellers
was developed and tested at Naval Air Station, Anacosta. This was an improvement
over the single capacity governor because it overcame sluggish pitch change operation
on some engines. This resulted in the Navy changing to double capacity governors for
all their service airplanes.
In 1939 the Navy tested Curtiss Electric reversible propellers on a PB2Y for improved
water maneuvering of multi-engined seaplanes.
First Curtiss blade shank cuffs for hollow steel blades were developed and tested in
1939 . These tests resulted in the Navy and later the AAF adopting this feature for
improved cooling, particularly during ground operations and for greater efficiency.
1940 The Navy service-tested 12 foot diameter Hamilton Standard propeller blades made of
high fatigue strength aluminum alloy M-68. Completion of these tests resulted in speci-
fying higher strength alloy for blades of propeller installations subject to high vibratory
stresses. The Navy initiated development by Hamilton Standard of a dual rotation
propeller and co-axial contra-rotating gear and engine shafts for R-2800 engine in 1940.
This propeller was completed in 1944 and served as the basis for development of dual
rotation propellers, and engine noses for later experimental airplanes. The first Curtiss
four-blade constant speed propeller 12 feet, 2 inch diameter was developed for the
Navy and completed in 1940. This served as a prototype for later production Curtiss
four-blade propellers for R-2600 and R-2800 engines. In the same year Curtiss devel-
oped fast operating power units which improved the rate of pitch change of Curtiss

318
 Propellers

Date Comments
Propellers. Hamilton Standard Propellers delivered 18 foot diameter magnesium alloy
propeller blades to Navy in 1941. Whirl test resulted in permanent elongation of the
blades, and the blades were deemed unsatisfactory, and unsafe for further testing.
1941 During 1941, the Navy procured from Curtiss and Hamilton Standard 10 foot diameter
aluminum blades manufactured to the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
design drawings, with series 16 airfoil sections, various root sections, thickness, and
solidity factors , for investigation of aerodynamic characteristics in two-, three-, four-,
six- and eight-blade assemblies in the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics
Propeller Research tunnel. Tests were conducted in 194 2 and results were of value for
determining suitable airfoil sections for improved efficiency of production propellers.
Curtiss undertook development of the first four-blade 14 foot, 8 inch diameter constant
speed propeller with hollow steel blades in 1941 for the Navy. Two propellers were
delivered in 1942 and served as prototype test propellers for PBM seaplanes.
Hamilton Standard contracted in 1941 to develop a four-blade Hydromatic propeller
13 foot, 2 inch diameter suitable for use on two-speed reduction geared engines. The
propeller and governor were delivered in 1944 but were not tested due to non-availability
of two-speed engine reduction gears. Tests were completed in 1942 and resulted in
development of the governor oil accumulator for fighter aircraft with Hamilton Stan-
dard Hydromatic propellers.
1942 Curtiss contracted in 1942 to install a thrustmeter and torquemeter on a Brewster F2A
Buffalo, and conduct flight tests to determine the aerodynamic characteristics of sev-
eral propellers with different blade sections and plan forms. Tests were completed in
194 5 and results were of value for coordinating results of wind tunnel tests of propellers
with flight test results.
Aeroproducts contracted in 1942 for the development of a three-blade propeller with
self-contained, high pressure pitch change mechanism. The first propeller was deliv-
ered in 1942 and completed its type test satisfactorily. The results of this development
were applied to production Aeroproducts propellers and made possible higher rates of
pitch change of that propeller.
1943 In 1943 the Navy contracted with Hamilton Standard Propellers, for the design and
manufacture of dual rotation Super-Hydromatic propellers with SAE 50 and 70 spline
shafts and SAE 60 and 80 spline shafts, and six- and eight-blades. Delivery was made
in 1945 and tests were satisfactory other than for minor oil leaks.
Curtiss Propeller Division was given a contract in 1943 to design and develop a con-
stant speed SAE 50 and 70 spline size dual rotation propeller. Propellers were deliv-
ered in 1944 and proved generally satisfactory other than high blade stresses caused by

319
Chapter 7

Date Comments
engine reversing gears. The Wright Aeronautical Corporation and Glenn L. Martin
Company designed and manufactured a propeller-mounted fan and diffuser in 1943 for
the PBM-3 airplanes. Successful development test of this fan by the Navy in 1943
resulted in its general service application for all Navy PBM-3 airplanes .
A contract was awarded Hamilton Standard Propellers in 1943 to design and manufac-
ture a dive brake type Super-Hydromatic propeller for evaluation on a fighter airplane.
Failure of the steel blades for this propeller during engine test delayed the delivery of
this propeller until 1946.
1944 American Propellers produced hollow steel blades for Hydromatic hubs.
Considerable performance improvement with the Curtiss 838 blade design, but also
considerable high speed and cruise loss with a similar Aeroproducts V20 design blade
extension.
1945 In early 1945 Hamilton Standard Propellers contracted to develop high solidity Super-
Hydromatic steel and Hydromatic aluminum blades for 3000 HP engines. These blades
were applicable to all new design high speed airplanes with R-3350 or R-4360 engine
installations. Contracts were also let for the design and manufacture of a modified
Hydromatic propeller incorporating hollow steel Super-Hydromatic blades in an effort
to obtain a lighter Hydromatic propeller weight.
As a result of Navy service tests of the Hamilton Standard Eclipse electric governor
head, this type of electric governor head was specified for multi-engine installations
with Hydromatic propellers because of the saving in installation complexity and weight.
Curtiss Propeller Division contracted in 1945 to develop and flight-test a four-blade
reverse pitch aerodynamic dive brake for use on an R-2800 powered SB2C Helldiver.
The propeller was successfully tested and delivered to the Naval Air Test Center,
Patuxent for evaluation in June 1945.
A special project was undertaken by Curtiss in 1945 at the request of the Navy to
develop special reinforced hollow steel blades that were durable in rough water opera-
tions of seaplanes. Electrically heated air thermal deicing was provided, and automatic
synchronizer and reverse pitch operations incorporated. The propellers were sched-
uled for service tests during the winter of 194 5-46.
Also in 1945, Curtiss undertook several contracts for various Navy airplanes for reverse
pitch landing brake propellers employing the reversing throttle. One of these contracts
was for the XR60 airplane and specified 19 foot diameter hollow steel propellers. The
first 19 foot propeller underwent its type test.
Aeroproducts-Propeller Division undertook the development of the wrap-around tubu-
lar steel blades of 15 and 16 foot diameter in early 1945 for the Navy. These blades
were similar in construction to the Hamilton Standard.

320
 Propellers

By 1946, military funding for propellers was starting to assume back-burner status due to the empha-
sis on gas turbine development. The wind-down of military procurement after the cessation of
hostilities was another contributing factor (Ref 3. 72).

Curtiss Electric (Refs. 7.1, 7.2, 7.3, 7.4)

Curtiss Electric was a division of Curtiss-Wright Corporation and their propellers were manufactured
in Caldwell, New Jersey. As can be imagined from its name, the Curtiss Electric prop used electrical
power for its operation (Fig. 7.1). Electrical power is furnished to the rotating propeller via slip rings
mounted on the rear of the hub (Fig. 7.2) . Carbon brushes mounted on the engine nose case feed
power to the slip rings mounted on the rear of the propeller hub. An electric motor is attached to the
front of the propeller hub (Fig. 7.3). Integral with the motor is a two-stage planetary reduction gear
and a brake assembly (Fig. 7.4 and 7.5). The torque output from the gear reducer drives a ring gear
that engages with gears at the shank of each propeller blade. Consequently the drive needs to
accommodate a 90 degree tum. This is accomplished via the bevel gear design of the ring gear and

BRUSH CAP ANO HOLDER ASSEMBLY (SHOULD

ALWAYS BE REMOVED FIRST WHEN AIRSCREW
IS INSTALLED OR REMOVED)

~SPEED REDUCER COVER

(SCREWS TO SPEED REDUCER)

AIRSCREW SHAFT NUT

ENGINE NOSING
FELT GREASE SEAL---~

AIRSCREW SHAFT
SNAP RING
(FITS JN GROOVE IN HUB SO AIRSCREW
CAN BE PULLED BY PULLING NUT) BRUSH HOUSING
(BOLTS TO ENGINE
FRONT CONE THRUST PLATE)

Fig 7.1 Exploded view of a Curtiss Electric propeller showing its main sub-assemblies. (Hand-
book Overhaul Instructions Electric Propellers. Authors collection.)

321
Chapter 7

Fig. 7.2 Schematic of the slip ring

CONNECT NEGATIVE POWER~..--:::~
TO COMMON CIRCUIT WHEN
and brush assembly. From front to
rear, the contacts are: A deicing,
B deicing, C deicing, 1 decrease
rpm, 2 feather, 3 reverse,
4 increase rpm, 5 common, and
6 bonding. (Handbook Overhaul
Instructions Electric Propellers.
Authors collection.)

i
~
'---

Fig. 7. 3 Electric motor and speed reducer assem-

bly. This high speed motor was capable of generat-
ing tremendous torque and power. (Parts Catalog
Electric Propellers, 16 April 1951. Authors
collection.)

322
 Propellers

Fig. 7.4 Exploded view of speed reducer Torque multiplication from the gear reducer
output was necessary for pitch change due to the enormous mechanical and aerodynamic
loads. (Handbook Overhaul Instructions Electric Propellers. Authors collection.)

BRAKE
INNER BRAKE

OUTER BRAKE PLATE

OUTER BR AKE FACING
OUTER BRAKE
SOLENOID

Fig. 7. 5 Exploded view of the brake assembly attached to end of the electric motor Without this
device, the high speed motor would coast resulting in constant "hunting. " The brake gives a
crisp pitch change with no fi1rther requirement for trimming of the governed speed. (Handbook
Overhaul Instructions Electric Propellers. Authors collection.)

323
Chapter 7

Fig. 7. 6 Item 3 shows the main ring gear that engages with each propeller blade. It is
driven by the output from the speed reducer (Parts Catalog Electric Propellers, 16 April
1951. Authors collection.)

blade gear (Fig. 7.6 and Fig. 7. 7) . The motor is double field wound for operation in either clockwise
or counterclockwise direction. In normal operation the blades tum through a maximum of, typically,
30 degrees. This accommodates fine pitch for takeoff and maximum power, and course pitch for low
rpm economy cruise and high altitude operation. Located in the hub are limit switches for high and
low pitch for the flight envelope envisioned for the particular propeller application. These switches
work while operating in constant speed mode. In the event a propeller needs to be feathered, a cut-
out switch is used-or when increasing the pitch manually. It opens the normal propeller circuit and
at the same time closes the circuit to feathering limit switch in the propeller. The blades will then
feather, at which point the current is cut off by the automatic opening of the limit switch. The electric
pitch change motor is mounted to the front housing of the of the reduction gear and is keyed to the
drive pinion for the high speed stage of the reduction gear. When current is applied to the motor, it
rapidly spins up to 10,000 rpm. Without a brake the propeller would constantly hunt due to coasting of
the high-speed electric pitch change motor. The brake is a "no-current" brake, i.e. , current is re-
quired to disengage it and with no current flowing the brake is applied via springs. This is an obvious
safety feature in the event electrical power is lost. Furthermore, the brake locks the blades in the
governed position ensuring the blades will not tum due to air loads. Mounted on the front of the motor,
the brake is a disc type keyed to the motor armature shaft. Connected in series with the motor, a
solenoid operates against six coil springs that hold the brake in the locked position when power is not
applied. Upon application of power, the steel brake plate is pulled away from the disc by the solenoid.

The pilot/flight engineer has the option of automatic constant speed, manual selective, and feather-
ing . To maintain the governed speed of the propeller a constant speed cockpit control and cockpit
switches in conjunction with the engine driven governor (Fig. 7.8) maintains the desired engine
speed. The governor maintains the selected engine speed by controlling the blade angle regardless

324
 Propellers

Fig. 7. 7 Curtiss Electric gear

quadrant shown attached to the
propeller blade. This gear
engages with the main ring gear.
(Parts Catalog Electric Propellers,
16 April 1951. Author's collection.)

of manifold pressure, throttle position, air density, attitude of the airplane and aircraft speed. Two
types of Curtiss Electric governors are used . Both rely on the age-old principle of fl)"veights. The
flyweights operate a three-position switch (increase pitch, decrease pitch, and off position) whereby
the current to the electric motor is regulated. Known as the "proportional" governor, it mounts on
the nose case . This type of governor moves its contacts by means of a servo mechanism controlled
by the flyweights. During constant speed operation the governor does the switching of current to the
pitch change motor. Any variation in engine speed is immediately picked up by the governor, which
in turn automatically closes the appropriate switch mounted in the governor sending current to the
pitch change motor. If the pilot/flight engineer chooses to select manual operation, the governor is
bypassed and the propeller is essentially fixed pitch. The propeller pitch can be adjusted through a
momentary contact switch. This switch is capable of controlling the propeller to any setting within
the flight range . In twin-engined aircraft using the Curtiss Electric propeller, such as the Martin
B-26, it was common practice for the flight crew to set one propeller to constant speed and manually
adjust the other propeller to match the governed one.

Construction

Regardless if the propeller is three-blade or four-blade, Curtiss Electric propellers used a one-piece
hub (Fig. 7.9). This is in stark contrast to the Hamilton Standard which used a split hub-at least for
R-2800 applications. These design philosophies are analogous to the one-piece master rod/built up
crank compared to the split master rod/one-piece crank argument. Both methods have advantages
and disadvantages. In the case of the Curtiss Electric propeller, the hub is manufactured from an
alloy steel forging. Mechanical loading on this component are among the highest in the entire
airplane. Centrifugal forces can exceed 250 tons per blade or 1000 tons for a four-blade installation.
Clearly, with these kinds of loads, the finest materials and manufacturing processes are necessary.
In the rare event a blade separates from a propeller, total havoc results, invariably ending up with the
engine being torn from its mounts due to the out-of-balance forces. Blades can be manufactured
from forged aluminum or steel. Steel blades are manufactured from a high quality alloy steel. In the
case of steel blades, the shank and back face are formed from one forging and the front face, another
forging. These two components are welded together in an inert atmosphere along the leading and
trailing edges. The shank is threaded to receive a spiral bevel gear, pinned in place, and then engages
with the ring gear. Due to the aforementioned centrifugal loads, a stack of angular contact, i.e. ,

325
Chapter 7

/ '!'o~;,';~<it

0ECREAS( .R.J?M
I CONN EC TOR PIN

.........__COMMON
I CONNECTOR PIN
Co>rr ROL
"'~REEtLRPM
SHAn
--WITH P INIOf'ol
I _NN_!OR PIN

S e>WENGERPUMP ANO
AM 0 IV( GEAR

O IL OVTLET

NGINE At.D

Fig. 7. 8 Schematic drawing of the Curtiss Electric engine driven govenor (Handbook
Overhaul Instructions Electric Propel/ors. Authors collection.)

326
 Propellers

thrust, bearings (Fig. 7.10), are placed on the blade shank retained with a large ring nut. Ground
operation of a high performance air-cooled radial such as the R-2800 can produce unacceptably high
cylinder head temperatures. To alleviate this, blade shank cuffs (Fig. 7.11) are sometimes added to
the blade roots. In the case of the Curtiss Electric the cuff consists of a cast magnesium support and
a stiffener to which a formed sheet is attached. The additional blade area at the root forces additional
cooling air through the cowling . The ring gear is internally splined to engage with the low speed
splined drive of the speed reducer. Tremendous end loads are generated by the ring gear engaging
the blade gears due to the large torque multiplication from the gear reducer. To accommodate this a
thrust bearing is employed-mounted in a steel adapter plate. The adapter plate also serves double
duty as a mounting for the power unit (motor) or the propeller spinner, if either is used (Fig. 7.12).
The speed reducer assembly consists of two-stages of planetary reduction gearing contained within
a cast aluminum housing. Befitting its high precision, high quality construction, all rotating parts
are supported in ball bearings (Fig. 7.13). High altitude operation requires resistance to extremely
low temperatures. For this reason the speed reducer is filled with a very low viscosity oil. Blade
angle limit switches are located in the speed reducer hub. They are operated by pivot anns riding a
cam attached to the low speed bell gear. The limit switches are connected to the electric motor leads.
They are spring loaded electrical contacts which, upon installation of the power unit, mate with the
fixed contacts on the front face of the propeller hub. During pitch change, the switch arms ride on
their respective cam lobes, the contacts are retracted, and consequently the circuits are opened. Due
to their location, the cam lobes accurately control the low, high, and feather blade-angle settings .
For those propellers with the added feature of reversibility, an additional limit switch replaces the
common return contact, to halt the pitch change at the negative angle setting. A cast aluminum
housing mounted on the nose case of the engine incorporates a mounting for the slip ring brush
holder assembly (Fig. 7.14)-sometimes referred to as the brush cap. The brushes (Fig. 7.15) are a
high maintenance item for inspection, cleaning, etc. Because of this requirement, quick and easy
removal of the brush holder is a prerequisite, a task accomplished via trunk type latches.

Fig. 7. 9 One-piece hub for a Curtiss

Electric propeller manufactured from a
steel forging. (Handbook Overhaul
Instructions Electr;c Propellers. Authors
collection.)

327
Chapter 7

')c---.,..._-------= 4

l
NU T
CU FF

Fig. 7.10 Containing the astronomically high centrifugal loading of the propeller blade,
Curtiss used (in this particular case, six) rows of ball thrust bearings.
1 Gear 4 Nut
2 Pin 5 Cuff
3 Bearing
(Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Models P-61A and B Airplanes,
30 December, 1944.)

328
 Propellers

Governor

Flyweights, driven off the propeller reduction gears, operate a single pole, double throw switch.
With such a heavy current draw from the powerful pitch change motor, this switch would quickly
bum up if it were not for an oil-actuated relay. The switch actuates an oil servo (see Fig. 7.8) that
increases the contact force of the switch. The servo moves the center contact of the switch up or
down depending on the signal from the flyweights . Oil pressure for the servo is derived from the
engine oil system, regulated by a valve linked to the flyweights. Oil pressure is boosted and regulated
by an integral pump built into the governor (see Fig. 7.8). In this way oil pressure is not influenced
by oil temperature or engine speed. Counterbalancing the flyweights is a coil spring held in compres-
sion. At the governed speed the flyweight valve will supply only sufficient oil pressure to balance the
servo piston against the spring. In this mode the center switch contact is held in the middle, i.e ., no
current flows to the pitch change motor. With an increase in engine speed, the flyweights immedi-
ately sense the change and move outward. In so doing, oil pressure is increased to the servo.
Consequently the center switch contact moves up to make contact. This in tum sends current to the
pitch change motor and increases the blade angle. Placed between the servo operated switch in the
governor and pitch change motor is a relay. Current from the servo operated governor switch ener-
gizes the solenoid fitted with heavy duty contacts built to withstand the heavy loads imposed upon
them by the powerful pitch change motor.

Fig 7.11 This illustration

shows the various blade
shank cuffs available:
plain and cuffed. Cuffs
offer improved cooling
during ground operations.
(Parts Catalog Electric
Propellers, 16April 1951.
Author's collection.)

Fig 7.12 In order to attach

the motor to the speed
reducer, an adapter plate is
used. (Parts Catalog
Electric Propellers, 16
April 1951. Author's
collection.)

329
Chapter 7

I I •ONI HOUSING ) lOW )'HD 'lAN! 1 ClA,I

1 l-llCM S'HO f!XfO llNC Gld 6 1ow ~'UD m:fD llNC ClA I
) l-llCM !>'HO Pl•NfT GfAI ' lQW S'H0 1£tl Cl.A.I
' ,..1CH S'HO UU CLO 8 UAI HOUSING

Fig. 7.13 Section view of the speed reducer showing the exquisite workmanship of a Curtiss
ElecMc propeller.
1 Front Housing 5 Low Speed Planet Gear
2 High Speed Fixed Ring Gear 6 Low Speed Fixed Ring Gear
3 High Speed Planet Gear 7 Low Speed Bell Gear
4 High Speed Bell Gear 8 Rear Housing
(Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Models P-61A and B Airplanes, 30 December,
1944.)

330
 Propellers

Reliability

Despite first class workmanship and quality, the Curtiss Electric propeller did not enjoy the reputa-
tion of the Hamilton Standard hydraulic propeller. Finding an answer to this prejudice is difficult to
arrive at. However, one of the Curtiss Electric 's inevitable shortcomings was its reliance on electri-
cal power. In some instances, fatal accidents were attributed to lack of electrical power on takeoff
resulting in the R-2800 not being able to produce takeoff power. A number of Martin B-26 Maraud-
ers were lost when ground crew, working on the aircraft, would run the aircraft batteries down to a
dangerously low level. This resulted in insufficient power to operate the propeller during takeoff.
Other difficulties included brush problems, which were usually the result of poor maintenance. High

Fig. 7.14 Brush cap. Note

simple latch assembly to the
left for easy access during
maintenance. (Parts Catalog
Electric Propellers, 16 April
1951. Author's collection.)

Fig. 7.15 Brush assembly.

(Parts Catalog Electric
Propellers, 16April 1951.
Authors collection.)

331
Chapter 7

altitude operations could cause flashover and arcing of the slip rings and pitch change motor arma-
ture. These idiosyncrasies have resulted in very few Curtiss Electric propellers being still opera-
tional. The few that are still being used are in restored warbirds .

Hamilton Standard "Hydromatic" (Refs. 7.5, 7.6)

For its motive power, the Hamilton Standard used hydraulic power from the engine oil system.
Clearly, this represents a different design philosophy compared to the Curtiss Electric. The decision
to go with hydraulic power rather than electric is a complex one with no clear winner for either
system-each system having its advantage, disadvantages, and idiosyncrasies.

Hamilton Standard propellers are typically made up of four major sub-assemblies:

( 1) the hub and blade assembly

(2) the dome assembly
(3) the distributor valve assembly for use on multi-engine applications with feather capability,
or the engine shaft extension shaft* assembly for use on non-feathering applications
(4) the anti-ice assembly

Propeller Control Forces

The hydraulic pitch change mechanism is governed through the nose case mounted governor. As in
the Curtiss Electric, it regulates the angle of the blades to maintain a constant "governed" speed.

Fundamental Forces

In order to understand how the Hamilton Standard Hydromatic propeller works it is necessary to
grasp an understanding of the forces on a rotating propeller blade .

Three fundamental controlling forces are at play, shown in (Fig. 7.16). They are : (i) centrifugal
twisting force, (ii) engine oil pressure, and (iii) governor oil pressure.

Centrifugal Twisting Moment-The centrifugal force acting on a rotating propeller blade includes a
component force in a direction that tends to pull the blade into fine pitch. This force is shown in
Fig. 7.17 and is represented by arrows whose common point of origin is the engine propeller shaft
axis. To help visualize the blade centrifugal twisting moment, a section through the blade and the
resulting airfoil is shown. Two points on this section are established, one at the leading edge marked
"A" and one at the trailing edge marked "B." For purposes of analysis, these points and the forces
which act upon them may be considered representative of any and all points of a rotating blade.

* On feathering installations, a cockpit push button control, solenoid relay for the feathering pump and feathering pump
powered by an electric motor are included in the in stallation.

332
 Propellers

G)wvERNQR OIL PRESSV!(

Fig. 7.16 Hamilton Standard illustra-

tion showing the three fandamental
forces at play in an HS propeller
(Hydromatic Propellers Service
Manual. Author s collection.)

Consider point "A" as the center of a ball which is held within a given circle of rotation by an
imaginary line fixed at the same point as the centerline of the propeller shaft. Rotating the ball sets
up a centrifugal force which tends at all times to move the ball away from its axis of rotation. This
centrifugal force may be represented by arrows "C" or "F. " Their direction is along the line connect-
ing the point with the axis of rotation; and, continuing the analogy of the rotating ball, the direction of
the arrow would be a prolongation of the imaginary line holding the ball to the center of rotation. The
length of the arrow is scaled to represent the force acting at any given time. Consequently, as the
speed of rotation increases, centrifugal force becomes greater and the force vector arrow represent-
ing this force becomes longer.

Once the direction and magnitude of the arrow "AC" has been determined, it may be resolved into
two forces at right angles whose final effect is the same as the original arrow. These force vector or
component arrows are shown as "AD" and "AE. "

The same process is applied to point "B" on the trailing edge of the blade which results in the arrow
marked "BF," which represents centrifugal force and its components represented by arrows "BG"
and "GH. "

If the blade airfoil section is analyzed separately as shown in the lower right-hand comer of Fig. 7.17,
force arrows "AD" and "BG" are still represented on the leading edge and trailing edge of the blade.
However, it is now apparent that these forces tend to move the blade into fine or low pitch. Together
they become what is known as the centrifugal twisting moment of a rotating propeller blade. The
foregoing detailed explanation of centrifugal twisting moment is key to understanding how and why a
Hydromatic propeller works.

Engine Oil-Due to the centrifugal twisting moment, engine oil pressure is applied to the outboard
side of the propeller piston which supplements the centrifugal twisting moment towards low or fine
pitch during constant speed operation.

333
Chapter 7

D f-PLANE OF
A~ROTATION Fig. 7.17 Blade centrifugal twisting
/
/ ~ ENGINE~HAFT _ I __ _
moment diagram, sometimes referred
I B to as centrifugal twisting.force or
I G CTF (Hydromatic Propellers Service
Manual. Author '.s collection.)

Governor Oil-Governor oil, engine oil boosted in pressure by the governor, is the control force which
balances the centrifugal twisting moment described above, and engine oil pressure. By metering this
high pressure oil to, or draining it from the inboard side of the propeller piston through the constant
speed control unit or governor, a force toward high or course pitch is provided. This balances and
controls the two forces toward low pitch, namely the centrifugal twisting moment and engine oil
pressure on the outboard side of the piston.

Designations

Hamilton Standard Hydromatic propellers are identified by a model designation system. It is an

alphanumeric system which explains the type and use of the propeller. The numbers and letter group
in front of the dash number describes the basic propeller model and the number group after the dash
indicates minor modifications incorporated into the basic model. As an example, a ubiquitous R-2800
propeller hub is a Model 23E50-50 l. The numbers and letters represent the following :

(i) The first number, "2" in our example, identifies the number of major changes incorporated into
in the propeller. Subsequent major changes will be identified by "3,'' "4," etc., as 33E50-,
43E50-, etc .

(ii) The second number, "3" in our example, indicates the number of blades in the propeller. For
R-2800 applications this will always be "3" or "4" except for the rare exceptions of dual rota-
tion propellers.

(iii) The letter "E" describes the blade shank size. Hydromatic propeller blade sizes are "D," "E,"
and "F," which are approximately equivalent in shank diameter to SAE blade shank sizes 1 Yz,
2, and 3.

334
 Propellers

(iv) The last two numbers preceding the dash, in our example "50," indicate the spline size of the
propeller shaft. This would also indicate the engine is an "A" or "B" series R-2800. Again,
except for the rare dual rotation usage, all R-2800 applications will be either "50" or "60."

Numbers following the dash indicate the following:

(i) Minor modifications incorporated in a propeller are identified by the number group following
the dash. Again, going back to our example, the propeller is modified to a "-50 l " model.

(ii) By selecting the parts list (or referring to the interchangeable parts list) under the dash number
etched on the propeller barrel, plus the parts list for the particular blade involved, it is possible
to determine exactly the parts and assemblies by name and number composing the complete
propeller assembly.

Blade Assembly

General Designations. In addition to the hub designation described above, the blades are identified
by design numbers stamped on the circumference of the butt end of each blade . These numbers are
also, in many cases, stenciled in paint on the blade. Blade designations follow a similar convention
to that used on hubs. The blade designation describes (in part) the use and type of the unit. Another
ubiquitous example is blade designation C6353A-l 8B. The numbers and letters indicate the following:

(i) The first letter, "C" in this example, indicates that a molded rubber fairing has been added over
the blade shank. Various styles of fairings are indicated by changes in this letter designation.

(ii) The first number group, 6353 in this example, specifies the basic blade design.

(iii) The letter ' A' following the basic blade design number group shows that the blade is a blade
assembly, i.e., a blade assembly includes the following: bearing assembly, bushing, bushing
drive pins, shim plate drive pins, bushing screws, and balancing plug assembly.

(iv) The first dash number group following the basic blade design number indicates the number of
inches the propeller diameter has been reduced from that provided by the basic blade design.
In our example, "-1 8" shows that the propeller diameter has been reduced by eighteen inches or
nine inches per blade. If the letter 'B' is incorporated in the cut-off identification number, it
indicates that a bushing with oversize bearing diameters is used in the blade.

Special Designations

To meet special requirements, the standard blade designs may be modified by telescoping or by
special pitch distribution. These requirements would include optimum performance at high altitude or
low altitude, speed of the aircraft etc. The diameter of the propeller blade is modified by either
telescoping or straight cut-off. In telescoping, the blade is trimmed down in width and thickness from
the cut-off station to the widest station of the blade (a station is an imaginary line drawn chordwise on

335
Chapter 7

the blade). In the straight cut-off, only the cut-off station of the blade is modified. Blades modified
are identified by special lettering as follows:

(i) Telescoping from Cut-Off to Widest Station. This is a blade modified by a telescope operation
from the cut-off to the widest station. This is identified by the letter 'T' immediately following
the blade diameter dash number, as an example 6353A-18T.

(ii) Combination of Straight Cut-Off and Telescope Cut-Off. In the event a blade is modified by a
combination of straight cut-off and then telescope cut-off, it is identified by the letter ' T '
following the second dash number. As an example, 6353A-6-12T means the propeller diam-
eter is reduced a total of eighteen inches; telescoped twelve inches from the six inch straight
cut-off.

(iii) Combination of Telescope Cut-Off and Straight Cut-Off. When a blade is modified by a com-
bination of telescope cut-off and straight cut-off, it is identified by the letter 'T' following the
first dash number modification. For example, 6353A-12T-6 is a propeller with the diameter
reduced by a total of eighteen inches, i.e., telescoped from the twelve inch cut-off and then
reduced an additional six inches by a straight cut-off.

(iv) Special Pitch Distribution "A". Blades incorporating a special pitch distribution design are
identified by the letter 'A' following the first dash number cut-off, for example, 6353A-12A. If
this blade is also telescoped, the designation would be 6353A-12TA. If the diameter is reduced
an additional six inches via a straight cut-off, the designation would be 6353-12TA-6.

A typical Hydromatic hub assembly, as shown in Fig. 7.18, is made up of four major assemblies: (1)
the barrel (item I), (or hub) and blades, (2) the distributor valve (used on feathering propellers) or the
engine shaft extension (used on non-feathering installations) (item D), (3) the dome assembly (item
C), and (4) the anti-ice assembly (item J). In addition to the aforementioned major assemblies, other
minor components are used such as the propeller retaining nut, etc.

Hub & Blades Assembly

The hub and blade assembly shown in Fig. 7.19 and Fig. 7.20 is made up of three major parts: the
spider, the barrel, and the blade .

Spider

The spider could be considered the foundation or heart of the entire propeller. It is manufactured
from a heat-treated chromium-nickel-molybdenum forging. At its center is a female spline that fits
on the propeller shaft. i.e., for an "A" or "B" series engine it has an SAE 50 spline, and for a "C" and

336
 Propellers

r-i.~~~~~~~----i~

- ®

.----------,c

i>)_----- --, E

~r~~~~~~-~

c-) ©
>------------ -j H

LETIER PART NAME

A Dome Bruther Hole Nut Lock Wire

B Dome Breather Hole Nut
C Dome Assembly
D D;stributor Volvo Auembly
E Valve Housin9 Oil Transfer Plate
F Valve Hous;n9 & Sh.ft Guoet
G Propeller Reta;ning Nut Looi Wire
H Propeller Reto;ninq Nut
I Barrel AHembly
J De-Icing Dev;ce Auembly

Fig. 7.18 Hamilton Standard "Hydromatic " propeller assembly. (Hydromatic Propellers
Service Manual. Author :S collection.)

337
Chapter 7

"E" series it has an SAE 60 spline. One spline is omitted to match a corresponding missing spline on
the engine propeller shaft. The spider is located by a pair of cones: one at the front and one at the
rear. From the foregoing description it can be seen that the spider transmits the power of the engine
into the propeller blades. Forged integrally with the spider are three arms (for a three-blade propel-
ler) or four arms (for a four-blade propeller). These arms extend into the shank of the blades and
locate them in the propeller assembly. The arms incorporate two precision ground bearing journals .
The larger of these two journals is located adjacent to the central portion of the spider and the
smaller journal is on the outer portion of each arm. The spider is lightened by matching a hole in
each arm . Two small holes drilled perpendicular to the lightening holes in each arm feed oil to the
blade bushings. Each spider arm supports a blade and transmits the torque from the engine. In
addition, the arms also take the propeller thrust loads .

On the inboard side of the spider a ledge is provided to support the chevron type neoprene barrel-
spider packing and the phenolic spider ring. These seals ensure an oil tight assembly between the
spider and barrel.

A groove machined just outboard of the front cone ledge accommodates the hub snap ring. Upon
installation of the propeller on the engine, this snap ring is inserted around the propeller retaining
nut near the outboard face of the front cone and dropped into place in the aforementioned groove.
As the propeller retaining nut is backed off the propeller shaft during removal, the nut advances
along the propeller shaft threads moving the front cone which in turn contacts the snap ring and
thereby "jacks" the propeller off the rear cone.

Between each spider arm, a flat surface is machined, in line with the central axis. These surfaces
serve to seat and locate the barrel supports .

The oil seal between the spider and the engine propeller shaft includes the metal spider and shaft seal
washer, a neoprene spider and shaft seal, and a metal spider and shaft seal ring. These parts are
inserted just inboard of the front cone bearing surface, and fit between the central bore of the spider
and the outside periphery of the shaft.

Barrel

The barrel (see Fig. 7.19) is a casing that encloses the propeller hub assembly. Moreover, the barrel
has to withstand the high centrifugal loading of the blades. For this reason, it is manufactured from a
high quality, heat-treated, drop forging of chromium-vanadium steel. Centrifugal loading of the blades
is carried by means of shoulders provided at each blade bore. Lips are incorporated outside the
shoulders to hold the blade packing. As previously mentioned above, these chevron type neoprene
seals ensure oil tightness between the barrel and blades.

The barrel assembly is split horizontally. Grooves machined into the parting lines provide accommo-
dation for 0-ring type seals. The outboard barrel half incorporates a shelf just inboard of the dome

338
 Propellers

NO. PART NAME

Fired C•m Loeating Dowel

We lch Plug
Barrel Bolt - Short
Barr•I Bolt - Long
Barrel - Outboard Half
b Hub Snop Ring
7 Front Cone
8 Sp id er & Shaft Sul Ring
9 Sp idor & Sha ft Seal
I0 Spider & Shaft Seal Wash tr
11 Sp ider
1l Barrel Support Shim
IJ Barre l Support
I~ A11embly Stop Pin
15 Spid11 Sh im Plate
16 Spider Shim
17 Slade Gear Segment
18 Blade Spring Pock Shim
19 Blade Spr ing Pack Spring
20 Blade Spring Pack Retainer
21 Blade Pocking
22 Spider Ring
23 Sp ider Packing
H Rear Cone
25 Barrel Half Sul
26 Barrel - Inboard Half
27 Codie Nut
28 Cotter Pin

Fig. 7.19 Hamilton Standard "Hydromatic " barrel assembly. (Hydromatic Propellers
Service Manual. Authors collection.)

339
Chapter 7

retaining nut threads . This shelf locates and supports the dome assembly. It also includes a fixed
cam locating dowel hole in the center of the arc between each blade (see description of cams).
Dowels are pressed into these holes so that the base section of the dowel seats on top of the corre-
sponding barrel supports, and the tip section protrudes through the base of the fixed cam.

Barrel halves are held together by massive, precision ground, nuts and bolts. They are fitted through
the bolt hole bosses incorporated in each barrel half in the arc between the propeller blades. A hole
is drilled along the axis of each bolt to provide for lead wool used in final balancing of the propeller
assembly. Each bolt is sealed with a "welch" type plug.

Miscellaneous Hub Parts

Barrel Supports-Phenolic supports (item 13 in Fig. 7.19) are used between the barrel and the
spider. They provide alignment and support of the hub and blades assembly on the spider. Brass
shims between the phenolic supports and the spider allow adjustment of spider/barrel concentricity.
The inside face of the phenolic support is flat and matches the flat surface on the spider. The outer
face is curved to match the inside curved portion of the inboard barrel half.

Blade Assembly

Hydromatic blades are typically made from heat-treated aluminum forgings or from sheet steel
(Fig. 7.20). The butt end (i .e. , the end that fits into the barrel) incorporates a shoulder perpendicular
to the shank centerline of the blade which rests on steel rings . For lightness and to provide for
bushings in which the spider arms locate, a portion of the blades shank section is forged hollow and
bored to finished size for the bushing.

Thrust Washers

Two hardened steel rings, which form part of the thrust bearing, are slipped over the butt end of the
blade (Fig. 7.20). The blade is then "upset" in a forging operation thus retaining the rings. These
thrust washers, which are not replaceable once the upset forging operation has taken place, transmit
the centrifugal load into the barrel. The inner thrust washer is radiused to match a fillet machined into
the butt end of the blade. The other thrust washer is flat on both sides. One side fits against retaining
lips on the barrel and the other side forms the race for a rolling element thrust bearing. Centrifugal
blade loads are transmitted the shoulders on the blade butt, through a phenolic chafing ring to the inner
(radiused) thrust washer. The bearing assembly is completed by adding the split rolling element thrust
bearing between the two thrust washers.

Blade Bushings

Blade bushings, which ride on the ground journals of the spider arms, are made from aluminum
bronze. At blade assembly, the bushings are shrunk into the tapered blade bore and located by two

340
 Propellers

'~~
" E" SHAN K BLADE ASSEMBl Y

NO. PART NAME

l Blade
2 Thru•I Bearing Flat Washor
J Thrust Bearing ~etainer
.4 Thrust B~or i ng 8e-.el•d Wosher
5 Blade Chafing Ring
6 Slade Plug
- g
7 Blade Plug Stud
8 Balanc ing Wo1htr
9 lock Wosher
10 Nut
11 Blade Bu•hing
l2
l3
Thru•t Plato Pin
Blade Bu•hing Thrust Plate 1
14 Flat Head Screw
15 Blade Bushing Drive Pin
I6 Shim Plato Drive Pin

1
@r---------~\
('.V~~~~~~---~

& - - - - - i.
15r-~~~~~~~~--==--
@1---------a

Fig. 7.20 Hamilton Standard Hydromatic blade assembly. (Hydromatic Propellers Service
Manual. Author~ collection.)

341
Chapter 7

drive pins (which also include the shim plate drive pins) and two screws (item 11 in Fig. 7.20).
Each blade bushing incorporates eight approximately half-circle slots which hold one end of the
spring packs. Two of these spring pack slots are offset to provide an initial pre-load (in an assembled
propeller) between the mating rotating cam gear and blade segment teeth.

Blade Balancing Plug

Each blade is fitted with a tapered aluminum plug (item 6 in Fig. 7.20) wedged into the blade bore
at a point just beyond the outer end of the blade bushing. Two purposes are served by this plug: (1) it
prevents oil from passing into the extreme end of the taper bore of the blade and (2) it incorporates
a stud on which washers may be stacked for initial blade balance.

Thrust Plate

Close engagement of the blade gear segment and the gear of the rotating cam is essential. If backlash
exists serious vibration may be excited. A thrust plate consisting of a small circular segment is
pinned to the blade bushing (item 13 in Fig. 7.20).

Chafing Ring

Several key functions are performed by the chafing ring: (i) it prevents chafing and fretting of the
metal washer (item 4 in Fig. 7.20) and the aluminum blade, (ii) it serves to reduce stress concentra-
tions. Manufactured from phenolic, it is split to allow assembly over the blade and fits between the
blade thrust radius and the beveled thrust washer.

Blade Gear Segment

Machined from solid steel forgings , the blade gear segments are attached to the blade via eight
spring packs (items 17 and 19 in Fig. 7.19). Eight spring pack slots are equally spaced around the
inner periphery of the gear segment and correspond to the spring pack slots in the blade bushing
(item 11 in Fig. 7.20). The blade gear segment is attached to the blade and is accomplished via
these eight spring slots and spring pack assemblies. Each blade gear segment has fifteen bevel gear
teeth machined into it which engage with a corresponding bevel gear machined into the rotating cam
(item 26 in Fig 7.21).

Blade Packing

Retaining high pressure oil in the propeller assemble is a critical function. Sealing oil between the
blade and barrel is accomplished via chevron type neoprene blade packing seals. They are fitted
between the outer thrust washer and blade packing lip of the barrel blade bore (item 21 in Fig. 7.19) .
The packing includes a header ring, two lip rings, and a follower ring .

342
 Propellers

r~~~~~~~~---<(0
c:;C>~----0

. ~

NO . PART NAME

I Dome Breether Hole WHher

2 Dome Bruther Hole Sul
3 Dome
4 Cotter Pin
5 Dome Rotoirnng Nut Loc k Screw
b Dome Rthining Nut
7 Bell
8 Wokh Plug
9 Cotter Pin
10 Pi•ton Guket Nut Lock Screw
II Pi.ton Gosket Nut
I2 Pi.ton Gosket
I3 Piston Auembly
14 Com Roller Sheft Look Wire
15 Com Boering Nut
16 Cotter Pin
I7 Com Seering - Outboerd
18 Fixed Com
19 W eleh Plug
20 Goor Prolooding Shim
21 Dome Sholl Reto ining Screw
22 Com Seering - lnbo"'d
2l Ctm Roller Shtft
24 Com Roller 8u1hin9
25 Ctm Rollen
26 Rotating Com
27 Stop Lug
28 Low Pitch Stop
29 High Pitch Stop
30 Dome & Sorrel Sul

Fig. 7.21 Hydromatic dome assembly. (Hydromatic Propellers Service Manua l. Authors
collection.)

343
Chapter 7

Spring Pack Assemblies

Providing gear pre-load between the blade gear segment and its mating rotating cam gear is accom-
plished via the spring packs fitted between the blade segment gear and the blade bushing. Each
spring pack consists of two horseshoe spring retainers, and a number of spring leaves. To ensure a
snug fit, shims may be added in the retainers. Two of the spring pack slots in the blade bushing are
offset in respect to the mating gear segment slots. In this way, the axis of the blade gear segment is
moved off the blade bushing towards the rotating cam gear. This ensures the necessary pre-load for
backlash elimination.

Shim Plates and Shims

A solid brass shim and a cast iron shim plate are fitted between the blade bushing face and the spider
arm shoulder (items 15 and 16 in Fig. 7.19). They are held in place by two shim plate drive pins
(item 16 in Fig. 7.19).

Dome Assembly

Housed in the dome assembly are: the rotating cam, fixed cam, piston and distributor valve, and
pitch stops.

With standard cams installed, our ubiquitous Model 23E50 propeller has a constant speed range of
10 degrees for low pitch to 41 degrees for course pitch and 90 degrees for feathering. With the
example just cited, the propeller has a normal operating range of 31 degrees. These angles are
measured at the blade reference station. In the event fast acting cams are used, the blade range is
from 15 degrees for low pitch to 55 degrees for course or high pitch and 90 degrees for feathering .
With straight slope cams the blade angle range is from 10 degrees for low pitch and 54 degrees for
course pitch and 90 degrees for feathering.

The dome assembly, therefore, effects pitch change and maintains constant speed of the propeller
via oil pressure (Fig. 7.21).

When the dome assembly is installed on the propeller hub, the outer or fixed cam is securely fixed
via the locating dowels provided for this purpose (item 1 in Fig. 7.19). The inner or rotating cam
assembly is supported within the fixed cam by means of ball bearings (items 17 and 22 in Fig. 7.21).
These bearings serve to accommodate the thrust loads due to gear reactions and piston oil forces.
Piston motion is transmitted, via the fixed cam, to the rotating cam by means of four sets of cam
rollers (item 25 in Fig. 7.21) carried on shafts (item 23 in Fig. 7.21) supported by the inner and
outer walls of the piston (item 13 in Fig. 7.21).

344
 Propellers

Cams

Two cylindrical, coaxial cams are incorporated into the dome assembly. One cam is fixed and remains
stationary with respect to the hub and the other cam rotates inside the fixed cam. Each cam incorpo-
rates a helically cut cam track; however, the cam tracks are cut in opposite directions to each other.
The cam rollers ride inside the cam tracks and therefore transform the translatory motion of the
piston into rotary motion. The opposite helix of the fixed and rotating cams doubles the rotating
motion of the rotating cam for a given straight-line motion of the piston . The cam assembly includes
the fixed cam, rotating cam, inboard bearing, outboard bearing, cam bearing nut, and cam bearing
nut locking cotter. As with all other sub-assemblies, each cam is balanced independently by incor-
porating lightening holes.

Rotating Cam

Made from a high nickel, low carbon steel, the rotating cam is case hardened on the cam tracks and
gear teeth. Four helically cut cam tracks are machined in the cylindrical body portion of the cam
(item 26 in Fig. 7.21). The cam tracks feature two helix angles; the lesser angle represents the
constant speed operating range and the portion with the greater helix angle is used during feathering
and unfeathering operations. As with any aircraft component, all excess weight is removed and in
the case of the cams this function is achieved via lightening holes between the cam tracks. An
unfortunate aspect of these lightening holes is the fact they act as perfect guillotines when operating
the cams on the bench during overhaul. Many mechanics have lost fingers due to carelessly allowing
fingers into the holes when operating the cams during overhaul.

Integral with the rotating cam on its inboard end is the bevel gear that engages the blade gear seg-
ment. Two steel stop lugs (item 27 in Fig. 7.21) pressed into the base of the cam gear teeth and
spaced 180 degrees apart, contact the stop rings in the base of the fixed cam. These stop lugs and
stop rings serve to regulate the angular setting of the propeller.

Fixed Cam

Similar to the rotating cam (see item 18 in Fig. 7.21), it is made of nickel steel but unlike the rotating
cam, is not case hardened . Again, like the rotating cam, it has four cam tracks identical in design to
the rotating cam except the helix is machined in the opposite direction.

The inboard end of the fixed cam features a flange with a fine pitch spline on its inner diameter. This
spline accommodates the propeller stop rings. The inboard cam bearing is located just outboard of
these splines . The outboard cam bearing is located on the inner diameter of the inner diameter of the
outboard fixed cam edge.

345
Chapter 7

Cam Styles

The three cam styles were manufactured for Hamilton Standard propellers for R-2800s: standard,
fast acting, and straight slope.

Standard Cams

Standard cams incorporate two slopes or helix angles (Fig. 7.22). A longer slope used for normal
constant speed operation and a shorter cam track, which transitions into the longer slope, for feather-
ing operations . A reduction ratio of 5 :4 exists between the rotating cam gear and the blade gear
segment. Total cam range is approximately 100 degrees. The constant speed cam range is 39 degrees,
which translates into 31 degrees at the propeller blade . Rotating, or indexing, the blade one gear tooth
with respect to the rotating cam gear equates to 8 degrees.

Fast Acting Cams

Fast acting cams were developed for use where a more rapid blade angle response was needed. It
features a more severe helix angle; therefore, for the same piston travel it will change the blade angle
more rapidly than standard cams. Due to the lower mechanical advantage compared to a standard
cam, higher pressures are required for actuation. This requires 300 psi single capacity or double
capacity governors when used in conjunction with fast acting cams. The gear ratio between the
rotating cam gear and the blade gear segment is the san1e as the standard cam, i.e., 5:4. The total cam
range is approximately 94 degrees and a constant speed range of 57 degrees. Taking into account the
built-in gear reduction, this equates to 45 degrees of blade travel for the constant speed range. Again,
indexing the blade one gear tooth equates to 8 degrees.

Straight Slope Cams

In this type of cam, the constant speed range of the cam helix, which is the same as that of the
standard cam, is extended and the feathering range is omitted. Obviously, straight slope cams cannot
be feathered ; therefore, they are used principally on single-engined aircraft. As with the two prior
styles of cams, the reduction gear ratio between the rotating cam and the blade gear segment is 5 :4.
The total rotating cam range is approximately 55 degrees . Again, taking into account the gear reduc-
tion between the rotating cam and the blade gear segment, this equates to 44 degrees of blade
movement for constant speed operation. As with the two prior styles of cam, indexing the blade one
gear tooth equates to 8 degrees of blade movement. An example of a straight slope cam is shown to
the right of Fig. 7.22.

Piston

The piston is machined from an alumimun forging to close tolerances. As with other sub-assemblies,
it is independently balanced by drilling material out of the inboard face of the inner wall . It is a double

346
 Propellers

G<~
dJ

Fig 7.22 Two styles of Hamilton Standard Hydromatic cams; standard on the left and
straight slope on the right. Standard cams have feathering capability, straight slope cams
do not. (Hydromatic Propellers Service Manual. Authors collection.)

347
Chapter 7

walled casing which fits over the two cams (item 13 in Fig. 7.21). The dome acts as the cylinder
for the piston and in so doing contains the oil pressure forces and converts it into rotary motion via the
cams, which in turn rotate the propeller blades. The inner diameter of the inside piston wall incorpo-
rates a steel sleeve for the sealing piston rings of the distributor valve to ride on. This forms the seal
between the high and low pressure sides of the piston. The piston is supported on the cams by four
roller assemblies, and guided axially by contact of the inner piston skirt on the inside diameter of the
rotating cam (item 26 in Fig. 7.21) . Linear motion of the piston is translated through these four
rollers and consequently to the rotating cam. Each roller assembly (items 23, 24, and 25 in Fig. 7.21)
is made up of four bronze rollers riding on bronze bushings and supported by a hardened steel shaft.
The cam roller shafts are held in position via a press fit in the piston and locked by snap rings . The
support bearings for the roller shafts are incorporated in both the inner and outer wall of the piston
and the rollers fit between the piston walls. A ledge, incorporated on the outer piston wall just
outboard of the cam roller shaft bosses, seats the double acting piston gasket, item 12 in Fig. 7 .21.
This gasket is held in place by a ring nut, item 11 in Fig. 7.21. The all important seal between the
piston and the dome is created by this gasket. Two small holes, spaced 180 degrees apart, are
incorporated into the piston's outer wall. This ensures circulation of a small quantity of warm high
pressure oil (governor boosted) from the inboard side of the piston to the low pressure outboard piston
side.

Blade Angle Stop Rings

Also known as pitch stops, the blade angle stop rings are incorporated into the dome assembly, items
28 and 29 in Fig. 7.21. They limit the travel of the rotating cam and thereby regulate the blade angle
high and low pitch settings. The rings are set in the stop ring flange at the base of the fixed cam.
Two lugs are incorporated in the rings that make contact with stop lugs on the rotating cam. One ring
regulates low pitch and the other regulates high pitch. Made from induction hardened steel, they
have a fine pitch spline machined on their out circumference. These splines mate with the corre-
sponding spline on the inside diameter of the fixed cam stop ring flange. Both rings are identical
except for the markings that indicate the blade range setting . The rings have 288 splines cut into
them. When these 288 splines are factored into the 5 :4 reduction ratio, one tooth of the ring equates
to one degree of propeller blade angle (288 times 5 divided by 4 equals 360). Therefore, indexing
the rings by one spline changes the blade angle by one degree . Propeller blade angle settings are
therefore limited to the predetermined angular setting of the lugs built into the stop rings.

Dome Shell

The dome shell (item 3 in Fig. 7.21) forms the cylinder in which the piston operates, and on some
installations, serves as a modified spinner. The outboard end of the dome shell has a tapped hole
which accommodates the dome breather hole plug. Or, on installations that feature a breather, a
dome breather hole cap. In the latter case, a passage is provided through the center of the dome
shell, through the distributor valve housing, and then into the propeller shaft for engine breather gases.

348
 Propellers

Dome Retaining Nut

A large nut (item 6 in Fig. 7.21), the same diameter as the outside diameter of the dome, secures
the dome assembly to the hub . A semi-circular groove machined into the outside diameter of the
dome shell matches a similar semi-circular groove machined into the retaining nut. A row of ball
bearing rides in the two semi-circular grooves. This ball bearing then reduces friction when tightening
the dome retaining nut. The retaining nut performs several key functions , not the least of which is
attaching the dome to the barrel. It also serves to transmit the oil thrust loads from the dome to the
barrel.

Dome and Barrel Seal

In order to retain the high pressure oil between the barrel and dome, a dome and barrel seal is
installed (item 30 in Fig. 7.21) .

Distributor Valve Assembly

Shown in Fig 7.24, the distributor valve is threaded into the propeller shaft and extends into the dome
assembly. As its name suggests, the distributor valve distributes oil to the appropriate side of the
piston. Additionally, distributor valves are only used on propellers with feathering capability. During
constant speed and feathering operations the valve provides oil passages for governor oil or auxiliary
oil to the inboard side of the piston and engine oil pressure to the outboard side of the piston. How-
ever, to unfeather a feathered propeller takes an inordinate amount of power. This is accomplished
by a pressure of 600 psi, generated by the feathering pump, which shifts the distributor valve allowing
oil from the feathering pump to flow to the outboard side of the propeller piston and the inboard side
of the piston sees engine oil pressure.

Distributor Valve Housing Assembly

Manufactured from an aluminum casting, the distributor valve housing assembly (Fig. 7.24) is cored
to provide the appropriate oil passages. A steel sleeve, shrunk into the central bore of the housing,
incorporates ports that align with the cored oil passages in the housing. A fine thread on the inboard
end of the housing matches the threads on the inside of propeller shaft. The outboard end is threaded
to accommodate the breather tube . Two pressed-in steel bushings sit in the base of the housing to
hold the valve housing oil transfer plate. The valve housing incorporates oil seal rings near the
outboard end which seals the differential oil pressure between the inboard and outboard sides of the
piston inner bore.

Dome Relief Valve Assembly

With a cold engine and consequently viscous oil, dangerously high oil pressures can be generated . If
allowed to go unchecked, damage to the pitch stop lugs will result. This is due to excessive oil loads

349
Chapter 7

SLINGER TUBE
I

Fig. 7.23 Hamilton Standard

Hydromatic anti-ice installation.
Anti-ice fluid is fed into a trough
behind the hub. It is then slung
onto the leading edge of the
blades via feed pipes from the
trough, and by centrifugal force.
(Hydromatic Propellers Service
Manual. Authors collection.)

on the outboard side of the piston encountered either when maintaining the auxiliary pressure after
the rotating cam has reached the low pitch stop or during warm-up when the engine may be operated
at high rpm with low oil temperature. The solution to this potential problem is the dome relief valve
assembly. It consists of a one-way check valve mounted in the outboard end of the distributor valve
assembly and serves to bypass excessively high oil pressures from the outboard side of the piston to
the inboard. Opening pressure can be regulated via shims.

Distributor Valve

The distributor valve fits inside the distributor valve sleeve. Three lands are incorporated which
serve to reverse the oil passages described above, during unfeathering operations.

Dash Pot

During unfeathering, oscillations may occur when the distributor valve shifts. To dampen these
oscillations, a small dashpot is incorporated. It screws into the base of the distributor valve housing.

Valve Spring Group

As described above, introduction of auxiliary oil at a higher pressure than that required for constant
speed or feathering results in the required distributor valve shift for unfeathering. The spring pre-
load built into the valve establishes the pressure at which the shift occurs. Valve shift pressure is
determined by the spring pre-load, which is set by varying the number of valve spring gaskets .

350
 Propellers

Anti-Icing Device Assembly

Like airframe icing, propeller icing can be disastrous for the performance of an aircraft. Beyond the
obvious concern of the airfoil section of the propeller blade being compromised with ice buildup, ice
that has been flung off the blades by centrifugal force can cause serious damage to an airframe.

Two methods of anti-icing are used: electrical heating of the blade leading edge and fluid anti-icing.

Fluid anti-icing devices (Fig. 7.23 and Fig. 7.24) are fitted on the inboard end of the barrel. The anti-
icing device is made up of a steel slinger ring (not unlike the slinger ring used in the supercharger
impeller) . A small trough is formed into the slinger ring into which anti-icing fluid is fed from a feeder
tube mounted on the nose case of the engine. As fluid is pumped into the slinger ring, centrifugal
force keeps the fluid trapped inside the trough. At the base of the trough, three (or four, in the case
of a four-blade propeller) nozzles spray the fluid along the leading edge of the blade.

Electric anti-icers feature heavy duty cables bonded to the leading edge of the blade. Current is fed
into the blade via slip rings and carbon brushes.

Breather Parts

Some R-2800 propeller installations allow engine blow-by gasses to breathe through the dome. For
these shaft breathing installations, special parts, are included in the propeller assembly. A breather
cap replaces the dome breather hole plug. A breather tube is fitted on the end of the distributor valve
(on feathering installations), or on the engine shaft extension (on non-feathering installations). The
breather tube assembly incorporates an integral screen near the outboard end to prevent particles,
such as carbon, from entering the engine breather passages. A special oil transfer plate is used to
route engine breather gases to the inside of the distributor valve or engine shaft extension . This plate
has the center portion open and two pick-up rings are cut into the face of the plate to separate engine
oil from governor oil. When a breather is installed, engine crankcase gases flow from the propeller
shaft, through the center portion of the valve housing oil transfer plate and gasket, into the cored
breather passage in the distributor valve (or engine shaft extension). From here, the gases pass into
the breather tube and then to atmosphere through the breather cap installed in'the dome shell.

Engine Shaft Extension

So far we have primarily studied propellers with feathering capability. Of course, many Hamilton
Standard propellers never had the capability to feather. Single-engine aircraft powered by the R-2800
never had this feature. And as described above, the non-feathering propeller used straight slope
ca.ms. Lack offeathering capability meant the distributor valve was unnecessary. In its place a shaft
extension assembly was substituted. Although similar in some ways to the distributor valve, the

351
Chapter 7

ENGINE SHAFT EXTENSION ASSEMBl Y

FOR PROPELLER MODEL 24D50

NO. PART NAME

I Oil Seal Ring
2 Oi l Seol Ring Expander
3 Engine Snoft Extension Housing
Valve Housing Dowel - Sma ll
Valve Housing Dowe l - Lorge
6 ExteM ion Housing · Propell er Shaft Go1kel

DISTRIBUTOR VAL VE ASSEMBLY FOR

PROPELLER MODEL 24 DSO

NO. PART NAME

Valve Spring Retoining Cop lock Wire
Yolve Spring Retaining Cop
Valve Spring Gasket
4 Valve Spring
5 Valve Spring Wosher
6 Distributor Valve
Distri butor Volve Housing Auembly
Oi ! Seo\ Ring
9 Oil Seal Ring Expander
I0 Valve Housing Dowe l Bushing - Small
I I Valve Hou•ing Dowel Bushing - Largo
I2 Dosh Pol Snap Ring --------@
I3
14
Dosh Pol
Yo Jve Housing.Propeller Shaft Gasket
f 0
~

DE.ICING DEVICE ASSEMBLY FOR

PROPELLER MODEL 24050

NO. PART NAME

Brockel & Nozzle A"embly
Ho .. Coupling
3 Slinger Ring Autmbly
Slinger Ring Attaching Screw
Feeder Tube Auembly

Fig. 7. 24 Distributor valve, shaft extension and anti-icing assembly. (Hydromatic Propel-
lers Service Manual. Authors collection.)

shaft extension assembly does not include the valve itself. It incorporates two oil passages; one for
governor oil routed to the inboard side of the piston and an oil passage for engine oil routed to the
outboard side of the piston. It is manufactured from an aluminum casting (item 3 in Fig 7.24). The
inboard end is threaded to match the internal thread of the propeller shaft and the outboard end is

352
 Propellers

threaded for the breather tube. Two dowels (items 4 and 5 in Fig. 7.24) are pressed into the oil
passages at the base of the extension to hold the valve housing oil transfer plate and gasket (item 6
in Fig. 7.24). Oil seal rings (item 1 in Fig. 7.24) are incorporated near the outboard end of the
housing, situated between the housing and the piston sleeve in an assembled propeller. These rings
provide the oil seal between the inboard and outboard sides of the piston.

Principle of Operation

So far we have studied what makes up the typical Hamilton Standard propeller. This section attempts
to illuminate some of the idiosyncrasies ofoperating this propeller.

Three conditions determine the operation of, not only the Hamilton Standard, but any constant speed
propeller. They are underspeed, overspeed, and on-speed. To illustrate these conditions the reader is
referred to Fig. 7.25 (color section) for underspeed, Fig. 7.26 (color section) for on-speed, and
Fig. 7.27 (color section) for an overspeed condition. Not all Hamilton Standard propellers have
feathering capability but for those that do, Fig. 7.28 (color section) shows feathering and Fig. 7.29
(color section) shows unfeathering. In each of these figures , the governor and propeller parts
change position as required by the operating condition shown and the varying oil pressures necessary
to make or compensate for these changes are shown.

Engines fitted with an air separator plug (item 25 in Fig. 7.25) allow air, which may collect in the
center of the propeller shaft, after installation of the propeller, to be bled from the system through the
governor drain. At the same time, the air separator plug prevents oil from being forced from the
shaft under the influence of air and centrifugal force, when the propeller is running in fine pitch and
at a lower rpm than that for which the governor is set. These conditions prevail during initial engine
run-up. Without the separator plug, oil would be lost from the shaft resulting in temporary
overspeeding, particularly during the early part of the takeoff run before governor oil could replace
oil lost from the propeller shaft and move the blades to a courser pitch.

Constant Speed Operation

Three fundamental forces are at play in a Hanulton Standard constant speed propeller: (1) centrifugal
twisting moment, (2) engine oil pressure, and (3) governor oil pressure.

Governor

Constant speed of the propeller is maintained via the engine driven governor shown in Fig. 7.30 and
diagrammatically in Fig. 7.31 and Fig 7.32. It operates on the centrifugal flyweight principal. Part
of the governor assembly includes a gear pump (items 5 and 16 in Fig. 7.32) which boosts engine
oil pressure sufficiently to operate the propeller-upwards of 400 psi. A pilot valve (item 4 in
Fig. 7.32) actuated by the flyweights (item 3 in Fig. 7.31) controls the flow of oil through the
governor and a relief valve system which regulates the operating pressure of the governor. The

353
Chapter 7

Fig. 7. 30 Typical governor used in

conjunction with a Hamilton Standard
"Hydromatic. " For R-2800 applica-
tions, the governor is mounted on
the nose case. (Hydromatic Propel-
lers Service Manual. Authors
collection.)

required balancing of the three forces, centrifugal twisting, engine oil pressure, and governor oil
pressure, is maintained by the governor. In addition to boosting the engine oil pressure, it meters to, or
drains from, the inboard side of the piston the appropriate amount of oil to maintain proper blade angle
for constant speed operation. The rpm at which the propeller will operate is adjusted in the governor
head (item 1 in Fig. 7.32) . Propeller rpm (or "propeller speed") is controlled by the pilot/flight
engineer via the propeller control, through cables linked to the governor head. A typical governor
pulley has a total travel of approximately 14 tum. Turning the pulley introduces more or less compres-
sion on the speeder spring (item 2 in Fig. 7.31 and Fig. 7.33). In constant speed the centrifugal
force of the flyweights balances the spring force . If a lower speed is required, as is the case imme-
diately after takeoff when power and speed is adjusted from takeoff power to cruise, the pilot/flight
engineer moves the propeller control to a lower rpm setting. The governor head mounted pulley turns
and via the rack and pinion reduces the compression force on the speeder spring . Therefore, the
speed required to keep the speeder spring in equilibrium with the flyweight is less. The position of the
pilot valve (item 4 in Fig. 7.31) with respect to the propeller governor metering port regulates the
quantity of oil which flows through this port, to or from the propeller. As a point of interest, for
aircraft that are raced, typically at Reno, Nevada, each September, one way to increase the speed of
the engine is to modify the aptly named speeder spring.

'
354
 Propellers

OPERATING CONDITIONS
OF ACCUMULATOR
SHUT-OFF VALVE 2

~ VALVE CLOSED
ACCUMULATOR OR LINE DAMAGED
9

14 - -- - - -- - - - - - l

ON-SPEED

Fig. 7. 31 Schematic of governor showing on-speed condition.

1 Governor Cover (Head)
2 Speeder Spring
3 Flyweight Assembly
4 Pilot Valve
5 Booster Pump Drive Gear
6 Differential Pressure Booster
Pump Relief Valve
7 Booster Pump Oil Balancing Groove
8 Booster Pump Idler Gear
(Parts Catalog for Hydromatic Propeller Governors. Author s collection.)
9 Booster Pump Idler Gear Bushing
10 Relief Valve Drain Passage
11 Booster Pump Engine Oil Supply Passage
12 Accumulator Automatic Shut-Off Valve
13 Accumulator Line
14 Head Drain Passage
15 Booster Pump Drive Gear & Shaft Bushing
16 Propeller Governor Oil Passage
17 Drive Gear Shaft Coupling

355
Chapter 7

UNDERSPEED OVERS PEED

....... ,, ........... ,, ,.,.

OYERSPEED AND STARVATION

Fig. 7. 32 Schematics of governor showing the following conditions: underspeed, over-

speed, and overspeed plus oil starvation. (Parts Catalog for Hydromatic Propeller Gover-
nors. Authors collection.)

356
 Propellers

Fig. 7. 33 The all important

speeder spring mounted in the
governor head. This spring '.s rate
determines the speed of the engine.
(Hydromatic Propellers Service
Manual. Author '.s collection.)

Underspeed Condition

An underspeed condition is schematically illustrated in Fig. 7.25. As illustrated in the blade angle
diagram (item 1 in Fig. 25), underspeeding results when the blade has moved to a higher or courser
pitch than that required (shown dotted).

Oil Flow: When the engine speed drops below the rpm for which the governor speeder spring is set,
(item 35 in Fig. 7.25) the resulting decrease in centrifugal force allows the governor flyweights
(item 39 in Fig. 7.25) to move inward under the force of the speeder spring . As the governor
fl)'\veights move inward, the pilot valve (item 33 in Fig. 7.25) lowers, which in turn opens the
propeller governor metering port (item 40 in Fig. 7.25) to drain. Oil is now allov,red to flow from the
inboard side of the piston (item 6 in Fig. 7.25) to the distributor valve inboard inlet (item 7 in Fig.
7.25), between the distributor valve lands (items 16 and 17 in Fig. 7.25) through the valve port
(item 8 in Fig 7.25) into the propeller shaft oil transfer rings (item 27 in Fig. 7.25) up to the
propeller governor metering port (item 40 in Fig. 7.25) and then through the hollow governor drive
gear shaft and pilot valve arrangement (item 33 in Fig. 7.25) to drain into the engine nose case.
From here, the oil reenters the engine lubrication system and is picked up by the nose case scavenge
pump to be returned to the oil tank via the oil cooler. Distributor valves do not shift during constant
speed (or feathering) operations. During an underspeed condition, engine oil entering through the
port, shovvn as item 18 in Fig. 7.25, is trapped between distributor valve lands (item 17 and 19 in
Fig. 7.25) balancing that portion of the valve, while oil at drain pressure applied to lands 16 and 17
in Fig. 7.25, cancels out. The only force which tends to shift the valve is drain pressure applied
through the distributor valve port (item 3 in Fig. 7.25) against the inboard end of the land (item 19
in Fig. 7.25). However, this force is minor compared to the combined forces of opposing it, i.e.,
engine oil pressure acting on the outboard end ofland (item 16 in Fig. 7.25) and the distributor valve
spring (item 12 in Fig. 7.25).

357
Chapter 7

Propeller Action: As oil drains from the inboard side of the piston (item 6 in Fig. 7.25) engine oil
flows through the propeller shaft engine oil passage (item 24 in Fig. 7.25) through distributor valve
ports (items 15 and 19 in Fig. 7.25) and emerges from the distributor valve outboard outlet (item
10 in Fig. 7.25) into the outboard piston end (item 11 in Fig. 7.25) . In conjunction with the blade
centrifugal twisting moment, this oil moves the piston (item 5 in Fig. 7.25) inboard. As described
above in the cams section, this piston motion is translated through the piston cam rollers (item 2 in
Fig. 4.25) operating in the oppositely inclined cam tracks of the fixed cam (item 21 in Fig. 7.25) and
rotating cam (item 22 in Fig. 7.25) into blade twisting movement through the bevel gears on the
rotating cam and the blade gear segment. As indicated in item 1 in Fig. 7.26, the blade assumes a
lower angle or finer pitch.

Consequences: As the blade moves to a finer pitch, the engine speed increases, and the governor pilot
valve (item 33 in Fig. 7.25) is raised by the increased centrifugal force via the governor flyweights
(item 39 in Fig. 7.25). This raising of the pilot valve gradually closes off the propeller governor
metering port (item 40 in Fig. 7.25), which in turn decreases the flow of oil from the inboard side of
the piston. This decrease in oil flow also decreases the rate of blade angle change toward low pitch.
When the engine has reached the rpm for which the governor is set, the pilot valve (item 33 in
Fig. 7.25) will have assumed a neutral position, i.e., closed . The neutral position prevents any appre-
ciable oil flow (some oil will always "weep" past the pilot valve) to, or from, the propeller. The
system is now in equilibrium and the propeller is on-speed, i.e., the valve is held in this position
because the flyweight centrifugal force is balanced by the speeder spring force. During underspeed,
the relief valve (item 31 in Fig. 7.25) opens and bypasses the oil from the governor booster pump
(item 29 in Fig. 7.25).

On-Speed Condition

Fig. 7.26 schematically shows the on-speed condition. As described above, the propeller, governor
flyweight centrifugal force, and speeder spring forces are all in equilibrium. The governor flyweights
(item 39 in Fig. 7.26) are positioned to allow the governor pilot valve (item 33 in Fig. 7.26) to
close the governor metering port (item 40 in Fig. 7.26) completely except for a small "seepage" for
replacement of oil passed through the piston bleed holes (item 20 in Fig. 7.26) past the distributor
valve oil seal rings (item 14 in Fig. 7.26) and the propeller shaft oil transfer rings (item 27 in
Fig. 7.26).

Overspeed Condition

Fig. 7.27 schematically shows an overspeed condition. If the propeller operates at an rpm higher
than that at which it is set, the blades will be in a lower pitch, or angle, than that required (item 1 in
Fig. 7.27).

Oil flow: During overspeed, the flyweights (item 39 in Fig. 7.27) overcome the force of the speeder
spring (item 35 in Fig. 7.27) in turn raising the pilot valve (item 33 in Fig. 7.27). When the pilot

358
 Propellers

valve raises, the propeller governor metering port is opened (item 40 in Fig. 7.27) . Opening of the
metering port allows oil, boosted by the governor booster pump (item 29 in Fig. 7.27) to flow
through the propeller governor metering port (item 40 in Fig. 7.27) into the engine oil transfer rings
(item 27 in Fig. 7.27). From the rings, oil flows through the propeller shaft governor oil passage
(item 23 in Fig. 7.27) through the distributor valve ports (item 8 in Fig. 7.27) between the distribu-
tor lands (items 16 and 17 in Fig. 7.27) and then into the inboard side of the piston (item 6 in
Fig. 7.27) entering from the distributor valve inboard outlet (item 7 in Fig. 7.27). As a result of this
oil flow, the piston and the rollers attached to the piston (item 2 in Fig. 7.27) move outboard . This
results in the rotating cam turning by virtue of the cam arrangement described above . As the piston
moves outboard, oil is displaced from the outboard side of the piston (item 11 in Fig. 7 .2 7) . This
displaced oil enters the distributor valve port (item 9 in Fig. 7.27), past the outboard end of the valve
land (item 16 in Fig. 7.27) through the distributor valve port (item 15 in Fig. 7.27) into the propeller
shaft engine oil passage (item 24 in Fig. 7.27). From here, the oil enters the nose case to be
scavenged and returned to the oil tank . The same balanced forces exist across the distributor valve
during overspeed correction as during underspeed correction, except that oil at governor pressure
replaces oil at drain pressure on the inboard end of the valve land (item 19 in Fig. 7.27) and
between the distributor valve lands (items 16 and 17 in Fig. 7.27) .

Consequences : Outboard motion of the piston moves the propeller blade toward a higher angle or
courser pitch. This of course loads the engine and reduces rpm. A decrease in engine rpm brings
about a corresponding decrease in the rpm of the governor flyweights (item 39 in Fig. 7.27). This
results in the flyv,reights moving inward by the force of the speeder spring (item 35 in Fig. 7.27), the
pilot valve (item 33 in Fig. 7.27), is lowered and the propeller governor metering port (item 40 in
Fig. 7.27) is closed. Once this port has been closed, oil flow to, or from , the propeller is reduced to
a minimum. Under these conditions, the propeller and governor are on-speed.

The net pressure available for moving the blades to a higher angle or courser pitch, is the difference
between the pressure on the inboard side of the piston and the outboard side. This net pressure can
vary depending on engine oil pressure. To provide for this, the governor relief valve (item 31 in
Fig. 7.27) is backed up by engine oil pressure that supplements the force of the relief valve spring.
In this way, the net pressure conditions across the propeller piston are duplicated across the governor
relief valve. Adequate oil force is therefore assured to move the piston. Similar compensating oil
pressure is applied to the outboard end of the distributor valve.

Propeller Feathering

To feather a Hamilton Standard (Fig. 7.28), the pilot/flight engineer depresses the feathering push-
button s-vvitch. From this action the saying "punching an engine out" is derived. Depressing the
feathering switch establishes a circuit to the push-button holding coil and the governor mounted
pressure cutout switch to ground. A second circuit goes from the battery, the push-button switch,
and the solenoid relay to ground. The solenoid relay closes to establish a third circuit from the
battery through the feathering pump motor to ground. Oil for the feathering pump is drawn from the

359
Chapter 7

oil tank. The feathering pump discharges into the governor high pressure transfer valve elbow (item
42 in Fig. 7.28). When the propeller is fully feathered, feathering pump pressure opens the pressure
cutout switch (item 43 in Fig. 7.28). This opens the circuit and de-energizes the push button holding
coil.

Governor Operation

In referring to Fig. 7.28, it can be seen that feathering pump oil entering the high-pressure transfer
valve elbow (item 42 in Fig. 7.28) shifts the governor transfer valve (item 42 in Fig. 7.28).
Shifting of the transfer valve hydraulically disconnects the governor from the propeller and simulta-
neously opens the propeller governor oil line to feathering pump oil. Oil flows through the engine
transfer rings (item 27 in Fig. 7.28) through the propeller shaft governor oil passage (item 23 in
Fig. 7.28) through the distributor valve port (item 8 in Fig. 7.28) between the distributor valve lands
(items 16 and 17 in Fig. 7.28) and finally the inboard side of the piston (item 6 in Fig. 7.28)
entering from the distributor valve inboard outlet (item 7 in Fig. 7.28).

For clarification purposes it should be noted that the distributor valve (item 4 in Fig. 7.28) does not
shift during feathering operations. Instead, it merely provides oil passages to the inboard side of the
piston for auxiliary oil and the outboard side of the piston for engine oil. The same condition
described in underspeed exists in the distributor valve except that oil at auxiliary pressure replaces
drain oil at the inboard end of the distributor valve land (item 19 in Fig. 7.28) and between distribu-
tor valve lands 17 and 16 in Fig. 7.28 . Engine oil pressure backs up the distributor valve spring
(item 12 in Fig. 7.28). This means that at all times the pressure differential required to move the
piston will be identical with that applied to the distributor valve.

Propeller Action (Feathering)

The propeller piston (item 5 in Fig. 7.28) moves outboard under the feathering pump pressure at a
speed proportional to the rate at which oil is supplied to the cylinder (dome). Piston motion is
transmitted through the piston rollers (item 2 in Fig. 7.28), operating in the oppositely inclined cam
tracks of the fixed cam (item 21 in Fig. 7.28) and the rotating cam (item 22 in Fig. 7.28) into a blade
twisting moment via the bevel gear and blade segment gear. Only during feathering and unfeathering
is the low mechanical advantage portion of the cam tracks used, i.e., a relatively small piston dis-
placement equates to a relatively large amount of blade angle shift. Oil at engine oil pressure dis-
placed from the outboard side of the piston during feathering (item 11 in Fig. 7.28) flows through
the distributor valve outboard inlet (item 10 in Fig. 7.28) past the outboard end of distributor valve
land, 16 in Fig. 7.28, through port 15 in Fig. 7.28, into the propeller shaft engine oil passage (item
24 in Fig. 7.28), where it finally makes its way into the engine's nose case to be scavenged. The
fully feathered position is 88 degrees rather than the 90 degrees one would expect. The reason for
this is the helical twist designed into the propeller blade. Once in the fully feathered position,
further movement is prevented by contact between the high angle stop ring in the base of the fixed
cam (item 21 in Fig. 7.28) and the stop lugs set in the teeth of the rotating cam (item 22 in
Fig. 7.28). Once the mechanism is bottomed out, i.e., fully feathered, the inboard piston pressure

360
 I CHPIESSOI CUlll
2 llFFISEI SECTIOI
S IEH IUllll CAP
4 TICIOMETEI COllECTIOI
5 HZZLE IOX
I HZZLE ILHES
1 TlllllE llCIEU
I non IUllll UP
9 OIL PIMPS <- 1 a nomi
1t CIOLlll CAP
II OIL UPPU
12 OIL IETlll
11 IUTE PIPE
14 WISTE UTE
15 OIL PIMPI IElllH IOISIH
IOTOI USEMIU
11 Ulfl HT
17 SHfT llSIEI
II IMPELLEI ins
11 IMPELLEI
H SPICEI
21 IUI Ill IEFLECTH
!I HLL IUllH
H PIMP lllJE SLEU£
Ul.lllU 24 PIMP lllH SLEEIE IEY
liliT
25 llLLEI IUllll
H FlllT Oil IEFLECTll
27 HEEL i SllFT HSEll.
H Ill llLET

.. OIEIHIL CLEHUCU
aou. lllWED llZD.D All -.rr1 . . ... . .
Lllrmtl-SUL a.w.aa <• 1.11111) . .
IADID..l.llW ........ ,_lmft..................... -Al2. ..,.
. . •. • -

Ill lmffll ~ wml CWITlllT UllU) . . . .

... D OIL

--
9EUD . . . . . 0 . . . - (Ullll)

...
-
ma ..a.w ADll a.EAl&a ... . .. .. . . . . . . .. . . . . • .Ill
&11U1m. amrm ... • WfUU m norr USlll . . a EXUIST

••
aoum lnWDll ,..,. • .wa m ... Ulm .. •
09 l'LH .. UU . . _ . (llTll &llOL) .. . Ill
IUUl PUT W UU. . . . . .. . .
uau. ,..., • la1ll . . . . . .... ... ......... . ..., OIL MIST

Fig. 4.56 This cutaway view of the Type CH-5 General Electric turbosupercharger gives some idea of the sophistication of the
turbos used by the United States during World War II. (Handbook of Instructions with Parts Catalog for Type CH-5 Turbosuper-
charger, l March 1945. Authors collection.)
Color Figures

PRESSURE BELOW
THROTTLE

...__ _! VENTURI SUCTlm

'------'' IMPACT PRESSURE

AUTOMATIC MIXTURE
I••• WATER AT PUMP
PRESSURE
CONTROL UNIT

RELIEF CHECK VALVE

THROTTLE
ACTUATED
ACCELERATING
PUMP - -- -

DISCHARGE NOZZLE VALVE

- - - - - - - S L I N G E R RING

Fig. 6.3 Schematic ofthefi1el/air circuits of the Bendix injection carburetor. (Handbook Over-
haul Instructions for Stromberg Injection Carburetor Models PR-58. Authors collection.)

C2
 Color Figures

REGULATED IMPACT MANUAL MIXTURE CONTROL

P'ESSURE VALVE PLATE POSITION

DL.~ CUT-OFF
l@
J METERED
FUEL
AUTO RICH A UTO LEAN
@

'·.: .. ~
I UNMETERED
F<JEL
' .,
·..
.. ....
I ENGINE PUMP
P~ESSURE L FROM AUTO RICH JET
CHANNEL FROM AUTO LEAN JET
INMETERED FUEL FLOAT
'ENT RESTRICTION
METERED FUEL VENT PASSAGE
VAPOR SEPARATORS

~VAPOR VENT LINE

TO FUEL TANK

'
I
I

i
I
~ CONNECT ION ) j
::::.: -=~:: :_-_-_---~~/
POWER ENRICHMENT
METER ING JET

::0 FUEL PRESSURE NOTE-ENGINE IDLING MI XTURE ADJUSTMENT TO BE MADE

ENRICHMENT VALVE WITH KNURLED SCREW ATTACHED TO IDLE VALVE
BLEED VENT RESTRICTION SHAFT

IED FUEL TO DISCHARGE NOZZLE VALVE

lTANr EFFORT SPRING

DERICHMENT VALVE IN
CLOS ED POSITION

C3
 - Drain Pressure
c::==J l::ngine Oil Pump Pressure
- Propeller Pressure
- Governor Booster Pump Pressure

26 25

Fig. 7.25 Ham ilton Standard Hydromatic underspeed condition. For the key to this figure, refer top. C9.
(Hydromatic Propellers Service Manual. Authors collection.)
 Drain Pressure
C===:J Engine O il Pump Pressure
- Propeller Pressure
•Ml Governor Booster Pump Pressure

..

14

Fig. 7.26 Hamilton Standard Hydromatic on-speed condition. For the key to this figure, refer top. C9.
(Hydromatic Propellers Service Manual. Authors collection.)
 Drain Pressure
C=:::J tngine Oil Pump Pressure
Governor Booster Pump Pressure

Fig. 7.27 Hamilton Standard Hydromatic overspeed condition. For the key to this figure, refer top. C9.
(Hydromatic Propellers Service Manual. Author :S collection.)
 /----"-.....· - Drain Pressure

I
/ ~ \
\ .
c==J E:ngine Oil Pump Pressure
Governor Booster Pump Pressure
l \ Feathering Pump Pressure

\ . I l0

Fig. 7.28 Hamilton Standard Hydromatic feathering diagram. For the key to this figure, refer top. C9.
(Hydromatic Propellers Service Manual. Authors collection.)
 / ----""'\
/ ~ c===J
Drain Pressure
l;ngine Oil Pump Pressure
I / . - Governor Booster Pump Pressure

\ \ Feathering Pump Pressure

\ .18
.- ·

n
00

13

Fig. 7.29 Hamilton Standard Hydromatic unfeathering diagram . For the key to this .figure, refer top. C9.
(Hydromatic Propellers Service Manual. Authors collection.)
 Color Figures

Key to Figs. 7.25, 7.26, 7.27, 7.28, and 7.29

1. Blade Angle Schematic Diagram 23 . Propeller Shaft Governor Oil Passage

2. Cam Rollers 24. Propeller Shaft Engine Oil Passage
3. Distributor Valve Port 25. Air Separotor Plug
4. Distributor Valve 26. Engine Oil Pump
5. Double Acting Piston 27. Propeller Shaft Oil Transfer Rings
6. Inboard Piston End 28 . Governor Drive Shaft .
7. Distributor Valve Inboard Outlet and Inlet Port 29. Governor Booster Gear Pump
8. Distributor Valve Port 30. Governor Dump Valve
9. Distributor Va lve Port 31 . Governor Relief Valve
10. Distributor Valve Outboard Outlet and Inlet Port 32. Constant Speed Control Unit (Governor)
11. Outboard Piston End 33 . Governor Pilot Valve
12. Distributor Va lve Spring 34. Governor Flyweigh t Cup
13. Dame Pressure Relief Valve 35. Governor Speeder Spring
14. Distributor Valve Oil Seal Rings 36. Governor Control Head
15. Distributor Valve Port 37. Control Head Screw Shaft
16. Distributor Valve Land 38. Electric Motor
17. Distributor Valve Land 39. Governor Flyweights
18. Distributor Valve Port 40. Propeller-Governor Metering Port
19. Distributor Valve Land 41. Governor High Pressure Transfer Valve
20. Piston Bleed Hole 42. Governor High Pressure Transfer Valve Elbow
21. Fixed Cam 43. Electric Pressure Cut -Out Switch
22. Rotat ing Cam 44. Pressure Cut - Out Switch Plunger
45. Engine Nose Cose

C9
 Propellers

rapidly increases. Upon reaching the pressure for which the electric pressure cutout switch (item 43
in Fig. 7.28) is set, the pressure cutout plunger (item 44 in Fig. 7.28) raises and in so doing, opens
the electric circuit to the feathering pump motor. This pressure is less than that required to shift the
distributor valve . Opening of the electric pressure cutout switch (item 43 in Fig. 7.28) de-energizes
the feathering push-button holding coil and in so doing releases the feathering push-button control
switch. Release of the push-button switch breaks the solenoid relay holding circuit that in tum shuts
down the feathering pump. The pressure in both the inboard and outboard ends of the piston (items
6, 11 and 5 in Fig. 7.28) drops to zero and the propeller remains feathered by virtue of the fact that
all forces are balanced. The governor high pressure transfer valve (item 41 in Fig. 7.28) shifts to
its normal position once the pressure in the propeller governor line drops below that required to hold
the valve in the open position.

Propeller Unfeathering

Unfeathering a Hydromatic propeller requires the pilot/flight engineer to depress and hold in the
feathering switch push button. As in the case of feathering, this completes the circuit from the
battery, through the solenoid holding coil. The solenoid also closes the relay contacts which feed
current to the feathering pump motor. The feathering pump then supplies oil at a high pressure to the
governor transfer valve elbow, item 42 in Fig. 7.29 .

Governor Operation

Referring to Fig. 7.29, it can be seen that feathering pump engine oil entering through the high
pressure transfer valve elbow (item 42 in Fig. 7.29) shifts the governor transfer valve (item 41 in
Fig. 7.29) and disconnects the governor from the propeller line and in the same operation, feathering
pump oil is admitted. Oil flows through engine oil transfer rings (item 27 in Fig. 7.29) through the
propeller shaft governor oil passage (item 23 in Fig. 7.29) and into the distributor valve assembly.
When the unfeathering operation begins, the piston (item 5 in Fig. 7.29) is in the extreme outboard
position. Oil enters the inboard side of the piston (item 6 in Fig. 7.29) through the distributor valve
into the inboard outlet (item 7 in Fig. 7.29). As the pressure on the inboard side of the piston
increases, the pressure against the distributor valve land (item 19 in Fig. 7.29) also increases. When
the pressure against the distributor valve lands becomes greater than the combined opposing force of
the distributor valve spring (item 12 in Fig. 7.29) and the oil pressure behind the spring, the valve
shifts. Once shifted, the passages through the distributor valve assembly to the propeller are reversed.
Shifting the valve opens a passage from the distributor valve port (item 8 in Fig. 7.29) between the
distributor valve lands (items 17 and 16 in Fig. 7.29) through the distributor valve port (item 9 in
Fig. 7.29) to the outboard side of the piston through the distributor valve outlet (item 10 in
Fig. 7.29) .

Propeller Operation

As the piston moves inboard under the auxiliary pressure from the feathering pump, oil is displaced
from the inboard side of the piston through the distributor valve outlet between the distributor valve

361
Chapter 7

lands (items 17 and 19 in Fig. 7.29) through the distributor valve port (item 18 in Fig. 7.29) and
into the propeller shaft engine oil passage (item 24 in Fig. 7.29) where it is discharged into the
engine lubricating system to be scavenged by the nose case scavenge pump. Concurrently, the
pressure seen by the cutout switch (item 43 in Fig. 7.29) increases and the switch opens. How-
ever, the circuit to the feathering pump motor remains complete, as long as the pilot/flight engineer
physically holds the feathering button down. With the inboard end of the cylinder connected to drain
and auxiliary pressure flowing to the outboard side of the piston, the piston moves inboard and in so
doing unfeathers the propeller as shown in Fig. 7.29. As the blades stait to unfeather, depending on
the speed of the aircraft, the propeller will start to windmill. This assists in the unfeathering operation
as does the centrifugal twisting moment. At an engine speed of approxin1ately 1000 rpm or 500 rpm
propeller speed, the pilot/flight engineer releases the feathering switch, which shuts down the feath-
ering pump. The pressure in the distributor valve (item 4 in Fig. 7.29) decreases, allowing it to shift
under the action of the distributor valve spring (item 12 in Fig. 7.29). This allows the transfer valve
to shift under the action of the governor high pressure transfer valve spring. This action reconnects
the governor with the propeller and establishes the same oil passages through the distributor valve as
are used during constant speed and feathering operations. The dome pressure relief valve (item 13
in Fig. 7.29) is designed to prevent excessive pressure in the outboard end of the cylinder should the
propeller be unfeathered to a point where the mechanism is against the positive low blade angle stop.
This condition occurs with careless use of the unfeathering button, i.e., the pilot/flight engineer holds
it down too long after the propeller is unfeathered. The dome relief valve is set at a pressure which
is adequate to unfeather the propeller under all conditions, and yet is less than the maximum pressure
capable of being delivered by the feathering pump. And remember, the feathering pump is a positive
displacement gear pump. As in the case of the distributor valve spring (item 12 in Fig. 7.29) the
dome pressure relief valve (item 13 in Fig. 7.29) is backed up by engine oil pressure. This insures
adequate oil pressure for unfeathering regardless of the back pressure set up when the piston dis-
places oil into the engine nose case. Should the mechanism be unfeathered against the low pitch
stops, the dome relief valve (item 13 in Fig. 7.29) opens and relieves the high pressure oil by
allowing it to flow from the outboard side of the piston (item 11 in Fig. 7.29) to the inboard side of
the piston (item 6 in Fig. 7.29) . To put things in perspective, Fig. 7.34 shows a typical feathering
accessories installation.

Maintenance

Hamilton Standard propellers are remarkably trouble free, especially considering their complexity
and heavy loads imposed upon them. However, like any complex and precision mechanical device,
certain procedures need to be adhered to. Prior to each flight, the propeller is exercised . This entails
running up the engine at reduced power and operating the propeller through its pitch range . With
everything operating as it should, the propeller will respond immediately to the inputs from the gover-
nor. This preflight test serves several purposes. Obviously, the first thing it determines is proper
operation of the propeller. Secondly, and less obviously, any air that is entrapped anywhere within the
propeller system is expelled.

One idiosyncrasy of the Hamilton Standard is sludging. With engine oil being pumped through the
propeller and of course being spun at propeller speed, a centrifuge action takes place . This results in

362
 Propellers

·-'~
~· -==c
· -) ·_Jri
\.
......:"",....;---·;;.-,
..~·..!::::..:..-:;if//"\
- ·- ·- --··-- -
/
/
~- ----- 'L=-..1( , .
., I
SW1TCH ®
I
FEATHERING PUSHBUTTON

(
\

""
SOLE~ID RELAY

BATTERY
0
- ·- - · - -·- - · - -·- · \

Fig. 7. 34 Typical feathering installation. The pump is powered by a powerful 24 volt DC

electric motor. Its surprising how much power it takes to feather a propeller. Discharge
from the pump goes through the governor, into the propeller shaft and finally into the dome
where the pressure acts upon the dome piston. (Hydromatic Propellers Service Manual.
Authors collection.)

sludge building up, particularly in the dome. Fortunately, the dome is relatively easy to remove and
desludging, although a messy job, can be accomplished fairly quickly. Like any propeller, inspection
of the blade leading edges for damage due to nicks and erosion is required. Water operations in
particular are hard on propeller blades due to erosion. Overall, the Hamilton Standard proved to be
a very dependable piece of equipment when used commercially and by the military. Most Hamilton
Standards used on R-2800s today are powering lovingly restored warbirds or vintage airliners of the
1950s.

References
7.1 Handbook Overhaul Instructions Electric Propellers, AN-3Wl-9-3 , 1 April 1951.
7.2 Parts Catalog Electric Propellers, T.O. 3El-9-4, Navy AN 03-20BN-3 , published under
authority of the secretary of the Air Force and the Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, 16 April
1951.
7.3 Electric Propeller Maintenance Tips, prepared and published by Curtiss-Wright Corporation
Propeller Division, Caldwell, N.J., in collaboration with the Aviation Training Division,
D.C.N.O (Air) and Bureau of Aeronautics.
7.4 Aircraft Propellers, prepared by Standards and Curriculum Division Training, Bureau ofNaval
Personnel, Navy Training Courses Edition of 1945.

363
Chapter 7

7.5 Hydromatic Propellers Service Manual, published by Hamilton Standard Propellers Service
Publications Section, January 1, 1944 .

7.6 Hydromatic Propellers Parts Catalog, published by Hamilton Standard Propellers Service
Publications Section.

7.7 Handbook Operation, Service and Overhaul Instructions , Single-Acting Constant Speed
Control Assemblies for Hydromatic Propellers, published under the authority of the Secretary
of the Air Force and the Chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics, 1 September 1946.

364
 Chapter 8

Installations

Installing a massive and extremely powerful aircraft engine in a lightweight airframe is a difficult
challenge at best, and at its worst, personifies the opposing requirements of an aircraft: light weight
and capable of withstanding incredibly high loads. Exacerbating the problems faced by the design
engineers are the gyroscopic forces generated by a massive propeller weighing several hundred
pounds spinning at up to 1400 rpm and high "G" loads induced by aerobatic maneuvers or turbu-
lence. Other installation difficulties include: dealing with white hot exhaust gases exiting the engine
at supersonic velocities, cooling and temperature control of the engine, oil systems, oil cooling, fuel
systems, cowl design, ducting of induction air and intercooler air. The foregoing list represents just
a few of the parameters for an engine installation. Indeed, success or failure of the installation can
spell success or doom an otherwise good aircraft design. The U.S. Navy was an early proponent of
the "QEC" or quick engine change concept. As aircraft and their systems becan1e increasingly
complex some thought had to be given to ease of maintenance.

QEC (Ref. 3. 72)

The German Luftwaffe was probably the first to realize the importance of easy maintenance. This
was exemplified in aircraft such as the Focke Wolf 190 (Ref. 8 .1). Having the ability to change a
complete power plant-engine, associated hoses, oil cooler, starter, generator, engine mount, engine
controls, etc. , as one unit was of inestimable value (Fig. 8.1). A quick engine change unit, or QEC,
consists of everything forward of the firewall. This Navy specification, originally written in 1935,
was initially a hard sell to the airframe manufacturers until they saw its value. The maintenance
.advantages are clear; however, when this specification was incorporated it made manufacture easier
in that it allowed the complete power plant to be installed as a unit. It was estimated that a 20%
reduction in manufacturing time was attributable to this feature. As the specification evolved, a one
hour engine change requirement was imposed for military aircraft. After removal from the aircraft,
QECs would typically be mounted on an "L" stand, so named for its shape . Mounted on casters, the
"L" stand could be rolled around to a convenient place to work on the QEC. Fig. 8.2 shows a Vought
AU-1 QEC mounted on an "L" stand .

365
Chapter 8

Fig. 8.1 Germany s Luftwaffe was

an early exponent of the QEC
concept. Their aircraft were legend-
ary for ease of maintenance. A few
simple, hand operated clamps for
cowling instead of the traditional use
of a gazillion quarter turn fasteners
were one example of the thought
given to servicing aircraft in the
field, usually in harsh conditions.
One can only imagine having to do
an engine change in the middle of a
cold Russian winter. But at least
with the FW-190 s design it would be
easier than with many other aircraft.
(D. [Luft] T2190 A-8 FW 190 A -8
Aircraft Handbook. Authors
collection.)

Cowling & Cooling

Designers are faced with a difficult challenge when hanging an eighteen-cylinder air-cooled radial
such as the R-2800 on an aircraft firewall. By the mid-l 930s it was apparent that a correctly designed
cowling for a radial not only substantially reduced drag but improved cooling as well. The parallel
development paths undertaken by the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA) and
the National Physics Laboratory (NPL) in England resulted in the early, albeit rather crude, radial
engine cowls . The NPL's effo1t is often referred to as the Townend ring in deference to its inventor,
H. Townend. In flight, air flowing over the cowl is deflected radially outward which results in a
lower pressure at the cooling air discharge section of the cowl at its rear. The inside front of the
cowling sees a higher pressure which in tum forces more air through the cowling. This cowling/
cooling system worked wonderfully for aircraft with moderate performance. However, as more
powerful engines with more sophisticated superchargers burning higher performance fuels became
available aircraft speeds increased in leaps and bounds. Early NACA cowls now became deficient;

366
 Installations

Do Not Use Sling Aft Hook When Hoisting

the Power Pion! Removable Section

Fig. 8.2 The US Navy was also an early believer in the QEC concept. This illustration shows a
Vought AU-1 QEC mounted on a typical "L" stand for maintenance. "L" stands were used to
build up QECs. Starting with an overhauled engine, it would be mounted in the aircraft engine
mount, already bolted to the "L " stand. All hoses, wiring, and the myriad of other hook-ups were
installed. In this way, it was a relatively easy job to install the built-up QEC in the aircraft.
(Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model A U-1 Aircraft, 1 February 1952. Courtesy of
the National Air & Space Museum.)

367
Chapter 8

excessive cooling and excessive drag resulted. Some means of controlling the mass air flow through
the cowling was required. This was achieved via cowl flaps at the rear of the cowl (Fig. 8.3). The
Navy, working with Chance Vought, sponsored a controllable flap system in 1934 and 1935. For the
first time mass air flow and thus controlled engine cooling was now possible. This system ofradial
engine temperature control survived, in various more sophisticated forms, through to the end of the
radial era. Various method of cowl flap actuation were employed such as hydraulic rams and electric
motors. Fig. 8.4 and Fig. 8.5 shows a typical electrically actuated cowl and Figs 8.6 and 8.7 shows
a hydraulically actuated cowl flap.

Pratt & Whitney undertook the investigation and development of baffles wrapped around the cylin-
ders and cylinder heads in order to direct the cooling air precisely where it was needed. Another key
element often overlooked was the cooling requirements of the spark plugs . The R-2800 employed
blast tubes integral with the cylinder head baffles to direct cooling air over the rear plugs. Front
plugs received an adequate flow of cooling air. Ground operation of radials could be harsh on
ignition components such as harnesses and magnetos. That is why all R-2800s used front mounted
magnetos. Nevertheless, problems arose in service, particularly with harnesses being overheated
during prolonged ground operations. As the big radial engine era progressed, cowl design improved
with simple to operate cowl latches replacing a profusion of quarter-tum fasteners. Cloverleaf designs
hinged at the firewall replaced multiple cowl panels attached to the engine.

Fig 8. 3 Not long after NACA

(National Advisory Committee
for Aeronautics) developed an
efficient radial engine cowl, it
became apparent that cooling
air flow needed to be con-
trolled. This was achieved via
cowl flaps that could be electri-
cally or hydraulically operated.
1. Cowl flap actuator
2. Cowl flap motor
3. Cowlflap
4. Generator blast tube
(Erection and Maintenance
Instructions C-82 Aircraft.
Courtesy of the National Air &
Space Museum.)

368
 Installations

14 15
lR

A-R

11

10 18
D-L

5L
9 8 7
7. Hinges
A. R/L Scr•wjacks 8. Bool
o. Fle.xible Shafting B. R/l Screwiach 9. Phenolic Ptotu
b . Flexible Skafling C. R_/L Screwjocks 10. Quick·disconnecl Hinge Pini
t. Flexible Shiof!ing
0. R/L Scrowjocko 11. Bonding Coblei
d. Flu ible Shafting
E. R/l Screwjoch 12. Fl op Actuating Rod Quick -diiconnecl Pins
e. Flexible Shafting F. Screwjock 1J. Cow\ Flop Support Ring
f. F1exibht Sha fting
U, Flop Actuating Motor and Ele<lrico l l e-ads
g. Flexible Shofllng l. R/l Engine Cowl Flops 15. Engine Sec tion Electrical Junction Box
h. Flexible Sliafting 2. R/L- Engine Cowl F1op1 I 6. Cowl flop Controller Box
i, Flex ib le Shoftln g J . R/l Engine Cowl Flopi 17. Engine Mounl
j. Ftuib le Shafting 4. R/ l Engine Cow l Flaps 18 . Scre ..... jack Mount ing Brod.eh
k. Flei:ible Shofting 5. R/L Engine Cowl Flaps 19 . Adjus table Links
!. Flu.ible Shafting 6. Engine Cowl Flop 20. Bracket
21. Cowl Flo p 5ting Support Filling

Fig. 8.4 This illustration of a Vought F4U-4 cowl shows how the electrically operated flaps
jimctioned. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model F4 U-4 Aircraft. Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum.)

369
Chapter 8

1 End Assembly
2 Shaft
3 Rivet
4 Garlock Seal
5 Bushing
6 Housing
7 Gear
8 Bearing
9 Cover Assembly
10 Fulcrum Pin
11 Worm
12 Seal
13 Bearing

Fig. 8.5 Typical worm reduction unit powered by an electric motor for actuating cowl flaps.
(Erection and Maintenance Instructions C-82 Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum.)

Exhaust Systems (Ref. 8.2)

Rather surprisingly, Pratt & Whitney relied upon the airframe manufacturers to design the exhaust
system for R-2800 installations, as well as their other piston engines. The only exception was the
variable discharge turbine variants, none of which saw production.

When designing an exhaust system, the primary concerns are: efficient scavenging of the exhaust
gases, materials capable of withstanding the exhaust gas temperature, fatigue resistance, and corro-
sion resistance. Serious safety issues are associated with exhaust systems. Fatigue cracks are common;
this can lead to carbon monoxide escaping into the crew compartment and/or fire hazards due to high
exhaust gas temperatures.

For an engine that has an "open" i.e. , non-turbosupercharged system, considerable energy can be
recovered if the system is properly designed to take advantage of the residual jet thrust of the exhaust
as it exits the exhaust port. Prior to 1939 most exhaust systems for radials were of the individual
stack type. However, as the requirement for flame damping became prominent collector ring sys-
tems came into vogue. This system also had the advantage of preserving the pilot's night vision.
The Martin Mariner PBM-5 was an early example of a Navy aircraft to utilize a ')et" type exhaust
system in 1941. Manufactured by Solar Aircraft Co. of San Diego, it replaced a collector type
system that had repeatedly failed in service. Jet systems were superior in every respect to the collector

370
 Installations

BORE STROKE
2.250 3.656

Fig. 8. 6 Although not as common as electrical operated cowl flaps , some designers chose to use
hydraulic power This illustration is the actuating cylinder for the lower cowl flaps of a Northrop
P-61 C This cylinder has a bore of 2. 250 inches and a stroke of 3. 656 inches. With a fifteen
hundred pound system this cylinder could exert a force of almost three tons. At speed, the aero-
dynamic load on the cowl flaps could be substantial. (Erection and Maintenance Instructions for
Army Models P-61A and B Airplanes, 30 December, 1944. Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum.)

systems: they had lower weight, improved serviceability, and the propulsive effect. The considerable
ejector effect and thermal energy contained in the exhaust was successfully utilized by the Convair
twins; 240, 340, and 440, not only to augment the propeller 's thrust but to act as a anti-icing device
by diverting exhaust along the leading edge of the wing and tail surfaces (Fig. 8.8).

Such was the seriousness of exhaust system failures , the military introduced a testing procedure
prior to production in order to reduce failures in service. Typically this would entail 50 to 100 hours
at high power and 50 to 100 hours at cruise power.

Wartime inevitably brings on shortages of key materials. This was certainly true of the nickel and
chromium required for exhaust systems. Various methods were used to overcome these shortages
including the use of low carbon "mild" steel. Although exhibiting excellent fatigue resistance, its
corrosion resistance was inadequate. Nevertheless, tests were performed by the Bureau of Stan-
dards, at the request of the Navy, using a low carbon steel with a ceramic coating. After the prob-
lems of adherence, chip resistance, and heat resistance had been overcome, this material proved to
be ideal. Other coatings tried were thin nickel plate and aluminum spray. These were not as successful.

371
Chapter 8

Fig. 8. 7 Hydraulically actuated cowl flap selector mounted in pilot :S cockpit. (Erection and
Maintenance Instructions for Army Models P-61A and B Airplanes, 30 December, 1944. Courtesy
of the National Air & Space Museum.)

Flame Damping

For a military aircraft, flame damping is the difference between life and death for night operations .
Although the problem was known about since the early days of aviation, it was only in 1941 that
serious investigative work was undertaken by the United States. NACA did considerable work on
exhaust systems including flame damping. Juggling the requirement for maximum jet thrust and yet
not advertising to the whole world the location of an aircraft was a difficult balancing act. It was this
work by NACA that led to the individual jet stacks used by aircraft such as the F4U- l and F4U-4. A
small number ofF4U-2s were manufactured for the night fighting role equipped with flame damping
exhausts .

Exhaust Ejector Cooling and Jet Thrust

With eighteen massive cylinders, the potential energy in an R-2800's exhaust system is significant.
In tests conducted by NACA in the 1930s, back-to-back comparisons of collector ring systems
compared to ejector stack systems proved the worth of the latter to the tune of a six mile per hour

372
 Installations

Fig. 8.8 A good example of exhaust system development was the Convair twins augmentor
system. The ejector pipes shown on the upper left, discharged into a pair ofaugmentor tubes
adding to the propellers thrust. Even the heat of the exhaust was utilized in the form of heating
the leading edges of the flying surfaces. (Illustrated Parts Breakdown USAF C-J 31A Aircraft.
Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

advantage. Of course, with a larger and far more powerful engine in the form of the R-2800, the
perfonnance improvements were even more significant. For this reason, all the later R-2800 instal-
lations used some form of ejector stack system-both civilian and military applications (Ref. 8.3) .

References
8.1 D.(Luft) T2190A-8Fw190A-8 Aircraft Handbook (effective July 1944), issued September
1944.
8.2 Pinkel, Benjamin, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics Aircraft Engine Research
Laboratory, NACA Study of the Utilization of Exhaust Gas of Aircraft Engines, for presenta-
tion at the SAE National Aeronautics Meeting (Spring) Hotel New Yorker, New York, April
3-5, 1946.
8.3 Pinkel, Benjamin, "Utilization of Exhaust Gas of Aircraft Engines," Society of Automotive
Engineers paper presented in New York at the SAE National Aeronautic Meeting, 1946.

373
 Chapter 9

Military Applications

The R-2800 was designed from the outset as a military engine. In fact its development was funded
by the government. Therefore, it is not surprising that the majority of R-2800 applications were for
military aircraft. It's also not surprising that R-2800s manufactured for the military were the most
complex and sophisticated variants. Operating with the "blank check" mentality that military orga-
nizations all over the world seem to operate on, the R-2800 was a bargain thanks to its relatively low
maintenance requirements and time between overhaul despite its complexity.

Politics also played a significant role in military applications for the R-2800. The often quoted Navy
Admiral who said a liquid-cooled aircraft engine makes as much sense as an air-cooled submarine
certainly played to Pratt & Whitney 's advantage . And of course it was inevitable that the engine
manufacturer always knew best on how to develop an airplane, the airframe manufacturers thought
they knew best, and lastly, the customer, i.e., the military, thought they knew best. In reality, cases
occurred where any one of the three players was correct and sometimes none of them!

Table 9-1 summarizes R-2800 military applications.

TABLE 9-1 MILITARY APPLICATIONS OF R-2800 (REF. 3.7)

Manufacturer Aircraft Model Engine Model(s)

Beech T-36A -101
Convair XA-198 -1
Convai r T-29A -77, -97
Convair VT-29 -97
Convair T-29C, D -99W
Convair C-131A -99W
Convair C-1318 -103W
Vought XF4U-1 X-2, X-4

(Continued on next page)

375
Chapter 9

TABLE 9-1 MILITARY APPLICATIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Manufacturer Aircraft Model Engine Model(s)

Vought XT8U-1 -6
Vought F4U-1 ,-1C, 1P(W), F4U-2 -8 , -8W
Vought XF4U-38 -14
Vought XF4U -3A -16
Vought F4U-4 , -4E , -4N , -4P, XF4U-4, XF4U-48, F4U-7 -18, 18W
Vought XT8U-1 -22
Vought F4U-5 -32W
Vought F4U-48 -42W
Vought F4U-6, AU -1 -83
Douglas 8-23 -5
Douglas JD-1 -27
Douglas 8-23 -27
Douglas XA-26 , XFA-26, A-26, 8 , C -27
Douglas JD-1 -71
Douglas A-268, C, XA-26C , XFA-26C -71
Douglas JD-1 -79
Douglas A-268 , C, XA-26C , XFA-26C -79
Douglas A-26D , F, XA-26F -83
Douglas XC-112A -85XA
Douglas C-118 -95
Fairchild C-82, C-82A -22
Fairchild C-82 -34
Fairchild XC-82 -51 *, similar to -43
*Planned for prototype, -22
installed instead.
Fairchild C-82A ,N -85
Fairchild C-1238 -99W
Martin 8-26, A, 8, X8-26D -5
Martin XP8M-5, P8M-5 -22
Martin RM-1 (404) -34, -34W
Martin 8-268-2 -41
Martin AT-23A, 8 (JM-1) -43
Martin 8-268, 81 , 83 , 84, 8 -10 thru 8-75 -43
8-26C(JM-1 ), X8-26D , X8-26-D,
8-26E, F, G, T8-26H(JM-2) , T8-26H
Curtiss XC-46 -5
Curtiss P-60A, XP-60E -10
Curtiss YP-60E -18W
Curtiss C-46F, XC-468 -34
Curtiss XG -15C -34W
Curtiss R5C-1 , -2 -51
Curtiss C-46A, D1 , D5, E, F, G -51

(Continued on next page)

376
 Military Applications

TABLE 9-1 MILITARY APPLICATIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Manufacturer Aircraft Model Engine Model(s)

Curtiss P-60A, XP-60A, XP-60C -53
Curtiss XP-60F -55
Curtiss C-46A, 0-10, E(R5C-2), F, G -75
Curtiss XC-113 -75
Brewster F3A-1 -8, -8W
Brewster XA-32 ,A -37
Goodyear FG-1 -8, -8W
Goodyear FG-4 -18, -18W
Grumman F6F-3E, -3F, -3H , -3N, -3P, -5, -5E , -5N , -5P -10, 10W
Grumman XF6F-6 -18W
Grumman F7F-2, -2N , -2P, -1N, XF7F-1, F7F-3 -22W
Grumman XF6F-1, XF6F-4, F7F-1 N -27
Grumman F7F-5 -30W
Grumman XF8F-3 -30W (Semi-production)
Grumman F8F-2, XF8F-3 -30W (Production)
Grumman F7F-3N, -3P, -4 -34W
Grumman F8F-1 , 1B, XF8F-1 -34W
Grumman XTB3F-1 -34W
Grumman AF-1 S, -28, XAF-1 S, XAF-28 -46W
Grumman XTB3F-1S -48
Grumman AF-2W, -28 -48
Northrop F2T-1 -10
Northrop P-61A, XP-61, YP-61 -10
Northrop XP-610 -14W
Northrop XP-56 -29
Northrop F2T-1 -65
Northrop XF-15A -65
Northrop P-61 A, B, XP-61 E -65
Northrop F-15A, XF-15A -73
Northrop P-61 C, XP-61 D -77
North American XB-28 -11
North American XB-28, XB-28A -15
North American AJ-1 , AJ-2 , AJ-2P -44, -44W
Republic YP-47M -14W
Republic P-47B, C, 0 , E, F, G, XP-47K -21
Republic XP-47B -35
Republic XP-47J , XP-47L, P-47M , XP-47N , P-47N -57
Republic P-470, C, XP-47L -59
Republic XP-47J -61
Republic P-470, C, XP-47L -63
Republ ic P-47N -81

(Con tinued on next page)

377
Chapter 9

TABLE 9-1 MILITARY APPLICATIONS OF R-2800 (Continued)

Manufacturer Aircraft Model Engine Model(s)

Lockheed PV-2 -26, planned for PV-2, none bu ilt
Lockheed PV-1, PV-2A, B, C, D -31
Lockheed RB-34 , A, B -31
Lockheed C-69E -83A
Fleetwings XA-39 -27
Fleetwings BTK-1 -34W
Brewster XA-32 , A -37
Vickers Warwick II -47
Hughes (D2A) AX-37 -49
Bell HSL-1 -50
Bell HSL-1 -50A
Sikorsky S-56 -50
Sikorsky HR2S-1 , -1W -50
Sikorsky H37A -50
Sikorsky S-56 -54
Chase XC-123 -83
Chase XC-123 -97
Stroukoff XC-123E -99W
Hamilton Standard Test eng ine -12

About the cartoons: The massive build-

up of aircraft in the USAAC and
USAAF during World War II created
an enormous manpower shortage for
pilots and maintenance personnel .
Young kids, many of them teenagers,
were drafted as combat pilots and main-
tenance crew members. By necessity,
pilots and mechanics had to be trained
in the minimum time period, a formidable
task considering the complexity of
combat aircraft. These requirements
demanded the finest training techniques available. What resulted were probably the finest training
manuals ever created-before or since . Considering the age range of the majority of the draftees,
teenage to early twenties, manuals were written to appeal to the mentality of this age group. In order
to break up the monotony of some of the more complex and potentially boring sections, cartoons were
interspersed in the text.

378
 Military Applications

Republic P-47 Thunderbolt (Fig. 9.1)

This highly successful, albeit rather portly aircraft, ended up being the most produced U.S. built
fighter ever at 15,682 (Ref 9.1). And with today's budgetary restraints, it would be quite safe to say
this achievement will never be eclipsed. As with many successful designs, the development of the
P-4 7 was an evolutionary process . This evolutionary process started with the Pratt & Whitney
R-1830 powered P-35 and P-43. It was clear that by the late 1930s something more substantial than
one thousand, eight hundred and thirty cubic inches and one thousand horsepower would be required
for the next generation of fighter aircraft. With the advent of the R-2800 and its additional one
thousand horsepower and almost one thousand cubic inches the aforementioned deficiencies dis-
played by the R-1830 were overcome. Successful aircraft need talented designers and engineers. In
the case of the P-47, two talented Russian immigrants were responsible: Alexander De Seversky, the
founder of Republic, and his chief designer, Alexander Kartveli. The Army Air Corps specification
that resulted in the P-47 called for unprecedented performance in all parameters: rate of climb,
ceiling, speed, diving speed, not to mention a heavy array of armament and armor protection for the
pilot. The altitude requirement demanded a sophisticated supercharging system. Being an Army
Force specified airplane meant only one way to accomplish this goal: turbosupercharging. Fortu-
nately, De Seversky and Kartveli had a jump start in this arena due to their efforts with the P-43
powered by a turbosupercharged version of the Pratt & Whitney R-1830 . Following the same design
philosophy established by the P-43 , Kartveli incorporated a massive General Electric C-1 turbosuper-
charger in the bottom of the fuselage at the rear. With the turbosupercharger's capability of generat-
ing considerable boost and consequently possible detonation, dual air-to-air intercoolers were installed
(Fig. 9.2), substantially reducing the charge air temperature. The best location was determined to be
behind the cockpit. In order to maintain the ideal intake temperature, electrically driven doors were
provided which controlled rectangular openings, one on each side of the fuselage, easily noticed on
any P-4 7. Each intercooler discharged into a pipe that ran the length of the fuselage . These two

Fig. 9.1 Republic P-47s

were the most produced
US. fighter of World War II
and possibly for all time.
Here we see them rolling off
the assembly line. Note the
Curtiss Electric propellers
and GE. "Turtleback "
ignition system. (Courtesy
of Pratt & Whitney.)

379
Chapter 9

--·--- .......
"
A WASTE GATE
8 MAIN AIR DUCT INTAKf
C COLLECTOR RING
0 TO CARBURf TOR
E AIR FILTER
F !NTERCOOLER COOLING AIR E>C!T
(, AIR FILH' R DUCT
H STANDARD DUCT
J SUPERCHARGER
K FLIGHT HO 00
L TURBINE
~-----< M

SYSTEM P-4 7 D

Fig 9,2 Complex fuselage arrangement of a P-47 With so much ductwork, intercoolers,
and the massive GE CH-5 turbosupercharger to house, it is little wonder that P-47s were so
large, (Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Models RP-47B and RP-47C,
P-47C-l, -2, -5, P-47G Series and P-47D Series Airplanes, British Model Thunderbolt
Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum)

pipes were then "siamesed" at the carburetor (Fig. 9.3) , The question is often raised, why is the
P-4 7 so portly, or why such a deep fuselage? The answer lies in the fact that, as described above, the
turbosupercharger sits in the lower, rear fuselage, This means the engine 's exhaust gases, the turbo 's
driving force, need to be ducted back there . And of course this also means the turbosupercharger
compressor 's discharge needs to be ducted back the R-2800 's carburetor. The intercooler also needs
to be supplied with cooling air. Again, this supply of air originates in the cowling where it is ducted to

380
 Military Applications

D . , .

Fig. 9. 3 Compressed air, discharged from the turbo, went through dual air-to-air intercool-
ers before being fed into the carburetor via a "Y" duct shown in this illustration. (Erection
and Maintenance Instructions for Army Models RP-47B and RP-4 7C, P-4 7C-l , -2, -5,
P-47G Series and P-47D Series Airplanes. British Model Thunderbolt. Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum.)

the dual intercoolers. Consequently, the P-47's cowling performed four functions: (1) it supplied
cooling air to the R-2800 , (2) it supplied cooling air to the intercooler, (3) it supplied cooling air to the
dual oil coolers mounted just behind the cowling and in front of the exhaust waste gate (Fig. 9.4) and
(4) it supplied induction air. The R-2800 's exhaust was of the collector ring type discharging into two
outlets (Fig. 9.5). Dual pipes fed exhaust gasses to the turbo. Located just behind the oil cooler

381
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.4 Dual oil coolers and oil system jar the P-47 Thunderbolt. (Erection and Maintenance
Instructions for Army Models RP-47B and RP-47C, P-4 7C-l, -2, -5, P-47G Series and P-47D
Series Airplanes. British Model Thunderbolt. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

outlets, a waste gate for each exhaust pipe was provided. The waste gate was critical to the opera-
tion of the turbo. Various kinds were used during the life of the P-4 7 including one control developed
by General Electric known as the "Unilever" design (Fig. 9.6). This sophisticated device incorpo-
rated one power lever in the cockpit that controlled propeller, mixture, and manifold pressure. It was
not always popular with pilots because it was difficult to override and consequently gives the R-2800
more boost albeit at the cost of damaging the engine through detonation. "Unilever" controls were

382
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.5 Dual outlet collector ring P-47 exhaust

system. Each exhaust outlet flowed by a waste
gate before discharging into the turbosuper-
charger turbine. (Erection and Maintenance
Instructions for Army Models RP-47B and RP-
47C, P-47C-l, -2, -5, P-47G Series and P-47D
Series Airplanes. British Model Thunderbolt.
Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

Fig. 9. 6 A little known fact is that many P-47s used a single lever control for propeller, manifold 1

pressure, and mixture. Developed by General Electric, this sophisticated automatic system is
shown with four controls: input from the pilot, output to the waste gate, output to the propeller
governor, and output to the carburetor GE. designated it the "Unilever" control and preempted
today :S FADEC (fall authority digital engine control) by about 50 years.I (The 1943 Supercharger
Symposium Lecture Book. General Electric River Works, West Lynn, Mass.)

383
Chapter 9

incorporated into various batch numbers of P-4 7Ds. As the evolution of the P-4 7 progressed, its
gross weight naturally increased until it reached an amazing 17,500 pounds or in some cases an
incredible 20,000 plus pounds . This probably represented the highest gross weight for any single-
engined piston-powered fighter aircraft.

Of all the P-47 variants, the XP -471 (Fig. 9.7) was the most interesting. Republic strove to reduce
drag and weight and at the same time offer a quantum leap in performance. The R-2800-57 (Fig. 9.8)

Fig. 9. 7 Arguably the

fastest of all piston-engined
World War II fighters, the
P-4 7J was clocked at over
500 mph at altitude. (Pilot's
Handbook of Flight
Operating Instructions for
XP-47J Airplane, February
1, 1944. Courtesy of the
National Air & Space
XP·47 J GENERAL VIEW
Museum.)

Fig. 9.8 R-2800-5 7,

power plant for the P-47J
These "C " series engines
were manufactured in
Pratt & Whitney :S Kansas
City facility and by
Chevrolet. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)

384
 Military Applications

powering the J model was also the power plant that powered the P-61C, P-47M and P-47N. The
engine installation for the J was very different from other P-47s in that it featured forced draft cooling
via a fan nmning at engine speed. Other changes included a much tighter and highly modified cowl.
Induction air, intercooler and oil cooling air was now drawn from a duct that sat further back from the
cowl nose bowl. The J's turbosupercharger was mounted in an almost vertical position in the rear
fuselage instead of the near horizontal position of other P-4 7s. One massive intercooler was used
instead of two. The relationship of the turbo and intercooler was reversed : the turbo was now
mounted ahead of the intercooler instead of behind. Cooling air discharged from the intercooler was
now dumped overboard underneath the fuselage, just behind the turbine exhaust, instead of the two
outlets on the sides of the fuselage as with other P-47s (Fig. 9.9). Despite its remarkable perfor-
mance including a top speed of over 500 mph at altitude, only one P-4 71 was built. The rationale for
this may have been the enormity of the redesign and consequent impact on production implementing
the significant changes .

A '#ASTE GO.TE CONTROL

9 MAIN AIR OUCT INTAKE
C COLLECTOR RING
D SUPERCHARGER AIR TO CARBURETOR
E INTERCOOLER AIR EXIT
SUPERCHARGER
EXHAUST OUTLET
H INTERCOOLER
J TURBINE

XP-47J SUPERCHARGING SYSTEM

Fig. 9.9 This line drawing clearly illustrates some of the differences between the P-47J and other
P-47 variants. Note the large single intercooler located behind the turbo. Also note the near
vertical orientation of the turbo and its far more efficient exhaust outlet. Obviously, many
improvements were incorporated into the J model. Unfortunately, these improvements did not
carry over into production P-47s. (Pilot's Handbook of Flight Operating Instructions for XP-47J
Airplane, February 1, 1944. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

385
Chapter 9

As service reports came from operational units, numerous modifications were incorporated to improve
performance, safety, maintainability, etc. These modifications were documented via T.O.s or Tech-
nical Orders. One of the more significant T. 0. s was the installation of a dorsal fin for improved
directional stability and as an added benefit, a more stable gun platform results (Fig. 9.10).

Unlike many other R-2800 powered military aircraft such as the B-26 Marauder, the P-47 enjoyed a
long operational life, soldiering on into the 1960s with third world air forces. It also served with
many Air National Guard units during the 1950s when it was re-designated F-47.

When over 15 ,000 aircraft are manufactured, an equally large number of spares need to be available.
To this end, almost 24,000 R-2800s were manufactured for the P-47. Table 9-2 details these quantities.

Fig. 9.10 One of the many, but more noticeable, Technical Orders (I'.Os) issued for the P-47 was
the fitment of a dorsal fin on many of the bubble canopy variants. This modification offered a
far more stable gun platform by improving longitudinal stability about the vertical axis. (Techni-
cal Order TO No. 01-65BD-10. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

386
 Military Applications

TABLE 9-2 ENGINES MANUFACTURED FOR THE REPUBLIC P-47 (REF. 5.6)

Engine Series Quantity Model of P-47 Installed in

"A" Series
R-2800-17 1 XP-478
R-2800-35 11 XP-478, P-478

"B" Series
R-2800-21 5720 P-478, P-47C , P-470, P-47G, XP-47E, P-47F, P-47K
R-2800-59 11 ,391 P-470, P-47C , P-47G, XP-47L
R-2800-63 2029 P-470 , P-47C, XP-47L

"C" Series
R-2800-14W 77 XP-47M, XP-47L
R-2800-57 1097 P-47M, P-47N , XP-47J, P-47L, P-47N
R-2800-61 1 XP-47J
R-2800-73 2665 P-47M, P-47N
R-2800-77 500 P-47N
R-2800-81 362 P-47N
Grand Total: 23,854 engines

General Electric CH-5 Turbosupercharger Designations

General Electric turbosuperchargers were classified according to types. The only ones to see mass
production during World War II were type Bs and type Cs. The designation CH-5 means it is a type
C and the H denotes it is a high altitude unit. The "5" is a numerical designation and merely indicates
the production model of the CH series . The Army Air Force also used General Electric 's type
designations (Ref. 9. 2).

387
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS

Parameter XP-478 (FiQ. 9.11) P-478 (Fi!:!. 9.12) P-47C-RE (Fig. 9.13) P-47C-1-RE
No. Built 1 171 57 55
Enoine R-2800-17*, later R-2800-35 R-2800-21 R-2800-21 R-2800-21
AAF Serial Nos. 40-3051 41-5895 to 41-6065 41-6067 to 41-6123 41-6066 & 41 -6124 to 41-6177
Propeller Curtiss Electric, 4-blade Curtiss Electric C542S-A6, Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S,
4-blade 12 ft 2 in. dia. 4-blade 12 ft 2 in . dia. 4-blade 12 ft 2 in. dia.
Wino Span 40 ft, 9-5/ 16 in. 40 ft, 9-5/16 in. 40 ft. 9-5/16 in. 40 ft. 9-5/16 in.
Length 35 ft, 4-3/ 16 in. Rudder 35 ft, 4-3/ 16 in . Rudder changes 35 ft, 5-3/ 16 in. Rudder 36 ft, 1-3/16 in. Rudder changes
chanoes increased lenoth. increased lenoth. chanoes increased lenoth. increased lenoth.
Wino Area 300 SQ ft 300 sq ft 300 SQ ft 300 SQ ft
Emotv Wt. 91891bs 93461bs 93501bs 99001bs
Gross Wt. 12 700 lbs 12 245 lbs 122501bs 13 500 lbs overload - 14 925 lbs
Fuel Cap. 305 gal , internal 307 gal, internal 307 gal, internal. Special 307 gal, internal. Special
shackles for 200 Qal bellv tank. shackles for 200 oal bellv tank.
w Range Max.: 1150 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 miles @ 10,000 ft
00 Normal: 575 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 550 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 550 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 400 miles @ 25,000 ft
00
Service Ceilino 42 000 ft 42 000 ft 42 000 ft
Rate of Climb 5 min to 15,000 ft 6.7 min to 15,000 ft 7 min to 15,000 ft 7.2 min to 15,000 ft
15 min to 25,000 ft
20 min to 30,000 ft
Max. Speed 412 mph @ 25,800 ft 429 mph @ 27,800 ft 429 mph @ 27,800 ft 429 mph @ 27,800 ft
Landino Speed 92 moh 100 moh 100 moh 100 mph
Armament Provision for 8 X 0.50 in. 6 or 8 50 cal mg, 500 rpg . 6 or 8 50 cal mg, 425 rpg 6 or 8 50 cal mg, 425 rpg
machine ouns with 500 roQ
Comments First flew May 2, 1941 . First P-47B accepted December, Metal covered rudder and First P-47 variant with an 8 inch
Destroyed in crash August 8, 1941. New GE turbo- elevators. Additional oxygen. extension to nose section for
1942. supercharger regulator added, A-17 turbosupercharger improved CG characteristics and
* The R-2800-17 nose case ailerons and trim tabs metal regulator. improved access to rear section of
was fitted with a torquemeter in covered. Elevators and rudder engine . Fixed deflector plate
order to coll ect data. later metal covered , replac ing between oil cooler shutter and
fabric covered components. Self front exhaust waste gate.
sealino fuel tanks .
(Refs. 4.22, 4.23, 9.1 , 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8)
 Military Applications

Fig 9.11 XP-47B. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution.
Photo No . lB 33185.)

Fig 9.12 P-47B. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

389
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-47C-2-RE P-47C-5-RE P-470 (FiQ. 9.14) P-470-RE

No. Built 128 362 4 110
Enaine R-2800-21 R-2800-2 1 R-2800-21 R-2800-21
AAF Serial Nos. 41-6178 to 41 -6305 41-6306 to 41-6667 42-22250 to 41-22253 42-22254 to 42-22363
Propeller Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S-A6, Curtiss Electric C542S,
4-blade 12 ft. 2 in . dia. 4-blade 12 ft 2 in. dia. 4-blade 12 ft 2 in. dia. 4-blade 12 ft 2 in. dia.
Wina Soan 40 ft, 9-5/16 in. 40 ft, 9-5/16 in . 40 ft , 9-5/16 in. 40 ft, 9-5/16 in.
Length 36 ft, 1-3/16 in. Rudder 36 ft, 1-3/16 in . Rudder 35 ft , 4-3/16 in. Rudder 36 ft, 1-3/ 16 in. Rudder changes
chanaes increased lenath. chanaes increased lenath. chanaes increased lenath . increased lenath.
Wina Area 300 sq ft 300 sq ft 300 sa ft 300 sq ft
Emntv Wt. 9900lbs 99001bs 93461bs 9900lbs
Gross Wt. 13,500 lbs, overload - 14,925 13,500 lbs, overload - 14,925 12,245 lbs 13,500 lbs, overload - 14,925 lbs
lbs lbs
Fuel Cap. 307 gal, internal. Special 307 gal , internal. Special 307 gal, internal 307 gal , internal. Special shackles for
shackles for 200 gal belly shackles for 200 gal belly 200 gal belly tank.
tank. tank.
Range Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 miles@ 10,000 ft
Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal : 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 550 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 400 miles @ 25,000 ft
Service Ceilina 42 000 ft 42 000 ft 42 000 ft 42 000 ft
Rate of Climb 7.2 min to 15,000 ft 7.2 min to 15,000 ft 6.7 min to 15,000 ft 7.2 min. to 15,000 ft
15 min to 25,000 ft 15 min to 25,000 ft 15 min . to 25,000 ft
20 min to 30,000 ft 20 min to 30,000 ft 20 min . to 30,000 ft
Max. Speed 429 mph @ 27,800 ft 429 moh @ 27,800 ft 429 moh @ 27,800 ft 429 moh @ 27,800 ft
Landinq Soeed 100 moh 100 moh 100 mph 100 moh
Armament 6 or 8 50 cal ma, 425 rpa 6 or 8 50 cal ma, 425 roa 6 or 8 50 cal ma, 500 roa 6 or 8 50 cal ma , 425 rpa
Comments Provision for four-point Changes to radio, instruments, First P-47s to be built at Although similar to P-47C, it was origi-
attachment of 200 gal ferry antenna and cockpit heating. Republic's new facility at nally planned to designate Evansville,
tank. Fuel and electrical Evansville, Indiana. Indiana built P-47C as P-470. With the
changes . introduction of manufacturers identifi-
cation letters the first Evansville block
(line batch) became P-470-RE (i.e. ,
Evansville built). To aid product
standardization , following blocks from
both plants were designated P-470.
Farmingdale continued to use "RE"
while Evansville used "RA."

(Refs. 4.22, 4.23, 9.1 , 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8)
 Military Applications

Fig. 9. 13 P-47C. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution.
Photo No. 1B 33225.)

Fig. 9.14 P-47D-ll-RE. The most produced sub-variant, Ds went through many ma1or design
changes. 11-REs were manufactured in Farmingdale only (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney)

391
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-470-1-RE P-470-2-RE/RA P-470-5-RE

No. Built 105 445 IRA) , 200 IRE) 300
Enoine R-2800-21 R-2800-21 R-2800-21
AAF Serial Nos. 42-7853 to 42-7957 42-22364 to 42-22563 (RA) 42-8403 to 42-8702
42-7958 to 42-8402 (RE)
Propeller Curtiss Electric C542S , Curtiss Electric C542S , Curtiss Electric C542S,
4-blade, 12 ft , 2 in. dia. 4-bl ade, 12 ft , 2 in. dia. 4-blade, 12 ft , 2 in. dia.
Wino Span 40 ft, 9-5/16 in . 40 ft , 9-5/16 in. 40 ft, 9-5/16 in.
Lenath 36 ft, 1-3/16 in . 36 ft, 1-3/16 in. 36 ft, 1-3/16 in .
Wina Area 300 sq ft 300 SQ ft 300 SQ ft
EmPtv Wt. 99001bs 99001bs 9900lbs
Gross Wt. 13,500 lbs, overload - 15,000 lbs 13,500 lbs, overload - 15,000 lbs 13,500 lbs, overload - 15,000 lbs
Fuel Cap. 307 gal , internal. Special shackles for 307 gal , internal. Special shackles for 307 gal , internal. Special shackles for
200 qal belly tank. 200 qal bellv tank. 200 qal belly tank.
Range Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft
Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft
Service Ceilino 42,000 ft 42,000 ft 42,000 ft
Rate of Climb 7.2 min to 15,000 ft 7.2 min to 15,000 ft 7 .2 min to 15,000 ft
11 min to 20,000 ft 11 min to 20,000 ft 11 min to 20,000 ft
15 min to 25,000 ft 15 min to 25,000 ft 15 min to 25,000 ft
20 min to 30,000 ft 20 min to 30 ,000 ft 20 min to 30,000 ft
Max. Speed 420 mph @ 30,000 ft 420 mph @ 30,000 ft 420 mph @ 30,000 ft
Landinq Sped 104 mph 104 mph 104 mph
Armament 6 X 50 cal mg, 300 rpg , or 6 X 50 cal mg, 300 rpg, or 6 X 50 cal mg , 300 rpg, or
8 X 50 cal mo , 425 rnn 8 X 50 cal ma , 425 rnn 8 X 50 cal mo, 425 rnn
Comments Farmingdale built. Additional pair of RE built in Farmingdale , RA built in GE C-21 turbosupercharger and
cowl flaps per side to fix high head Evansville . Identical to P-47D-1 except regulator - rated at 20,000 rpm but
temps. Exhaust ducting changed for fo r removal of turbosupercharger limited to 18,250 rpm due to cooling
improved reliability and performance. exhaust shroud . problems. First P-47 variant to be fitted
Fuel and oxygen system changes with ADI. B-7 two-point bomb shackles
fitted to belly.
(Refs. 4.22, 4.23, 9.1 , 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7 , 9.8)
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-470-3-RA P-470-4-RA P-470-6-RE

No. Built 100 200 350
Enqine R-2800-21 R-2800-21 R-2800-21
AAF Serial Nos. 42-22564 to 42-22663 42-22664 to 42-22863 42-74615 to 42-74964
Propeller Curtiss Electric C542S , Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S,
4-blade 12 ft 2 in. dia. 4-blade 12 ft 2 in. dia. 4-blade 12 ft 2 in. dia.
Winq Span 40 ft 9-5/16 in. 40 ft, 9-5/ 16 in . 40 ft, 9-5/16 in.
Lenqth 36 ft 1-3/16 in. 36 ft, 1-3/16 in. 36 ft, 1-3/16 in .
Wino Area 300 SQ ft 300 SQ ft 300 sq ft
Empty Wt. 99001bs 99001bs 9900 lbs
Gross Wt. 13,500 lbs, overload - 15,000 lbs 13,500 lbs, overload - 15,000 lbs 13,500 lbs, overload - 15,000 lbs
Fuel Cap. 307 gal, internal. Special shackles for 307 gal , internal. Special shackles for 307 gal, internal. Special shackles for
200 aal bellv tank. 200 aal bellv tank. 200 qal belly tank.
w
\0 Range Max. : 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi@ 10,000 ft
w
Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft
Service Ceilinq 42,000 ft 42,000 ft 42,000 ft
Rate of Climb 7.2 min to 15,000 ft 7.2 min to 15,000 ft 7.2 min to 15,000 ft
11 min to 20,000 ft 11 min to 20,000 ft 11 min to 20,000 ft
15 min to 25,000 ft 15 min to 25,000 ft 15 min to 25,000 ft
20 min to 30,000 ft 20 min to 30,000 ft 20 min to 30,000 ft
Max . Speed 420 mph @ 30,000 ft 420 mph @ 30,000 ft 420 mph @ 30,000 ft
Landinq Speed 104 mph 104 mph 104 moh
Armament 6 X 50 cal mg, 300 rpg, or 6 X 50 cal mg, 300 rpg, or 6 X 50 cal mg, 300 rpg , or
8 X 50 cal mq, 425 roq 8 X 50 cal mq 425 roq 8 X 50 cal ma 425 roa
Comments Evansville built. Similar to P-470-2-RA- Evansville built. Similar to P-470-3-RA. Farmingdale built. Similar to P-470-5
but up to P-470-5 standard. Changes to First Evansville P-47 with provision for ADI. except for minor electrical system changes.
oxygen and fuel systems. GE C-21 turbosupercharger. Not to
P-470-5-RE standards so intermediate
block number used.
(Refs. 4.22, 4.23, 9.1 , 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8)
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-470-1 0-R E P-470-11-RE/RA P-470-15-RE/RA P-470-16-RE/RA

No. Built 250 400 (Farmingdale) 250 496 (Farmingdale) 157 254 (Farmingdale) 29
I Evansville) <Evansville) (Evansville)
Enaine R-2800-63 (Fig. 9.15) R-2800-63 R-2800-63 R-2800-63
AAF Serial Nos. 42-74965 TO 42-75214 42-75215 TO 42-75614 42-75615 to 42-75864 & 42-75865 to 42-76118 (RE,
(RE, Farmingdale) 42-76119 to 42-76364 (RE , Farmingdale)
42-22864 to 42-23113 (RA, Farmingdale) 42-23114 to 42-23142 (RA
Evansville) Evansville)
42-23143 to 42-23299* (RA,
Evansville)
*42-23297 & 42-23298 later
modified to become XP-47Hs.
Propeller Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S , Curtiss Electric C542S,
4-blade, 12 ft , 2 in. dia. 4-blade, 12 ft, 2 in. dia. 4-blade, 12 ft, 2 in. dia. 4-blade, 12 ft, 2 in. dia.
Wino Span 40 ft, 9-5/ 16 in . 40 ft, 9-5/16 in . 40 ft , 9-5/ 16 in. 40 ft , 9-5/ 16 in.
Lenath 36 ft, 1-3/16 in. 36 ft , 1-3/16 in. 36 ft , 1-3/16 in. 36 ft, 1-3/16 in.
Wino Area 300 sq ft 300 sq ft 300 sq ft 300 SQ ft
Emptv Wt. 9900lbs 99001bs 99001bs 9900 lbs
Gross Wt. 13,500 lbs , overload - 13,500 lbs, overload - 13,500 lbs, overload - 15,000 lbs 13,500 lbs, overload - 15,000
15,000 lbs 15,000 lbs lbs
Fuel Cap. 307 gal, internal. Special 307 gal , internal. Special 375 gal , internal. Special 375 gal , internal. Special
shackles for 200 gal belly shackles for 200 gal belly shackles for 200 gal belly tank. shackles for 200 gal belly tank.
tank. tank.
Range Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi les @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 miles @ 10,000 ft
Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal : 400 miles @ 25,000 ft Normal: 400 miles @ 25,000 ft
Service Ceilina 42,000 ft 42,000 ft 42,000 ft 42,000 ft
Rate of Climb 7.2 min to 15,000 ft 7.2 min to 15,000 ft 7.2 min to 15,000 ft 7.2 min to 15,000 ft
11 min to 20,000 ft 11 min to 20,000 ft 11 min to 20,000 ft 15 min to 25,000 ft
15 min to 25,000 ft 15 min to 25,000 ft 15 min to 25,000 ft 20 min to 30,000 ft
20 min to 30,000 ft 20 min to 30,000 ft 20 min to 30,000 ft
Max. Speed 433 mph @ 30,000 ft 420 mph @ 30,000 ft 420 mph @ 30,000 ft 433 mph @ 27,800 ft

(continued on next page)

 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-470-10-RE P-470-11-RE/RA P-470-15-RE/RA P-470-16-RE/RA

Landing 104 mph
Speed
Armament 6 X 50 cal mg , 267 rpg, or
8 X 50 cal ma , 425 rna
Comments Farmingdale built.
R-2800-63 was first
engine specifically
designed for ADI which
was operated from a
switch mounted on the
throttle. GE C-23 turbo-
supercharger fitted.
Hydraulic flap equalizer
deleted , minor changes to
oil and hydraulic systems.
First model with cable
actuated gun charging.
(Refs. 4.22, 4.23 , 9.1, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5 , 9.6, 9. 7, 9.8)
104 mph
6 X 50 cal mg , 300 rpg, or
8 X 50 cal ma , 425 roa
Farmingdale (-RE) and
Evansville (-RA) built. Similar to
P-47D-11 -RE. Automatic
deployment of ADI operated by
electrically driven pump.
104 mph 100 mph
6 X 50 cal mg, 300 rpg , or 6 or 8 50 cal mg, 425 rpg
8 X 50 cal ma, 425 roa
Farmingdale (-RE) and Farm ingdale (-RE) and Evans-
Evansville (-RA) built. P-47D-15- ville (-RA) built. Similar to P-47D-
RE was first variant with 15. Minor fuel system changes.
underwing pylons and fuel
system plumbing within the wings
to use droppable fuel tanks.
Standard USAF underwing tank
was the 75 gal model. 108 gal or
375 gal pressed paper or metal
tanks were British models.
Internal fuel increased to 375
gals. Ordnance load increased
to 2500 lbs. Canopy changes
made so it was iettisonable.

()U~SS I FoD.60T
"To l.OCiJ. M"i
WL IJJ14~tL-
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

PARAMETER P-470-20-RE/RA P-470-21-RE/RA P-470-22-RE P-470-23-RA

No. Built 300 (Farmingdale) 216 (Farmingdale) 850 - all built by Farmingdal e 889 (Evansville)
187 (Evansville) 224 (Evansville)
Enqine R-2800-59 (Fig. 9.16) R-2800 -59 R-2800-59 R-2800-59
AAF Serial Nos. 42-76365 to 42-76614 & 42-25323 to 42-25538 (RE, 42-25539 to 42-26388 43-25665 to 43-25753 &
42-25274 to 42-25322 (RE, Farmingdale) 42-27389 to 42-28188
Farmingdale)
43 -25441 to 43-25664 (RA
43-25254 to 43-25440 (RA Evansville)
Evansville)
Propeller Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S, Hamilton Standard 24E50-65 , Curtiss Electric C542S,
4-blade, 12 ft, 2 in . dia. 4-blade, 12 ft , 2 in . dia. 4-blade , 13 ft, 1-7/8 in . dia. 4-blade, 13 ft . dia.
Wina Soan 40 ft 9-5/16 in . 40 ft 9-5/16 in . 40 ft 9-5/16 in. 40 ft 9-5/16 in.
Lenath 36 ft, 1-3/16 in . 36 ft, 1-3/16 in. 35ft, 10in. 36 ft, 1-3/16 in .
Wina Area 300 sa ft 300 sa ft 300 sa ft 300 sa ft
EmotvWt. 99001bs 99001bs 99001bs 9900 lbs
Gross Wt. 13,500 lbs, overload - 15,000 13,500 lbs, overload - 15,000 13,500 lbs, overload - 15,000 14,000 lbs, overload - 17,000
lbs lbs lbs lbs
Fuel Cap. 307 gal, internal. Special 307 gal, internal. Special 307 gal , internal. Special 375 gal, internal. Special
shackles for 200 aal bellv tank. shackles for 200 aal bellv tank. shackles for 200 aal belly tank. shackles for 200 qal belly tank.
Range Max. : 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max .: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 miles @ 10,000 ft
Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal : 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 400 miles @ 25,000 ft
Service Ceilina 42,000 ft 42,000 ft 42 ,000 ft 42,000 ft
Rate of Climb 7.2 min to 15,000 ft 7.2 min to 15,000 ft 5.6 min to 15,000 ft 6 min to 15,000 ft
11 min to 20,000 ft 11 min to 20,000 ft 7.6 min to 20,000 ft 8 min to 25,000 ft
15 min to 25,000 ft 15 min to 25,000 ft 9.8 min to 25,000 ft 13.5 min to 30,000 ft
20 min to 30,000 ft 20 min to 30,000 ft 12.8 min to 30,000 ft
Max. Speed 433 mph @ 30,000 ft 420 mph @ 30,000 ft 435 mah @ 30,000 ft 433 mph @ 27,800 ft

(continued on next page)

 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)
PARAMETER P-470-20-RE/RA
Landinq Speed 104 mph
Armament 6 X 50 cal mg, 267 rpg , or
8 X 50 cal mg, 425 rpg
Comments Farmingdale (-RE) and
Evansville (-RA) built. Engine
redesignated -59. Primary
difference, Scintilla ignition
replaced with GE. Longer tail
wheel strut, ducted heat to gun
bays instead of electrical
heating. Revision of underwing
pylons. Beginning with aircraft
42-25274, camouflage paint
deleted.
(Refs. 4.22, 4.23, 9.1, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8)
P-470-21-RE/RA
104 mph
6 X 50 cal mg, 300 rpg, or
8 X 50 cal mg, 425 rpg
Farmingdale (-RE) and
Evansville (-RA) built. Similar
to P-470-20. Redesigned
throttle quadrant and button for
control of ADI (Fig. 9.16).
P-470-22-RE . P-470-23-RA
104 mph 106 mph
6 X 50 cal mg, 267 rpg , or 6 or 8 50 cal mg, 267 to 425 rpg
8 X 50 cal mg, 425 rpg plus 2 X 1000 lb bombs, 3 X
plus 2 X 1000 lb bombs, 3 X 500 lb, 3 X 250 lb, etc. Max.
500 lb, 3 X 250 lb, etc. Max. bomb load: 2500 lbs
bomb load: 2500 lbs
Farmingdale (-RE) built. Evansville (-RA) built. Curtiss
Beginning with the P-470-22- Electric prop with larger
RE, Farmingdale and diameter and type 836 paddle
Evansville started to deviate blades. Similar to D-22 except
from each other with the basic for propeller.
design.
GE A-23 turbosupercharger
regulator added. Carburetor
heat deleted with 89th aircraft.
First P-47 variant fitted with
Hamilton Standard Hydromatic
hvdraulicall v operated propeller.
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.15 Top view of the "B" series R-2800-63. Note the high tension Scintilla ignition and
Bendix PT-13 carburetor -63s powered P-47Cs and some P-47Ds. (Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

Fig. 9.16 Top view of an R-2800-59. Similar to a -63 except for the General Electric
ignition. Note the "Turtleback" magnetos. P-47Cs and some P-47Ds were also powered by
-63s. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

398
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-470-25-RE (Fig. 9.17) P-470-26-RA P-470-27-RE P-4 70-28-RA/R E

No. Built 385 (Farmingdale) 250 (Evansville) 615 (Farmingdale) 1,028 RA (Evansville)
750 RE (Farminadale\
Enaine R-2800-59 R-2800-59 R-2800-59 R-2800-59
AAF Serial Nos. 42-26389 to 42-26773 42-28189 to 42-28438 42-26774 to 42-27388 44-19558 to 44-20307 (RE ,
Farmingdale)
42-28439 to 42-29466 (RA,
Evansville)
Propeller Hamilton Standard 24E50-65, Curtiss Electric C542S, Hamilton Standard 24E50-65 , Curtiss Electric C542S,
4-blade, 13 ft , 1-7/8 in . dia. 4-blade, 13 ft dia. 4-blade , 13 ft , 1-7/8 in . dia. 4-blade, 13 ft dia.
Wina Span 40 ft 9-5/16 in. 40 ft 9-5/16 in. 40 ft 9-5/16 in. 40 ft 9-5/16 in.
Lenath 36 ft, 1-3/16 in. 36 ft, 1-3/ 16 in. 36 ft, 1-3/ 16 in. 36 ft, 1-3/16 in.
Wina Area 300 sa ft 300 so ft 300 so ft 300 sa ft
Emptv Wt. 10 000 lbs 10000lbs 10,000 lbs 9900 lbs
Gross Wt. 14 600 lbs overload -17 500 lbs 14 500 lbs overload - 17 500 lbs 14 600 lbs overload - 17 500 lbs 14 000 lbs overload - 17 000 lbs
Fuel Cap. 370 gal, internal 370 gal, internal 370 gal, internal 370 gal, internal
41 O oal external 41 O oal , external 41 O oal external 41 O aal external
Range Max.: 1030 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 1030 miles @ 10,000 ft Max.: 1030 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 1030 mi @ 10,000 ft
Normal: 590 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal : 590 miles @ 25,000 ft Normal: 590 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal : 590 mi @ 25,000 ft
Service Ceilina 42 000 ft 42 000 ft 42 000 ft 42 000 ft
Rate of Climb 6.2 min to 15,000 ft 6.2 min to 15,000 ft 6.2 min. to 1 5,000 ft 6 min to 15,000 ft
8.5 min to 20,000 ft 8.5 min to 20,000 ft 8.5 min. to 20,000 ft 8.1 min to 25 ,000 ft
11 min to 25,000 ft 11 min to 25,000 ft 11 min. to 25,000 ft 13.5 min to 30,000 ft
14 min to 30,000 ft 14 min to 30,000 ft 14 min. to 30,000 ft
Max . Speed 429 mph @ 30,000 ft 429 mah @ 30,000 ft. 429 mah @ 30,000 ft. 433 mph @ 27,800 ft.
Landina Speed 106 mph 106 mph 106 mph 106 mph

(continued on next page)

 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)
Parameter P-470-25-RE (Fig. 9.17)
Armament 6 X 50 cal mg, 267 rpg, or
8 X 50 cal mg, 425 rpg
plus 2 X 1000 lb bombs , 3 X 500
lb, 3 X 250 lb, etc. Max. bomb
load: 2500 lbs.
Comments Farmingdale (-RE). First of the
P-47 variants with a "bubble"
cockpit canopy - electrically
operated . Increased oxygen,
cockpit layout changes, larger
main fuel tank holding 270 gals,
ADI tank increased in capac ity to
30 gals , hydraulic fluid filtering
"""'
0 introduced. Originally planned
0 for production as P-47L.
(Refs. 4.22, 4.23, 9.1, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8)
P-470-26-RA
6 X 50 cal mg, 267 rpg , or
8 X 50 cal mg, 425 rpg
plus 2 X 1000 lb bombs, 3 X 500
lb, 3 X 250 lb, etc. Max. bomb
load: 2500 lbs.
Evansville (-RA) built. Similar to
P-470-25 . First Evansville built
P-47 with "bubble" canopy.
Similar to Farmingdale built -25
except for propeller.
P-470-27-RE
6 X 50 cal mg, 267 rpg, or
8 X 50 cal mg, 425 rpg
plus 2 X 1000 lb bombs, 3 X
500 lb, 3 X 250 lb, etc. Max.
bomb load: 2500 lbs.
Farmingdale (-RE) . New
starter, drop tank controls
improved. Last P-47 variant
with Hamilton Standard
propeller.
P-470-28-RA/RE
6 or 8 50 cal mg, 267 to 425 rpg
plus 2 X 1000 lb bombs, 3 X 500
lb, 3 X 250 lb, etc. Max. bomb
load : 2500 lbs.
Evansville (-RA) and Farming-
dale built (-RE). Beginning with
the P-470-28 Evansville and
Farmingdale aircraft were
identical.
P-38 style "dive flaps" added
under the wing at 30% chord
between gear bays. Added for
better pull-out control at during
high speed dives. "Blunt nosed"
ailerons introduced for improved
high speed lateral contro l. Ring
& bead gun sight eliminated and
improved gun camera mount.
Many other minor revisions
introduced such as rear view
mirror relocated inside bubble
canopy instead of outside,
improved hydraulic filtering ,
instrument changes, permanent
sway braces for external stores,
electrical release for external
stores, revised fuel plumbing for
external tanks.
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-470-30-RE P-470-30-RE

No. Built 800 (Farminqdale) 1800 (Evansville)
Enqine R-2800-59 R-2800-59
AAF Serial Nos. 44-20308 to 44-21107 44-32668 to 44-33867 &
44-89684 to 44-90283
Propeller Curtiss Electric C542S -A 114, 4-blade, 13 ft dia. Curtiss Electric C542S -A 114, 4-blade , 13 ft dia.
Winq Span 40 ft, 9-5/16 in. 40 ft, 9-5/16 in.
Lenath 36 ft 1-3/16 in. 36 ft 1-3/ 16 in.
Winq Area 300 sq ft. 300 sq ft
Empty Wt. 10,000 lbs 10,000 lbs
Gross Wt. 14 600 lbs overload - 17 500 lbs 14 600 lbs overload - 17 500 lbs
Fuel Cap. 370 gal, internal 370 gal, internal
41O qal external 410 aal external
Range Max.: 1030miles @ 10,000ft Max.: 1030 miles @ 10,000 ft
Normal: 590 miles @ 25,000 ft Normal: 590 miles @ 25 ,000 ft
Service Ceilina 42 000 ft 42 000 ft
Rate of Climb 6.2 min to 15,000 ft 6.2 min to 15,000 ft
8.5 min to 20,000 ft 8.5 min to 20,000 ft
11 min to 25,000 ft 11 min to 25,000 ft
14 min to 30,000 ft 14 min to 30,000 ft
Max. Speed 429 mph @ 30,000 ft 429 mph @ 30 ,000 ft.
Landina Speed 106 moh 106 moh
Armament 6 X 50 cal mg, 267 rpg , or 6 X 50 cal mg, 267 rpg , or
8 X 50 cal mg, 425 rpg 8 X 50 cal mg, 425 rpg
plus 2 X 1000 lb bombs, 3 X 500 lb, 3 X 250 lb , etc. plus 2 X 1000 lb bombs, 3 X 500 lb, 3 X 250 lb ,
Max. bomb load: 2500 lbs. etc. Max . bomb load: 2500 lbs.
Comments P-470-30 was largest production run of P-47 variants. P-38 style "dive flaps"
added under the wing at 30% chord between gear bays. Added for better pull-out
control at during high speed dives. "Blunt nosed" ailerons introduced for improved
high speed lateral control. Ring & bead gun sight eliminated and improved gun
camera mount. Many other minor revisions introduced such as rear view mirror
relocated inside bubble canopy instead of outside, improved hydraulic filtering,
instrument changes, permanent sway braces for external stores, electrical release
for external stores, revised fuel Plumbina for external tanks.
(Refs. 4.22, 4 .23, 9.1 , 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6 , 9.7, 9.8)
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-470-40-RA XP-47E XP-47F P-47G-CU

No. Built 665 (FarminQdalel 1 1 20 built bv Curtiss, Buffalo, NY
EnQine R-2800-59 R-2800-21 and -59 R-2800-21 R-2800-2 1
AAF Serial Nos. 44-90284 to 44-90483 & 41-6065 41-5938 42-24920 to 42-24939
45-49090 to 45-49554
Propeller Hamilton Standard 24E50-65, Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S,
4-blade, 13 ft, 1-7/8 in. dia. 4-blade , 12 ft , 2 in. dia. 4-bl ade, 12 ft, 2 in. dia. 4-bl ade, 13 ft dia.
Later fitted with Hamilton
Standard 24E50.
Winq Span 40 ft, 9-5/16 in . 42 ft, O in. 40 ft, 9-5/16 in. 40 ft , 9-5/16 in.
LenQth 36 ft 1-3/16 in. 35 ft 5-3/16 in . 36 ft 1-3/ 16 in. 36 ft 5-3/16 in.
WinQ Area 300 SQ ft 322 SQ ft 300 SQ ft 300 SQ ft
Empty Wt. 10,000 lbs 9,350 lbs 10,000 lbs 99001bs
Gross Wt. 14 600 lbs overload - 17 500 lbs 122501bs 14 600 lbs overload - 17 500 lbs 13 500 lbs overload - 15 000 lbs
Fuel Cap. 370 gal , internal 307 gal, internal 370 gal , internal 307 gal, internal
41 O Qal external 4 1O Qal external 200 Qal external
Range Max.: 1030 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 1030 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft
Normal: 590 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 590 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft
Service CeilinQ 42,000 ft 42 000 ft 42 000 ft 42 000 ft
Rate of Climb 6.2 min to 15,000 ft 7 .5 min to 15,000 ft
8.5 min to 20,000 ft 12 min to 20,000 ft
11 min to 25,000 ft 16 min to 25,000 ft
14 min to 30,000 ft 22 min to 30,000 ft
Max. Soeed 429 moh @ 30 000 ft Aooroximatelv 430 moh 420 moh @ 27 800 ft
LandinQ Speed 106 mph 92 mph 102 mph

(continued on next page)

 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-470-40-RA XP-47E XP-47F P-47G-CU

Armament 6 X 50 cal mg , 267 rpg , or Unarmed Unarmed 6 or 8 50 cal mg , 267 to 425 rpg
8 X 50 cal mg, 425 rpg
plus 2 X 1000 lb bombs, 3 X 500 lb,
3 X 250 lb , etc. Max. bomb load:
2500 lbs.
Comments Evansville (-RA). Last of the "D"s . Only "E" model built. Exten- P-47B with laminar flow wing of First of the Curtiss built aircraft.
Since the introduction of the bubble sively test flown at Wright slightly increased span. Similar to P-47C-RE. First pre-
canopy, serious tail flutter could be Field. Pressuri zed cockpit, Crashed and destroyed production aircraft built
induced due to the loss of cross and retention of razor back October 14, 1943, killing test September, 1942.
sectional area with the elimination fuselage. Pulled from P-47B pilot Capt. A. McAdams.
of the "razor back." To eliminate production line.
this, a small dorsal fillet was added.
All prior bubble canopy P-47s were
retrofitted with the fi llet. Zero-rail
rocket launch stubs replaced old
style bazooka tube launchers.
2850 zero rail kits manufactured for
earlier models . Trail warning radar
and K-14 gunsight introduced on
the D-40.
(Refs. 4.22, 4.23, 9.1, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8

DON'T LOW£R YOUl< FLAPS

A90V£ I 95 Mll£S' 'PfQ ~OU'R
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-47G-1-CU (Fig. 9.18) P-47G-5-CU P-47G-10-CU P-47G-15-CU

No. Built 40 60 80 154
Engine R-2800-21 R-2800-21 R-2800-21 R-2800-63
AAF Serial Nos. 42-24940 to 42-24979 42-24980 to 42-25039 42-25040 to 42-25119 42-25120 to 42-25273
Propeller Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S,
4-blade, 12 ft, 2 in. dia. 4-blade, 12 ft, 2 in. dia. 4-blade, 12 ft, 2 in. dia. 4-blade, 12 ft, 2 in. dia.
Winq Span 40 ft , 9-5/16 in. 40 ft, 9-5/16 in. 40 ft, 9-5/16 in. 40 ft, 9-5/16 in.
Lenqth 36 ft, 1-3/16 in. 36 ft, 1-3/16 in. 36 ft, 1-3/ 16 in . 36 ft, 1-3/16 in.
Wing Area 300 sq ft 300 sq ft 300 sq ft 300 sq ft
Emotv Wt. 99001bs 99001bs 99001bs 99001bs
Gross Wt. 13,500 lbs, overload - 14,925 lbs 13,500 lbs, overload - 13,500 lbs, overload - 13,500 lbs, overload -
15,000 lbs 15,000 lbs 15,000 lbs
Fuel Cap. 307 gal , internal. Special 307 gal, internal. Special 307 gal, internal. Special 307 gal, internal. Special
shackles for 200 gal belly tank. shackles for 200 gal belly shackles for 200 gal belly shackles for 200 gal belly
tank. tan k. tank.
Range Max.: 835 miles @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max. : 835 mi @ 10,000 ft
Normal: 400 miles @ 25,000 ft Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal : 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft
Service Ceilinq 42,000 ft 42,000 ft 42,000 ft 42,000 ft
Rate of Climb 7.2 min to 15,000 ft 7 .2 min to 15,000 ft 7.2 min to 15,000 ft 7.2 min to 15,000 ft
15 min to 25,000 ft 11 min to 20,000 ft 11 min to 20,000 ft 15 min to 25,000 ft
20 min to 30,000 ft 15 min to 25,000 ft 15 min to 25,000 ft 20 min to 30,000 ft
20 min to 30,000 ft 20 min to 30,000 ft
Max. Speed 429 mph @ 27,800 ft 420 mph @ 30,000 ft 420 mph @ 30,000 ft 433 mph @ 27,800 ft.
Landing Speed 100 mph 104 mph 104 mph 100 mph
Armament 6 or 8 50 cal mg, 425 rpg 6 X 50 cal mg, 300 rpg, or 6 X 50 cal mg, 300 rpg, or 6 or 8 50 cal mg, 425 rpg
8 X 50 cal mq, 425 rpq 8 X 50 cal mq, 425 roa
Comments Similar to Farmingdale built Curtiss built. Similar to Curtiss built. Similar to Curtiss built. Similar to
P-47C-1-RE. Built by Curtiss, the Farmingdale built Farmingdale built P-470-10-RE. Curtiss built
things were total dogs due to P-470-1 -RE . P-470-5-RE . P-47s primarily used as
poor workmanship . B-7 two-point bomb shackles trainers. Two P-47G-15-
fitted. CUs converted into two
seat trainers. Main fuel
tank reduced in size to
accommodate second seat.
Two-seaters redesignated
P-47G-16-CU. Curtiss
production of P-47s ended
in March 1944.
(Refs. 4.22, 4.23, 9.1, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8)
 Military Applications

Fig. 9. 17 P-47D-25-RE, Farmingdale built bubble canopy version. Evansville built a

similar aircraft designated P-47D-26-RA. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. lB 33250.)

Fig. 9. 18 P-47G-l-CU The "G " designation indicates this is a Curtiss built aircraft. These
things were such dogs, because ofpoor workmanship, they never saw combat. (Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. 1B 33418.)

405
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter XP-47H (Fig. 9.19) XP-47J (Fig. 9.21) XP-47K XP-47L

No. Built 2 1 1 1
Engine Chrysler IV-2220-11(Fig.9.20) R-2800-57, R-2800-61 * and R-2800-21 and -59 R-2800-21 • -59 or -57
2500 hp at 3400 rpm @ 71 in . R-2800-14W
Hg. CH-3 GE turbosupercharger, later
installed with CH -5 GE
turbosupercharaer.
AAF Serial Nos. 42-23297 and 42-23298 42-46952 42-8702 42-76614
Propeller Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S, Curtiss Electric C542S,
4-blade, 13 ft dia. 4-blade . 13 ft 4-blade , 12 ft, 2 in. dia. 4-blade , 12 ft, 2 in . dia.
Wing Span 40 ft, 9-5/16 in. 40 ft, 11-1 /2 in. 40 ft, 9-5/16 in. , later increased 40 ft, 9-5/16 in.
to 42 ft, 6-5/16 in.
Lenoth 38 ft, 4-1 /4 in. 35 ft 3 in. 36 ft 1-3/4 in. 36 ft 1-3/16 in.
Wino Area 300 SQ ft 300 SQ ft 300 sq ft
Empty Wt. 11,442 lbs 9663 lbs 10,000 lbs 10,000 lbs
Gross Wt. Design: 13,427 lbs 12,400 lbs , overload - 16,780 lbs 14,000 lbs , overload - 15,000 lbs 14,600 lbs, overload - 17,500 lbs
Actual: 14,010 lbs
Test: 13 427 lbs
Fuel Cap. 295 oal, internal 287 oal, internal 307 oal, internal 370 oal, internal
Range Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 1070 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 835 mi @ 10,000 ft Max.: 1030 mi @ 10,000 ft
Normal : 400 mi @ 25 000 ft Normal: 765 mi @ 25 000 ft Normal: 400 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 590 mi @ 25 000 ft
Service Ceilina 36,000 ft 45,000 ft 42 ,000 ft
Rate of Climb 2,800 ft per min 4.5 min to 15,000 ft
Max. Speed 414 mph @ 27 800 ft 504 mph @ 34 300 ft 415 mph @ 30 000 ft 429 mPh @ 30 000 ft
Landinq Speed 92 mph 106 mph
Armament None installed. Provision for 6 6 X 50 cal mg, 267 rpg 6 or 8 .50 cal mg, 267 rpg 6 or 8 50 cal mg, 267 to 425 rpg
.50 cal mq.
Comments Two Evansville P-470-15-RA Similar to P-470 but incorporating Prototype for the bubble canopy Last production P-470-20-RE.
aircraft modified. No perform- numerous engineering changes. P-47s . Last of P-470-RE Removed from manufacturing
ance advantage over R-2800 Weight reduced, modified cowling of removed from Farmingdale line for modifications. Entered
powered aircraft. Compare reduced diameter and incorporating production line and extensively production as P-470-25-RE.
statistics to P-4 70-15. cooling fan, and redesigned wings . modified . Further modifications R-2800-57 (C series) fitted at
Many features incorporated into included fitt ing of long range later date for testing.
P-47M and P-47N. Highest claimed wing similar to P-47N wing.
speed for piston engined aircraft of
WWII.
*The R-2800-61 was similar to an
R-2800-57 except the -61 was modified
to drive a dual rotation propeller.
(Refs. 4.22, 4.23, 9.1, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8)
 Military Applications

Fig. 9. 19 XP-47H powered by the Chrysler IV-2220 liquid-cooled sixteen cylinder engine.
This engine offered no improvement over the R-2800 powered aircraft so the project was
dropped. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo
No. lB 33440.)

Fig. 9.20 Even though this sixteen-cylinder engine only displaced 2220 cubic inches, its physi-
cal size would belie its relatively small displacement. Although it featured some good engineer-
ing, it also displayed antiquated ideas such as its separate cylinder construction which
contributed its enormous length. If Republic were serious about installing a liquid-cooled inline
in the P-47, they would have been better off with the Rolls-Royce Griffon. Similar displacement
at 2239 cubic inches but considerably shorte1; lighter and more powerfo.l. (Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. lB 4010.)

407
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter YP-47M-RE P-47M-1-RE (Fig. 9.23) XP-47N

No. Built 3 130 1
Enaine R-2800-14W (Fig. 9.22) and -57 R-2800-57 R-2800-57 and R-2800-73 (Fig. 9.24)
AAF Serial Nos. 42-27385 42-27386 & 42-27388 44-21108 to 44-21237 42-27387
Propeller Curtiss Electric C642S-B40, Curtiss Electric C642S-B40, Curtiss Electric C642S-B40,
4-blade , 13 ft dia. 4-blade, 13 ft . dia. 4-blade, 13 ft dia.
Wina Soan 40 ft 9-5/16 in. 40 ft 9-5/16 in. 42ft 6-1 /16in.
Lenqth 36 ft, 1-3/4 in. 36 ft, 1-3/4 in. 36 ft, 1-3/4 in .
Wina Area 300 sq ft 300 SQ ft 322.2 so ft
EmotvWt. 103401bs 10 340 lbs 10 998 lbs
Gross Wt. 15,352 lbs, overload - 18,250 lbs 15,352 lbs, overload - 18,250 lbs 14,030 lbs, overload - 20,080 lbs
Fuel Cao. 370 aal internal. External: 41 O aal. 370 aal internal. External: 41 O aal. 570 aal internal.
Range 530 miles (combat) @ 26,000 ft 530 miles (combat) @ 26,000 ft Max .: 920 mi @ 10,000 ft
Normal: 800 mi @ 25,000 ft
Service Ceilina 41 000 ft 41 000 ft 43 000 ft
""'"
0
00 Rate of Climb 4.9 min to 15,000 ft 4.9 min to 15,000 ft 13.5 min to 32,000 ft
13.4 min to 32,000 ft 13.4 min to 32,000 ft
Max. Soeed 475 moh @ 32 000 ft 475 moh @ 32 000 ft 467 moh @ 30 000 ft
Landina Soeed 99 moh 99 moh 98 moh
Armament 6 or 8 50 cal ma, 267 roa 6 or 8 50 cal mq , 267 roa 6 or 8 X .50 cal ma 267 to 425 roa
Comments Originally built as P-47D-27-RE but First P-47 variant to go into series Modified P-47D-27-RE. Single lever power
modified to test C series engine and GE production with "C" series engine. control, CH-5 turbosupercharger, and regulator
CH-5 turbosupercharger. Single lever Automatic manifold pressure switch for as fitted to P-47M, new long range wing with 4
power control tried which incorporated ADI. Electric fuel primer, shielding of interconnected self-sealing fuel cells in inboard
the functions of boost and propeller. ignition system induction vibrator and section of each wing, modified main gear
primary ignition leads. Single power struts, gear tread increased to 18 ft, 6 in. new
lever tried in YP-47M-RE not used. downlock cylinder, new brakes, flap area and
Field modifications include fitting of aileron increased, revised exhaust system,
dorsal fin . improved engine mount, new electrical gen-
erator, automatic intercooler door operation,
automatic operation of ADI , oil tank capacity
increased to 40 aallons.
(Refs. 4.22, 4.23, 9.1 , 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8)
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.21 Hot rod of all the P-47 variants, the XP-47J (Courtesy of the National Air &
Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. JB 33445.)

Fig. 9.22 R-2800-l 4W, power plant for the YP-47M This "C " series engine featured ADI and
Scintilla ignition. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

409
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.23 P-47M (left) and P-47N (right) side by side. Note the squared-off wing tips of the "N"
(Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney)

410
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.24 Two views of the R-2800-73, power plant/or the P-47N "C" series with GE. ignition.
(Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

411
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-47N-1-RE P-47N-5-RE P-47N-15-RE P-47N-20-RE

No. Built 550 550 200 200
Enqine R-2800-57 R-2800-57 R-2800-73 R-2800-73 or -77*
AAF Serial Nos. 44-87784 to 44-88333 44-88334 to 44-88883 44-88884 to 44-89083 44-89084 to 44-89283
Propeller Curtiss Electric C642S-B40, Curtiss Electric C642S-B40, Curtiss Electric C642S-B40, Curtiss Electric C642S-B40,
4-blade 13 ft dia. 4-blade 13 ft dia. 4-blade 13 ft dia. 4-blade, 13 ft dia.
WinQ Span 42 ft, 6-5/16 in. 42 ft, 6-5/16 in. 42 ft, 6-5/16 in. 42 ft, 6-5/16 in.
Lenqth 36 ft, 1-3/4 in. 36 ft, 1-3/4 in. 36 ft, 1-3/4 in. 36 ft, 1-3/4 in.
Wino Area 322.2 so ft 322.2 so ft 322.2 so ft 322.2 so ft
Empty Wt. 10,988 lbs 10,988 lbs 10,988 lbs 10,988 lbs
Gross Wt. 13,823 lbs, overload - 21 ,200 lbs 13,823 lbs , overload - 21,200 lbs 13,823 lbs, overload - 21 ,200 lbs 13,823 lbs, overload - 21 ,200 lbs
Fuel Cap. 556 gal, internal 556 gal, internal 556 gal, internal 556 gal , internal
700 qal, external 700 qal, external 700 oal, external 700 oal , external
Range 2,000 mi @ 25,000 ft 2000 mi @ 25,000 ft 2000 mi @ 25,000 ft 2000 mi @ 25,000 ft
Normal: 800 miles @ 25,000 ft Normal: 800 mi@ 25,000 ft Normal: 800 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 800 mi@ 25,000 ft
Service Ceilinq 43,000 ft 43,000 ft 43 ,000 ft 43,000 ft
Rate of Climb 9 min to 15,000 ft 9 min to 15,000 ft 9 min to 15,000 ft 9 min to 15,000 ft
14.2 min to 25,000 ft 14.2 min to 25,000 ft 14.2 min to 25,000 ft 14.2 min to 25,000 ft
Max. Soeed 467 moh @ 32,000 ft 467 moh @ 32,000 ft 467 moh @ 32,000 ft 467 moh @ 32,000 ft
Landino Soeed 98 moh 98 moh 98 moh 98 mph
Armament 6 or 8 .50 cal mq, 267 to 500 rpq 6 or 8 .50 cal mq, 267 to 500 rpq 6 or 8 .50 cal mq, 267 to 500 rpq 6 or 8 .50 cal mq, 267 to 500 roq
Comments New boost/propeller control. *Similar to -57 except for G.E. S-1 bomb release, K-14 gun Similar to -73 and -57 except for
Same gross weight as a fully ignition system. All -73s built by sight, and new pilot seat. Bendix ignition and provision for
loaded DC-3 .. !! 2000 mile range Chevrolet. Tachometer for G.E. CH-5 double acting governor. All -77s
achieved via 300 gallon Detail radio changes, installation turbosupercharger and warn ing built by Chevrolet.
underwing tanks. Unilever of zero length rocket launchers, light eliminated. Automatic Radio changes, installation of
power control omitted and G.E. C-1 auto-pilot, revised engine control eliminated. emergency fuel system , provi-
replaced with automatic engine rudder pedals, catapult launching sion for individual pressurizing of
control unit. New throttle provision , homing radar. jettisonable tanks, Aero-Tech
quadrant in cockpit. Remained manifold pressure switch
in service until 1953 designated replaced LM Persons model.
as F-47N .
(Refs. 4.22, 4.23, 9.1, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5 , 9.6, 9.7, 9.8)
 TABLE 9-3 REPUBLIC P-47 SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-47N-20-RA P-47N-25-RE XP-72 (Fig. 9.25) P-47N-20-RE

No. Built 149 167 2 200
Engine R-2800-73 or -77 R-2800-73 , -77 or -81 R-4360-13 (Fig. 9.26) R-2800-73 or -77*
AAF Serial Nos. 45-49975 to 45-50123 44-89284 to 44-89450 43-6598 & 43-6599
Propeller Curtiss Electric C642S-B40, Curtiss Electric C642S-B40, Aero Products co ntra-rotating, Curtiss Electric C642S -B40,
4-blade, 13 ft dia. 4-blade, 13 ft dia. later changed to single 4-blade 4-blade, 13 ft dia.
Wing Span 42 ft, 6-5/16 in. 42 ft, 6-5/16 in. 40 ft, 11-7/8 in. 42 ft, 6-5/16 in.
Lenath 36 ft, 1-3/ 4 in. 36ft 1-3/4in . 36 ft 7-13/16 in . 36ft 1-3/4 in .
Wina Area 322.2 sa ft 322.2 sq ft 300 sq ft 322.2 sq ft
Empty Wt. 10,988 lbs 10,988 lbs 10,965 lbs 10,988 lbs
Gross Wt. 13 823 lbs overload - 21 200 lbs 13 823 lbs overload - 21 200 lbs 14 750 lbs 13 823 lbs overload - 21 200 lbs
Fuel Cap. 556 gal, internal 556 gal, internal 370 gal , internal 556 gal, internal
700 aal external 700 aal external 700 aal external
Range 2000 mi @ 25,000 ft 2000 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 1200 miles 2000 mi @ 25,000 ft
Normal : 800 miles @ 25,000 ft Normal: 800 mi @ 25,000 ft Normal: 800 mi @ 25,000 ft
Service Ceilina 43 000 ft 43 000 ft 43 000 ft
Rate of Climb 9 min to 15,000 ft 9 min to 15,000 ft 5 min to 20,000 ft 9 min to 15,000 ft
14.2 min to 25,000 ft 14.2 min to 25,000 ft 14.2 min to 25,000 ft
Max. Soeed 467 moh @ 32 000 ft 467 moh @ 32 000 ft 490 moh @ 25 000 ft 467 mph @ 32 000 ft
Landing Speed 98 mph 98 mph 104 mph 98 mph
Armament 6 or 8 .50 cal ma, 267 to 500 roa 6 or 8 .50 cal ma . 267 to 500 roa 6 or 8 .50 cal mg, 267 roa 6 or 8 .50 cal mg, 267 to 500 rpg
Comments Similar to Farmi ngdale built 20- Final production version of P-47. The ultimate P-47 variant. Many Similar to -73 and -57 except for
RE. Revised cockpit floor with -81 similar to -57 except for G.E. modifications made including Bendix ignition and provision for
smooth rudder pedal track ignition and cast ignition contra propellers, remotely double acting governor. All -77s
introduced with 45-50051 . harness. mounted auxiliary stage built by Chevrolet.
Production ended September Installation of automatic engine supercharger. First flew July Radio changes, installation of
1945. controls plus boost reset. G.E. 1944. First aircraft crashed emergency fuel system , provi -
C-1 turbosupercharger, revised during early tests . sion for individual pressurizing of
tail wheel linkage. Last of the jettisonable tanks, Aero-Tech
Farmingdale production P-47s. manifold pressure switch
Last one built October, 1945. replaced LM Persons model.
(Refs. 4.22, 4.23, 9.1, 9.3, 9.4, 9.5, 9.6, 9.7, 9.8, 9.9)
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.25 What might have been. The XP-72 based on the P-47 but powered by the Pratt &
Whitney R-4360. World War Il's conclusion shelved this project. (Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

Fig. 9.26 Cutaway of an

early R-4360 that powered
the XP-72. An auxiliary
blower was installed behind
the pilot in the XP-72
installation. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)

414
 Mi Ii tary Applications

Douglas A-26 Invader

One of the more versatile and long lived of medium bombers, the A-26 exhibited all the attributes one
would expect from its gifted designer, Ed Heinemam1 . The contract for the XA-26 (Fig. 9.27) was
placed in June, 1941 , and the prototype flew in July, 1942. In parallel with the XA-26, Douglas
Aircraft also developed the XA-26A for night fighting duties and the XA-26B as an attack bomber.
The aircraft easily exceeded its contractual requirements in speed, bomb load, and every other per-
formance parameter. Taking advantage of state of the art aerodynamics such as laminar flow flying
surfaces contributed to its remarkable performance. Its closest competitor, the Martin B-26 Marauder,
was easily outperformed by the A-26 using similar power plants.

The engine mounting system devised by Heinemann was quite unique. Instead of using the usual
welded up chrome-moly tubular mount, he used a semi-monocoque mount Built up of a large stain-
less steel metal spi1ming at the front and a stainless steel rear part, they were tied together by six
aluminum forging. Each forging attached to each of the six engine mounts (Fig. 9.28) . The bolts for
removing the entire QEC tied the aft end of the six forging via the rear stainless steel rear attach-
ment. All lines such as fuel , oil, electrical, etc ., were grouped together inside the skin of the mounting
and fitted with quick release fittings. It v,ras claimed anA-26 engine could be changed inside an hour.
The tricycle landing gear 'vas of conventional design; the mains retracted rearwards (Fig. 9.29) and
the nose also retracted rearwards, swinging through ninety degrees as it retracted (Fig. 9.30).

In an effort to improve the already impressive perfonnance of the A-26, Douglas fitted a pair of
R-2800-83s and designated the aircraft XA-26D. The -83s were " C" series built by Chevrolet.
Before the A-26D could get cranked up for series production, the war ended and thus negated the
requirement for this formidable aircraft. However, the A-26D was not the last A-26 built with " C"
series engines. As the United States became embroiled in the Vietnam quagmire, theA-26 was given
a new lease on life. Its unique performance characteristics would fit the Air Force 's requirement for
this conflict. The outcome was the B-26K (Fig. 9.31) . B-26 modification contracts ' vere awarded
to the On Mark company in Van Nuys, California (by this time, early 1960s, theA-26 designation had
changed to B-26). The modifications were quite extensive, some of the more significant being: a
rebuild of the fuselage ; reinforced wing structure; wide chord, reversible props; wing tip fuel tanks;
and probably most significantly, different engines. The engines chosen were R-2800-52Ws, equiva-
lent to the civilian CB- l 7s. The -52W was a "CB" engine with water injection and rated at 2500
horsepower.

Two basic models were built: the so-called glass nosed (Fig. 9.32) and solid nose versions. The solid
nose typically housed eight .50 caliber machine guns (Fig. 9.33) . An additional six .50 caliber (three
in each wing) were housed in the wing (Fig. 9.34).

After World War II most A-26s were mothballed rather than scrapped-a fate suffered by many of its
siblings . Many of the mothballed aircraft reentered service at the start of the Korean conflict.

415
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.27 Douglas XA-26. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian
Institution. Photo No. IA 37665.)

Fig. 9.28 Unique engine mount system for the Douglas A-26. Rather than use the usual chrome-
moly tubular mount, Douglas 'design featured a moncoque mounting ring manufactured from
stainless steel and aluminum forgings. (Illustrated Parts Breakdown. USAF A-26A and A-26B
Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

416
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.29 A-26 single-wheel
main landing gear (Illustrated
Parts Breakdown. USAF
A-26A and A-26B Aircraft.
Courtesy of the National Air &
Space Museum.)
Fig. 9.30 A-26 nose gear As it retracted, the nose wheel
rotated 90 degrees to lie flush at the floor of the fuselage.
(Illustrated Parts Breakdown. USAF A-26A and A-26B
Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

A-26s were manufactured in three Douglas facilities: El Segundo, California; Long Beach, California;
and Tulsa, Oklahoma.

Suffix "-DE" signifies aircraft built in El Segundo, California.

Suffix "-DL" signifies aircraft built in Long Beach, California.
Suffix "-DT" signifies aircraft built in Tulsa, Oklahoma.

For example, the full designation, including batch number of an A-26B may read: A-26-60-DL, indi-
cating it was manufactured in Long Beach and was the 20th batch under the A-26B designation
(Refs. 9.3, 9.10, 9.11)

See Table 9-4.

417
Chapter 9

~ .... , !. ·.!'-tt.·

--
Fig. 9.31 Douglas B-26K, a highly modified A-26 powered by "C series engines and used
extensively in Vietnam. Note : After the independent U.S. Air Force was created in Septem-
ber, 1947, the Douglas A-26 was re-designated B-26. Of course, this has created confusion
due to the fact that two different aircraft, the Martin B-26 Marauder and Douglas Invader,
had the same designation. However, Martin B-26 Marauders had been withdrawn from the
U.S. inventory when the USAF was formed. (Courtesy of the Nationa l Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution. Photo No . JA 37645.)

Fig. 9.32 Glass nosed A-26C. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian
Institution. Photo No. JA 37652.)

418
 M ilitary Applications

Fig. 9. 33 Formidable armament of an A-26B. Eight . 50 caliber guns had a powerjitl punch.
(Illustrated Parts Breakdown. USAF A-26A and A-26B Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air &
Space Museum.)

419
Chapter 9

Fig 9.34 Supplementing the nose armament, A-26Bs also had six .50 machine guns
mounted in the wing (Illustrated Parts Breakdown. USAF A-26A and A-26B Aircraft.
Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

Fig 9. 35 Identifiable by its low canopy, illustrated is an early production A-26B. (Courtesy
of Pratt & Whitney.)

420
 Military Applications

TABLE 9-4 DOUGLAS A-26 SPECIFICATIONS

Parameter A-268 (Fig. 9.35 and 9.36), A-26C* JD-1 B-26K

No. Built
AAF Serial Nos.
Engine R-2800-27, -71 (Fig. 9.37), -79 R-2800-52W
Propeller Hamilton Standard, 3-blade, 12 ft, 6 in. dia. Hamilton Standard , 3-blade, reversible
Wino Span 70 ft 71 ft, 6 in.
Winq Area 540 sa ft 541 sa ft
Lenath 50 ft, 8 in . 51 ft, 7-1 /4 in.
Empty Weiqht 22,363 lbs 25,130 lbs
Normal Loaded 26,000 lbs 37,000 lbs
Max. Takeoff 41,800 lbs 39,250 lbs
Range 1680 mi - normal 1480 mi - normal
2914 mi - max. 2700 mi - max.
Service Ceiling 24,500 ft 30,500 ft
Rate of Climb 1070 ft/min - initial 2050 ft/min
Max. Speed 322 mph at 10,000 ft 327 mph at 15,000 ft
Cruisina Speed 278 mph 310 mph
Armament Six fixed forward firing .50 cal machine
guns. Provision for eight "package" guns
under the wings arranged in pairs under
each wing outboard of the engine. Defen-
sive armament consists of a pair of two gun
electrically operated turrets one above and
one below the fuselage. Both turrets
remotely sighted from a station aft of the
wing, aimed by periscope sights. Upper
turret, when locked in forward position may
be operated by pilot in conjunction with
nose armament.
Internal bomb bay - up to 6000 pound
bomb load.
Comments * A-26B is "solid nosed" version Ram air scoop for carburetor
* A-26C is "glass nosed" version fitted with repositioned further back on cowling.
Norden bomb sight.
Otherwise, aircraft are identical.
** JD-1 is Navy version used primarily for
tarqet towinq.

421
Chapter 9

Fig. 9. 36 Postwar A-26B. Note the enlarged cockpit canopy for improved pilot visibility.
(Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 9.3 7 Side view of the ubiquitous "B" series R-2800-71 that powered many A-26 vari-
ants. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

422
 Military Applications

Vought F4U Corsair

Not surprisingly, this elegantly designed aircraft soon assumed the nickname "bent wing bird." The
gull wing shape was arrived at for several key aerodynamic and structural reasons. At the time of its
early design concepts, NACA had just discovered the necessity of having a good wing root to fuse-
lage juncture. Based on the NACA findings , Vought used a normal or 90 degree wing to fuselage
j oint resulting in minimum drag and eliminating the requirement for drag producing wing fillets. With
the wing root angled dmvn from the circular cross section fuselage, two more problems were solved:
increased ground clearance for the massive three-blade or four-blade Hamilton Standard propeller
and the ability to use a shorter landing gear (Ref. 9.12). Designed in response to a Navy requirement
for a high speed, high altitude fighter, the Corsair easily exceeded expectations in these two key
parameters. However, the road to success would prove to be a rocky one for the Corsair. Even
when it entered production as the F4U-l , over 500 major and 2500 minor engineering and production
changes were incorporated (Ref. 9.3). See Table 9-5.

To achieve the required high altitude and high speed requirements demanded a sophisticated super-
charger. This was accomplished via a massive two-stage, intercooled supercharger, a feature of all
production Corsairs with the exception of the AU-1 or F4U-6. With its intended mission of low
altitude ground attack, a large, complex and weighty two-stage supercharger would have been super-
fluous for the AU-1. The only other variant not fitted a gear driven two-stage supercharger was the
F4U-3 which utilized a turbosupercharger for altitude performance. And only three were built.

The Navy opened up its design competition in February, 1938, long before the R-2800 had even
flown. The prototype Corsair first flew in May, 1940. Wisely, Vought chose to use a relatively simple
XR-2800-2 "A" series engine with a single-stage, single-speed supercharger for these early flights.
Even so, the -2 was capable of giving the XF4U-l (Fig. 9.38) a top speed in excess of 400 miles per
hour, the first time a U.S. military aircraft had exceeded this barrier. Constructionwise, the F4U
explored new territory. Rather than use drag producing rivets, the fuselage was assembled using spot
welds (Ref. 9.13) . For the sake of expediency, the prototype used fabric covered wooden ailerons.
Rather surprisingly, this feature was continued into production. The early F4U- ls used a fabric
covered wing from the spar back. This was a fairly common design feature of the time, the rationale
being the major load bearing aspect of the wing was the leading edge back to the main spar. The
wing fold joint was located just outboard of the main landing gear, at the juncture of the wing "bend"
(Fig. 9.39) . The main gear retracted rearwards, rotating ninety degrees during its retraction cycle
(Fig. 9.40). The tail wheel assembly included the carrier arresting hook; it, too, retracted rearwards
(Fig. 9.41 and Fig. 9.42).

Finding room for the massive and lengthy two-stage supercharger and dual air-to-air intercoolers, in
addition to housing the fuselage fuel tank, resulted in the pilot's cockpit being situated farther back
than one would normally associate with a WWII fighter. The inboard sections of each wing 's lead-
ing edge featured a prominent airscoop that served several functions: induction air; cooling air supply
for the air-to-air intercooler; and in the case of the F4U-l and AU-1, cooling air for the dual, circular
oil coolers . During its life, the Corsair was powered by all series of the R-2800 that saw mass
production: "A," "B," "C," and "E" series (Ref. 9.3).

423
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.38 Vought XF4U on a test flight. This aircraft was basically a proof of concept aircraft.
First production aircraft differed sign(ficantly by incorporating hundreds of engineering
changes. Nevertheless, this aircraft was the first Navy aircraft to exceed 400 mph in level flight.
One of the more significant mod(fications made to subsequent F4Us was the use of two-stage,
intercooled supercharging. Note the shorter nose on the XF4U which only had to accommodate
a single-stage supercharger. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian
Institution. Photo No. JB 46689.)

Fig. 9. 39 Vought F4U-l showing wing fold location. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. IB 46697.)

424
 Military Applications

LEGEND
I SLIPPER FITT ING
2 KNUCKLE FIT TING
3 LOCKING LINKAGE
4 FAIRING
5 AXLE STUB
6 SCISSORS
7 OLEO STRUT
8 DRAG LINKS
9 ACTUAT ING STRUT
10 DRAG LINK SHAFT

Fig. 9.40 F4U main landing gear components. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy
Model F4U-4 Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

Fig. 9.41 Tail wheel and tail hook for an F4U

(Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model
F4U-4 Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air &
Space Museum.)

425
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.42 Side view of tail wheel shown extended and retracted. (Handbook Maintenance
Instructions Navy Model F4U-4 Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

The following gives a brief description of the various induction systems and engine installations. Just
three F4U-3s were manufactured and unfortunately little information has survived. All that is known
is that they were boosted with a Turbo Engineering turbosupercharger. One was powered by a "B"
series R-2800-16 and two were powered by a "C" series R-2800-14. The F4U-7 was a French Navy
aircraft based on the AU-1 airframe but using the F4U-4 QEC.

F4U-1, F4U-2 Engine Installation and Induction System

Structurally, F4U-2s were very similar to the F4U-l, the dash twos being optimized for night operations.

F4U-ls used an engine similar to the Grumman F6F Hellcat. Hellcats used the R-2800-10 and the
F4U-l was powered by an R-2800-8 (Fig. 9.43, Fig. 9.44, and Fig. 9.45), the only difference being
that -8s used updraft carburetion and the Hellcat's -10, downdraft carburetion. This sophisticated
engine employed two-stage, intercooled supercharging. The first stage, or auxiliary stage, had three
speeds: neutral (i.e. , the blower impeller was not driven), low speed, and high speed. The auxiliary

426
 Military Applications

Fig. 9. 43 Right side view

of the R-2800-8. Note the
updraft Bendix PT-13
carburetor and Scintilla
ignition. (Courtesy of Pratt
& Whitney.)

Fig. 9. 44 Left side view

of R-2800-8. Note the
auxiliary stage super-
charger regulator on the
side of the blower housing.
(Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

Fig. 9. 45 Bottom view of

the R-2800-8. Note the
three boost venturis in the
Bendix PT-1 3 carburetor.
(Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

427
Chapter 9

stage blower is designed to supply sea level pressure at the carburetor deck at altitude. The auxiliary
stage supercharger regulator would then maintain this condition, as the aircraft gained altitude, by
gradually opening the auxiliary stage gate valves located at the entrance to the auxiliary stage super-
charger (Fig 9.46) Neutral blower was typically maintained to 13,000 feet at which point low
blower for the auxiliary stage was engaged. In this way, sea level pressure was reestablished at the
carburetor deck. The main stage, or engine stage, would then boost the manifold pressure to the
desired level. Low blower was then held to 22,000 feet at which point high blower was engaged.

Induction air came from the air intakes located in the wing leading edge located at the wing/fuselage
juncture (Fig. 9.47). Dual, circular oil coolers were also housed in the wing leading edge air intakes
(Fig. 9.48). As soon as induction air enters the leading edge air intake, it makes a 90-degree tum. In
order to smooth out the air flow, six flow splitters were incorporated to assist the air making this 90-
degree tum . These flow splitters caused a whistling noise emanating from the air intakes. Because
of this idiosyncrasy, during World War II, Japanese soldiers referred to the Corsair as "Whistling
Death. " At low altitudes (below 13 ,000 feet), induction air flowed through the auxiliary stage blower,
even though it was in neutral, i.e., the impeller was not being driven, then through the dual intercool-
ers (Fig. 9.49), which discharged the air into the updraft carburetor. The PT-13 injection carburetor
discharged fuel into the eye of the main stage blower impeller. The fuel/air mixture then discharged
into the intake manifolds. In neutral blower, the dual intercoolers did not perform any function;
however, when low or high blower was engaged, the heat due to compression from the auxiliary
blower stage was dissipated through the intercoolers. Ideal intake temperature was maintained via
an automatically adjusted door that controlled mass air flow through the intercoolers. One idiosyn-
crasy of the Corsair 's complicated induction system was that of foreign object damage. Mechanics
working on the airplane, on occasion, would leave nuts, bolts, and other assorted components in the
ductwork . Of course it takes little imagination to realize the severe damage that results when the
engine is fired up and this stuff is sucked into the carburetor. Vought mentioned this concern in a
number of their News Bulletins (Refs. 9.14, 9.15 , 9.16).

F4U-3 Engine Installation and Induction System

Only three F4U-3s were manufactured, both of which were boosted by a turbosupercharger. Little
information has survived on these aircraft. However, what is known is the three aircraft built were
fitted with turbosuperchargers manufactured by the Turbo Engineering Company of New Jersey.
This company was established by Rudoph Binnan, a talented turbo machinery engineer who formerly
worked for Westinghouse. The Turbo Engineering Company was sponsored by the U.S. Navy in an
effort to find an alternate turbosupercher supplier to General Electric. Birman was basically a one-
man company and by the time the F4U-3 came to fruition, the Navy was not overly interested in the
aircraft as it was too late to contribute to the war and they did not need a mission profile of high
altitude operations at the time .

The requirement of a massive intercooler and its associated weight and drag plus the weight of the
turbosupercharger doomed this promising aircraft. Nevertheless, Birman's turbosupercharger offered

428
 Military Applications

ADJUSTING NUT=-=:----\
(TURN CLOCKWISE_.!_9 \
INCREASE PRESSURE;
COUNTERCLOCKWISE TO
DECREASE PRESSURE.)

PRESSURE
0 ADJUSTING SHAFT

ACTUATING
PISTON ROD

SPRING

OIL DRAIN

LI ENGINE MAIN
OIL PRESSURE
ENGINE OIL
BALANCED VALVE (OPEN TO DRAIN)
(BELLOWS ACTUATED)

Fig. 9.46 Line drawing of the auxiliary stage supercharger regulator for the R-2800-18W
(Overhaul Manual Double Wasp C Series Two Stage Engines [R-2800-18W}, Second Revision,
July 1, 1945. Authors collection.)

429
 E

FORWARD
TAKE-OFF (OR MAIN STAGE)
DOOR OPERATES ONLY WHEN
.j::>. AUXILIARY BLOWER IS NOT
w !NUSE.
0

KEY
A CYLINDER
8 MAIN STAGE BLOWER
( AUXILIARY STAGE GATE VALVE
0 AUX. STAGE SUPERCHARGER REGULATOR
E AUXLILIARY STAGE BLOWER
F INTERCOOLER
G ALTERNATE AIR DOOR
H FIRE EXTINGUISHER VALVE
I CARBURETOR AIR "Y" DUCT
J CARBURETOR

Fig. 9.47 Diagrammatic illustration of the F4U-l intake and induction system. Air enters via the
splitter vanes on the wing leading edge. Air then flows through the auxiliary stage supercharger,
though the dual intercoolers and into the carburetor. The air is then mixed with fael and farther
compressed before entering the cylinders. (Pilot's Handbook for Navy Model F4U-l Airplanes,
15 October, 1945. Author's collection.)
 Military Applications

KEY
A OIL COOLER

0 FIREWALL Fig. 9.48 Dual oil coolers for

E OIL D!J-UTION SWJ
(R.tt's1oc or cod the Vought F4U-l. If one oil
f PRES~E RELIEf VAC E

G VENT .LIN~f'~OM ENGINE

cooler was shot out, a bypass
H
I
BY PASS VALV.\
DRAIN
valve would close thus ensur-
J OIL DILUTION VALVE ing that the aircrafts oil
K SHUT-Of'F VALV£
supply would not be pumped
overboard. (Handbook
Maintenance Instructions
Navy Model F4U-l Aircraft.
Courtesy of the National Air
& Space Museum.)

Fig. 9.49 One of the massive air-to-air intercoolers for an F4U-l and the "Y" duct that ducted
the compressed and cooled air to the updraft PT-13 carburetor. (Illustrated Maintenance Parts
List for Navy Model F4U-l Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

431
Chapter 9

significant advantages over its General Electric counterpart. The compressor, in particular, was a far
more efficient mixed-flow design, i.e., a centrifugal design with an axial component designed in. All
later R-2800s were influenced by this compressor design and is evident on engines such as "E"
series, "CA"s, and "CB"s (Refs. 3.72, 9.12, 9.13).

F4U-4 Engine Installation and Induction System

A similar induction system to that used for F4U-l was incorporated into the F4U-4 (Fig. 9.50 and
Fig. 9.51), i.e. , two-stage with dual intercoolers (Fig. 9.52 and Fig. 9.53). The most recognizable
feature of the F4U-4 is the scoop situated under the cowl (Fig. 9.50 and Fig. 9.54) . This supplied
induction air to the auxiliary supercharger. The location of the dual circular oil coolers remained in the
wing roots . Powered by an R-2800-18W (Fig. 9.55) or the similar R-2800-42W (Fig. 9.56), this
was the first production F4U to use a "C" series engine. The supercharger drive represented another
significant difference . Unlike the R-2800-8 , which used a "solid" drive via gears and clutches, the
R-2800- l 8W used fluid couplings for the auxiliary stage and retained gear drive for the main engine
stage. Otherwise, the -8 and - l 8W superchargers were conceptually the same. The exhaust system
used six outlets, each one being fed by three cylinders (Fig. 9.58) . Fig. 9.59 shows the ADI system
and Fig. 9.60 shows the QEC. Interestingly, the shock absorbing engine mounts were eliminated for

Fig. 9.50 Vought F4U-4. Dash 4s are identifiable by their chin scoop which supplied cooling air
to its single oil cooler. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution.
Photo No. JB 46775.)

432
-!"'
w
w

Fig. 9.51 Cutaway view of the Vought F4U-4. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy
Model F4U-4. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)
 9
23 24 25 {l
22
...,~
'O

l . ~re.totAJ.r&ox
,_-..ev1i.
3. i...ft~honcl AuxittOrY Su~ Air
O..i.t r...wo..! Dud
4.ln..~
s. Main Junction ao. (bf)
6. eo,w,..tot Alr TetnfM""D~ lnd~
7. Pro~ Co~ot Air Switt'h
&.. l•ft..Ji.and Au:xiliory Supe«hotV'M Air
Outl.. Ah Dvct
9. t.ft-hond Au.11:iHcuy Sup.-r<harg.r .l.lr
lnJ.t Aft 0vct
10. Uppo<AHs-1
11 . Ceft.... SMhon Air Dud Pottitiofl
12. c.n.., s.c:tiof\ Air Ovd LOW9f Ponel
ll. Ai' Oud Ii~
:~: ~~C:X::.!j~~:~~Wff 0vct
16. Dud 9oot ond Oompc,
17. t..ft.!tottd Co~ Air lntenMdio.. Ou<t
II ..Left..JM,nd Au1tiltory SuJ>"cho,._... Air
..... r...won! Dud
19. Right.hand Auailtory Suptrdiot99' Air
lnlot r...won! Dud
20. R~nd (od.iu,..tot .A.tr infff,.,..dK» .. Ov
11 . Cotbur.+ot
-<:.::.::) ...OIKTIOAJI n R~Mlond CorW,.tot Air Low.r 0ua
ll Cold Air
Door
-...cC> """"'",, .. Gt .... .... Sa.-
lS. In,,... Pvlh Rod
~A UllllA•Yl l.t.Gtl\ta 26. Prol.ct.cl Air ~ Actvotof
17. Actvatot Unit
29.. Prot.a.d Air Ooor

Fig. 9.52 Induction system for an F4U-4. Similar to a -1 except for downdraft carburetion. (Handbook Maintenance
Instructions Navy Model F4U-4. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)
 I. Engin• CyHndHS
l. Engffle Out., Otophrogm
l. lnle1cool•t Flop Hyd,oulic PoMI
4.. leturn f.in• to lnt.,c_le, Flop Hydroulk P-1
S. PrHW,. Lin• lnteteool« Flop Hydf"Ol.llic Panel
6. Main Hydtoufic Sys.Nm Relfa.f Valve {bf)
1. Gen•rotor
I. G.nHOtOf BSast Tvbe
9. Oil Cool., Shutten CloM line
10. Oil Cooi.t Shutt•n Op.n line filt•r
11. 0.1 CooS... Shutten Clo1e line Flit.,
12. Oil Cooa.r Sfwtffn p,.,sur• Un• Fih.,
13. Oil CooJ.r Shvtt.ra Cotltrof Valve
1'. Oil Coo'-r Shutten Control Votv. W~I
IS. Main Junction Boa (lef)
16. Right-hood C...t...l Sloelf 1..ll
17. Cowl Rop Owrride Switieh
11. Oil CooMt Shutt.rt - lntttcoot.r Flop P0tition lncf.cotOf
19. Cowl FJop. Swi1ch
20. otl CooMt Skutt.rs Switch
11. Lah-hand Control Sh.If (Ref)
n. 5ntHCool.r f\ap Switch
23. Main Hydraulic s,.,.,,, ' """',..
liM (R•f)
2(. Moin Hydraulk Sytt.m lteturn Lin• (l•f)
'2S. lnt•r<00l.t
16. Oil Cooi.r stwn.. TM.&• linltoge
11. lntffCOOMt Flop Actvoting Cyfind..
21. Oil Coo&.t- Shuf't.n Open liM
29. lntlH'COOI. Flop Po.ft~ Tronunin., linkoge
)0. lnt•rcooJec. flap
31 . o;1 Cool..
l2. Cowl Flap
33. o;1 Coolo. A;, Du<t
JC. P'Teuuf.e liM from McHn Hydnwlic Syst~
JS. lnt.,cooi., Flap R.troct liM FtltiH
36. Int~ flop s.koot Volv.
31. Int~ Fiop Rest~
ll. lntffCOO'-r flop E:iMttid tine Filt.1
39. ln.ten:ool.r Flop R•lief Valv•
40. JntercooJ., Flop h~ Lin.
41. It.Wm Un. ta Moin Hydroulk SyPMn (ltef)
Cl. '"'~* Flap Tlt.tl'ftOI Rel.., Vofv•
'3. lnt..,coolff Flop R.noct Lin.
+I. lnt..-cool.r Hap~ liM Fitt..-
(5, o;1 Cool.. Shutt...
46. lnte«oe>J.t Fktp ~ Switch
41. Otl Coot.r Shvtt.rt Position Tro,umitt..-
41. o;1 eooa.. S..pport ...._bly
ff. S.,,pport A~y lowM Chan~·
SO. Supp«t A..Mmbly Low..- ChontMI Plot•
SJ. Otl CooMt- Shvtt.n foUow-up Pvdt Rod
S2. o;I Coolo. Slwnen Follow-up loll <Jank
Sl. Oil (ool., Shutt.no Advating Bell Cranlt
S4. o;f Cool.. Shutton AdvatW>g Cyl;od..
SS. o;I Cool.. ShuttHt A<tuoti<>g Puoh Rod
%. Oil Coolff Shvn.n Y.leR.a t.inlcog.
S1. Moin londing G.or SOuon (R•f)
SI. lon<fing G.or Cowl Flop Switch
S9. s.odoet

Fig. 9.53 This illustration shows the F4U-4 s dual rectangular air-to-air intercoolers (Handbook Maintenance Instructions
Navy Model F4U-4. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.54 This evocative pen

and ink drawing of an F4U-4
shows a pilot walking towards
his mount for another mission.
(Handbook Maintenance
Instructions Navy Model
F4U-4 . Courtesy of the
National Air & Space
r U1 wl ·-
·~ - d 5 iP Museum.)

Fig. 9.55 Left side of an R-2800-JBWIWA. The octagonal blanking

plate is replicated on the
other side of the engine. This is the discharge port for the auxiliary
supercharger Normally it is
round, but for shipping, octagonal blanking plates made from plywoo
d were installed. The ADI
water regulator is shown towards the rear. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney
.)

436
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.56 Right side of an R-2800-42W Similar to -18WAs, -42Ws were installed in postwar
F4U-4s. Although -1 8Ws and -42Ws are indistinguishable from the outside, inside the -42Wused
the longer connecting rods of a "CB " series. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

the -4 and replaced with solid mounts between the engine and engine mount. The rationale for this
move was that the R-2800-18W ran smoother than the R-2800-8 (Refs. 9.13 , 9.14, 9.17, 9.18).

F4U-5 Engine Installation and Induction System

Pratt & Whitney's remarkable R-2800-32W (Fig. 9.61 and Fig. 9.62), which powered the F4U-5
(Fig. 9.63), was one of the more complex aircraft piston engines to see production. Its hydraulically
driven dual auxiliary stage impellers exemplified what could be done with supercharging technology.
Unlike the R-2800-8 and -l 8W, the R-2800-3 2W used dual impellers operating in parallel for the first
or auxiliary stage (Fig. 9.64) . Furthermore, the impellers were rotated 90 degrees about the engine 's
longitudinal axis, reminiscent of some German World War II V-12 engines such as the DB 600 series
and Junkers 211and213 series. This feature gave rise to the nickname of the "R-2800 Sidewinder"-
for obvious reasons. With the oil cooler now relocated back to the wing leading edges, updraft
carburetion was employed once again (Fig. 9.65 and Fig. 9.68) . A pair of airscoops located on the
leading edge of the cowl at approximately the four o' clock and eight o' clock positions identify the
F4U-5 from other Corsair variants. These two airscoops supplied air to the auxiliary or "Sidewinder"
stage of the supercharger (Fig. 9.66). As with other R-2800 two-stage engines, the auxiliary stage
was in neutral, i.e., not driven, at low altitudes. As the aircraft ascended the fluid coupling transmits
an increasing amount of power to the auxiliary or " Sidewinder" stage until it is almost a solid drive
upon reaching its critical attitude. As induction air entered the two cowl mounted airscoops, it was
rammed through the "Sidewinder" stages, then discharged through the dual intercoolers (Fig. 9.67),
into the updraft carburetor and then into the main engine stage supercharger (Fig. 9.68). The unique
supercharger configuration of the R-2800-32W demanded a different approach to the usual one-piece

437
 I ....... ,_.....Xfw~""--'-.
1........,......,__...,-' ..........
_,_._..,. .......

1. -...... o;1 Sa.on•

2- . _ s--.g. l'ump
!~~i::."'lb
S.floatSwn<h
6. ~ levvloting CMdt VoJ....
1. o;n...i.
I. o;I Toni< Fille. Nod<
f, SwPf'" °'°'"Valve
10. Automoti< T~JMrotv,. Control VoM
11. Oil CooM-1 8y.pou fitting
11 Oil PrMWt• Une
fl. Oil Dtlution Switch
:~ ~Jc!';*',j~l~~N and Pteuute)
:~~:~~::,s;:~
1L t..ft·hond Cortlrol ~f (RH)
lt. A..ta:iliory (Sub~ fvet loode-1') Pump
'20. fvel Stroinet"
21 . o;I O.lutNM, Mon""°I Shutoff Vohe
22. Oil OiMion Rfftridor
n oa DM<t.. , , _ _
74. Oil Di~ Votv•
2.S. Supply line
bl Moift o;I Pump
Tl. Main o;I Sc:,..n
21. o;I Temptrotut• R-guJoting Valw
,,, o;1 Cool.<
30. Main Oil Sump
31 . locket Of'Otlt Oil Manifold
J2 ffoont Scov.nge Pvmp
33. Oil Cookt Shutoff Valve.
30 3-4. E~ By· pau lffte
(~Retum)
lS. &y-pou Fitting Chedi: Valve
31 Ji6.. Ofl Tonk Monvol Dtoin Val..,.
32 YI . Ofl Cooler Ch.etc Vol.,.
38. ~Oil Coo£., (Nor"W)f Ret.,. on }
l'9. To Oil Cool•' (Nouftol Retuu1 )
«I. Retvrri l ine f,O"'I ~ine

Fig 9.57 In a departure from the dual circular oil coolers of previous Corsairs, the F4U-7 used a single elliptical
cooler mounted under the engine rather than one in each wing root. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy
Model F4U-7. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.58 F4U-4 exhaust system. This ejector system siamesed the exhaust from three
cylinders into one outlet. All Corsair variants used different variation son this triamesed
system. (Illustrated Maintenance Parts List for Navy Model F4U-4 Aircraft. Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum.)

chrome-moly, tubular engine mount. To facilitate engine changes and to accommodate the "Sidewind-
ers,'' the mount was split on its vertical axis. Bolted-together flanges at the top and bottom held the
two halves of the mount together (Fig. 9.69). As with other Corsair variants, an ejector type exhaust
system was employed using the triamesed or three into one system (Fig. 9.70). Cowl flaps were
automatically operated via an electric servo motor, screw jacks, shafting, and gear boxes. This
feature eliminated another chore for the pilot, that of monitoring cylinder head temperature (Refs.
9.13, 9.19, 9.20).

439
 1. Vent l ine
l. Corburet0t (ReO
l . To Au s:iliory Su~rcharger R~lolOf
(Unme-1..-.d Wo,et)
4. To Mi.-hue CMitrol Unil
(Unrneler.d Fu-el Pr.uure)
S. Woter Regulolor
6. Unrneteted Wote1 line
7. Prft.Wre Switch
I. Vopor v.,,1 l i~
9. Wolff Stroi~t Dtoin Valve
10. Fire Woll Junction 6o1 (Ref)
11. Moin Jun<tto" &ox {Ref)
12. Tluottl .... Actuat.d MKroswitd1
13. Thronle Conlrol lever (Ref)
14.
IS.
11>.
17.
18.
Moster Water lnje<tfon Switch
leh-hond Control Shelf (Re f)
Water Tonic filler Ne<lc
Waler Ton~ Sheothing
Wo ter Tonic
J
19. Ov•rboord Drain line
20. Wot ... Toni. Ot-ain Volve
21 . Water To"lc Otoin Volve Hos.e
n. Ched Valve
13. Overboard Drain linff
24. Water Supply line
2S, Water Purnp
26. Woter Stroir'ler
27. To Engine Gog. Unit ....,.... s.n .... :.1........ ..., ...1..- -
(fuel Prenure l ine) 1~ .~ .... ,.... ...... ~.

28. To Engi"....driven fuel Pump - . : -.. ~9'"- ..

19. To O.r ichmenl Valve (Unme te red Woted
30, Waler T1onife 1 Tube

Fig 9.59 F4U-4 ADI system. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model F4U-4. Courtesy of the National Air
& Space Museum.)
 Hyd,oulic System - Pt•Uur•. Supply. and ll•turn
(S .. I.gut• J. 7 >

Fig. 9. 60 F4U-4 QEC. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model F4U-4. Courtesy of the National Air &
Space Museum.)
Chapter 9

Fig. 9. 61 One-quarter right front view of the remarkable R-2800-32W, power plant for the
Vought F4U-5. (Courtesy of Pratt & Wh.itney.)

Fig. 9. 62 One-quarter right rear view of an R-2800-32 W Note the updraft Bendix PR-64
carburetor R-2800-32s were one of the few "E ., series of R-2800s manufactured.
(Courtesy of Pratt & Wh.itney.)

442
Fig. 9. 63 Front view of an F4U-5. Dash fives are identifiable by the dual airscoops, located at the four o'clock and
eight o 'clock positions, built into the cowl that supply induction air to the dual "Sidewinder " supercharger impellers.
(Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No . JB 46793.)
Chapter 9

5 6 7 8 6 9 10 11 12 13

24 23 22 21 20

THREE-QUARTER LEFT HAND REAR VIEW OF ENGINE REAR CASE

1. l. H. Auxil iary Stoge A i r Inlet Scr6en 13. R. H. Auxi ;iory Stage Superckorgu Ho us ing (Scrol ·}
2. l. H. Auxiliary Stage Air I nlet Flonge 1-4. O i l Inl et Tempera ture Connect ion
3. l. H, Auxiliary Slog~ Supercliorger Hou, ing (Scroll ) 15 . O il Pressu re Gage Connection
.4. Breather Conneclion 16. Fue l Pvmp Moun tin g Pod
S. Mon itold Preuure Gage Connect ion 17. O il Syslem 8y:poss Vo l ~e
6. Stoner and Generator Brocket Mounl iog Pod• IS . Vacuum Pump Mounting Pod
7. Stor\er Mounting Pod 19. Ma in Oil Screen Hou1ing
8. Oil Tonk Vent Connection 20. Main Oil Screen Housing Oro i n Plug
9. Generolor Mounting Pod 21 . Oil Preuure Relief Valve
10. Automatic Monifo ld' Pressure Conirol Mounring Pod 22 . Main Oil Pressure Pump
11 . To chomel or Ge ner o lc r Mounting Pod 2J . Oi l lnlel Conne ct ion
12. Hydraulic Pump Mounling Pod 24 . Auxiliary Stage A ir Ou rlel

Fig. 9. 64 This 3/ 4 rear line drawing illustrates well the massive auxiliary or "Sidewinder "
supercharger with its dual supercharger impellers operating in parallel. (Handbook of Overhaul
Instructions for Aircraft Engines Models R-2800-30W and -32W, 1 November 1948. Authors
collection.)

444
 Military Applications

6 5 4 3 2

RIGHT HAND SIDE VIEW OF ENGINE

I. Distribulor Air IT'llok• 9. Duo\ Mognelo

2. Oil Sump Di1<horg c li ne 10. Righi Hand Oi1lributo1
l. Oil-out line Connection I I_ Propeller Go'¥'cmor Mounti ng Pod
4 . Weite r Recgulc;ilor 12. Adopler
S. Corburelor 13. Soll Allochi ng Engine to Adopler
6. Eng i ne Mour'll 1'4 . Engine {ref.J
7. Front Cylind., Exhoull Pipe Eaten1ion 15. Engine Mount Rirog {rel,)
8. Rear Cylinder bhouil Po'I 16. Bolh Al!othing Ring lo A.dopier

15 16

Fig. 9. 65 Side view of an R-2800-32W showing key accessories and components. (Hand-
book of Overhaul Instructions for Aircraft Engines Models R-2800-30W and -32W,
1 November 1948. Authors collection.)

F4U-6/AU-1 Engine Installation and Induction System

As a low altitude ground attack aircraft, the single-stage, two-speed R-2800-83 (Fig. 9. 71) installed
in the AU-1 (Fig. 9.72 and Fig. 9.73) resulted in a much simpler induction system (Fig. 9.74). The
wing leading edge scoops supplied ram air directly to the downdraft carburetor via simple circular
section trunks. Dual circular oil coolers were located in front of the firewall. The lack of an auxiliary
stage blower and its associated trunking, ductwork, and intercooler simplified things considerably-at
the expense of altitude performance. Cooling was now considerably simpler without the additional
burden of intercoolers . Interestingly, the dual oil coolers were situated at ninety degrees to the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft. Cooling air flowing through the cooler, discharged into the space
between the firewall and the rear of the engine. Small, fixed cooling flaps , or "gills" as Vought
referred to them, allowed the cooling air to be vented overboard (Fig. 9.75) (Refs. 9.13 , 9.21).

445
Chapter 9

10
11
12
13

16 15 14

I. Sling Aue'Tlbly I 0. CDwl Flap Controller Bo:t

2. Flop Actuating M~ l ¢r 11 Engine Mount
3. Engine Section Junctiot1 Bo x 1 2. Cowl flops
.C Hy dra uli c Ri!servoir 13, Out•r Diophrogm
!i. A1.1ll:llio ry Hvd roul ic Pu"'p I~ . Eitt-ia1.11t Colloc:tor
6. Genc ro lor 15. R-2SOV.32W Pral l a nd Whi t ney Eng ine
7. S1arter 16. Nose Cowl
S. Firewa ll (r el.) 17, Eng i ne Mou11t Attaching S.011
9 Engine Conlro f1 Ou id: -d i1eonnec:h 18, Cup DETAIL A

Fig. 9. 66 Vought F4U-5 QEC. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model F4U-5.
Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

1-'==
~-=- --

Do 50MHlliNCi Ae.OUT THAT SILLY CiRIN j

446
 Military Applications

Fig. 9. 67 Dual air-to-air

intercoolers for an F4 U-5.
Note the rectangular
discharge that fl ts up to
the updraft carburetor.
(Illustrated Maintenance
Parts List for Navy Model
F4U-5 Aircraft. Courtesy
of the National Air &
Space Museum.)

F4U-7 Engine Installation and Induction System

Similar to the F4U-4, the F4U-7 was purpose built for the French Navy using an AU-1 airframe and
an R-2800-l 8W. A single elliptical oil cooler mounted under the engine replaced the F4U-4 's pair of
wing root mounted circular coolers (Fig.9.57) (Refs. 9.13, 9.22).

R-4360 Powered F4Us

In early 1943 Pratt & Whitney proposed the installation of an R-4360 in an F4U-l to the Bureau of
Aeronautics. This proposal was accepted and a contract was executed in April, 1943, with the
Bureau of Aeronautics. At this time the R-4360 ' vas rated at 3000 horsepower, far greater than any
other aircraft engine in production in the U.S. Two concerns needed to be addressed: (i) determine if
a dual rotation propeller would be required for a single-engined fighter with this much horsepower,
and (ii) investigate the handling characteristics with this much power on tap. A standard, albeit early
generation "Birdcage," F4U-l was delivered to East Hatiford in April, 1943, in preparation for instal-
lation of a semi-production R-4360-4 (Fig. 9. 76). The engine was delivered on July 17 with the

447
Chapter 9

P.H. I N TE R CQO LEA

-
COLOR CODE
AIR ( X I T THROU GH I ~lCR CO O L [ R FL.t.P
E~ G INE A I R
WI T H AUX ILIAR Y S TAGE
SUPERC HA RGE R ON
NOS( COWL MA!N S'TAC.E l:i l OWCP
EN G INE AIR WITH ONLY MAI N S TAGE
IMPEL L E R t N O P E R A T IO N

COOLING AIR

Fig. 9. 68 Induction system for an F4U-5. The dual cowl mounted airscoops f eed air into
the "Sidewinder" blower impellers. Compressed air, discharged from the "Sidewinders, " is
then pumped into the dual intercoolers. After dropping induction air temperature by approx-
imately l 50°F, auxiliary stage air discharges into the updraft Bendix PR-64 carburetor
where the air is farther compressed by the main stage supercharger and mixed with fael
before entering the nine intake manifolds. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy
Model F4U-4. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

Fig. 9. 69 Mounting the R-2800-32W

was quite a challenge. Vought engi-
neers used the innovative solution of
splitting the engine mount about its
longitudinal axis in order to work
around the "Sidewinder " blowers.
(Illustrated Maintenance Parts List for
Navy Model F4U-5 Aircraft. Courtesy
of the National Air & Space Museum.)

448
 Military Applications

Fig. 9. 70 Ejector stack type exhaust

system for an F4U-5. Like other F4Us, it
is a triamesed system, i.e., three pipes join
into one and six outlets. (Illustrated
Maintenance Parts List for Navy Model
F4U-5 Aircraft. Courtesy of the National
Air & Space Museum.)

Fig. 9. 71 Left side view of a "C" series

R-2800-83, which powered the Vought
F4U-6/AU-l. This was the only single-
stage engine to be installed in F4U
variants. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 9. 72 Vought F4U-6/

AU-1. (Courtesy of Pratt
& Whitney.)

449
Chapter 9

TAll WHUl MECHANISM .&(CHS OOOR

fo;I Gto• (ompru1lof\ Slrut
ltuddtt lob l1,.1or -'cluolor

TAil CONE
Toil No .. i9otio" \ighh

lnlt1io1 of R•o• Fulelog1

Ccx~pil H101er
0•19•11 Cylil'ldt r
f11c1r1co l fquiJ>""I•"'
~odio o"<i Rocio• f.qu ipm 1"l
Conopr Compr1n1d ,.,,, Soirit
(o,,uoh, l1,1bi"g Ql'ld W1t1n9 lo Rto•
h.-1091

COCKPIT CANOPY SLIDING SKTION

FUU CELL HANGH ACCESS DOOR

Fig. 9. 73 Left and right side line drawings of the Vought F4U-6/AU-l. (Handbook Mainte-
nance Instructions Navy Model AU-1. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

propeller following on August 26, 1943. Progress was remarkably fast resulting in the first ground
run on September 6, 1943, and the first flight just six days later on September 12, 1943 . The R-4360-4
installed in this proof of concept aircraft was a single-stage, variable speed blower configuration.
Due to the severe time restraints imposed upon this program, Pratt & Whitney limited changes from
a standard F4U-l to the minimum. A standard F4U-l cowl was modified by simply installing an
additional panel to increase its length to accommodate the R-4360 's extra length. The oil system was
modified by increasing the tank capacity to 24 gallons and installing it behind the pilot. Even so,

450
 l Corburetor Ai, Bo•
1. U1•rmom•let &v lb
3 AtlVO llY
" lnte•m.diol• Corbvr•lor Air Dvct
~- Oil Cool•o
6. Corbu••lor Air Temp-.roture lnd1colo•
1 Ahernol• Carburetor Air Swi l<h
8. Mo in JunchOl'I &oii.
9 Upp., S•ol
10. Portihon
11 . C•nl•t S.ttion Air Duct low•• Panel
11. Von• Au.•mbly
13. Air Duct A1b
:<1. Oil Cooler Rib
IS . C• nl•r S.ction Air Duct Upper Pon•I
16 low•1 (orbu•etor Au Duc1
17 Engm• S.ct1on Junction Boir
18. Corbur•lo•
19. Corburefor Au S(l••n
10, Ah•rnol• Air Dooo
71 Actua tor Mouf!ling Pod
11. Mo l or~perol.d Door
13. Pini

Fig. 9. 74 Vought AU-1 induction system. As can be ascertained from this line drawing, this Corsair variant had a
relatively simple induction system. Induction air is drawn in via the splitter vanes situated on the wing leading edge
and piped directly to the Bendix PR-58 downdraft carburetor. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model
AU-1 . Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)
 2
I

5. Center Section Air Ducts

6. Engine Cylinders

Fig. 9.75 Vought F4U-6/AU-l cooling system. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model AU-1 .
Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)
 Military Applications

Fig. 9. 76 Pratt & Whitney XR-4360-4, which powered the first Corsair to be powered by a
4360. (Courtesy of Pratt & Wh itney.)

24 gallons is marginally small for an R-4360 but for the proof of concept aircraft it was felt this
quantity was adequate. The accessory cowling was changed substantially. The requirement for a
shorter engine mount, the elimination of intercooler exit flaps, and redesign of the cooling air exit
troughs required a total redesign. Fo1tunately, these changes resulted in little change to the center of
gravity and only a one-inch rearward shift of the propeller center line. Induction air for the downdraft
carburetor came from a ram airscoop on top of the cowling. Two styles were tried: a flush scoop
(Fig. 9. 77) and raised scoop. The raised scoop had a lower lip which acted as a boundary layer
splitter vane . The flush scoop was developed to offer unrestricted vision for the pilot. Boundary
layer control was achieved by means of a slot ahead of the scoop entry, which then sucked off the
boundary layer. The final disposition of this airp lane has now been lost, however, much useful data
was obtained resulting in a detailed report being released on November 15, 1944 . Fig. 9.78 shows a
standard F4U-l nose-to-nose with the modified aircraft. Fig. 9.79 illustrates a general arrangement
drawing of the R-4360 powered F4U-1.

Goodyear developed a production version of the R-4360 powered Corsair, designated F2G. It is not
known ifthe F2G benefited from Pratt & Whitney's pioneering work, but it would be a safe bet to say
that it did . External features on the F2G such as the flush scoop, and the exhaust system look very
similar to Pratt & Whitney's proof of concept aircraft. If this is in fact the case, it's too bad that Pratt
& Whitney engineers never received the accolades they richly deserved for developing this remark-
able airplane. A bubble canopy in place of the turtle-back represented the most obvious visual clue
between an F4U and F2G (Fig. 9. 80).

453
Chapter 9

Fig. 9. 77 So-called flu sh induction scoop for the experimental R-4360 powered Corsair
This was designed for improved pilot visibility. (Installation and Test of an R-4360 Engine in
the F4U-I [WM] Airplane. Report No. PWA .146. November 1944. Courtesy of Bruce
Vander Mark.)

Only a small number of F2Gs were manufactured before production was abruptly halted in favor of
developing jet powered aircraft. The fact that its intended mission was over, that of engaging kami-
kaze aircraft before they could wreak havoc with the U.S. Navy, was another contributing factor to
its cancellation (Ref. 9.23) .

454
 Military Applications

Fig. 9. 78 Vought used an early "Birdcage " F4U-J as a test mule for R-4360 power (left)
compared to a conventional "Birdcage " F4U-l on the right. Note the 4360 powered aircraft
is fitted with the raised induction scoop. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 9. 79 General arrangement drawing of the R-4360 powered F4U-J. (Installation and
Test of an R-4360 Engine in the F4U-l [WM} Airplane. Report No. PWA.146. Nove mber
1944. Courtesy of Bruce Vander Mark.)

455
Chapter 9

TABLE 9-5 VOUGHT F4U SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS

Parameter XF4U-1 F4U-1, Corsair Mk. I

No. Built 1 688
First Delivery February 1941 June 30, 1941
Engine XR-2800-1 R-2800-8
Propeller Hamilton Standard 3-blade Hamilton Standard 3-blade
Wing Span 40 ft 41 ft
Wino Area 314 SQ ft 314soft
Length 30 ft 33 ft, 4 in.
Empty Weight 75051bs 89821bs
Gross Weight 93571bs 12,039 lbs
10,500 lbs max. takeoff 14,009 lbs max. takeoff
Fuel Cap. - Normal 273 U.S. gal 273 U.S . gal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 537 U.S. gal
Ranae 850 mi 1015 mi
Max. Range 1070 mi 2220 mi
Service Ceiling 31,000 ft 36,900 ft
Climb in 1 min 2260 ft 2890 ft
Max. Speed 405 mph at 9600 ft 359 mph at S.L.
417 mph at 19,900 ft
Cruisino Speed 182 mph
Landing Speed 87 mph 87 mph

Armament 3 X .50 in. Mg. 6 X .50 in. Mg.

1 X .30 in. Mg. 2 X 1000 lb bombs
20 X 5.2 lb bombs
Comments Single-stage, single-speed "A" series First production Corsair. "B irdcage"
engine. cockpit canopy (Fig. 9.81 ).
Powered by two-stage intercooled engine.
Corsair Mk. I was designation assigned to
F4U-1 s destined for British Royal Navy
Fleet Air Arm (FAA).

Fig. 9.80 Goodyear, who had

been manufacturing Corsairs
in parallel with Vought, used
the information garnered from
the F4U-1 experiments and
developed the F2G. Only the
cessation of World War II
prevented this aircraft from
being manufactured in large
numbers. (Courtesy of the
National Air & Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institu-
tion. Photo No. JB 00249.)

456
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.81 The fact that Hamilton Standard, Pratt & Whitney, and Vought all resided in Connecti-
cut meant that if any of the companies needed a test mule, in all likelihood it would be one of
these companies supplying the hardware. In this photo, Hamilton Standard needed to test a dual
rotation (contra-rotating) propeller, and what better aircraft than the F4U (Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

Fig. 9.82 The British Fleet Air Arm was the first to use Corsairs aboard carriers. In order
for it to fit in a standard carrier hanger, the wings needed to be clipped- thats why the tips
are squared off (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution.)

457
Chap ter 9

TABLE 9-5 VOUGHT F4U SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter F4U-1A/1C, F3A-1 *, FG-1A**, F4U-1 D, FG-1 D*

FG-1 E, FG-1 K, FG-3
Corsair Mk. II*** (Fig. 9.82)
No. Built (-1A) 2066 (Vought) (F4U-1D) 1375 (Vought)
(-1C) 200 (Vought) (FG-1 D) 2302 (Goodyear)
(F3A-1) 735 (Brewster)
(FG-1A) 1704 (Goodyear)
First Deliverv
Eng ine R-2800-8 or -8W R-2800-8W
Propeller Hamilton Standard 3-blade Hamilton Standard 3-blade
Wing Span 41 ft 40 ft, 11 in.
Wing Area 314 sq ft 314 sq ft
Length 33 ft, 4 in. 33 ft, 4 in.
Empty Weight 8962 1bs 12,039 lbs
Gross Weight 12,039 lbs
14,000 lbs max. takeoff 13, 120 lbs max. takeoff
Fuel Cao. - Normal 273 gal 273 gal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 537 U.S. gal 537 gal
Ranae 1015 mi 1015 mi
Max. Range 2220 mi 1562 mi
Service Ceiling 36,900 ft 33 ,900 ft
Climb in 1 min 3120 ft 3120 ft
Max. Speed 316 mph at S.L.
417 mph at 19,900 ft 425 mph at 20,000 ft
Cruising Speed 182 moh 182 mph
Landing Speed 87 mph 87 mph

Armament -1A: 6 X .50 in . Mg . 6 X .50 Mg. , or 8 X .50 in . Mg.

-1 C: 4 X 20-mm M-2 cannons, 20 rpg 2000 lbs bombs
Comments -8W powered versions first Corsair variants All -1 Os had ADI. First factory pro-
with ADI. duced Corsair variant built as
F4U-1C first went into combat 417/45. fighter/bomber.
*F4U-1 As produced by Brewster. These *FG-1 D manufactured by
things were dogs-poor quality control. Goodyear. British Fleet Air Arm
**FG-1As and FG-1 Os were F4U-1As (FAA) designated them Corsair
manufactured by Goodyear, also desig- Mk. IV.
nated Corsair Mk. IV for FAA. FG-1 Es were
FG-1As modified as night fighters with APS-
4 radar. FG-1 Ks were FG-1 As modified as
target drones.
***Corsair Mk. II was designation assigned
to F4U-1 s destined for British Royal Navy
Fleet Air Arm (FAA).
FG-3 were FG-1As modified up to standard
of XF4U-3.

458
 Military Applications

TABLE 9-5 VOUGHT F4U SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter F4U-2 (Fig. 9.83) F4U-3 (A), (B) (Fig. 9.84)

No. Built 34 3
First Delivery First ordered November, 1941
Engine R-2800-8 R-2800-14 (F4U-3B) (Fig. 9.85)
R-2800-16 (F4U -3A)
Propeller Hamilton Standard 3-blade Hamilton Standard 4-blade
Wino Span 41 ft 41 ft
WinQ Area 314 sq ft 314 sq ft
Length 33 ft, 4 in . 33 ft, 4 in.
Empty Weiqht 89621bs 90391bs
Gross Weight 14,000 lbs 11,623 lbs
13,143 Ibs max. takeoff
Fuel Cao. - Normal 273 gal 273 oal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 537 qal 537 qal
RanQe 1015 mi 780 mi
Max. Range 2220 mi 1430 mi
Service Cei linq 36,900 ft 38,400 ft
Climb in 1 min 3120ft 2990 ft
Max. Speed 316 mph at S.L. 314 at S.L.
417 mph at 19,900 ft 412 mph at 30,000 ft
Cruising Speed 182 mph 180 mph
Landina Soeed 87 mph 83 mph

Armament 5 X .50 in . MQ. 6 X .50 in . MQ.

Comments Radar equipped night fighter. One of
the .50 in. guns deleted on starboard
wing to compensate for radar equipment
housed in outer wing. Exhausts fitted
with flame dampers. The -2 pioneered
night fighting tactics . All other param-
eters same as "Birdcage" -1 .
-3 variants boosted with Turbo Engi-
neeri ng turbosupercharger. Advanced
mixed flow design but not fully
developed. R-2800-14 was a "C" series
and R-2800-16 was "B" series.

459
Chapter 9

Fig 9.83 F4U-2s were essentially F4U-ls modified for night fighting. Note the flame
damping exhausts just visible below the cowling. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

460
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.84 The Navy tried in vain to have its own turbosupercharger developed by the Turbo
Engineering Company ofNew Jersey but to no avail. Only three F4U-3s were built and then the
project was dropped. This photo shows the R-2800-1 4 W ( "C " series) powered F4 U-3B.
(Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. JB 46727.)

Fig. 9.85 F4 U-3As were powered by a "B" series R-2800-16 and F4 U-3Bs were powered by
an R-2800-l 4W (shown). (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

461
Chapter 9

TABLE 9-5 VOUGHT F4U SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter F4U-4, Goodyear FG-4 F4U-5, F4U-5N, F4U-5NL,

F4U-5P
No. Built (F4U-4) 2357 (Vought) 397
(FG-4) O* (Goodyear)
* Contract canceled.
First Delivery December, 1944 November, 1947
Enaine R-2800-18W R-2800-32W
Propeller Hamilton Standard 4-blade Hamilton Standard 4-blade
Winq Span 41 ft 41 ft
Wina Area 314 sq ft 314 sq ft
Lenath 33 ft, 8-1 /4 in . 34 ft, 6-1 /2 in .
Empty Weiqht 93361bs 96831bs
Gross Weight 12,526 lbs 12,901 lbs
14,020 lbs max. takeoff 14,610 lbs max. takeoff
Fuel Cap. - Normal 234 qal 234 qal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 534 qal 534 qal
Ranae 1005 mi 1120 mi
Max. Ranae 1620 mi 1532 mi
Service Ceiling 41,600 ft 41,400 ft
Climb in 1 min 3340 ft 3780 ft
Max. Speed 381 mph at S.L. 403 at S.L.
446 mph at 26,200 ft 470 mph at 26,800 ft
Cruising Speed 215 mph 190 mph
Landina Speed 89 mph 91 mph

Armament 6 X .50 in. Mg. or 4 X 20 mm cannon

4 X 20 mm cannon (F4U-4B)
2 X 11 .75 in. Tiny Tim rockets or
2000 lb bomb load
Comments First Corsair variant to see mass pro-
duction with a "C" series engine and
four-blade propeller.
Too late for WWII , used extensively in
Korea.
8 X 5 in. HVAR rockets
"Sidewinder'' "E" series engine. First
flew April 4, 1946. Introduction of auto-
matic cowl flaps, intercooler flaps and oil
cooler doors. Higher canopy for
improved carrier landing visibility . First
Corsair variant with metallized control
surfaces and wing panels.
F4U-5N was night fighter version.
F4U-5NL was similar to -5N.
F4U-5P was armed photo
reconnaissance.

462
 M ilitary Applications

TABLE 9-5 VOUGHT F4U SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AN D PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter F4U-6 (AU-1) F4U-7

No. Built 111 94
First Delivery December 29, 1951 July 2, 1952
Engine R-2800-83W R-2800-18W
Propeller Hamilton Standard 4-blade Hamilton Standard 4-blade
Winq Span 41 ft 41 ft
Winq Area 314 sq ft 31 4 sa ft
Lenath 34 ft, 1 in. 33 ft, 8-1/4 in .
Empty Weiqht 98351bs 93361bs
Gross Weight 18,979 lbs 12,526 lbs
19,398 lbs max. takeoff 14,020 lbs max. takeoff
Fuel Cap. - Normal 234 qal 234 qal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 534 gal 534 U.S. gal
Ranae 484mi 1005 mi
Max. Ranqe - 1620 mi
Service Ceilinq 19,500 ft 41,600 ft
Climb In 1 min 920 ft 3340 ft
Max. Speed 238 mph at 9500 ft 381 mph at S.L.
446 mph at 26,200 ft
Cruisinq Speed 184 mph 215 mph
Landing Speed 83 mph 89 mph
Serial Numbers
Armament 4 X 20 mm cannon 4 X 20 mm cannon (F4U-4B)
4000 lb bomb load or 4000 lb bomb load
1O rockets
Comments The only production Corsair with a Designation assigned to last production
single stage engine ("C" series) engine. versions of F4U-4. Built specifically for
Developed as a low altitude ground French Navy and served until 1964.
attack fighter. Performancewise, this Utilized AU-1 airframe and F4U-4
thing was a "dog"-compared to other QEC.
F4U variants.

463
Chapter 9

TABLE 9-5 VOUGHT F4U SPECIFICATIONS, VARIATIONS AND PERMUTATIONS (Continued)

Parameter Goodyear XF-2G-1, F2G-1,

F2G-2
No. Built XF-2G 3
F2G-1 5
F2G-2 10
First Delivery
Enqine R-4360-2, R-4360-2A, R-4360-4
Propeller Hamilton Standard 4-blade
Winq Span 41 ft
Winq Area 314 sq ft
Lenath 33 ft, 10 in.
Empty Weiqht 10,249 lbs
Gross Weight 13,346 lbs
15,422 lbs, max. takeoff
Fuel Cap. - Normal 309 qal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 609 gal
Range 1000 mi
Max. Ranae 1955 mi
Service Ceilina 38,800 ft
Climb in 1 min 4400 ft
Max. Speed 399 mph at S.L.
431 mphat17,000ft
Cruisinq Speed 190 mph
Landinq Speed 92 mph

Armament 4 X .50 in . Mg.

3200 lb bomb load
Comments First flight of XF2G-1; May 31 , 1944.
F2G-1 ordered March 22, 1945.
Could have been an excellent aircraft
with the P&W R-4360 for power. Project
canceled due to cessation of hostilities
and introduction of gas turbine powered
aircraft. Vought converted an early
"Birdcage" F4U-1 to R-4360 power in
1943 as a proof of concept aircraft.

464
 AJi Ii tary Applications

Lockheed Ventura, PV-1, PV-2, B-34.

As with many successful U.S. aircraft used in WWII, the original request for the twin R-2800 pow-
ered PV-1 (Fig. 9.86 and Fig. 9.87) came from the British. They already had the Lockheed
Hudson in service but needed an aircraft with a heavier load carrying capability. The Hudson,
although similar in appearance to the Ventura, was a very different aircraft. Two Wright R-1820-
G 102A engines powered the Hudson. Lockheed complied with the request from the British in a
remarkably short period of time. By basing the Ventura design on the existing civilian Model 18
Lodestar, considerable development and design time was saved. Although it was of conventional
design for the time, it had one distinguishing property: wing loading, at 65 pounds per square foot, was
considerably higher than the norm at the time. Ma1tin B-26 Marauders were the only other aircraft
featuring similarly high wing loading. In an effort to increase its payload, Lockheed introduced a 10-
foot larger wingspan resulting in the PV-2 designation (Fig. 9.88). Although the required load did
increase, it was at the expense of all other performance standards . No increase in power was
offered, in fact the PV-2 was powered by the same engine as the PV-1 , the R-2800-31.

This aircraft's versatility was well demonstrated in its numerous roles including fighter, bomber (B-34),
torpedo bomber (Fig. 9.89), photo recon and target tug. Rather surprisingly, the PV-1 could outrun
most Japanese fighters at low altitude. This feature saved many crews from the onslaught of Japa-
nese fighter attacks. All PV-1/PV-2 and B-34 variants were powered by the single-stage, two-speed
"B" series R-2800-31. Because the aircraft was based on a design powered by the smaller and less
powerful Wright R-1820, the PV-l/PV-2 's propellers were, by necessity, relatively small at ten feet,
seven inches diameter. Even so, the tips of the propeller blades came quite close to the fuselage. An
interesting phenomenon exists when propeller blade tips pass close to the fuselage . Shock waves
coming off the blade tips bounce off the side of the fuselage creating, in some cases, severe vibration.
This does not appear to have been the case with the PV-l/PV-2/B-34 series of aircraft and perhaps
that is testimony to the strength of the R-2800 's propeller reduction gear. Other aircraft that didn't
fare so well include the British de Havilland Mosquito twin-engined bomber. Its Rolls-Royce Merlins
suffered from an inordinate number of nose case problems due to this passing blade frequency
phenomenon.

A single, circular oil cooler, slung under the nacelle, kept oil temperatures under control. And electri-
cally actuated cowl flaps kept engine temperatures under control (Figs. 9.90). The single-wheel
main landing gear was of a relatively simple, hydraulically actuated, design that retracted rearwards
into the nacelle. With small modifications, the main gear assemblies were interchangeable left to right
(Fig. 9.91) . The tail wheel was also retractable (Refs . 9.3 , 9.24, 9.25).

465
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.86 RAF Lockheed PV-1 . (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 9.87 USAAF Lockheed PV-1. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

466
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.88 Lockheed PV-2. Similar to the PV-1 except for a larger wing, redesigned vertical
tail surfaces, and other detail changes. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. 1B 14983.)

3 ,.,...., ''-.._.-..;.
r~ '~~·;) I
.
.
,.

1 Torpedo Sling 3 Mark 7-1 Hoist 5 Mark 5-2 Shackle

2 Mark 8 Hoist Band 4 Torpedo Locating Pin 6 Turnbuckle

Fig. 9. 89 Torpedo being winched aboard a PV-2. (Erection and Maintenance Handbook
Navy Model PV-2 Airplane, 15 November 1945. Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum.)

467
Chapter 9

TABLE 9-6 LOCKHEED PV-1/PV-2 SPECIFICATIONS

Parameter PV-1 Ventura PV-2 Harpoon

No. Built Contract for 500 signed November,
1943
First Flioht July 31 , 1941
Enqine R-2800-31 (Fig. 9.92) R-2800-31
Propeller Hamilton Standard 3-blade, 10 ft, 7 in. dia. Hamilton Standard 3-blade, 10 ft,
7 in. dia.
Wing Span 65 ft, 6 in. 75 ft, O in.
Wing Area 551 sq ft (flaps retracted)
619 sq ft (flaps lowered)
Leni:ith 51 ft, 9 in. 51 ft, 9 in.
Empty WeiQht 19,373 lbs
Max. Takeoff Weiaht 31,077 lbs 36,000 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Normal 950 oal
Fuel Cap. - Max.
Combat Ranae 1660 mi
Max. Rani:ie 1730 mi 1800 mi
Service Ceilina 26,300 ft 23,900 ft
Climb in 1 min
Max. Speed 312 mph at 13,800 ft 282 mph at 13,700 ft
Cruising Speed
Accommodation Crew of five: pilot, co-pilot, Crew of five : pilot, co-pilot,
navigator/bomber, radio operator/gunner, navigator/bomber, radio
and turret i:iunner. operator/i:iunner, and turret i:iunner
Armament 2 fixed .50 cal. machine guns in nose,
2 .50 cal. machine guns in Martin
electrically operated dorsal turret and 2 .30
cal. tunnel guns.
Internal bomb bay: 2500 pounds of bombs ,
or six 325 depth charges or one standard
22-inch short aircraft torpedo.
Comments *The British deleted the co-pilot position . Additional 1O feet added to
winqspan for increased payload.

468
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.90 A gentle reminder from the PV-2 Erection and Maintenance Manual not to over-
heat the engines during ground operation. (Erection and Maintenance Handbook Navy
Model PV-2 Airplane, 15 November 1945. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

Fig. 9.91 Single-wheel main gear

for the Lockheed PV-1/PV-2. (Erec -
tion and Maintenance Handbook
Navy Model PV-2 Airplane, 15
November 19./.5. Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum.)

469
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.92 Left side view of an R-2800-31 , which powered PV-l/PV-2s. Manufactured by
both Pratt & Whitney and Ford Motor Company. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

470
 Military Applications

Northrop P-61 Black Widow

For Jack Northrop, the P-61 (Fig. 9.93 and Fig. 9.94) was a very conventional aircraft; by anyone
else 's standards, it was brimming with unique features. This massive night fighter was the first U.S.
purpose built night fighter specifically designed to incorporate the new technology of Airborne Inter-
ception or AI radar. It's hard to imagine an aircraft the size and weight of a transport aircraft
designed for the fighter role. And yet that is exactly what the P-61 was and furthermore, it turned out
to be a very capable aircraft in this role . For lateral control about the longitudinal axis the preferred
method has traditionally been ailerons. However, Jack Northrop chose to use a new technology,
spoilers, for roll control. This allowed full span flaps and its resultant improvement in lowering landing
speed, a key requirement for an aircraft that would spend much of its operational life in total dark-
ness. As operational experience was gained, small, conventional ailerons were added at the wing
tips.

Inter-service rivalry and different philosophies meant that the Navy procured and developed their
own engines and the Army kr Force did likewise. Contributing to this state of affairs was the fact
that the Navy did not have high hopes for turbosupercharging whereas the kr Force did. Conse-
quently, the Air Force paid for the development of the General Electric Type B and Type C turbo-
superchargers. The Navy, on the other hand, paid for the development of gear driven, two-stage,

Fig. 9.93 Pair of Northrop P-61As in formation. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

471
 ('Rf\.tw' Nl'\([ll[ ~ORWAll!) ANO
INTUV.'IEDIME StCTION5
,_ 00011 ASSE ....a~ r - NOS.r Wt1 Ht
J NOSE ASSEA.ll!ll'r' (IEW NA[EllE

..'>.
PllCWS WJNDSH IELO
PllO't"S ENCtOSUIH PANEL
P l ~ QT'S
>-UNG.ED G*.~P't
'· GUN>JfR " ~
f>J(LOSU ~E
8 ~NCLOSUltE - !tEAll HfNCtl)
0. ENClOSUR:C - t[Ai JIX.Et>
IQ ll4010 OPERATOlfS WINOOWS
II. CONE AS5EM!ol Y - OEW NACfu£ UAR
l l ElECTQ~A.l GUN TURtEl
13 CREW NACEL LE ruum ASS~MB L '('
,",_ CHW NA.(fLLf Afr SECTtON
li:ADlO OPERA.roR·s [)()()Q
16. INNER WIHG lANX. PANEL
IT. ENGINf NACft U -
IOfWAllO LOWU 1ANEt

...
18 COVtR ASSEMfliLY NOARD
C0"1ER - INtiElt WJNG N(l TA.N(
20. srv1 WING IN&O.e.110
n. STlJi!I WING 0V1110M:D
n ENGINE HA<'.E'Ltl
,,n . TAil SOO/o'I ASSbML '1'
INNfJt WING f\.J'lr' Jl.~EMlll Y
aunt
" oun.t
26 .
Wl».IC ft.AP INIOARO
WING fl.AP IJUl!OAl!:D
17. .t..ILfRON •SSEM!L Y
2S . ,i.v,,1N l ANO ll-IC CEAI DOOi
70 . SFtOrue =NBOARD
JO. 5POna OUOOARO
31. WING TIP
n OUTER WINC AJA.IN SEC::fl(W
33. MA.IN LANDING G£AR
3•. ENGINE MOUHT
l l _.lilOPELlU! AS.SEMI LV
.j:>. JO• N OSE lAN[)ING GEA.II:
--.} 31. $PlNNf~ AS.Sf MllLY
N 39. CREW NACRlf FRON T ENTR.A,NCE COOR
JO. (ANOON C:Ovfe
<O INNEI WING MAIN 5.E<..rlON
.,_
"- FlAP A.SSEMBl Y

..
<l

•5
PANEL A..SSEMBl T
COWL l'ANEl
COWl A(CfiS .i;LAP
OUT(R WING Tl!AlllNC. ~ECTl()N
•• 1,..NU' Wl1'.IG
, UA IL INC SEOION PA.NU
47 110Rl l0N1AI :STABlllZfll
48. V[R rlCA l ST A.blll1fl
49 IUl)OfR AS:iEMSI r
.50 'UDD Eli! r A!-
'·, 1271
ll f \fVA.10" "5'SfMllY
~n .5 UV0 f.\.8
.53 fLE VArO ll lllM TA& .
\<"-..../
'
j

Fig 9.94 Exploded view of a P-61A. (Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Models P-61A and B,
30 December 1944. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)
 Military Applications

supercharging. Therefore, it was somewhat surprising to see the YP-61 and P-6 lA powered by a
Navy engine, the "B" series R-2800 -1 0 normally seen powering the F6F Hellcat. The -10 was soon
replaced by the very similar -65W. The primary difference was the -65 used GE. ignition and water
injection. With the introduction of the P-6 lC a very different engine was used: the -73/-77s that were
"C" series, single-stage, single-speed engines. Additional boost was provided by a G.E. CH-5 turbo-
supercharger. As was typical of all successful WWII aircraft, the P-61 went through several evolu-
tionary design changes and updates finally ending its production career as a photo recon aircraft.
Despite the number built, only a small handful remain and none of these in flying condition.

P-61A/P-6 1B Engine Installation

The P-61 's engine installation was an engineering tour de force. P-6 lAs and P-6 lBs used essentially
the same engine, the ignition system manufacturer being the only difference . As noted earlier, the
P-61A/B shared the same engine as the Grumman F6F; therefore, it is interesting to compare the
engine installations of the F6F Hellcat to the P-61A/B (Fig. 9.95) . Being a two-stage, intercooled
engine introduced a number of interesting design challenges . Northrop chose to use dual air-to-air
intercoolers mounted in the wing leading edge for each engine. Rammed induction air was also
drawn from the wing leading edge. In a similar fashion to the F4U, air entering the leading edge
scoops made an inunediate 90-degree turn (Fig. 9.96). Again, this required the use of splitter vanes.
Induction air entered the first or auxiliary stage, which at low altitudes was not driven. Flowing
through the stationary auxiliary stage blower, induction air flowed through the intercooler, through the

Fig. 9.95 Top view of an R-2800-10. This Navy Hellcat engine also powered the Northrop
P-6JAIP-61 B. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whimey)

473
Chapter 9

COWL FLAPS AROUND 360 •

OF COWL PERIPHERY

Fig. 9.96 Although the P-61AIP-61B was powered by the same engine as the Hellcat,
Northrop took a very different route to its installation. Wide , thin, ram airscoops located in
the wing leading edge supplied air to the dual air-to-air intercoolers, oil cooler, and induc-
tion air (Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Models P-61A and B Airplanes,
30 December 1944. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

Bendix PT-13 carburetor and into the main blower stage and finally into the intake manifold. As with
the F6F and F4U-l , at approximately 13 ,000 feet, the auxiliary stage blower was engaged. Upon
engagement of the auxiliary stage blower, the intercooler then became functional by reducing the
induction air temperature. An interesting feature of the P-61 's intercooler system was that mass air
flow was controlled by the amount of air entering the intercooler rather than the more conventional
method of controlling the mass air flow exiting the intercooler as wou ld be the case with F4Us and
F6Fs. Mass air flow was controlled by adjusting the splitter vanes in the leading edge (Fig. 9.97) .
Oil coolers were also installed in the same wing leading edge ducting with exit flaps to control oil
temperature.

P-61C Engine Installation

Introduction of the P-61C (Fig. 9.98) presented a whole new set of design changes-and challenges.
P-61 Cs were boosted with a General Electric Type C turbosupercharger rather than a gear driven,

474
 Military Applications

(\
I POWER UNIT
2 ACTUATOR ARM
3 PLATE ASS EMBLY
d TEMP ERA TUR E MODULATOR
5 POSIT ION TRANSMITTER
6 . SCREW JACK
7. CAPIL LARY TUBE
8 SHUTTER ASSEMB LY
9 THERMAL UNIT
10. CARBURETOR ·r DUCT
11 DR IVE SHAF T

Fig. 9.97 Northrop controlled induction temperature by adjusting the splitter vanes that
supplied cooling air to the intercoolers. In turn this controlled the mass air flow through the
intercooler. (Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Models P-61A and B Air-
planes, 30 December 1944. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

two-stage supercharger. Additionally, the P-61C was powered by " C" series R-2800-57, -73 , or -77s
(Fig. 9.99, Fig. 9.100, and Fig. 9.101). The wing leading edge ram airscoops were retained but
only for the purpose of providing cooling air to the dual intercoolers . Induction air was provided for
via a pair of scoops built into the cowling (Fig. 9.102). Induction air entered the suction side of the
GE. turbosupercharger compressor. The turbosupercharger discharged into dual air-to-air intercoolers .
After exiting the intercoolers, induction air was ducted to the Bendix PR-58 carburetor and then into
the engine driven supercharger. Oil temperature control was provided for by a cooler mounted at the
bottom of the cowling with air being supplied via a scoop also mounted at the bottom of the cowling.
The P-61C 's engine mount differed significantly from that of the P-61A/B in that it used three point
mounting to the firewall rather than the usual four point (Fig. 9.103). The hydraulically actuated
tricycle landing gear retracted to the rear (Fig. 9.104). For such a large and complex aircraft, the
single pilot was kept busy as can be ascertained from Fig. 9.105 (Refs. 9.3, 9.26. 9.27, 9.28, 9.29).

475
Chapter 9

TABLE 9-7 NORTHROP P-61 SPECIFICATIONS AND VARIATIONS

Parameter XP-61 YP-61

No. Bui lt 2 13
First Delivery May21,1942 Auqust 6, 1943
Engine R-2800-25 R-2800-10
Propeller Curtiss Electric C542-A 10, 4-blade, Curtiss Electric C542-A 1O, 4-blade,
12 ft , 2 in. dia. 12 ft, 2 in . dia.
Winq Span 66 ft 66 ft
Wing Area 662 sq ft 662 sq ft
Lenqth 48 ft , 10 in . 48 ft, 10 in .
Empty Weiqht 19,245 lbs 21 ,910 lbs
Gross Weight 25, 150 lbs 27,950 lbs
Max. Takeoff 28,870 lbs 28,830 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Normal 540 qal 540 qal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 640 qal 640 qal
Ranqe 1200 mi 1200 mi
Max. Ranqe 1450 mi 1450 mi
Service Ceiling 33,100 ft 33,100 ft
Climb 20,000 ft in 9 min 20,000 ft in 9 min
Max. Speed 370 mph at 20,900 ft 370 mph at 20,900 ft
Cru isina Speed 200 mph 200 mph
Landinq Speed 95 mph 95 mph

Armament 4 X 20 mm 4 X 20 mm
4 X .50 Ma . 4 X .50 Ma.
Comments Only five R-2800-25s manufactured . Powered by same eng ine that powered
Experimental engine for XP-61 only. most variants of the F6F Hellcat. Minor
Similar to R-2800-1O. changes from XP-61. Most used as
trainers in Orlando, Florida.

Fig. 9.98 Northrop P-6JC. This P-61 variant dispensed with the gear driven two-stage
supercharger and replaced it with a turbosupercharged "C " series R-2800-57. (Courtesy of
the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. JB 28954.)

476
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.99 This R-2800-57 for the P-61C

replaced the R-2800-10 powering the
P-61AIP-61B. Additional boost for this
single-stage, single-speed engine was
provided by a General Electric CH-5
turbosupercharger. Note the Scintilla
ignition system. (Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

Fig. 9.100 P-61Cs were also powered by

the R-2800-73. Same as the R-2800-57
except for the General Electric ignition and
double acting propeller governor.
(Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 9.101 R-2800-77s also powered the

P-61 C. This engine was the same as the
R-2800-57 except for the double acting
governor fitted to the - 77. All -77s were
manufactured by Chevrolet. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)

477
Chapter 9

NOSE COWLING
REMOVABLE SKIRT PANELS/
7
NOSE COWLING
REMOVABLE SECTION8j
I , FLAP SUPPORT
RING (N OT SHOWN/
~~;~~E COWL r ACCESSORY COWL
UPPER PANEL
(REMOVABLE)
I
ACCESSORY FAIRING

I I I
I / I
I
I I
I

I (REMOVABLE PANEL)

I L_ RAM AIR DUCT

TURBO SCOOP
(SUPPORT NOT SHOWN)
__)
I
II II L__

L_ (REMOVA
ACCESSORY COWL
REMOVABLE PANEL

TURBO EXHAUST FAIRING

BLE)

RAM AIR DUCT _ /

Fig. 9.102 Revised cowling for the P-6JC, which had to accommodate the G.E. CH-5
turbosupercharger and its additional cooling requirements. (Erection and Maintenance
Instructions for Army Models P-61C. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

UP

i
Fig. 9.103 P-61 C engine mount. Interest-
ingly, it uses a three point mounting system
rather than the usual four point. (Erection
and Maintenance Instructions for Army
Models P-61C. Courtesy of the National Air
& Space Museum.)

478
 Military Applications

ACTUATING 0 LIND ER

BUNGEE AIR TANK - -

UP LATCH

BUNGEE CYLINDER - ,___ _ _ _ SHOCK STRUT

BRAKE

DETAIL A-DOWN LATCH

FLE XIB LE
TRANSFER VALVE
BRAKE LINES

Fig. 9.104 P-61 Main landing gear (left) and nose gear (right) . (Erection and Maintenance
Instructions for Army Models P-61A and B Airplanes, 30 December 1944. Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum.)

479
Chapter 9

Pilot's Compartment: Front

1. CORRECTION CARO HOLDER

2. PILOT'S GUNSIGHT
9. WATER PRESSURE GAGE
10. PtLor·s SWITCH PANEL
Fig. 9.105 Cockpit layout
3. PILOT'S OXYGEN INSTRUMENTS
4. RADIO ~PUS H·TO·TALK" BUTTON
11. LANDING GEAR CONTROL LEVER
12. ANIAPN-1 ALTIMETER CONTROLS
for a P-61. (Pilot's
5. BOMB AND DROP TANK RELEASE BUTTON 13. IGNITION SWITCH PANEL
6. 20-MM CANNON FIRING BUTTON U . AUTOMATIC PILOT PRESSURE CONTROL Manual for Northrop
7. AU TOMATIC PILOT OIL PRESSURE GAGE 15. HYDRAULIC HAND PUMP SELECTOR
8. DE-ICER PRESSURE GAGE 16. EMERGENCY AIR BRAKE CONTROL P-61 Black Widow.
Authors collection.)

480
 M ilitary Applications

TABLE 9-7 NORTHROP P-61 SPECIFICATIONS AND VARIATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-61 A (F-61 A) P-618 (F-618), FT-1/F2T-1*

No. Built 200 450
First Delivery October 1943 August1944
Enqine R-2800-10/-65 R-2800-65
Propeller Hamilton Standard 4-blade Hamilton Standard 4-blade
Wina Span 66 ft 66 ft
Winq Area 662 sq ft 662 sq ft
Lenath 48ft, 10in. 49 ft, 7 in.
Empty WeiQht 20,965 lbs 22,000 lbs
Gross Weight 27,700 lbs 29,700 lbs
Max. Takeoff 32,400 lbs 38 ,000 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Normal 550 aal 550 aal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 640 Qal 1880 qal
Ranae 1210 mi 1010 mi
Max. Ranqe 1470 mi 3000 mi
Service Ceiling 34,000 ft 33,100 ft
Climb 20,000 ft in 8.5 min 20,000 ft in 12 min
Max. Speed 333 mph at S.L. 366 mph at 20,000 ft
372 mph at 17,600 ft
Cruisina Speed 200 mph 200 mph
Landinq Speed 94 mph 95 mph
94 mph 93 mph
Armament 4 X 20 mm 4X 20 mm
4 X .50 Mg . 4 X .50 Mg.
3200 lb bomb load 6400 lb bomb load
Comments R-2800-65 similar to -10 except for Changes from P-61 A included:
ignition system. First 45 P-61 As (i) more powerful Al (airborne inter-
powered by -10, remainder powered by ception) radar installed which necessi-
-65. tated a longer nose
(ii) automatic cowl flaps
(iii) two additional underwing pylons
(iv) G.E. type A-4 dorsal turret
(v) low altitude altimeter
(vi) improved crew heating
(vii) aileron trim tabs deleted
*FT-1 /F2T-1s were P-61Bs redesig-
nated by Navy for niQht fiQhter traininQ.

481
Chapter 9

TABLE 9-7 NORTHROP P-61 SPECIFICATIONS AND VARIATIONS (Continued)

Parameter P-61C (F-61C) XP-61 D (Fig. 9.106)

No. Built 41 * 2
First Delivery October 1943
Engine R-2800-57, -73, -77 R-2800-22W, -57, -77
Propeller A.O. Smith 4-blade Hamilton Standard 4-blade, 12 ft, 2 in.
dia.
Winq Span 66 ft 66 ft
Wing Area 662 sq ft 662 sq ft
Lenqth 49 ft, 7 in. 48 ft, 10 in.
Empty Weiqht 24 ,000 lbs 23 ,205 lbs
Gross Weight 30 ,600 lbs 29 ,850 lbs
Max. Takeoff 40,300 lbs 39 ,715 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Normal 550 qal 550 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Max. 1880 qal 640 lbs
Ranqe 1000 mi 1050 mi
Max. Ranqe 1725 mi 1900 mi
Service Ceiling 41 ,000 ft 33 , 100 ft
Climb 30,000 ft in 14.6 min 20,000 ft in 12 min
Max. Speed 430 mph at 30,000 ft 430 mph at 30,000 ft
Cruisinq Speed 307 mph 310 mph
Landinq Speed 87 mph 90 mph

Armament 4 X 20 mm 4 X 20 mm
4 X .50 Mg. 4 X .50 Mg.
6400 lb bomb load 4000 lb bomb load
Comments * 517 originally ordered , 54 built and P-61 A re-engined with
only 41 delivered due to cessation of turbosupercharged , "C" series R-
hostilities. 2800s.
Similar to P-61 B except for engine and
the use of "fighter" brakes. Rather than
use a two-stage supercharger, addi-
tional boost requirements were
supplied by a G.E. type CH-5 turbo-
supercharger. R-2800-73/-77 was a
single-stage , single-speed "C" series
engine-the first "C" engine to be
installed in a P-61.
-73 and -77 differed only in ignition
system used.

482
 Military Applications

-
Fig. 9.106 X P-61D. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

TABLE 9-7 NORTHROP P-61 SPECIFICATIONS AND VARIATIONS (Continued)

Parameter XP-61E (Fig. 9.107) F-15A (R-15A) (Fig. 9.108) RF-61C-NO

No. Built 2 36
First Delivery
Enqine R-2800-65 R-2800-65 , R-2800-73
Propeller
Wing Span 66 ft 66 ft
Wino Area 662 sq ft 662 sq ft
Length 49 ft, 7 in. 50 ft, 4 in.
Empty Weioht 21,350 lbs
Gross Weight 31,425 lbs 32,190 lbs
Max. Takeoff 40,181 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Normal 1158 gal 550 gal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 2398 oal
Range 2550 mi 1010 mi
Max. Ranoe 3750 mi
Service Ceilinq 30 ,000 ft 41 ,000 ft
Climb 20,000 ft in 13 min
Max. Speed 376 at 17,000 ft 440 mph at 30,000 ft
Cruising Speed 315 mph
Landinq Speed 94 mph
93 mph
Armament 4 X 20 mm None
4 X .50 Mo.
Comments Totally revised upper fuselage. Photo recon version of XP-61 E.
Based on late production P-61 B.
Radar deleted as its intended
mission was long range escort
fiqhter.

483
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.107 P-61E with its radically different bubble canopy (Courtesy of the National Air &
Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. 2A 25864.)

Fig. 9.108 Photo recon variant of the P-61 designated F-l 5A. (Courtesy of the National
Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. 2A 25529.)

484
 Military Applications

C-123 Provider

The term "diversified" is an overused phrase, however, with the C-123 it was very apt. In its various
experimental guises it went from an unpowered glider to being pure jet powered. All production
models, however, were powered by the R-2800-99W or its civilian counterpart, the CB-14 or CB-15.

This successful cargo carrier followed a similar development path to the British Bristol Freighter 170
and various German transport aircraft of World War II. Sta1ting life as an unpowered glider, it was
quickly realized, that with suitable engines, it could, and did, make a successful powered aircraft. The
first powered version used the ubiquitous but highly capable Wright R-1820 for power. With a 110-
foot wing span and over 20,000 pounds to haul aloft this was asking too much for this engine . This
resulted in all subsequent production models being powered by the R-2800. But, Wright was not
totally out of the picture-yet. A one-off C-123 was powered by a pair of Wright R-3350 turbo-
compounds and redesignated YC-134.

Originally designed and developed by Chase Aircraft as an all metal glider with an all-up gross weight
of 70,000 pounds, no one seemed to realize that no aircraft existed that could tow this amount of
weight into the air. Michael Stroukoff was Chase's chief designer on this project. In fact, the
airplane was also known as the "Stroukoff' C-123 (Fig. 9.109) . Shortly after being awarded a
production contract by the USAF and after five aircraft had been completed, Chase Aircraft was
acquired by the Kaiser-Fraser Company. Henry Kaiser was an astute businessman and could see
the potential of the C-123 contract. What he did not take into account, however, was the dislike he
had generated in the powers-that-be in the Pentagon. Consequently, the C-123 contract was put up
for competitive bids with Fairchild Aircraft being the successful bidder. And this was in spite of the
fact that they had a competitive aircraft in the form of the C-82.

Fig 9.109 Chase XC-123.

(Courtesy of the National
Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution.
Photo No. lA 20492.)

485
Chapter 9

The basic design went through remarkably few changes, the main exception being an increase in
vertical tail area for production C-123s compared to the Chase XC-123 . Nevertheless, an amazing
number of variations on the basic C-123 theme were produced including an amphibian and a snow ski
landing gear version (Fig. 9.110).

Other variations that saw production include the "light ship" used during the Vietnam conflict. Two
large batteries of high intensity lamps were mounted in the rear cargo area for illuminating combat
areas at night. Agent orange, a defoliant also used extensively during the Vietnam conflict was
sprayed from specially equipped C-123s. The U.S. Coast Guard used a variant designated as HC-123 .
Basically a C-123B with AN/AP-158 search radar mounted in the nose, it entered service in 1958 .

A C-123B was fitted with another, almost bizarre, attachment known as the Fulton Device. Used for
rescuing downed airman from water, a forked shaped device was mounted on the aircraft's nose. It
was used to snag a line, lifted aloft by a balloon, with an airman (hopefully) securely attached. One
can only imagine the carnival type ride our erstwhile airman would receive upon being snatched out
of the ocean by this remarkable device. Still, it probably beat the alternative!

Once their useful life with the military had expired they took on a new lease in civilian hands-not
always legally. With its ability to haul a considerable payload and short field capabilities, it was not
surprising, considering its ability to operate from rough and unprepared strips, that this versatile air-
craft was used for transporting illegal drugs from South America to the U.S. mainland.

The "C" series R-2800s were housed in a cowl arrangement similar to the Convair twins. In other
words, the cowl was not attached to the engine; instead, it was hinged at the firewall forming four
large panels that swung out for access to the engine (Fig. 9.111). A conventional collector ring
exhaust, made up from seven main sections, dumped the products of combustion overboard
(Fig. 9.112) . The ram air induction system, incorporated into the top panel of the cowl allowed for
ram cold air, hot air, and filtered air. The rectangular filter was also housed in the top cowl panel. An
elliptical oil cooler was mounted at the base of the firewall with automatic or manual control of oil
temperature (Figs. 9.113). A flush NACA scoop, formed in the lower cowl panel, supplied cooling
air. Due to the high wing construction, the single-wheel main landing gear was attached to the bottom
of the fuselage . This arrangement allowed for a short landing gear that simply rotated forward during
retraction (Fig. 9.114) . However, the ingenious dual-wheel nose gear was more complex in its
retraction sequence. The main landing gear door was also a structural member that supported the
nose gear (Fig. 9.115) (Refs . 9.30, 9.31 , 9.32).

486
 Military Applications

Fig. 9. 110 Fairchild

C-l 23B on skis. During its
life, C-l 23s were operated
off land, water, and snow!
(Courtesy of the National
Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution.
Photo No. IA 20470.)

TABLE 9-8 C-123 SPECIFICATIONS

Parameter C-1238 C-123K

Engine R-2800-99W R-2800-99W augmented by two G.E.
2850 lb. st. J-85 jets
Propeller Hamilton Standard 3-blade
Winq Span 110 ft 110 ft
Wino Area
Lenqth 75 ft, 9 in. 75 ft, 9 in.
Empty Weiqht 29,900 lbs 34,116 lbs
Gross Weioht 60,000 lbs 72,500 lbs
Ranqe 1470 mi 1470 mi
Max. Range
Service Ceilina 29,000 ft 32,000 ft
Climb
Max. Speed 245 mph 228 mph
Cruisinq Speed 190 mph 190 mph
Armament None None

487
Chapter 9

'-.
SECURE WTH C0""'1..ING
FASTENER
'-.... .

~~~---3

~->.---4

~rlr-~5

>'-,j~+-,.4'#-f.-4'-/,J.;l-l'ljL,..:...,1-- 4
5

1. Self-Locking Nut 11. Fuel Discharge Receptacle

2. Drawbolt 12. Fire Door
3. Filtered Air Duct 13. Exhaust Tail Pipe Opening
4. Hinge 14. Access Door
5. Cowl Faps 15. Duct Exit
6. Cowl Panel Support Rod 16. Air Filter
7. Cowl Panel Latches 17. Hot Air Entrance
8. Oil Cooler Duct 18. Filtered Air Entrance
9. Engine Crankcase Breather Outlets 19. Cold Air Entrance
10. Oil Discharge Receptacle

Fig 9.111 Being a postwar development, the C-123 benefited from the advances in cowl
design made in World War JI. Rather than bolt the cowl to the engine, which had been
previous radial engine practice, the cowl was pivoted off the firewa ll. (Illustrated Parts
Breakdown USAF Model C-l 23B Aircraft, 1 July 1954. Courtesy of the National Air &
Space Museum.)

488
 Military Applications

i~
3 4 5

~ VIEW A - 18 CYLIN)t:RS

"

1. Collector Ring Section

2. Upper Clamp
3. Collector Ring Section
4. Collector Ring Section
5. Sleeve
~ I 6. Exhaust Port Clamp
7. Bolt and Nut
10 ------- 8. Collector Ring Section
9. Collector Ring Section
9------ ~~d~~~ 10.
11 .
Lower Clamp
Collector Ring Section
12. Collector Ring Section

Fig. 9.11 2 Fairchild's C- 123 featured a collector ring exhaust with dual discharges. (Erec-
tion and Maintenance Instructions for USAF Model C-l 23B Aircraft. Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum.)

"COLD"

EXIT FLAP OPENS AS SWITCH IS

HELD TO "COLD" . RELEASE OF SWITCH
STOPS DOOR IN ANY POSITION

2. "HOT"

•
3. "AUTO"
EXIT FLAP CLOSES AS SWITCH IS
HELD TO "HOT". RELEASE OF SWITCH
STOPS DOOR IN ANY POSITION

POSITIONS EXI T DOOR AUTOMATICALLY

IN RESPONSE TO OIL COOLER THERMOSTAT

Fig. 9. 11 3 C-1 23 oil cooling system and cockpit controls. (Erection and Maintenance
Instru ctions for USAF Model C-l 23B Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum.)

489
Chapter 9

I. Ac1ua1ing Cylinder 10. Brake As.cmbly

2. Downlock Mochlnism 11. Drag Link Limit Swi1ch
3. Gear Support Trunnion 12. Drag Brace
4. Filler Valve 13. Wheel Assembly
5. Emergency Hand Crank 14. Tire
G. Uplock Switch 15. Uplock Roller
7. Uplock Hook 16. Shock Sirut
8. Vercical Brace Assembly 17. Uplock Control Rod
9. Decelostat Valvo

Fig. 9.114 C-123 main landing gear (Erection and Maintenance Instructions for USAF
Model C-l 23B Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

490
 Military Applications

14 13 12 11

l. Forward Sprocket 9. Side Door Hinge filling

2. Cable Assembly I 0. Side Door
3. Cable Assembly Turnbuckle 11. Drive Rod Quick Disconnect
4. Forward Sprocket Arm 12. Forvi•ard Door Idler Rod
5. Nose Gear Strut 13. Forward Door
6. Aft Center Door t4. Forward Door Hinge fitting
7. Aft Sprocket 15. Forward Door Drive Rod
8. Aft Rod Assembly 16. Chain Assembly

Fig 9.115 Innovative C-123 nose gear. The gear door was a structural member. (Erection
and Maintenance Instructions for USAF Model C-l 23B Aircraft. Courtesy of the National
Air & Space Museum.)

491
Chapter 9

PBM-5 Mariner (Fig. 9.116)

The one thing that seems to be inevitable is, the longer an aircraft remains in production the heavier
it gets. This increase in weight is attributable to many factors: increased internal equipment such as
radar, additional armament, increased fuel load, etc. Oftentimes the increase in weight can be com-
pensated for by extracting more power from the engine. The R-2800 is a prime example, starting life
rated at 1850 horsepower and eventually developing over 2500. However, what happens when all the
available power has been squeezed from an available power plant and it's still insufficient? This was
the situation facing Martin aircraft with the PBM Mariner (P =Patrol, B =Bomber, M =Martin).
The Mariner was a large, twin-engine flying boat designed as a replacement to the PBY Catalina. All
production models up to the PBM-3 had been powered by the Wright R-2600. But the available
power from this engine was maxed out at 1900, barely adequate for the hefty and large Mariner. To
remedy this, Martin installed a pair of R-2800-34Ws for the last production variant, the PBM-5.
Dash thirty-fours were rather "plain-Jane" single-stage, two-speed "C" series engine rated at
2100 horsepower at 2800 rpm at sea level. With the introduction of the PBM-5A, Mariners were
fitted with retractable landing gear making it an amphibian for the first time. Even with the additional
power afforded by the R-2800-34s, extra help was often needed in the form of JATO bottles strapped
to the sides of the fuselage. Production ended in April, 1949 (Refs. 9.3 , 9.33, 9.34) .

Wing Span ... ... ................................................. 118 ft

Length .. ... ........... ..... .... ........... ...... ...... ...... .. ..... 79 ft
Empty Weight ... ... .... .............. ..... ........ ...... ...... 34,000 lbs
Gross Weight ..... .. ....... ... ..... .......... .... ............... 58,000 lbs
Max. Range ....... ....... .... ..... ...... .. .. ...... ...... ... .... Over 3000 mi
Engine ... ...... ... .. .......... .... .... .. ...... ..................... R-2800-34W

Fig 9.116 Most Martin PBMs were powered by Wright R-2600s. As is usual with aircraft
evolution and development, weight increased to the point where the R-2600 was only providing
marginal power To rectijj; this situation, PBM-5s were fitted with a pair of "C " series
R-2800-34Ws. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo
No. lB 19101.)

492
 Military Applications

Martin B-26 Marauder (Fig. 9.117)

It seems the B-26 will always be remembered as "One-a-day in Tampa Bay." The reason for this
rather unfortunate appellation was the disturbing rate of accidents the B-26 suffered during training
at McDill Army Air Force base in Florida. Its other unofficial designations included Widow Maker,
and Flying Prostitute (no visible means of support, an attribute to its small wing area) .

Few aircraft go straight from the drawing board and enter service. However, that was the case for
the B-26, in other words, no prototypes were built. First ordered by the Army Air Corps, among some
of the requirements was a top speed of 323 mph. This speed was achieved by sacrificing wing
loading and landing speed . The former came out at 65 pounds per square foot and the latter was
130 mph.

When it first entered service, pilots loved it. However, these pilots were seasoned veterans with
considerable flight time under their belts. As the demand for pilots skyrocketed, pilots with less
experience were exposed this formidable aircraft. This resulted in a high accident rate. At one time
the Truman Committee investigated the aircraft and considered canceling all Army Air Force orders .
Thanks to glowing reports from service squadrons and extraordinary flight demonstrations by Jimmy
Doolittle and other skilled pilots, the B-26 was saved from cancellation. These demonstrations included
feathering one engine and turning into the dead engine at low altitude, a potentially dangerous maneu-
ver for any multi-engined aircraft. Although the B-26 program was saved, it was at a price, the price
being to tone down some of its more belligerent flight characteristics. This was accomplished by
increasing the wing span and increasing the wing 's angle of attack. Although these modifications had
the desired effect, it also resulted in a considerable reduction in performance. Overall, however, the

Fig. 9. 117 Line drawing of a Martin B-26 Marauder showing crew positions. (Erection and
Maintenance Instructions for Army Model B-26C Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum.)

493
Chapter 9

B-26 had the safest combat record for any medium bomber of WWII. Notwithstanding that achieve-
ment, B-26s were phased out of service almost overnight at the cessation of hostilities. The British
RAF also used the B-26 and gave them the name Marauder. All variants of the B-26 were powered
by "A" or "B" series R-2800s. These engines were boosted by single-stage, two-speed supercharg-
ers. The classic "cigar" shaped monocoque fuselage was manufactured in three sections and bolted
together (Fig. 9.118) . Controls for the pair of R-2800s were mounted in a typical pedestal, acces-
sible by both pilots. Due to the critical nature of ensuring adequate electrical power to the propellers,
an APU (auxiliary power unit) was provided for. It consisted of a small two-stroke engine driving a
28-volt generator (Fig. 9.119). Prior to starting the R-2800s, the APU was removed from the waist
compartment and connected to an electrical outlet in the left nacelle (Refs . 9.3 , 9.35, 9.36, 9.37,
9.38).

USAF Designation RAF Designation

B-26A Marauder I
B-26B Marauder IA and II
B-26C Marauder II
B-26F&G Marauder III

B-26D: Only one built. Similar to B-26C except for experimental exhaust heated anti-icing.

B-26E: Only one built. Stripped model with a 2000 pound weight reduction. Upper turret moved
forward over the roof of the navigator 's compartment.

TB-26: Early versions were stripped of armament and adapted for the training role and general utility
purposes, i.e. , hacks. Originally designated AT-26, later changed to TB-26.

JM-1 and JM-2: Stripped B-26C (JM-1) and B-26G (JM-2) used by the Navy for target towing and
general utility purposes.

.' . ..:- ...

:::::::'·'.::::::::· _::.
,;;w::::.::'.·>: ...:-··:

494
Fig. 9.118 Exploded view of Martin B-26 showing major sub-assemblies. This also gives a good indication of how
the aircraft was manufactured. (Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Model B-26B-l and -26C Air- ~
craft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.) ~
~

~
()
I::)
::::>:
Cl
;:;
"'
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.119 The B-26's APU was stored in the waist position when not in use. (Erection and
Maintenance Instructions for Army Model B-26C Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum.)

Fig. 9.120 Martin B-26A. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian
Institution. Photo No. 2A 23783.)

496
 Military Applications

TABLE 9-9 MARTIN B-26 SPECIFICATIONS

Parameter B-26 (Model 179) B-26A (Fi~. 9.120)

First Delivery November 25, 1940 (first flight)
February 25, 1941 (first delivery)
Engine R-2800-5 R-2800-5 (Fig. 9.121 ), -39
Propeller Curtiss Electric 4-blade
Winq Span 65 ft
Wing Area 602 sq ft
Length 58 ft, 3 in.
Gross Weiqht 28,340 lbs 34,000 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Normal 465 qal 465 qal
Ranqe 1150 mi
Max. Ranqe
Service Ceiling 23,500 ft
Climb
Max. Speed 311 mphat14,500ft
Cruisina Speed
Landinq Speed 130 mph 130 mph
Armament Five .50 cal. machine guns. Normal
bomb load: 2000 pounds.
Max. bomb load: 5800 pounds.
Comments 24-volt electrical system

Fig 9.121 Early "A" series R-2800-5 that

powered the B-26, B-26A, and B-26B. Being
an "A " series, this engine was rated at only
1850 horsepower. (Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

497
Chapter 9

Fig 9.122 Martin B-26B. Wing span increased from 65 feet to 71 feet during this produc-
tion run. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo
No. 1B 18285.)

Fig 9.123 Martin B-26C. Vertical tail surface increased. (Courtesy of the National Air &
Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. 1B 18247.)

498
 M ilitary Applications

TABLE 9-9 MARTIN B-26 SPECIFICATIONS (Continued)

Parameter B-268 (Fig. 9.122) B-26C (Fig. 9.123)

No. Built
Fi rst Delivery
Engine R-2800-39 , -41 * R-2800-43 (Fig. 9.124)
Propeller Curtiss Electric 4-blade Curtiss Electric 4-blade
WinQ Span 65 ft or 71 ft** 65 ft or 71 ft*
Wina Area 602 sq ft 658 sq ft
LenQth 58 ft, 3 in. 56 ft, 1 in.
Gross WeiQht 34,000 lbs 38 ,200 lbs
Fuel Cap . - Normal 465 Qal 720 Qal
Fuel Cao . - Max. 1462 aal
RanQe 1150 mi 1150 mi
Max. Range
Service Ceiling 23 ,500 ft 21 ,700 ft
Climb
Max. Speed 311 mph at 14,500 ft 282 mph at 10,000 ft
Cruisina Speed
LandinQ Speed

Armament One fixed .50 cal. and one flexible Same as B-268
.50 cal. in nose, four "package" guns
in sides of forward fuselage, two guns
in Martin dorsal tu rret, two flexible
waist guns, one tunnel gun and two
tail guns.
Max. bomb load 4000 lbs.
Comments Most produced of the B-26s including Similar to B-268 except for manu-
the identical B-26C. facturing site , "B"s being built at
*B-268-2 Martin's Baltimore facility and "C"s
** Long wing introduced in B-26-10 & manufactured at a new production
15. facility in Omaha, Nebraska.
Crew increased to seven . *Long wing introduced in B-26C-5 & 6.
Vertical tail surface increased.

Fig. 9. 124 Single-stage, two-

speed R-2800-43 that p owered:
B-26B, B-26C, B-26C, XB-26D,
B-26E, B-26F, and TB-26H. This
Ford built "B " series engine was
a big improvement over the early
"A " series R-2800-5s. (Courtesy
of Pratt & Wh itney.)

499
Chapter 9

TABLE 9-9 MARTIN B-26 SPECIFICATIONS (Continued)

Parameter B-26F and G (Fig. 9.125 and Fig. 9.126)

No. Built
First Delivery
Enaine R-2800-43
Propeller Curtiss Electric 4-blade
Wina Span 71 ft
Wina Area 658 sq ft
Lenath 58 ft , 2-5/8 in .
Gross WeiQht 38,200 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Normal 720 aal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 1462 aal
RanQe 1150 mi
Max. Ranae
Service Ceilina 21 ,700 ft
Climb
Max. Speed 282 mph at 10,000 ft
Cruisina Speed
Landing Speed

Armament Typically 4000 lb bomb load.

Eleven .50 cal. machine guns; one in nose,
two waist guns and two tail Quns.
Comments Similar to B-26-C except wing incidence
was increased by 3-1/2 degrees. Rear
bomb bay eliminated and no provision for
torpedo .

Fig. 9.125 Martin B-26F Wing incidence increased by 3~ degrees in order to make the
handling characteristics more benign. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution. Photo No . 1B 18344.)

500
 Military Applications

TABLE 9-10 8-26 ARMY AIR FORCE SERIAL NUMBERS

B-26 Model Serial Numbers B-26 Model Serial Numbers

8 -26MA 40-1361 to 40-1561 8-26C-10-MO 41-34848 to 41-34907

8-26A-MA 41-7345 to 41-7365 8-26C-15-MO 41-34908 to 41-34997
41-7368
41-7431
41-7477 to 7483
8-26A-1-MA 41-7366 8-26C-20-MO 41-34498 to 41-35172
41-7367
41-7369 to 41-7430
41-7432 to 41-7476
8 -268-MA 41-17544 to 41-17624 8-26C-25-MO 41-35173 to 41 -35370
41 -17626 to 41 -17851 41-35372
8 -26 8-2-MA 41 -17852 to 41-17946 AT-238-MO 41-35371
41-35561 to 41-35872
42-107471to42-107496
42-107831to42-107855
8-268-3-MA 41-17625 8-26C-30-MO 41-35374 to 41-35515
41-17947 to 41-17973 41-35517 to 41-35538
41-35540
41-35548 to 41-35551
41-35553 to 41-35560
8 -26-4-MA 41-17974 to 41-18184 8-26C-45-MO 42-107497 to 42-107830
8-268-10-MA 41-18185 to 41-18334 8-26F-1-MA 42-96229 to 42-96328
8-268-15-MA 41-31573 to 41 -31672 8-26F-2-MA 42-96329 to 42-96428
8-268-20-MA 41 -31673 to 41 -31772 8-26F-6-MA 42-96429 to 42-96528
8-268-25-MA 41 -31773 to 41-31872 8-26G-1-MA 43-3411 5 to 43-34214
8-268-30-MA 41 -31873 to 41-31972 8-26G-5-MA 43-34215 to 43-34464
43-34540 to 43-34614
8 -268-35-MA 41 -31973 to 41-31072 8-26G-11-MA 43-34465 to 43-34539
8-268-40-MA 42-43260 to 42-43357 8-26G-15-MA 44-67805 to 44-67944
42-43360
42-43361
42-43459
AT-23A-MA 42-43358 8-26G-15-MA 44-67945 to 44-67954
42-43359
42-43362 to 42-43458
42-95629 to 42-95737
8-268-45-MA 42-95738 to 42-95828 8-26G-20-MA 44-67970 to 44-67989
44-68065 to 44-68104
8-268-50-MA 42-95829 to 42-96028 T8-26G-20-MA 44-67955 to 44-67969
8-268-55-MA 42-96029 to 42-96228 8-26G-21-MA 44-67990 to 44-68064
8-26C-5-MO 41-34673 to 41-3484 7 8-26G-25-MA 44-68105 to 44-68221
44-68254
T8-26G-25-MA 44-68222 to 44-68253

501
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.126 Martin B-26G. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian
Institution. Photo No. 1B 18240.)

502
 Military Applications

Grumman F6F Hellcat (Fig. 9.127)

At the request of the Bureau of Aeronautics, Grumman designed a follow-on to the successful F4F
Wildcat. Unlike its predecessor, the F4F, which had been an evolutionary design starting in the early
1930s as a bi-plane, the Hellcat was totally new. Having said that, Grumman's heritage was evident
in its shape and design. It also carried on the "Grumman Iron Works" reputation for a strong and
rugged aircraft. Anything less would fail in the harsh and rough environment of carrier operations.
Unlike the F4U Corsair, all production F6Fs were powered by the same engine, the "B" series
R-2800-10 or the water injected R-2800-lOW. It was recognized as early as 1940 that single-stage
supercharging would be totally inadequate in the near future. This conclusion came from NACA.
The Navy chose mechanical gear driven supercharging over turbosupercharging, thus the two-stage
R-2800-10 and later -lOW (Fig. 9.128), was born to power the Hellcat. Almost identical to the
R-2800-8 that powered the F4U-l , the primary difference was that the -10 used downdraft carbure-
tion and the -8 used updraft carburetion. The two stages of supercharging were referred to as main
stage and auxiliary stage. The main stage was driven at all times and had a single speed. The
auxiliary stage could operate in three modes: neutral, i.e ., the blower impeller was not driven; low
speed; and high speed. For low altitudes, those under 12,000 feet, the engine was aspirated through
the single-speed main stage. At altitudes above 12,000 feet, low speed of the auxiliary blower was
selected and for operations above 25 ,000 feet high speed for the auxiliary blower was selected.
Therefore, at all altitudes below 12,000 feet the R-2800-10 operated solely on the main stage. Rather
surprisingly, ram air was not supplied to the main stage blower, only to the auxiliary stage. This
anomaly explains why a Corsair handily outperforms a Hellcat at lower latitudes. The Corsair's main
stage was fed ram air and thus gained a significant amount of power. At higher altitude, with the
auxiliary stage engaged, there was little to choose between a Hellcat and an F4U-l. All intercooler
and induction came from the cowl nose bowl. Again, this is in contrast to the F4U-l , which used its
wing root intakes for these two requirements. Dual intakes at approximately the five o' clock and

Fig. 9. 127 Grumman F6F-5 Hellcat. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. 2A 20726.)

503
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.128 Right side view of an R-2800-1 OW, power plant for all production F6Fs. This
"B " series engine also powered the Northrop P-61AIB. Its massive two-stage supercharger
is evident in this view. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

seven o'clock positions provided cooling air for the dual intercoolers and induction system (Fig. 9.129).
A single, oval shaped scoop at the bottom of the cowl provided air for the oil cooler (Fig. 9.130).
Various models of the F6F were equipped with ADI for additional emergency power.

In December 1942, the Bureau of Aeronautics made a request for a float equipped F6F (Fig. 9.131).
The XF6F-l wind tunnel model was brought out of retirement and a scale pair ofEdo floats were
fitted . Tests were concluded by mid-1943 with no further action being taken. It is possible the reason
for dropping this project was that U.S. Marines had captured a number of islands in the South Pacific
negating the requirement for a float equipped fighter. In contrast, as the Japanese lost more and more
territory, they had an increasingly greater need, as the war progressed, for float equipped fighters and
consequently used them operationally (Refs. 9 .3, 9.39, 9.40, 9.41 , 9.42).

Blower Clutch Desludging

An undesirable idiosyncrasy of the R-2800-10 blower clutch arrangement was its propensity for
sludging. To overcome this tendency the following procedure was written in the F6F pilots handbook:

a. Propeller control in low pitch, high rpm

b. Engine rpm approximately 1200
c . Shift supercharger controls remaining in each position for approximately 30 seconds

The above procedure, although not foolproof, could eliminate blower clutch problems.

504
Vl
0
Vl

Fig. 9.129 Induction and intercooler arrangement for the F6F Hellcat. Three openings in the cowl :S nose
bowl supplied air for the various requirements. Two openings at approximately the five o'clock and seven
o'clock positions supplied cooling air to the dual air-to-air intercoolers. The bottom opening supplied
induction air to the auxiliary stage supercharger and oil cooler. (Erection and Maintenance Instructions for
Navy Model F6F-3, F6F-3N, F6F-5, F6F-5N Airplanes. Courtesy of the Naval Aviation Museum, Pensacola,
Florida.)
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.130 Oil system for an F6F Hellcat. The cylindrical tank is shown mounted to the
firewall and the oil cooler below. Two triangular fittings shown approximately halfivay up
the firewall are the oil in (right side) and oil out (left side). They are bolted to the rear of the
R-2800. This arrangement of the two triangular fittings was used on the vast majority of
R-2800s. (Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Navy Model F6F-3, F6F-3N, F6F-5,
F6F-5N Airplanes. Courtesy of the Naval Aviation Museum, Pensacola, Florida.)

506
 e:==J
-~----,--- ___aT""_--_""....,..

.!@-.

~~ LMOMn:Mt'
OEIWITMENT OF AEROIUUTICS
H.4'Y YMO. MS#itH-GTOH. "- C.
MARC.14 JI, tiMJ.
F-61·, SEAPt..AME
M#K'ML ~H3'°"'4

~ OI MODl'L M9 . . . . . .
0 I I j .. .I 6.:Hfl:
l...........L..1L I I I t I I I
SCAU *"ftQ.#Vll.L $.tU t0 ~14

Fig. 9.131 Float equipped F6F No aircraft was built to this configuration; however, if the island hopping campaign in the
Pacific had not been so successful, this aircraft might have come to fruition. (Report No. 666 12 June 1943. Air Force and
Moment for F6F-3 Seaplane. Authors collection)
Chapter 9

HEY BUB I
TURN THAT COCKPIT
1~
I .
HEATER OFF.

TABLE 9-11 GRUMMAN F6F HELLCAT SPECIFICATIONS

Parameter XF6F-1 XF6F-2*

No. Built 1
First Delivery June 26, 1942
Engine Wriqht R-2600* *R-2800-21
Propeller Curtiss Electric 3-blade
Wing Span 42 ft, 10 in .
Wino Area 334 sq ft
Length 33 ft, 10 in.
Empty Weight 84801bs
Gross Weight 11 ,629 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Normal
Fuel Cap. - Max.
Ranae 1500 mi
Max. Range
Service Ceilinq 35,600 ft
Climb in 1 min 2340 ft
Max. Speed
Cruising Speed 200 mph
Landing Speed 84 mph

Armament 6 X .50 Mg .
Comments Only the prototype was powered by
the Wright R-2600; all subsequent
F6Fs were powered by the R-2800.
Armament not installed on the
prototype.
Second prototype. Intended to be
powered by turbocharged version of
Wright R-2600-16 , instead re-engined
with R-2800 .
*This designation was used twice. The
second XF6F-2 was an experimental
aircraft to test the Birman (Turbo
Engineering mixed flow turbo-
supercharger). Not successful.

508
 Military Applications

TABLE 9-1 1 GRUMMAN F6F HELLCAT SPECIFICATIONS (Continued)

Parameter XF6F-3 F6F-3, -3E, -3N, -3P

No. Built 1 4403*
First Delivery March 15, 1943 December 4, 1942
EnQine R-2800-10 R-2800-10/-1 OW
Propeller Curtiss Electric 3-blade Hamilton Standard 3-blade
Winq Span 42 ft, 10 in . 42 ft, 10 in.
WinQ Area 334 sq ft 334 sq ft
Lenqth 33ft,10in . 33 ft, 10 in.
Empty Weiqht 88961bs 9023 lbs
Gross Weight 12, 179 lbs 13,221 lbs
Max. Takeoff 15,487 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Normal 235 qal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 385 Qal
RanQe 1350 mi 1090 mi
Max. Ranqe 1850 mi
Service CeilinQ 39 ,900 ft 37 ,300 ft
Climb in 1 min 3200 ft 3100 ft
Max. Speed 398 mph at S.L. 324 mph at S.L.
376 mph at 20,000 ft
Cruisina Soeed 200 mph 200 moh
Landinq Speed 84 mph

Armament 6 X .50 caliber machine quns 6 X .50 caliber machine quns

Comments XF6F-3 same structure as planned
XF6F-2 except for use of R-2800.
Armament not installed.
-10 engine essentially the same as the
-8 installed in the F4U-1 except for
downdraft induction.
* Total production of F6F-3s. First
version to be mass-produced. Went
into action September 1, 1943.
-3E: Designation given to 18 F6F-3
with APS-4 radar under right wing.
-3P : Photo recon version.
-3N : Similar to -3E with radar under
riqht winq.

509
Chapter 9

TABLE 9-11 GRUMMAN F6F HELLCAT SPECIFICATIONS (Continued)

Parameter XF6F-4 F6F-S, -SD, -SE, -SK, -SN, -SP, Hellcat II

No. Built 1 7870*
First Delivery March , 1943 April 29, 1944
Enqine R-2800-27* R-2800-10/-1 OW
Propeller Hamilton Standard 3-blade
Winq Span 42 ft, 10 in .
Winq Area 334 sq ft
Length 33 ft, 10 in.
Empty Weiaht 9060 to 9421 lbs
Gross Weight 12,598 lbs to 13,190 lbs
Max. Takeoff 14,250 lbs to 15,413 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Normal 250 aal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 408 qal
Ranqe 800 to 945 mi
Max. Ranae 1260 to 1530 mi
Service Ceilinq 37,300 ft
Climb in 1 min 3100 ft
Max. Speed 324 mph at S.L.
380 mph at 23,400 ft
Cruisinq Speed 200 mph
Landinq Speed 88 mph

Armament 4 X 20 mm cannon , 200 rpg 6 X .50 caliber machine guns or

Comments Single-stage, two-speed engine.
Modified from the XF6F-1.
This aircraft, after going through
four different configurations ended
up being converted into an F6F-3.
2 X 20 mm cannon
2000 lbs bombs
*Total production of all F6F-5 variants.
Similar to -3 variant except for
strengthened tail , engine cowl , reinforced
ailerons, and flat windshield.
Royal Navy designated -5s as "Hellcat II."
-SK were modified -5 and -5Ns used as
radio controlled flying bombs in Korean
conflict.

510
 Military Applications

TABLE 9-11 GRUMMAN F6F HELLCAT SPECIFICATIONS (Continued)

Parameter XF6F-6
No. Built 2
First Delivery July 6, 1944
Engine R-2800-18W
Propeller Hamilton Standard 4-blade
Winq Span 42 ft, 10 in .
Winq Area 334 sq ft
Lenqth 33 ft, 10 in.
Empty Weiqht 9060 to 9421 lbs
Gross We ight 12,598 lbs to 13,190 lbs
Max. Takeoff 14,250 lbs to 15,413 lbs
Fuel Cao. - Normal 250 qal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 408 gal
Ranae 1170 mi
Max. Ranae 1730 mi
Service Ceilinq 39,000 ft
Climb in 1 min 3070 ft
Max. Speed 417 mph at 21 ,900 ft
Cruising Speed 200 mph
Landinq Speed 85 mph
Armament 6 X .50 caliber machine guns
2000 lbs bombs
Comments Only F6F variant fitted with a "C" series
enoine - same as F4U-4. Onlv two built.

511
Chapter 9

Grumman F7F Tigercat

Grumman's F7F Tigercat (Fig. 9.132) probably personified the concept of stuffing two of the biggest
engines in the smallest possible airframe. It was also the Navy's first twin-engined fighter and first
operational Navy aircraft with tricycle landing gear (Fig. 9.133 and 9.134).

Like many successful military aircraft that saw evolutionary development, the F7F evolved from two
prior Grumman aircraft that never saw series production. Grumman built the XF5F powered by a
pair of Wright R-1820s for the Navy. Numerous problems were encountered such as overheating
and weak landing gear. A similar aircraft was built for the Army Air Force and designated XP-50.
The primary difference between the XP-50 and XF5F was that turbosuperchargers were fitted to the
XP-50. This feature turned out to be its downfall. After accumulating less than 20 flight hours, a
turbosupercharger let go in a big way. The explosive force of the turbosupercharger failure damaged
the hydraulic system and consequently disabled the nose gear. Due to the landing characteristics of
the XP-50 it was deemed too dangerous land without the nose gear extended . This forced the test
pilot, famous prewar race pilot Bob Hall, to bail out. The loss of the one and only prototype signed the
death knell for this project. Undaunted, Grumman learned many lessons on the XF5F and XP-50
programs that were incorporated into the F7F.

Both sides of the F7F engine nacelle featured airscoops: one for induction air (Fig. 9.135) and one
for oil cooling (Refs. 9.3 , 9.43 , 9.44, 9.45).

512
 I
I
I
I
yl.
_l 1
~I (G_:t ~_?) 66
<B
1. Rodor S<:onner 25. Commun ica1ing Controls 48 . Rodar Operator's Headrest and Rear
Vt
....... 2. Heofer Intake Scoop 26. Engine Control Ouodront Armor Plate
w 49. Rodar Operators Parachute Pack
3 . Heoter lntoke Tube 27. Pilot' ~ Map Cose
4 . Blasl Tube Fairings 28. Pilot's Cockpit Hood 50. Rodor Operator's Emergency Container
5. Fuselage Gun Blast Tubes 29. Pilot's Rear Armor (upper plate) 51. Rodar Operotor's Sear & Life Roft (cushion)
6 . l. G . Emergency Dump Air Bottles (2) ond Headrest .52. Rodar Operator's Oxygen Cylinder
7. Aux iliary Fvel Tank 30. Pilot's Seat. 53. Wing Guns and Ammunition Bc)(e•
8. Broke Emergency Air Bottle 31. Section Light (20 mm. shown)
9. Pi let's Oxygen Cylinder 32. Wing Fold Warning Howler 54. Wing Gun Blo•I Tubes
l 0 . Combustion Heater 33. Antenna Masi 55. Moin Electrical Distribution Box
11. rilot's Forward Armor Plate 34. Pilot's Reor (lower plate) and Floor Armor 56. Rador Operalor 1s O"ygen Regulator
l 2 . Defroster Duct 35. Forward Elevator Control Sector 57. Rodar Operator' s Map Cose
13 . Pilot's Chortboord 36. fue l System Strainer 58. Communicating Equipment
1 -" · Pilot's R"1dor Indicator 37. Radar Operator's Heater Duct 59. Communicating Antennae
15. Gunsight 38. Fuel Booster Pump 60. Boarding Ladder
16. Bullet Resistant Windshield 39. fuselage Bomb Rack 61. Remote CompoH Inverter
17. Pilot's Moin lr"'>~lrumenl Panel 40. Reserve Fuel Tank 62. Recognition Lighh
18. Lower Instrument ond Control Panel 41. Fuel Tank Selector Valve 63. Communicating Antenna
19. Rudder and Broke Pedal 42. Mein Fuel Tonk 64. Remote Compass Transmitter
20. Fuselage Gun Ammunition Boxes 43. Rodor Operator's Chartboord 65. Arresting Hook
21. Fuselage Gvns-.50 col. 44. Rodar Operator's Instrument Panel 66. Arresting Hook Latch
22 . Electrical Control and Distribution Panel 45. Rodar Opero1or's Rodur Indicator 67. Tow Target Latch
23 . Gunsight Light Control,. 46. Removable Reserve fuel Tonk 68. Rudder Booster Unit
24 . Control Stick ond Triirners 47. Rodar Operator's Cockpit Hood 69. Aft Elevator Control Sector

Fig. 9. l 32(A) F 7F details

Fig 9. J32(B) Front view of a Grumman F7F Tigercat. Its remarkably clean lines are self
evident in this shot. Also note the elliptically shaped induction (outboard) and oil cooler
(inboard) air scoops on the wing leading edge. The interior arrangement line drawing shows to
good advantage the large amount of internal equipment carried aloft by this formidable aircraft.
(Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. 2A 20726.)

I GUt::SS THIS '

IS ONE FOR
TME BOO~

Fig. 9.133 F7F main gear (Erection and
Maintenance Instru ctions for Navy Models
F7F-1N, F7F-2N, F7F-3, F7F-3N, F7F-4N,
F7F-3P Airplanes. Courtesy of the Naval
Aviation Museum, Pensacola, Florida.)
·--........__ .
.~ /
515
Military Applications
Fig. 9.134 F7F nose gear (Erection and
Maintenance Instructions for Navy Models
F7F-1N, F7F-2N, F7F-3, F7F-3N, F7F-4N,
F7F-3P Airplanes. Courtesy of the Naval
Aviation Museum, Pensacola, Florida.)
Fig. 9.135 F7F air induction system
for the R-2800-22W or R-2800-34W
Elliptical opening on wing leading edge
takes two ninety-degree turns before
reaching the carburetor deck. (Erection
and Maintenance Instructions for Navy
Models F7F-1N, F7F-2N, F7F-3,
F7F-3N, F7F-4N, F7F-3P Airplanes.
(Courtesy of the Naval Aviation
Museum, Pensacola, Florida.)
Chapter 9

. ---~/7·

left Wing Cannon Shown ,

Right Wing Opposite
Alternate Insta llation
.50 Cal. Machine Guns

I. Bu llet-Resi•tant Windshield 9. Fuselage .50 col. Machine Gu ns (2 L-2R)

2. Gu nsig ht
3. Gun Charging Con trol Ha nd les (4)
4. Armament Switch Pa ne l
5. Gun a nd Bomb Trigger Switches
(On Stick Grip)
6 . Gunsight light Controls
7. Fuselage Bomb Manual Release Control
8. Fuselage Gun Ammunition Boxes (2L-2R)
l 0. W ing Gun Ammu ni tion Boxes
(2 sets L-2 sets R)
11. W ing 20 mm. Cannon (2L-2R)
12. Gun Camera
13. Boresighting rods.
14. Wing Bomb Rack and Sway Braces
(l . H. shown-R. H. opposite)
15. Fuselage Bomb Rack end Sway Broces

Fig. 9.136 This line drawing illustrates the F7F's impressive array of armament including
four .50 caliber machine guns and four wing mounted 20 mm cannons. This illustration
does not show the hard points in the outer wing panels for rocket launchers. (Erection and
Maintenance Instructions for Navy Models F7F-1N, F7F-2N, F7F-3, F7F-3N, F7F-4N,
F7F-3P Airplanes. Courtesy of the Naval Aviation Museum, Pensacola, Florida.)

Fig. 9.137 R-2800-22W, power plant for XF7F-l, F7F-l and F7F-2. Its supercharger
offered ratios of 7.29:1 and 9.45:1 . (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

516
 Military Applications

TABLE 9-12 GRUMMAN F7F TIGERCAT SPECIFICATIONS

Parameter XF7F-1 F7F-1

No. Built 2 35 (500 actually ordered)
First Delivery May 1, 1944 April 29, 1944
Engine -22 or -27 ("B" series) -22W (Fig. 9.137)
Propeller Hamilton Standard 3-blade
Winq Span 51 ft , 6 in . 51 ft, 6 in.
WinQ Area 455 sq ft 455 sq ft
Lenath 45 ft , 6-1 /2 in. 45 ft, 4-1 /2 in .
Empty Weiqht 15,274 lbs 15,681 lbs
Gross WeiQht 20,107 lbs 21 ,381 lbs, max. T.O. 22,560 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Normal 420 gal 420 gal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 576 qal. 576 qal
RanQe 1160 mi 1170 mi
Max. Ranqe 1850 mi
Service Ceil inq 42,200 ft 36,200 ft
Climb 4200 ft in 1 min 4310 ft in 1 min
Max. Speed 375 mph at S.L. 394 mph at S.L.
429 mph at 22,000 ft 445 mph at 20,000 ft
Cruisinq Speed 180 mph 177 mph
Landina Speed 86 mph 89 mph

Armament 4 X 20 mm cannon (200 rpg) 4 X 20 mm cannon (200 rpg)

(Fig. 9.136) 4 X .50 mg. (400 rpg)
2000 lb bomb load
Comments Follow-on design to the XP-65 that
was powered by a pair of Wright
R-2600s. XF7F-1 was also planned
to be powered by R-2600s . First
prototype destroyed in testinQ.
4 X .50 mg. (400 rpg)
2000 lb bomb load
Very simi lar to prototype except for
deletion of spinners . Order drastically
cut from 500 to 35 because of con-
cerns about its suitability for carrier
operations.

517
Chapter 9

TABLE 9-12 GRUMMAN F7F TIGERCAT SPECIFICATIONS (Continued)

Parameter F7F-2, -2N F7F-3

No. Built 65 189
First Deliverv October 31 , 1944 March 14, 1945
Enaine -22W -34W
Prooeller Hamilton Standard 3-blade Hamilton Standard 3-blade
Wina Soan 51 ft , 6 in. 51 ft, 6 in .
Wing Area 455 sq ft 455 sa ft
Length 45 ft, 4-1 /2 in. 45 ft, 4-1/2 in.
Empty Weiqht 16,028 lbs 16,396 lbs
Gross Weiaht 21 ,194 lbs 21 906 lbs max . T.O . 25 720 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Normal 375 aal 455 qal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 675 qal 755 qal
Ranqe 960 mi 1200 mi
Max. Ranae 1250 mi 1572 mi
Service Ceilinq 40,600 ft 40,700 ft
Climb 4540 ft in 1 min 4530 ft in 1 min
Max. Speed 362 mph at S.L. 367 mph at S.L.
445 mph at 22,000 ft 450 mph at 21,500 ft
Cruisina Soeed 183 mph 222 mph
Landina Soeed 84 moh 91 mph

Armament 4 X 20 mm cannon (200 rpg) 4 X 20 mm cannon

4 X .50 ma
Comments First of the night fighter variants. Similar to F7F-1 except for -34 engines
Reduced fuel tankage was in order to and taller vertical stabilizer.
accommodate second crew member.

TABLE 9-12 GRUMMAN F7F TIGERCAT SPECIFICATIONS (Continued)

Parameter F7F-3N F7F-3P

No. Built 106
First Deliverv May 15, 1945
Enqine -34W -34W
Propeller Hamilton Standard 3-blade Hamilton Standard 3-blade
Winq Span 51 ft, 6 in . 51 ft, 6 in .
Winq Area 455 sa ft 455 sq ft
Lenqth 45 ft 4-1 /2 in. 45 ft, 4-1 /2 in.
Empty Weiqht 16,592 lbs 16,396 lbs
Gross Weiaht 21,7381bs 21 906 lbs
Fuel Cao. - Normal 375 qal 455 qal
Fuel Cao. - Max. 675 aal 755 qal
Ranae 960 mi
Max. Ranqe 1595 mi 1900 mi
Service Ceilinq 40,800 ft 40,400 ft
Climb 4540 ft in 1 min 4560 ft in 1 min
Max. Soeed 447 mph at 22,000 ft 450 mph at 21 ,500 ft
Cruisinq Speed 170 mph 220 mph
Landinq Speed 91 mph 91 moh
Armament 4 X 20 mm cannon (200 rpg). 4 X 20 mm cannon (200 rpg)
Other ordnance could be carried such as 5
in. HVAR or Mk. 13 Aerial torpedo.
Comments -3N identifiable by characteristic "droop Photo reconversion .
snoot" to house SCR-720 radar.

518
 Military Applications

TABLE 9-12 GRUMMAN F7F TIGERCAT SPECIFICATIONS (Continued)

Parameter F7F-4N
No. Built 13
First Delivery September 17, 1946
Enqine -34W
Propeller Hamilton Standard 3-blade
Winq Span 51 ft, 6 in.
Winq Area 455 sa ft
Lenath 45 ft, 5 in.
Empty Weiqht 16,954 lbs
Gross Weight 21 ,960 lbs, max. T.O. 26 ,167 lbs
Fuel Cap. - Normal 375 qal
Fuel Cap. - Max. 1419 gal
Ranae 810 mi
Max. Ranqe 1360 mi
Service Ceilinq 40,500 ft
Climb 4540 ft in 1 min
Max. Speed 360 mph at S.L.
430 mph at 21 ,900 ft
Cruising Speed 235 mph
Landinq Speed 92 mph

Armament 4 X 20 mm cannon (200 rpg)

Comments Similar to F7F-3. Improved radar,

strengthened landing gear, tail hook,
wino, and fuselaqe.

519
Chapter 9

Grumman FSF Bearcat

If the Tigercat represented the smallest possible airframe to accommodate a pair of R-2800s then its
sibling, the Bearcat (Fig. 9.138), represented the smallest airframe that could accommodate a single
R-2800. As a natural follow-on to the highly successful F6F, the F8F turned out to be the Navy's last
single-engined piston fighter. It was also the first aircraft flown by the newly formed Blue Angels
flight demonstration team.

F8F-ls were powered by a single-stage, two-speed "C" series -22W or -34W, both engines being
similar to each other. F8F-2s were powered by the "E" series -30W (Fig. 9.139 and Fig. 9.140)

Fig. 9.138 Formation of

Grumman F8F-l Bearcats
from VF-726. This airplane
personified the theory of
stuffing the largest engine
into the smallest airframe.
Its wing span was barely
larger than a Cessna 150 s.
(Courtesy of the National
Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution.
Photo No. lB 01293.)

520
 Jvli litary Applications

featuring a hydraulically driven, variable speed supercharger. Aerodynamic cleanliness and com-
pactness were clearly at the forefront of the Bearcat designer 's objectives. Induction and oil cooling
came from air scoops in the wing 's leading edge. Air for the oil cooler took a circuitous route via two
ninety-degree transitions, however the end result was obviously worth the effort (Fig. 9.141) (Refs.
9.3 , 9.45. 9.46, 9.47).

Fig. 9.139 Right rear view of an

R-2800-30 W, power plant for the
F8F-2 and XF8F-3. Being an "E"
series R-2800, itfeatured a vari-
able speed, hydraulically driven
supercharger Ratios varied from
7.29.1to 10.55:1. Similar to the
-32W that powered the F4U-5
except for the lack of "Side-
winders. " (Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

Fig. 9. 140 Right front view of an

R-2800-30W, power plant for the
F8F-2. Its updraft Bendix PR-64
carburetor can be seen at the
rear (Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

521
 TABLE 9-13 GRUMMAN F8F BEARCAT SPECIFICATIONS

Parameter XFBF-1 FBF-1, F3M-1*, F8F-1C, FBF-1 B, FBF-2, FBF-20, F8F-2N, F8F-2P
FBF-10, FBF-DB, F8F-1N, F8F-1P
No. Built 2 765 365
First Delivery February 26, 1945 December 31 , 1944 October 11 , 1947
Enaine -22W -22W -34W -30W
Propeller Aeroproducts A642-G1, 4-blade Aeroproducts A642-G1, 4-blade Aerooroducts A642-G1 , 4-blad e
Wino Soan 35 ft, 6 in. 35 ft, 6 in. 35 ft, 6 in.
Wino Area 244 SQ ft 244 SQ ft 244 SQ ft
Lenqth 27 ft, 8 in . 27 ft, 8 in. 27 ft, 8 in.
Emotv Weiaht 70171bs 70701bs 76901bs
Gross Weiqht 8788 lbs, max. T.O. 9537 lbs 93861bs max. T.O. 12 947 lbs 1O426 lbs max. T .O. 13 494 lbs
Fuel Cao. - Normal 150 aal 185 aal 185 oal
Fuel Cao. - Max. 250 aal 535 aal 335 aal
Ranoe 955 mi 1105 mi 865 mi
Max. Ranae max. ranae 1450 mi max. ranae 1965 mi max. ranae 1435 mi
Service Ceilinq 33,700 ft 38 ,900 ft 40,700 ft
Climb 4800 ft in 1 min 20 000 ft in 4.9 min 4420 ft in 1 min
Max. Speed 393 mph at S.L. 382 mph at S.L. 387 mph at S.L.
424 moh at 17 300 ft 421 moh at 19 700 ft 447 moh at 28 000 ft
Cruisina Soeed 170 moh 163 moh for max . ranae 182 moh
Landino Soeed 90 moh 92 mph 105 mph
Armament 4 X .50 Mg. 4 X .50 Mg. 4 X 20 mm cannon.
2000 lb bomb load 2000 lb bomb load 2000 lb bomb load .
Comments First flown August 21, 1944. Similar to prototype except for engine and slightly tal ler Powered by variable speed "E" series.
tail fin . -2D: Designation given to -2s modified
*F3M-1 was planned to be built by GM 's Eastern as remote control aircraft.
Aircraft. End of hostilities caused cancellation of -2N: Night fighter version fitted with
contract. APS-19 radar.
-1 C: one-off version fitted with 4 X 20 mm cannon. -2P: Photo recon version.
-1 B: different armor.
-1DB: modified -1 Bs with modified auxiliary fuel tanks.
-1 N: night fighter version fitted with APS-19 radar.
-1 P: ohoto recon version.
 liiiiiiiiiiJ OIL FLOW ANO PRESSURE LINES

- OlL DILUTION LINES

- VENT LINE

__,--·
·,'\ '· --
\

'\ 1.
2.
3.
4.
Oil Cooler, L/R
Air Duel, L/R
Check Valve
Oil Return Line lo Tank

\ 5.
6.
7,
011 Pressure Gage Lin~
Fillerneck
Sounding Rod
B. Oil Tank

\ 9.
10.
11.
Oil Return to Top of Tank
Engine Gage Unit
Sequence and Diverter .Valve

i 12.
13.
14.
15.
Vent Line
Oil Dilution Solenoid Valve
Oil Temperature Gage Line
Oil-In Line to Engine

.
I
___;,.. . ... . -·
_ ,,-
_,.,-
23
16.
17.
Oil Scupper Drain Line
Oil Dilution Line
18. Fuel Transfer Solenoid Line
19. Oil Dilution Shut -off Valve
20. Drain Valve
21. Oil-out Line from Engine
22. Thermostatic Valve, L/R i:ooler
23. Left Cooler to Right Cooler Line

Fig 9.141 Oil cooling system of an F8F Bearcat. Elliptical openings in the wing root ducted air to the pair of
circular oil coolers. These same wing root openings also supplied induction air to the updraft Bendix PR-64
carburetor (Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Navy Models F8F Airplanes. Courtesy of the Naval
Aviation Museum, Pensacola, Florida.)
Chapter 9

Fairchild C-82 Packet

The requirements of airborne transportation became painfully clear during World War II. Notwith-
standing the fact that stalwarts such as the C-46 and C-4 7 performed miracles in their assigned tasks
of dropping paratroopers, transporting material, towing gliders, etc ., no one would dispute the fact that
they had some significant shortcomings. Designed as passenger carrying aircraft, loading bulky
items such as aircraft engines, jeeps, etc. , could be a significant chore. But you work with what you
have.

It could be argued that World War II was the first conflict that not only required but demanded
airborne logistical support. Prior to the cessation of hostilities, the Germans developed some innova-
tive, for the time, transport category aircraft. A good example was the Arado Ar 232B, which
featured a unique "centipede" landing gear for soft field operations. Messerschrnitt's Me 323 was a
gallant effort to quickly develop a large transport aircraft. As a follow-on to the Me 321 glider, the
six-engined 323 pioneered the concept of a massive transport capable of delivering material to
unprepared fields with easy ingress and egress of various loads . In the end, the Germans, like Britain
and the U.S. , depended, for the most part, on tried and proven passenger aircraft such as the Junkers
JU 52.

As it turns out, Fairchild Aircraft had a design, specifically for transport duties, ready by the end of
1941. Designed in wood using Fairchild 's "Duramold" process in order to conserve aluminum, the
design was nearing completion when the Army decided aluminum was no longer in short supply. The
designation XC-82 was given to the new, all metal, design. Detail design and construction was
completed in the remarkably short time of2 l months. By September 10, 1942, the XC-82 was ready
for its maiden flight. Very few problems were encountered during the early test flights, so much so
that flight testing was abbreviated in order to get it into production. Large production orders were
awarded to Fairchild and North American Aviation. With the cessation of hostilities, the USAF
canceled the North American orders.

Purpose built for its intended mission, the C-82 (Fig. 9.142) consisted of a cargo pod suspended on
a high wing design. The two engine nacelles extended aft to form the characteristic twin booms
which supported the horizontal and vertical stabilizers. Legend has it that the internal dimensions of
the cargo area were modeled after a standard railroad boxcar.

With its outwardly hinged rear doors, large pieces of equipment could be easily driven on and off the
load ramps (Fig. 9.143). This sure beat the struggle of side loading equipment encountered with the
C-46, C-47, and C-54. Fmthennore, the C-82 's unique design allowed equipment to be easily dropped
in flight out of the rear doors via parachute.

524
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.142 Fairchild C-82. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian
Institution. Photo No. lA ./1894.)

Fig. 9.143 Ve rsatility of

Fairchild's C-82 is shown
here with a Jeep being
loaded via the rear clam-
shell doors. This sure beat
the hassle of trying to load
a Jeep into a C-./.6 or C-4 7.
(Courtesy of the National
Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution.
Photo No. lA 41870)

525
Chapter 9

The prototype XC-82 was planned to be powered by the R-2800-51 , a "B" engine that also powered
the C-46. This choice of engine was changed and the XC-82 flew under the power of R-2800-22s,
"C" engines. Subsequent models were powered by -34s, and -85s, all similar engines rated at
2100 horsepower, the primary difference being choice of ignition system. Wide, narrow slots in the
wing leading edge inboard of the engine nacelles supplied cooling air to the oil coolers. Cooling air
was dumped overboard at the wing trailing edge. This required air ducting to be run the full chord of
the wing. Cooling air mass flow was controlled by a butterfly valve at the tail end of the ducting.
Typical of many multi-engined aircraft, in the event an engine ran short of oil, a reserve oil tank,
housed in the fuselage, could supply oil to either engine via a hand pump (Fig. 9.144).

Engine cooling was controlled via a conventional set of electrically operated cowl flaps surrounding
the engine.

The tricycle landing was electrically powered with the mains retracting into the underside of the
nacelle extensions (Fig. 9.145) and the nose gear retracting to the rear under the central fuselage
(Fig. 9.146).

Like many successful military aircraft, the C-82 was subj ect to many modifications.

Taking off from snow covered strips is obviously a tough act for a wheel borne aircraft-this short-
coming was soon taken care of Fairchild modified a C-82 with ski equipped landing gear. It was not
notably successful and consequently the idea was dropped. The same fate befell the so-called
tracked landing gear. Initial tests were conducted in 1941 using a modified Douglas A-20 Havoc.
The three landing gear legs were outfitted with an endless rubber track. Its purpose was to reduce
the unit bearing load of a conventional wheeled landing gear and spread it over the larger area of a
caterpillar style track. Ground bearing pressure was reduced from 60 pounds per square inch to
20 pounds per square inch thus enabling the C-82 to operate from soft dirt, mud, or sand. A weight
penalty of 400 pounds for each main gear and 275 pounds for the nose gear for a total of 1075 pounds
over the standard wheeled gear resulted . With the additional braking power available from the
tracked gear, a shorter landing distance was possible. But with an increased takeoff run, the
improved landing distance was a moot point. Initial experiments looked quite promising until it was
subjected to cross wind landings . Under these conditions the belt could come off, thus another
experiment bit the dust. Interestingly, this style oflanding gear was not just dedicated to the C-82 . A
similar set-up was experimentally flown on the B-36-once!

One experiment that did pan out, however, ironically spelled the end of C-82 production. As good as
it was, the military felt more power would enhance its performance. To this end a C-82 was pulled
off the production line and modified with the larger Wright R-3350. The resulting C-119 quickly
replaced the C-82. C-119s were also powered by Pratt & Whitney R-4360s (Refs. 9.3 , 9.45 , 9.48,
9.49).

526
 Military Applications

\.. /
/ /'
(
\
c::J PRESSURE ' ·- -, ,-
ITIJ RETURN ---
!!11111 ORAi N

Fig. 9.144 Oil system of the C-82 featured a reserve oil tank mounted in the fuselage. If
one tank needed replenishing during flight, a hand operated transfer pump transferred oil
to the appropriate engine oil tank.
1. Oil Transfer "TO " Selector Valve 8. Oil Cooler
2. Hand Transfer Pump 9. Engine Oil Tank Filler
3. Oil Transfer Filter 10. Engine Oil
4. Oil Transfer "FROM" Selector Valve 11. Oil Pressure Transmitter
5. Reserve Oil Tank Filler 12. Y-Drain valve
6. Reserve Oil 13. Oil Shut-Off Valve
7. Left Inboard Fuel Tank Filler 14. Engine Sump

(Erection and Maintenance Instructions for USAF Model C-82 Aircraft. Courtesy of the National
Air & Space Museum.)

527
Chapter 9

Fig. 9.145 Electrically operated C-82 main gear.

1. Retraction Gear Box 8. Shock Truss

2. Nacelle Doors Actuating Mechanism 9. Lower Drag Strut
3. Retraction Torque Shafi JO. Upper Drag Strut and Cross Tube
4. Emergency Extension Shock Absorber 11. Locking Link
5. Connecting Link 12. Retracting Arm
6. Nacelle Door Actuating Rod 13. Retraction Motor
7. Upper Truss
(Erection and Maintenance Instructions for USAF Model C-82 Aircraft. Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum.)

Parameters:
Wing Span .. ....... .... ..... ......... ....... ...... .. .. .... ... 106 ft
Length .................. ..... ...... ...... ...... ........ .... .... 75 ft, lO Y-i in.
Wing Area .................. ... ... .......... .. .. .... ... ...... 1400 sq ft
Empty Weight ........ ....... ... ......................... 26,530 lbs
Loaded Weight ............. .... .... .. .. .. ...... ... ... ..... 42,000 lbs
Propellers ...... ..... ............ .. .... ...... .......... Hamilton Standard, three-blade
Engine ............ ......... ..... ... ... .. ....... ........ ........ R-2800-85
Total Production ....... ......... .......................... 220 aircraft

528
 Military Applications

I
(

Fig. 9.146 Nose gear for C-82, also electrically operated.

I. Shimmy Damper 6. Retracting Arm

2. Shock Strut 7. Locking Link
3. Upper Truss 8. Retraction Gear Box
4. Retraction Motor 9. Lower Truss
5. Retraction Torque Shaft JO. Emergency Extension Shock Absorber

(Erection and Maintenance Instructions for USAF Model C-82 Aircraft. Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum.)

529
Chapter 9

Grumman Guardian

This massive single-engined aircraft was designed with composite power in mind, i.e ., jet and R-2800.
Originally designated as the XTB3F-l , it was intended to be a torpedo bomber. The Guardian was
designed around the R-2800-34W and a Westinghouse 19XB-2B jet mounted in the rear fuselage
exhausting under the tail. The crew of two sat side by side. The bomb bay could accommodate two
torpedoes internally. During evaluation trials, the jet was removed and all subsequent Guardians
relied solely on a single R-2800 for motive power. Apart from the removal of the jet during evaluation
trials other major modifications were incorporated into the prototype. This resulted in two new
prototypes being built in 1949 incorporating the modifications made to the XTB3F-l. The new
designation for the modified aircraft was XTB3F-1S and XTB3F-2S. The -IS was equipped as a
submarine hunter and the -2S was equipped as a submarine killer. A production order for both types
was placed by the U.S. Navy under the designations AF-IS and AF-2S (Fig. 9.147). However, just
to confuse things even more, the AF-1 S's designation was changed to AF-2W. Working in collabo-
ration, the AF-2W performed the hunter role and the AF-2S assumed the killer role (Ref. 9.45).

Parameters:
Wing Span ........ ............ 60 ft, 8 in.
Length .... .... .. .. .. .. .......... 43 ft, 4 in.
Height .......................... 16 ft, 2 in.
Empty Weight ........ ...... 14,600 lbs
Loaded Weight.. ... ...... .. 25 ,000 lbs
Max. Speed .... ......... ... .. 315 mph (approx.)
Stalling Speed .... ....... .. . 83 mph
Engine .......................... R-2800-34W (XTB3F-1S), R-2800-48 (AF-2W,AF-2S)
Range ........................... 1500 mi
Accommodation ...... .. .. . Pilot, co-pilot, two radar operators
Propeller ... ... ......... ...... .. Hamilton Standard, four-blade, 13 ft, 2 in. dia.
Armament (AF-2S) ..... Internal stowage for two 2000 lb torpedoes, or two 1600 lb depth charges, or
two 2000 lb bombs . All of these stores could be duplicated under the wings.

Fig 9.147 Pair of Grumman

Guardians. An AF-2 W is in the
foreground and an AF-2S is in the
background. (Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution. Photo No.
lB 00885.)

530
 Military Applications

North American XB-28

First flying in 1942, a mere twenty-six months after being ordered by the Army Air Corps, the XB-28
(Fig. 9.148) or N.A. 63 was an early, albeit not the first, attempt at producing a pressurized bomber.
Powered by a pair of " B" series R-2800-27s, the engines were supplemented by General Electric C-2
turbosuperchargers . Pressurization was supplied by a Roots type blower driven by one of the engines.
In retrospect, it's surprising that North American did not simply tap off the turbos for cabin pressur-
ization. Being one of the pioneers in the realm of pressurized flight, North American went to great
lengths to ensure adequate sealing of the cabin. All riveted joints were sealed with rubber strips and
a plastic compound was sprayed throughout the interior. Defensive armament in the form of three
two-gun turrets was placed outside the pressurized cabin. Sighting and control was via a station
within the cabin. This system predated the B-29 's defensive armament. In fact, many of the lessons
learned on the B-28 were incorporated into the B-29. As would be expected with a turbosuper-
charged aircraft, the B-28 's high altitude performance was exceptional. Thanks to the pressurization,
a cabin altitude of 8000 feet could be maintained to 33 ,000 feet. Despite its stellar performance, the
XB-28 was not put into production. The second XB -28 was built as a high altitude photo recon
aircraft (Ref 9. 5 0).

Top Speed ........ .... ..... ......... ..... .. . 373 mph

Cruise Speed ...... ........ ... ............. 255 mph
Fuel Capacity ............................. 1508 gal
Range .... .... .. .......... ... ...... ... ......... 2040 mi at 255 mph
Bomb Load ................... ...... .... ... 4000 lbs
Wing Span .. .................. ......... ..... 72 ft, 7 in.
Length ..... ..... .... ......... .. .... .... ... .... 56 ft, 5 in.
Wing Area ............. .. .......... .... .. ... 676 sq ft
Engine ... .... .......... .... .. ...... ....... ... . R-2800-11 (right engine) and R-2800- 15 (left engine)
Empty Weight ...... ..... ..... .. ..... .... . 25,575 lbs
Loaded Weight .. ....... .................. 35 ,740 lbs
Total Production ........ .... ....... ... ... 2 aircraft

Fig. 9.148 North Ameri-

can XB-28. With its
turbosuperchargers and
pressurized cabin, this
aircraft would have made
an excellent high altitude
medium bomber (Cour-
tesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

531
Chapter 9

North American AJ-1, AJ-2, and AJ-2P Savage

North American 's twin-engined AJ-1 (Fig. 9.149) and AJ-2 Savage (9.150) \Vere the largest piston
engined aircraft to operate regularly from a carrier. Designed as a nuclear strike aircraft in 1946 for
the Navy, it first flew on July 2, 1948. Typical of many piston engined military aircraft of this era, its
two R-2800-44Ws were augmented by an Allison J-33-A-10 gas turbine mounted in the tail
(Fig. 9.151). Intake air for the jet came from a NACA scoop blended into the leading edge of the
dorsal fin and the exhaust exited at the bottom of the fuselage below the vertical stabilizer. The
R-2800-44Ws were single-stage, single-speed augmented by a massive General Electric CH-8 turbo-
supercharger. Mounted in the nacelle behind the firewall, the turbosupercharger compressor discharged

Fig. 9.149 North Ameri-

can AJ-1 Savage. (Cour-
tesy of the National Air &
Space Museum, Smi thso-
nian Institution. Photo
No . 1B 25569.)

Fig. 9.150 North Ameri-

can AJ-2 Savage. (Cour-
tesy of the National Air &
Space Museum, Smithso-
nian Institution. Photo
No . JB 25637.)

532
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.151 Exploded view of AJ-1. Note the position of the J-33. (Erection and Maintenance
Instructions for Navy Model AJ-1. Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

through an intercooler and then into the top deck of the carburetor. Fig. 9.152 shows the massive
G.E. CH-8 turbosupercharger being installed. Exhaust from the R-2800 was piped into a collector
ring with a single discharge that drove the turbine section of the turbosupercharger. Two exhaust
outlets were provided for: one for the turbosupercharger and one for exhaust gases diverted through
the waste gate. Manifold pressure was regulated by an automatic boost control. It maintained 3 Yz in.
Hg differential between the top and lower decks of the carburetor. The intercooler maintained boost
air at a constant 90°F, again through automatic controls that adjusted the intercooler doors. Induction
air, intercooler cooling air, and oil cooler air came from a NACA scoop under the nacelle . A divided
trunk diverted air to the oil cooler, intercooler, and the suction side of the turbosupercharger compres-
sor. This engine installation represented one of the more sophisticated R-2800 applications, not
surprising considering the AJ was one of the last military R-2800 powered aircraft designed. Fig. 9.153
shows the beautifully designed AJ cowl and Fig. 9.154 shows the oil cooling system.

The Allison J-33-10, a license-built Rolls-Royce Nene, was typical of early generation centrifugal
flow jets, developing a maximum of 4600 pounds of thrust. With all three engines running (two
turning and one burning) the AJ was capable of a maximum speed of 4 71 mph. Installation of the
J-3 3 could be a tricky operation requiring the use of a modified torpedo carrier. AJ-1 s entered
service in September, 1949. TheAJ-1 was followed by theAJ-2, which, although similar in appear-
ance, incorporated many changes . Among the more significant internal changes was the reversal of
the controls, i.e ., the AJ-1 had fighter type controls in that the throttles were located to the left of the

533
Chapter 9

1 Raise supercharger into nacelle . lQ Install and connect supercharger exhaust clamp
shroud at nozzle box.
2,3 CorY1ect support clamps and steady support .
11 Connect nozzle box support link.
4 Disconnect supercharger from hoist: then re-
move hoist . 12connect supercharger 011 systert lines .
13 141 nstall and ~onnect cooling air ducts to super-
charger cool 1ng shroud and cap.
6 Connect supercharger exhaust pipe. 15 Install intercoolers. •

7 Connect ram air inlet to supercharger . 16 Ins tall lower elbow assenibly between inter-
cooler and su~rcharger .
8 Install 1ntercooler door operating flexible
shaft. and suppart tube . 17 Service turbo-supercharger 01 l system.•
9 Secure supercharger exhaust pipe to nozzle box. 18 Install nacelle lo'Ner access door .
•Refer to index fo,- applicable procedure. ISl ·U· Jll

Fig. 9.152 Installing the massive turbosupercharger in the nacelle could be quite a chore.
A modified torpedo carrier was utilized for this operation. (Erection and Maintenance
Instructions for Navy Model AJ-1. Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

534
 Military Applications

ENGINE COWL
BAFFLE SEAL

RIGHT SIDE
COWL PANEL

LCOWL SUPPORT
RING STRUCTURE

GENERATOR AND ACCESSORY LEFT SIDE COWL PANIL

SECTION COOLING AIR DUCT

LOWER COWL PANEL LOCKING HANDLE------' COOLING AIR EXIT

8-lH-31-61

Fig. 9.153 The AJ engine installation represented one of the cleanest R-2800 applications.
(Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Navy Model AJ-1. Aircraft. Courtesy of the National
Air & Space Museum.)

535
Chapter 9

/
0 IL COOLER FLAP

"'""?~""
-

'
SOLE NO I 0 OPERA TEO
OIL OIVERTER VALVE

OIL DILU T ION VALVE

TANK SWD OQA IN VALVE
OIL DILUTION MANUAL
SHUT-OFF VAL VE

PROPELLER FE ATHER-
ING SYSTEM
~ OIL INLET
OIL RETURN
VENT LINES
OIL OILUTION LINES

Fig. 9.154 Oil system for the AJ Savage. (Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Navy
Model
AJ-1. Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

536
 Military Applications

pilot and it featured a joy stick. The AJ-2, on the other hand, had its controls situated in the same
configuration as a transport, i.e., the throttles, mixture controls, and prop controls were located on a
central pedestal. Furthermore, the fighter type joystick was replaced by a control wheel. For improved
longitudinal stability, the vertical stabilizer was increased in height and the dihedral of the horizontal
stabilizer, featured on the AJ-1 , was removed for the AJ-2 . A photo reconnaissance version, desig-
nated AJ-2P, was developed with eighteen cameras for day and night photography at high and low
altitudes. Photo flash bombs, contained in the bomb bay, were used for night photography. The
AJ-2P also had additional fuel capacity. All AJs were manufactured in Columbus, Ohio.

As jet powered aircraft entered service, the AJ was quickly rendered obsolete. Nevertheless, it
soldiered on until 1962. Towards the end of its military career many AJ-2s were converted into
tankers and target tugs (Refs. 9.45, 9.51 , 9.52).

Parameters:
Wing Span .... ................ .. ................ 71ft, 5 in. (48 feet wings folded and 75 feet wings extended with
tip tanks)
Length ............... ... .... ........... .... .. ..... 63 ft, 1 in.
Weight .............. ...... .. ... ...... ..... .. ... ... 50,000 lbs
Engine ...... .... .... ....... ....... .... .......... .. R-2800-44W (Fig. 9.155)
Propellers ...... ....... ............. ..... ........ Hamilton Standard 24260-69, 51 .1 ft dia.
Fuel Capacity .................. ....... ........ 1217 gal (internally)
Max. Fuel Capacity ........... ............ 1817 gal (internal plus drop tanks)

F;g. 9.155 Right side view of

an R-2800-44W This engine
was unique in that it featured
the lowest propeller reduction
ratio of any R-2800 at .350:1.
(Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

537
Chapter 9

Northrop XP-56

Aptly named "Black Bullet," Northrop 's XP-56 (Fig. 9.156) introduced a dizzying array of new
features-features that in the end contributed to its failure . Jack Northrop was not one for designing
conventional aircraft, therefore the XP-56 fell right into this design philosophy. In the late 1930s
Northrop performed numerous experiments with tailless or flying wing aircraft culminating in the
construction of several flying prototypes . In 1940 Northrop responded to an unofficial Army Air
Force request for an unconventional fighter. Several other manufacturers responded to this request
resulting in unique, but as it turned out unsuccessful, aircraft. Contributing to these failures was the
fact that all the manufacturers had specified experimental engines, none of which went into series
production . Northrop designed his aircraft around the George Mead sponsored Pratt & Whitney
X-1800, a twenty-four-cylinder Liquid-cooled sleeve valve engine. After Pratt & Whitney canceled
this engine, it not only Left Northrop high and dry, it also Left other airframe manufacturers in the
san1e predicament. Northrop chose to utilize the R-2800 as a replacement, but it would be an R-2800
unlike any other R-2800 . The fact that Northrop chose a pusher configuration with the engine
mounted mid-ships introduced a new and challenging set of problems for Pratt & Whitney's engineers .

An intensive development effort resulted in a remarkable variation on the R-2800 theme-the R-2800-29
(Fig. 9.157). Many difficult design challenges needed to be resolved: cooling, mounting, vibration
control, dual rotation propellers, torsional problems from the extension drive shaft, and bailing out in
the event of an emergency were just a few. As a starting point, Pratt & Whitney chose the R-2800-
10. This "B" series, two-stage, two-speed, intercooled engine normally powered the Grumman F6F
Hellcat and the Northrop P-61A/B. Being a pusher configuration meant the engine was turned the
"wrong" way for adequate cooling, i.e., the supercharger was facing the front of the aircraft. Fur-
thermore, being a buried installation in the middle of the fuselage negated the ability to utilize the usual
NACA radial cowl. Some form of forced air draft was necessary for engine cooling, oil cooling, and
induction air. An axial flow fan mounted on the crankshaft and therefore running at engine speed,
provided the answer. To further facilitate cooling, the cylinder cooling fins were redesigned to opti-
mize the cooing air entering from the opposite direction, i.e., from the supercharger end. Likewise
with the cylinder baffles, they were redesigned to optimize cooling air entering from the opposite
direction. Another challenge facing the engineers was how to deal with the exhaust. Again, the
cylinders were redesigned. In this case the exhaust p011s were reconfigured to face towards the
nose case, i.e., towards the rear of the aircraft and the intake pipes remained in the standard configu-
ration. Due to the remotely mounted and flexibly mounted reduction gear box, serious torsional
vibration problems were encountered. The early months of 1942 were consumed with testing various
ideas to keep vibration under control. Three variations on crankshaft design and master rod position
were tested . Master rods in cylinders eight and nine, and cylinders eight and thirteen, were tried.
Additionally, an extra pair of Chilton or hockey puck dynamic weights were incorporated into the
front crankshaft counterweight with master rods in cylinders eight and nine. The rear dynamic

538
 Military Applications

Fig. 9.156 Right side view of the remarkable Northrop XP-56 Black Bullet. This R-2800-29
powered aircraft pioneered new ground in construction techniques, aerodynamics, and its
R-2800. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No.
lB 28906.)

Fig. 9. 157 Reverse flow, fan assisted cooling and dual rotation propeller drive were just
two of the features in this very unique R-2800. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

539
Chapter 9

weights were tuned to attenuate 4 Yz order vibration and the front dynamic weights were tuned to
attenuate second order. It is interesting to note that the follow-on " C" series engine used this vibra-
tion attenuation concept, i.e., the rear dynamic weights attenuated 4\!z order and the front dynamic
weight attenuated second order. The results were mixed to the extent that no ideal configuration was
arrived at. Vibration of various orders was attenuated at various engine speeds, but no set-up cov-
ered all scenarios . It is not clear from the surviving test reports which configuration was finally used
in the flight engine. The testing did point up problems Pratt & Whitney engineers were facing ; the
fact that the reduction gear box was flexibly mounted in the airframe introduced its own set of design
challenges. This, of course, is very different from a conventional R-2800 with the propeller reduction
gearing being integral with the engine. Cooling tests were performed from January to April, 1942.
With the aid of the powerful axial flow fan, cooling was found to be more efficient and lower tem-
peratures were exhibited compared to a comparable, conventional B series R-2800. The buried
configuration negated the requirement for a conventional tubular steel mount, so the engine was
mounted directly to a fabricated and reinforced bulkhead, integral with the main spar. All cooling and
induction air requirements were derived from a pair of elliptical scoops, one in each wing root. Each
elliptical scoop was split into two sections ; approximately one-third was devoted to supplying air to
the intercooler, the remaining two-thirds ducted air to a plenum in front of the engine. Rather surpris-
ingly, no accommodation for ram air induction was provided for. Air in the plenum flowed through the
engine and a pair of circular oil coolers . For additional air flow through the oil coolers, a duct from the
exit side of the coolers went to the front face of the fan thus creating a powerful suction, which in turn
forced more air through the coolers. Plenum air also supplied induction air. A pair of rectangular
intercoolers, buried in the wing roots, were supplied with cooling air via ducts . Induction air tempera-
ture was controlled by an exit flap under each wing that controlled mass air flow through the inter-
coolers. Engine temperature was controlled by cowl flaps at the tail, just in front of the dual rotation
propellers. Exhaust was via an ejector system exiting through eight pipes in front of the cowl flaps
(Fig. 9.158).

Whilst the XP-56 showed incredibly ingenious engineering features and solutions to difficult struc-
tural problems, aerodynamically, it was another story. The first prototype was soon written off in a
serious landing accident that almost claimed the test pilot's life. The second prototype was briefly,
and gingerly, flown before the project was canceled. Not surprisingly, longitudinal stability was mar-
ginal at best. This was too bad. The R-2800-29 , in a better airframe, would have offered the
designer a very good power plant (Refs. 9.53 , 9.54, 9.55 , 9.56, 9.57).

540
 Military Applications

EXIT FLAPS
/
/
CARBURE1'0R
HOT AIR DOOR

....
'
MAIN AIR INTAKE

CUTAWAY VI EW OF
ENGINE INSTAL L ATION

Fig 9.158 This line drawing Wustrates the engineering innovation incorporated into mounting
the R-2800-29 into the XP-56. Dual leading edge airscoops fed air into a plenum ahead of the
engine. These scoops were split approximately 70130 with the 30 p ercent feeding cooling air to
the intercoolers. However, it would appear that ram air induction was not provided for, i.e.,
induction air came fro m the above-mentioned plenum. (Pratt & Whitney Experimental Test
Department Short Memorandum Report No. 827. Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

541
Chapter 9

Curtiss XF-15C

It's hard to imagine that at one time Curtiss was one of the world 's largest industrial empires. The
Curtiss-Wright Corporation operated four divisions: Curtiss-Wright Airplane Division (aircraft), Wright
Aeronautical Corporation (aircraft engines), Curtiss-Wright Propeller Division (propellers), and Curtiss-
Wright Development Division (special research). Seems like Curtiss could not do anything right after
the P-40 ; in fact, this was their last large aircraft procurement contract. Among their many failed
attempts to design a military aircraft was the XF-1 5C (Fig. 9.159). Built to a Navy specification for
"mixed" power, i.e., piston (R-2800-34) and gas turbine (license built de Havilland Goblin), the XF-15C
was a victim of rapid progress in the gas turbine field . At the end of the day only three aircraft were
built. The first one flew in February, 1945. Shortly after, it suffered an engine failure of the R-2800,
possibly due to fuel exhaustion, killing the test pilot in the ensuing crash. The R-2800-34 was a single-
speed, single-stage "C" series (Ref. 9.45).

Fig. 9.159 Curtiss XF-l 5C powered by a license built de Havilland Goblin and an R-2800-
34. By this time Curtiss, at one time the crown jewel of the American aviation industry, was
struggling for its survival. The XF-l 5C did not help their cause. (Courtesy of the National
Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. 2A 14343.)

542
 Mi Ii tary Applications

Curtiss XP/YP-60

The XPNP-60 (Fig. 9.160) was yet another futile effort by the once proud and confident Curtiss-
Wright Airplane Division to produce an income producing aircraft to replace the venerable P-40. A
large, single-engine fighter somewhat reminiscent of the XF-15 C except for the lack of a gas turbine
engine, the P-60 series went through many variations and permutations. Early versions of the P-60
featured a P-40 fuselage , laminar flow wings, and outwardly folding landing gear. As the aircraft
went through its protracted and painful development, the fuselage was modified beyond all recogni-
tion from the original.

As the experimental engines being developed during the 1930s came to fruition, Curtiss chose to
power the XP-60 with an inverted, liquid-cooled V-12 Continental IV-1430 developing 1600 horse-
power. As it turned out the Continental was beset with development problems and despite Herculean
efforts by Continental including the construction of a new manufacturing facility in Toledo, Ohio, the
IV-1430 never went into series production. After the Continental debacle, Curtiss chose Merlin
power in the form of a single-stage V-1650-1 , later exchanged for a two-stage V-1650-3 . With less
than stellar performance, the USAAF requested Curtiss to continue on with the P-60 's development
using various power plants including a turbosupercharged Allison V-1710-75; Chrysler sixteen cylin-
der XIV-2220 ; and finally the R-2800-10, R-2800-53, or R-2800 -18 . The power section of the -10
and -53 were identical, the -10 being the F6F Hellcat and P-61 Black Widow power plant. The
R-2800-53 featured dual rotation (contra-rotating) propeller drive. The R-2800-18 normally powered

-
....

Fig. 9.1 60 Curtiss YP-60. Grasping at straws, this once proud company tried a number of
power plants for the P-60 series. Hard to imagine, but this dog of an airplane was entered
in the postwar Bendix Trophy Races. Engine failure caused the pilot to bail out and that was
the end of the YP-60. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institu-
tion. Photo No. 2A 15312.)

543
Chapter 9

the F4U-4 Corsair. In May 1944 the hammer dropped in the form of the USAAF informing Curtiss
they were no longer interested in the P-60 despite the fact that the YP-60E was yet to fly. As a last
and sad hurrah, the XP-60E was destroyed while attempting to qualify for the 194 7 Thompson Trophy
Race.

Table 9-14 shows the specs for the R-2800 powered P-60 variants.

TABLE 9-14 CURTISS XP-60 SPECIFICATIONS

Parameter XP-60C XPNP-60E

No. Built 1 2 (one XP-60E and one Y P-60E)
First Flight January 27, 1943 May 26 , 1943 (XP-60E)
July 15, 1944 (YP-60E)
Engine R-2800-53 R-2800-10 (XP-60E)
R-2800-18W (YP-60E) (Fig. 9.161)
Propeller 6-blade, dual (contra) rotation 4-blade
Winq Span 41 ft, 3-3/4 in . 41 ft, 3-3/4 in .
Wing Area 275 SQ ft 275 SQ ft
Length 34 ft, 1 in. 33 ft, 11 in. (YP-60E}
33 ft, 7 in. (XP-60E)
Empty Weiaht 86981bs 86981bs
Gross Weight 10,785 lbs 10,320 lbs (XP-60E}
max. T/O: 11,835 lbs 10,270 lbs (YP-60E)
max. T/O: 11 ,835 pounds (both)
Fuel Cap . - Normal 178 aal 178 aal
Fuel Cap . - Max. 225 qal 225 qal
Range 315 mi 315 mi
Service Ceiling 37,900 ft 38,000 ft (XP-60E}
34, 000 ft (YP-60E)
Climb 3890 in 1 min 4200 in 1 min (both)
10,000 ft in 2.5 min
Max. Speed 414 mph at 20,350 ft 410 mph at 20,200 ft (XP-60E)
405 mph at 24,500 ft (YP-60E)
Cruising Speed
Landinq Speed 89 mph 89 mph

Armament 4 X .50 machine guns 4 X .50 machine guns (X P-60E)

6 X .50 machine guns (YP-60E)
Comments R-2800-53 same as -1 O except for XP-60E originally designed for V-1710 .
dual rotation propeller drive. Initially YP-60E featured a bubble canopy.
designed for Chrysler XIV-2220.
This engine was dropped due to
excessive weight and CG concerns .

544
Fig. 9.161 At least the YP-60 had a decent engine, the R-2800-18W, the same engine that powered the F4U-4.
(Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.) ~

~
~
~

~
r:;
s::i
::::>:
0
;:::;
"'
Chapter 9

Curtiss C-46

Curtiss C-46s {Fig. 9.162) will forever be engrained in the minds of aviation enthusiasts as the
aircraft that flew "The Hump," aka the Himalayas. "The Hump" was the route flown by USAAF
transport aircraft, during Word War II, from India to China, which necessitated flying over the largest
mountain range in the world-the Himalayas. In fact, this versatile aircraft did far more than fly
"The Hump. " It was designed as one of, ifnot the first, aircraft to utilize the "double bubble" method
of fuselage design. A circular cross section offers the best strength to weight ratio for a fuselage;
however, as the volume requirements of the aircraft increase, a purely circular section becomes
impractical due to an inordinately large diameter. Curtiss overcame this shortcoming by utilizing two
overlapping circles with the cabin floor formed at the intersection of the two circles . This methodol-
ogy was carried on with other aircraft, notably the military Boeing KC-97 and its civilian counterpart,
the Boeing 377 Stratocruiser. With a wing span of 108 feet, 1 inch, the C-46 was the largest Allied
twin-engined aircraft of World War II. Only the massive Heinkel 177 was larger and it could be
argued that that aircraft was four-engined .

Originally designed in 1937 as a 36-passenger commercial airliner, Curtiss designated it as the CW-20.
First flying as the CW-20 in 1940, the Army Air Force was suitably impressed and authorized the
purchase ofthis aircraft for cargo transport purposes. Subsequently, the prototype was purchased by

Fig. 9.162 In its element flying "The Hump " from India to China, the Curtiss C-46 provided
sterling service in this role. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney)

546
 Military Applications

the Army Air Force and given the Anny designation C-55. Later, it was converted to civilian use and
sold to the British. An At111y redesign of the original Curtiss C-20 was designated C-46. Sensing the
urgency of the requirement for mass production, the Army also made modifications to the basic
design to make it more adaptable to mass production. Eventually, three manufacturing facilities
produced the C-46: Buffalo, New York; St. Louis, Missouri ; and Louisville, Kentucky. Although the
C-46 served in all theaters of World War II, it is flying over the Himalayan mountain range, nick-
named "The Hump, " for which it is remembered. Flying the treacherous route from India to China,
often over gross, enduring icing conditions, foul weather over some of the most inhospitable territory
in the world and numerous attacks by Japanese fighters , the C-46 gave invaluable service hauling all
manner of cargo. This cargo could include five Wright R-3350s for B-29s operating out of China.
With numerous tie-down rings and a winch at the forward end of the fuselage, loading heavy and
bulky items such as the aforementioned R-3350s was made considerably easier, particularly when
compared with the other mainstay of Army Air Force transpo1tation, the C-4 7. The C-46 's versatility
didn ' t end there, fittings at the bottom of the fuselage allowed the transportation of disassembled
propellers. Additional cargo space was provided for in the lower part of the "double bubble."

Postwar, the C-46 continued on with USAF service into the 1950s. After its military duty drew to a
close, it soldiered on flying cargo and, like most large piston transports, many ended their days in
Miami's " Corrosion Comer" flying the Caribbean, Central and South At11erican routes or flying in
Alaska. With one exception, all C-46s were powered by "B" series R-2800s, the sole exception being
the postwar C-20E Curtiss developed for the new burgeoning airline business. The C-20E was
powered by a pair ofWright R-3350s. But this was yet another developmental dead-end for Curtiss.
By the mid to late 1940s, newer designs such as the Martin and Convair twins had been developed for
the same market. These new postwar designs easily eclipsed the, by now obsolete, C-46 concept.
Even at its conception, the C-46 was a fairly ubiquitous aircraft with no design innovations, a feature
that probably made it so successful in World War II where reliability and ease of maintenance held
sway over more advanced but potentially more problematic designs (Fig. 9.163).

Both QECs were interchangeable with each other. Each engine was supplied with 40 gallons of oil
contained in a tank mounted behind the firewall. A circular oil cooler mounted under the engine was
supplied cooling air from the characteristic scoop in the cowl nose bowl. Induction air for the single-
stage, two-speed supercharger was supplied via a ram scoop on top of the cowl. Filtered and warm
air was provided for inside the cowl. Two filters were located on both sides of the cowl. Warm air
came from heated cooling air from the engine and a muff around the top portion of the exhaust
collector ring (Fig. 9.164) . Instead of using cowl flaps around the entire circumference of the cowl
in typical radial fashion, the C-46 relied on cowl flaps in the lower portion only. Interestingly, this was
a feature used on the Curtiss P-40 with its liquid cooled Allison V-1710. Never noted for its easy
handling in the air, the fact that it was tail dragger exacerbated the problem on the ground (Fig. 9.165)
(Refs. 9.3, 9.58).

547
 9
{;
...,~
I. NOSE CO NE 6. FLOOR 'O

2. NOSE SECflON 7. RAM AIR DUCT

l. SLIDING W INDOW 8. f.IREWALL
4. COWllNG 9. NA(;KLE
S. PILOT 'S ESCAPE DOOR 10. NACELLE LANDING GcAR DOOR
II . MAIN LANDING GEAR
12. DE-ICER SHOE
13 . W ING TIP
14. AILERON
15. O UTER PAN EL
16. AILERON TRIM TAB
17. O UTER PANEL FLAP
18. SPLICE RIB
19. C ENTER PAN EL FLAP
20. C ENTER PANEL
21 . FAIRING
22. MAIN CARGO DOO R
23. TAIL WHEEL
24. TAIL CONE
25. STABILIZER
26. STAB ILIZER TIP
27. ELEVATO R TIP
28. ELEVATOR
29. ELEVATOR TRIM TAB
30. RU DDER TRIM TAB
JI. RUDLJl:R
32 . RUDDER TIP
3J. FIN TI P
34. FIN
JS. FA IRING
] b. PARATROOP JUMP DOOR
37. TROOP DOOR
38. f-U>l: LAG E-REAR SEC TI ON
]9 . ESCAPE HAT C H
40. FU SELAGE- CENTER S£CTIO N
'4 1. FUEL TANKS
42. NAVI G ATOR "S OO Mc

Fig. 9. 163 Ma;or sub-assemblies of the C-46. (ErecNon and Maintenance Instructions for Army Model C-46
Aircraft. Courtesy of the NaNonal Air & Space Museum.)
 Military Applications

FILTERED AIR
FROM NACELLES

HOT AIR FROM

CA RBURETOR
HOT AIR SHROUD

Fig. 9.164 C-.f6 cowl system showing: cold ram air induction, heated air induction, and filtered
induction. Depending on operating conditions, the pilot could customize the induction air
supply to suit the prevailing conditions. (Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Model
C-46 Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

Wing Span ........... .. ................ ....... .. 108 ft

Length ...... . ... ....... .. ... ...... ... .. .. .... ... 76 ft, 4 in.
Wing Area ............ ..... ............ ......... 1360 sq ft
Empty Weight ......... ... ..... ..... .......... 29,483 lbs
Loaded Weight ... .... ....... ... .............. 45,000 lbs
Max. Overload Weight ..... ............ 50,000 lbs
Propellers ................ ...... ................. Curtiss Electric, four-blade, 13 ft, 6 in. dia.*
Engine ... .... ... .......... ..... ... .... ... ..... .... R-2800-5 (XC-46), R-2800-34W (C-46F and XC-46B), R-2800-43
(Fig. 9.166), R-2800-51 ** (C-46A, Dl , D5 , E, F, G)
Max. Speed (at 45 ,000 pounds) .. ... 265 mph at 13,000 ft
Cruising Speed, 67 percent ........... 227 mph at 10,000 ft
Climb to 10,000 ft ......... ........... ...... 13.5 min
Service Ceiling .......... ..... .... .... ....... 24,500 ft
Service Ceiling One Engine ... ....... 12,000 ft

* Postwar, most C-46s had the four-blade Curtiss E lectric propellers replaced by three- blade Ha mi lton Standa rd s.
** Many civilian operators modified the R-2800-51 , a "B" series engine, by in sta lli ng " C" type cylinders. The modi fie d
engine was known as an R-2800 -5 lMI (Modification one).

549
Vl
Vl
0

MAIN GEAR TAIL GEAR

Fig. 9.165 C-46 main gear and tail gear. (Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Model C-46
Series. Navy Model R5C-l Airplanes, November 30, 1943. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)
 AJi Ii tary Applications

Fig 9.166 Three-quarter left rear view of the "B" series R-2800-43. All production C-46s
were powered by various single-stage, two-speed "B " engines, many of which were manu-
factured by Ford Motor Company. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

551
Chapter 9

Vickers-Armstrong Warwick

Sir Barnes Wallis, Britain's brilliant and innovative aeronautical engineer developed numerous unique
aircraft and dirigibles. One of the few successful dirigibles built in England between the wars, the R-
100, was developed by Wallis. Possibly from his dirigible experience, he later developed the "geo-
detic" form of construction for his aircraft designs. Although standard for dirigibles, it had never
been used for aircraft construction. Often described as a basketweave method of construction, the
load bearing members were made up from aluminum strips riveted together with the result it resembled
a woven basket. The final result was covered in fabric for a light and strong airframe . One of the
more well-known and famous of his aircraft was the twin-engined Wellington medium bomber, used
extensively by the RAF during World War II. As a follow-on to the Wellington, Wallis developed the
Warwick, another twin-engined bomber but considerably larger (Fig. 9.167). Although originally
envisioned and designed as a bomber, in service it saw many different roles including general recon-
naissance, air-sea rescue, transport, and troop transport. Powered by the S 1A4G-G, an early "A"
series R-2800 rated at 1850 horsepower, the Wanvick was quickly withdrawn from service by the
late 1940s. Some examples were powered by the much larger and more powerful Bristol Centaurus
(Ref. 9.3) .

Fig. 9.167 Vickers Warwick. Another brainchild of the brilliant British aircraft designer Sir
Barnes Wallis. It followed his by now tried and true geodetic construction method. (Courtesy of
the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. 2A 27866.)

552
 Military Applications

Other R-2800 Powered Projects

Fleetwings XBTK

Lost in the annals of history are several aircraft that barely saw the light of day. In the mid 1940s, the
Navy was looking for a replacement for the by now obsolete Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bomber.
Several companies submitted design proposals for this requirement: Divebomber Torpedo Attack or
"BT." Five companies submitted aircraft: Martin XBTM, Curtiss XBT2C, Boeing XF8B, Douglas
XBT2D, and Fleetwings XBTK (9.168). Fleetwings was organized in 1929 with a specialty in
stainless steel construction . In 1934 Fleetwings acquired the premises of the former Keystone Air-
craft Corporation located in Bristol, Pennsylvania. Up to 193 9 Fleetwings concentrated its efforts on
research. As the demand for aircraft for the build-up to World War II accelerated, they executed
contracts with the Army Air Force and U.S. Navy. They also performed subcontract work for
Curtiss-Wright, Republic, Douglas, Vought, Gnunman, Sikorsky, and others. In 1943, Henry J. Kaiser,
of Liberty ship fame, acquired Fleetwings .

Test flown in August, 1945 , the Fleetwings XBTK represented the only R-2800 powered aircraft out
of the five contenders for the lucrative Navy contract. One of the interesting features of this airplane
was its use of an augmentor exhaust system. Exhaust gases mixed with cooling air and discharged
midway down the sides of the fuselage.

Douglas won out over the others and subsequently developed the highly successful Skyraider from
this Navy requirement (Ref 9.50).

Fig. 9.168 Fleetwings XBTK-1 on final approach. This aircraft was built in response to a
Navy bid that was won by the Douglas Skyraider. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. IA 45568.)

553
Chapter 9

Hughes D2A I XA-37 I XP-73

Howard Hughes, the brilliant and yet enigmatic billionaire developed a number of aircraft, none of
which saw series production. One of these aircraft was Hughes ' D2A (Fig. 9.169).

Through its development life the D2A (design number two, A model; design number one was the
famous Hughes Racer) went through a number of mission requirements. As the XA-37 it would
have been a medium attack bomber, convoy protector, or convoy destroyer, and as a pursuit aircraft
it was designated XP-73 . Wright Field never took this aircraft seriously; in fact, internal memos
referred to Hughes as a "hobbyist." Nevertheless, with his own funding, the D2A was flown on
June 20, 1943, by Hughes. Apart from aileron reversal problems, the aircraft apparently flew quite
well. Before flight development had a chance to get under way, the one and only prototype was
destroyed in a hangar fire .

Each R-2800-49 was boosted with two GE. Type B turbosuperchargers, vertically mounted behind
the wing leading edge. A single large scoop under the nacelle fed cooling air to the oil cooler,
induction air to the suction side of the turbosupercharger compressors, and cooling air to the intercooler.

..·,.. --

i! ~
""'-'
/

Fig. 9.169 The ever secretive Howard Hughes built the D2A medium bomber. (Courtesy of
the National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. JB 07304.)

554
 Ali Ii tary Applications

The rectangular intercooler lay flat under the upper side of the nacelle. Cooling air entered from
underneath the nacelle and exited over the top of the wing. All things considered, a nicely designed
installation (Ref 9.50) . Interestingly, the D2 was originally designed for a turbosupercharged version
of the 42-cylinder R-2160-3 Wright Tornado. And as one wag stated, it's a good thing this engine
never got into production, otherwise no mechanic would want to work on this incredibly complex
engine. When it became apparent that Hughes was not going to get the Tornado because it was
needed on other projects, he opted for the R-2800 instead and redesignated it the D2A. Three
R-2800-49s were shipped to Hughes for this project. As an interesting aside, despite huge expendi-
tures of manpower and money, no aircraft ever flew powered by the R-2160 Tornado.

Vought XTBU-1

Vought produced a Navy bomber, the XTBU-1 , powered by an R-2800-6 (Fig. 9.170) (Ref 9.50).

Fig. 9.170 Vought XTB-1. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Mus eum, Smithsonian
Institution. Photo No . lB 47890.)

TBFandSB2C

Notwithstanding the success of the Navy's two primary torpedo bombers ofWorld War II, the Gmmman
TBM (also built under license by Eastern Aircraft as the TBF), and the Curtiss SB2C (Son of a Bitch
Second Class!), it was only natural that they could be made even better with more power. Both
aircraft types were powered throughout their production lives by the Wright R-2600 . As good as it
was, the R-2600 was maxed out at 1900 horsepower. Therefore, both of these aircraft were test
flown under the power of an R-2800. Like many other projects, the end of World War II ended these
experiments (Ref 9.50).

555
Chapter 9

Beech T-36A (Fig. 9.171)

Government mismanagement probably reached its zenith with the Beech T-36A. On July 10, 1951,
Beech was announced winner of a U.S. Air Force requirement for a high speed trainer. In Decem-
ber of 1951 , just a scant five months after award of business, Beech built for the Air Force Inspection
board a full-scale mock-up. Beech threw all their available resources into this project, even to the
point of going on a hiring binge which later hurt them due to the amount of deadwood they picked up .
Due to its size, by Beech standards, a whole new manufacturing facility was built for T-36A produc-
tion. Ground was broken on June 2, 1952, with completion scheduled for spring of 1953 . Such was
the importance that the Air Force placed on the T-36A, production was planned to be shared with
Canadair. On June 10, 1953 , the hammer dropped in the form of the Department of Defense inform-
ing Beech that all production contracts for the T-3 6A \Vere canceled. What is even more frustrating
about this story of government zigzagging was the fact the T -3 6A was ready for its maiden flight the
following day. It never flew. This ·whole sorry scenario begs the question, why wasn't it flown
anyway? No one knows the answer to this perplexing question. Perhaps the customer, the U.S. Air
Force, decreed that it not be flown. Nevertheless, considering the millions poured into this project it
would have been nice to have at least preserved this aircraft or flown it. Alas, neither happened.

Fig. 9.171 Beech expended incredible resources to develop the T-36A. The project was canceled
one day before the maiden flight was scheduled. (Courtesy of Raytheon Aircraft and Tim Travis.)

556
 Military Applications

Beech T-3 6A Parameters:

No. Built .. ................... 1
First Flight ........... ....... Never occurred; planned for June 11 , 1953. Project canceled June 10, 1953.
Engine .. ......... .. ..... ...... R-2800-101
Wing Span .... ............ .. 70 ft
Height ....... ................. 21 ft, 5 in.
Length .......... .... .... ...... 52 ft, 2 in.
Gross Weight.. .......... .. Over 25 ,000 lbs
Combat Radius .......... 650 mi
Service Ceiling ..... ...... 34,000 ft
Max. Speed .......... ...... Over 300 mph
Comments ... .. ............. As a trainer, it was designed for a crew of four; three students and one instructor,
with a cockpit arrangement for providing space for two seats behind the pilot
and co-pilot. As a transport, it provided accommodation for a crew of two
and twelve passengers (Ref. 9.59).

Lockheed C-69E Constellation

Although conceived prior to World War II at the request ofTWA and specifically Howard Hughes, no
civilian Constellations were delivered before World War II started. Instead, at the outbreak of the
war, production was converted to the milita1y transport version, designated C-69 by the Army Air
Force. All production Constellations were powered by various versions of the Wright R-3350, how-
ever, one was manufactured with R-2800-83s . C-69 versions were powered by the R-3350-31 or R-
3350-33. These engines were essentially the same as the following B-29 engines: R-3350-23A or R-
3350-25 . The major difference was that the R-3350-31 /-33 did not have the exhaust driven
turbosuperchargers used on B-29s. Early B-29s were beset with serious engine problems so the
USAAF ordered one C-69 to be powered by R-2800-83s. Like many projects during World War II,
disruption of production lines could not be tolerated so the R-2800 powered "Connie" was dropped
after one aircraft had been built. After World War II Wright corrected the R-3350 's major faults.
These included going to a forged cylinder head with far more cooling-fin area and replacing the
forward exiting exhaust for the front row of cylinders to a rear exiting system. Ball joints connected
the front cylinders to the front collector ring. These ball joints could, and often did, leak causing
drastic overheating. Finally, Wright produced the superb, if somewhat fragile 3350 turbo-compound
for the last of the "Connie" line: the 1049H and 1649 Starliner.

557
Chapter 9

Douglas B-23 Dragon (Fig. 9.172)

A product of the 1930s, by World War II the Douglas B-23 twin-engined medium bomber was
outdated. Nevertheless, Pratt & Whitney found the B-23 ideal for testing purposes. Normally
powered by a pair of Wright R-2600-3s, Pratt & Whitney converted it to R-2800-5 power. However,
this aircraft went through a number of variations on its R-2800 power. Most notable was its use for
testing dual rotation propellers for the R-2800 .

Fig. 9. l 72(A) As a test mule, the Douglas B-23 served its purpose well. Here it is shown
powered by an R-2800 driving dual rotation propellers. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

558
 Military Applications

Fig. 9. J 72(B) (Continued)

Fig. 9.172(C) (Continu ed)

References
3.7 Index of Double Wasp & R-2800 Designated Engines , Pratt & Whitney document revised
5115155 .
9.1 Davis, Larry, P-47 Thunderbolt in Action, Squadron/Signal Publications, Carrollton, Tex. ,
1984.
5.6 Lippincott, Harvey H. , A History of the Pratt & Whitney R-2800 Double Wasp (R-2800)
Engine , United Technologies Archives.
9.2 The Turbosupercharger and the Airplane Power Plant, January 1943, General Electric,
Schenectady, N.Y.

559
Chapter 9

9.3 Jane, Fred T., Jane :S All the World :S Aircraft 194516, published by Sampson Low Marston &
Company Limited, 1946 .

4.22 The Turbosupercharger and the Airplane Power Plant, General Electric, January 1943.
4.23 The 1943 Supercharger Symposium Lecture Book, General Electric River Works, West
Lynn, Mass.
9.4 Bodie, Warren M. , Republic :S Thunderbo lt From Seversky to Victory, Widewing Publica-
tions 1994, reprinted 1995.
9.5 Freeman, Roger A. , Thunderbolt, a Documentary History of the Republic P-47, Motor-
books International, 1978.

9.6 Pilots Manual for Republic P-47 Thunderbolt, Aviation Publications, 1973.
9.7 Vogeley, A. W., Climb and High-Speed Tests of a Curtiss No. 714-1C2-12 Four-Blade
Propeller on the Republic P-47C Airplane, National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics,
Wartime Report, Langley Field, Va. , December 1944.
9.8 Gardner, John J., Effects of Blade Loading on the Climb and High Speed Performance of
a Three Blade Hamilton Standard No. 6507A-2 Propeller on a Republic P-47C Airplane,
National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, Wartime Report, Langley Field, Va. , July 1945.

9.9 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Models RP-47B and RP-47C, P-47C-l, -2,
-5 , P-47G Series and P-47D Series Airplanes, British Model Thunderbolt.
9.10 Illustrated Parts Breakdown, USAF A-26A and A-26B Aircraft.
9.11 Mesko, Jim, A-26 Invader in Action, Squadron/Signal Publications, Carrollton, Tex. , 1980.
9.12 Interview in August, 2000, with Don Jordan, head of engine installation engineering for all F4U
Corsair series.
9.13 Sullivan, Jim, F4 U Corsair in Action, Squadron/Signal Publications, Carrollton, Tex., 1977 .
9.14 News Bulletins United Aircraft Service Corp. , Chance Vought Airplanes, Serial Numbers 1
through 6, dated June 1944 to December 1944.
9.15 Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model F4U-l Aircraft.
9.16 Illustrated Maintenance Parts List for Navy Model F4U-l Aircraft.
3.72 US. Navy Progress 1935- 1945 Vol. II- Power Plant Design , unpublished report compiled
by Daniel D. Whitney, 1999.
9.17 Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model F4U-4.
9.18 Illustrated Maintenance Parts List for Navy Model F4U-4 Aircraft.
9.19 Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model F4U-5.
9.20 Illustrated Maintenance Parts List for Navy Model F4U-5 Aircraft.

560
 Military Applications

9.21 Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model AU-1.

9.22 Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model F4U-7.
9.23 Installation and Test of an R-4360 Engine in the F4U-l (W.M.)Airplane, Report No. PWA.146,
November 1944 .

9.24 Erection and Maintenance Handbook Navy Model PV-2 Airplane, 15 November 1945.
9.25 Scrivner, Charles L, and Scarborough, Capt. W.E. USN (Ret.), Lockheed PV-1 Ventura In
Action , Squadron/Signal Publications, Carrollton, Tex., 1981.
9.26 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Models P-61A and B , 30 December
1944.

9.27 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Models P-61C.

9.28 Pilot's Manual for Northrop P-61 Black Widow.

9.29 Davis, Larry and Menard, Dave, P-61 Black Widow , Squadron/Signal Publications, Carrollton,
Tex., 1990.

9.30 Illustrated Parts Breakdown USAF Model C-123B Aircraft, l July 1954 .
9.31 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for USAF Model C-123B Aircraft.
9.32 Adcock, Al, C-1 23 Provider in Action, Squadron/Signal Publications, Carrollton, Tex., 1992.
9.33 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Navy Model PBM-5 Aircraft.
9.34 Smith, Bob, PBM Mariner In Action Including the P5M Marlin , JRM Mars and P6M
Seamaster, Squadron/Signal Publications, 1986.
9.35 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Model B-26C Aircraft.
9.36 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Model B-26B-l and -26C Aircraft.
9.37 Pilot's Flight Operating Instructions for Anny Models B-26B-l and -26C.
9.38 Birdsall, Steve, B-26 Marauder in Action, Squadron/Signal Publications, Carrollton, Tex., 1981.
9.39 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Navy Model F6F-3, F6F-3N, F6F-5, F6F-5N
Airplanes.
9.40 Sullivan, Jim, F6F Hellcat in Action, Squadron/Signal Publications, Carrollton, Tex., 1979.
9.41 Aeronautical Reports, Report No. 666, Air Force and Moment for F6F-3 Seaplane, Aerody-
narnical Laboratory Department of Aeronautics, Navy Yard, Washington, D. C. , 12 June 194 3.
9.42 Pilot's Handbook of Flight Operating Instructions for Navy Models F6F-3 , F6F-3N, F6F-5,
F6F5N Airplanes.

9.43 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Navy Models F7F-1N, F7F-2N, F7F-3 , F7F-3N,
F7F-4N, F7F-3P Airplanes .

561
Chapter 9

9.44 Scarborough, Capt. W.E. USN (Ret.), F7F Tigercat in Action, Squadron/Signal Publications,
Carrollton, Tex., 1986.

9.45 Jane, Fred T., Jane's All the World's Aircraft 194516, published by Sampson Low Marston &
Company Limited, London, 1948/1949.

9.46 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Navy Models F8F Airplanes .

9.47 Scrivner, Charles L. , F8F Tigercat in Action, Squadron/Signal Publications, Carrollton, Tex. ,
1990.

9.48 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for USAF Model C-82 Aircraft.

9.49 AAF C-82 To Be Tested With Track-Type Landing Gear, War Department Public lnfonna-
tion Division Press Section, May 18, 194 7.

9.50 National Air & Space Museum archives.

9.51 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Navy Model AJ-1Aircraft, 15 February, 1949.

9.52 Handbook of Maintenance Instructions Navy Model AJ-1 Aircraft, 15 July 1953.

9.53 Interviews with Dana Waring, fonner Pratt & Whitney development test engineer.

9.54 Howes, B.T. , Torqu e Stand Coo ling Investigation of R-2800-D2G Engine X-111 , SMR
No. 827 . Date of Repo1t: May 11 , 1942. Date of Test: April 16, 1942 .

9.55 Pratt, R.W. , Crankshaft Torsional Vibration Characteristics of the Simu lated R-2800-
D2G Engine No. 6, SMR 819. Date of Report: 4-7-42. Date of Test: 3-6-42 to 3-14-42.
9.56 Pratt, R.W., Crankshaft Torsional Vibration Characteristics of the R-2800-D2G Engine
X-111 with Master Rods in Cylinders Nos. 8 and 9, SMR 823. Date of Report: April 21 ,
1942. Date ofTest: April 6-7, 1942.

9.57 Layout drawings showing XP-56 engine installation located in Pratt & Whitney archives.

9.58 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Anny Models C-46 Series . Navy Model R5C-l
Airplanes, November 30, 1943.

9.59 Daniel, William H. , Beechcraft- 50 Years of Excellence, Published by McCormick Arm-

strong Co. Inc.

562
 Chapter 10

Commercial Applications

Civilian operators are in the business of flying aircraft for one reason-to make money. Anything
that compromises this ideal is not a consideration. Airlines and cargo operators couldn't care less
about the romance, technical attributes, or mystique of a particular aircraft or engine. Rolls-Royce
found out to their chagrin that despite the magnificent record of the Merlin in military operation, its
civilian life was fraught with problems . Rolls-Royce learned a valuable lesson that was not lost on
their later gas turbine entries into this unforgiving marketplace. Pratt & Whitney was fortunate in
this regard. They had already amassed considerable experience with their engines in civilian use
prior to World War II and therefore understood the demands of the marketplace. With the coming of
peace in 1945 , the demand for faster travel was almost insatiable . Contributing to this demand was
the fact that thousands of airports with surfaced runways, constructed during World War II, were
dotted around the world ready to accept the new wave of airliners about to descend upon them.

Based upon the foregoing requirements of reliability and economical operation, none of the more
sophisticated versions of the R-2800 entered civilian use. This would include the two-stage,
intercooled engines and the turbosupercharged engines. Instead, all civilian aircraft powered by the
R-2800 used single-stage, and in some cases single-stage, two-speed, superchargers. The only con-
cession to military sophistication was the use of ADI in some applications . In fact, this use of ADI
was ideally suited to the airline and cargo environment where maximum gross weight ensured oper-
ating margins to take care of the bottom line. ADI is most effective at low altitudes and where high
powers are required, i.e ., the takeoff envirorunent. Of course, if the takeoff was at something less
than maximum gross weight, the pilot/flight engineer could make the decision on whether ADI was
necessary.

Pratt & Whitney tried valiantly to sell the airlines on turbo-compounding versions of the R-2800 and
"E" series R-2800s with variable speed superchargers. Despite very favorable performance figures,
commercial operators declined these more sophisticated R-2800 variants . In retrospect, their deci-
sion was probably correct. Rolls-Royce produced the only two-stage piston engine to enter commer-
cial operation in the western hemisphere, the 600 series Merlin (Fig. 10.1). It took years for
Rolls-Royce to gain any semblance of reliability and longevity between overhauls with this engine

563
Chapter JO

Fig. 10.1 Civilian operators do not have the luxury of an unlimited budget, therefore, practicality
takes precedence over sophistication. Rolls-Royce~ sophisticated 600 series Merlin was possibly
the only two-stage engine developed for civilian use. It took years before this highly stressed
thoroughbred assumed any semblance of longevity for civilian operators. As an interesting aside,
by the time Rolls-Royce got the problems ironed out they had a very reliable power plant which
has not gone unnoticed by warbird operators. 600 series cylinder heads and cylinder banks,
colloquially known as "transport heads and banks," are now much sought after by P-51 Mustang
operators. (Courtesy of the Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust.)

which was rated at well over one horsepower per cubic inch. In the meantime, operators flying
equipment powered by the 600 series Merlin suffered the financial consequences of flying an overly
sophisticated power plant for the intended purpose.

Likewise, the only turbo-compound engine to enter commercial service was the Wright R-3350
turbo compound. And again, this highly stressed engine could be very problematic unless handled
with kid gloves. It is interesting to note that when specific power outputs approach and exceed one
horsepower per cubic inch, reliability seems to suffer an inordinate amount of degradation. With the
foregoing in mind, it is probably fortuitous that the highest rated commercial R-2800s developed a
conservative 2500 horsepower-and even that figure was only achieved with the aid of ADI for
brief periods of time, e.g ., during high gross takeoffs.

"Requiem/or Corrosion Corner"

Like old soldiers, old piston engined airplanes never die, they just seem to fade away. One of the
favorite resting places for these magnificent relics from a bygone age was, at one time, Miami
International' s "Corrosion Corner. "

564
 Commercial Applications

The northwest corner of Miami International Airport v,ras not only the final resting place for Douglas
transports such as the DC-3 (Fig. 10.2), DC-4 (Fig. 10.3), DC-6 (Fig. 10.4), and DC-7 (Fig. 10.5),
but also Curtiss C-46s (also powered by the R-2800) (Fig.10.6), Lockheed Constellations (Fig. 10. 7),
the mighty KC-97 (Fig. 10.8), Convair t\vins (240, 340, and 440) and Martin twins (202 and 404). All
these types and others 'vere scattered around in various states of dereliction.

Taxiing by in the air conditioned comfort of a modern jet liner, one could easily be excused for
thinking that "The Corner" was a junkyard, which in effect it was . But what marvelous junk!
Nick-named "Corrosion Corner" or simply "The Comer" an aviation enthusiast would simply be
absorbed into another time and another era. Many enthusiasts had mixed feelings about "The Comer"
due to the abuse heaped upon the resident aircraft. And yet where else would one see so many of
these aircraft in one place still earning a living? Littering the ramp area would be QECs on "L"
stands, engines, and props lying around on the ground being scavenged for parts and various air-
frame parts.

Adding to the ambiance of the place were the colorful characters who operated out of "The Corner"-
including the CIA, who found its locale and reputation an ideal hiding place for its covert operations to

Fig. 10.2 Douglas Aircraft Company s ubiquitous DC-3, many of which ended up taking resi-
dence in "Corrosion Corner. " (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

565
Chapter JO

Fig 10.3 Another Douglas warrior operating out of "Corrosion Corner " was the reliable C-54
Skymaster or DC-4 in civilian guise. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig 10.4 The real work-

horse operating out of "The
Corner, " Douglass DC-6
was a common sight with its
raucous exhaust note,
running its CBJ 6s to the
edge. (Courtesy of John K.
Morton.)

Central and South America. The level of maintenance for The Comer's resident aircraft was almost
nonexistent. If an engine would tum a propeller-it was bolted onto a wing and flown ! In other
words engines were run to failure . During The Comer 's glory days, the sight of a DC-6 or Connie
with an engine feathered approaching Miami International at times seemed to be the norm rather than

566
 Commercial Applications

Fig. 10.5 More problematic than its Pratt & Whitney powered siblings, nevertheless, DC-7s
earned their keep from "The Corner" despite the fragility of their Wright R-3350 turbo com-
pounds. This "Corner " resident is shown in the Caribbean island ofAntigua. (Courtesy of
Carlos Arana.)

Fig. 10.6 Almost tailor-

made for "The Corner, "
C-.f.6s soldiered on into
the 1990s until a lack of
spares finally curtailed
their operations. (Cour-
tesy of John K. Morton.)

the exception. It was in this brutal and abusive environment that the R-2800 proved its worth.
Engines with in excess of 3000 hours logged since their last major overhaul were common. Over
gross takeoffs, pulling every possible inch of manifold pressure, pouring as much ADI into the engine
as it would tolerate with black smoke pouring out of the exhaust stacks, again, was common. Rate of

567
Chapter JO

Fig 10. 7 Like the DC-7, Lockheed's Constellation suffered from the complexity of their Wright
R-3350 turbo-compound engines. Exacerbating the problem was the fact that Connies are a
typical Lockheed product, i.e., overly complex and more d(fjicult to maintain than a Douglas due
to its sophisticated hydraulically assisted.flight controls. Even so, they hauled their share of
cargo out of "The Corna " It would be no exaggeration to say three-engine landings were more
common than four-engine landings! (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

climb was often the rate of fuel bum. The sight of an over gross DC-6 nmning METO power over
the island of Bimini (40 miles due east of Miami International) was a common sight.

Like the airplanes that took up residence in The Comer, the characters attracted to this magic envi-
ronment lent even more mys tique to the whole area. All types from fly-by-night con artists, criminals
on the lam, operators purchasing worn-out DC-6s expecting to make a fortune, to true aviation
enthusiasts and lovers of old transports hung out there . Regardless of one 's opinion on this environ-
ment, no one would question the fact that it was not boring. Before the environmentalists got really
belligerent and powerful, The Comer was full of oil stains from worn-out and leaky old radials.
Towards the end, these wonderful old transports were subjected to the humiliation of having to wear

568
 Commercial Applications

Fig. 10.8 Although not as common as the Douglas transports, C-46s or Connies, a few KC-97s
operated out of "The Corner " Its complex turbocharged Pratt & Whitney R-4360s made mainte-
nance a real chore. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

"diapers" (fancy drip pans) under each engine inunediately after shut down or face the wrath of the
"Feds ." As the pressure from the FAA and the Miami Port Authority increased, The Comer finally
gasped its last breath in 1995 when that wonderful piece ofreal estate was bulldozed. The surviving
aircraft were either scrapped on the spot or banished to other airpo1ts. We will never see the likes of
The Corner again.

Heyday

The R-2800 enjoyed its heyday throughout the 1950s and into the early 1960s. As soon as the more
modern gas turbine equipment became available, R-2800 powered aircraft and all other piston powered
equipment for that matter, were soon relegated to secondary roles such as cargo and shorter com-
muter flights. And finally, these worn-out war horses ended their days in the hands of Corrosion
Corner operators and third world operators. Interestingly, like the mythical elephants graveyard,
many of these old workhorses ended their days in various states of dereliction at Santo Domingo's
airpo1t in the Dominican Republic.

Table 10-1 details all the civilian applications for the R-2800.

569
Chapter JO

TABLE 10-1 CIVILIAN APPLICATIONS OF DOUBLE WASP

Manufacturer Aircraft Model Engine Model(s)

Vickers * Warwick I S1A4-G

Convair Model 110 SC13-G , CA15 , CA17
Convair Model 240 CA15, CA18, CA3 (NWA)
Convair XT-29 CA18
Convair C-131-D C816
Convair R4Y-1Z C816
Convair Model 340A, 8 C816
Convair Model 440 C816 , C817
Douq las DC-6 (4478) , DC-6A, CA15
Dou alas DC-6 CA15A
Douqlas DC-6 CA18A
Douqlas DC -6A , DC-68 C816
Douqlas On Mark 8-26 (Modified Doualas Invader) C816
Dou alas DC-6, DC-6A, DC-68 C817
Martin 202 CA15
Martin 202 CA18
Martin 404 (E.A.L.) C83
Martin 202 , 404 C816
Aero Sud Quest S0-30-P "8retaane" CA18
Aero-Nord Model 2503 C817
Aero-Nord Model 2501 C82
8requet 8R-763 "Deux Ponts" CA18
8reguet 8R-765 C816
Hamilton Standard Test enqine C82
Canadair CL215 CA3 , C816
Howard 500 C816
*Although powered by a civi lian designated version of the R-2800, the Warwick was clearly not a civilian
aircraft. All foreign mi litary aircraft powered by Pratt & Whitney engines received civilian designated Double
Wasps .

570
 Commercial Applications

Douglas DC-6

At the forefront of modem postwar airline technology was the Douglas DC-6 (Fig. 10.9) series of
four-engined aircraft. Based upon Douglas ' successful predecessors, the DC-3 and DC-4, the DC-6
closely followed the design of the DC-4. In fact the prototype DC-6, a military designated XC-l 12A,
was a stretched DC-4 with the added features of pressurization and R-2800s for power. Although in
its infancy during the early postwar years, competition among the airlines demanded this much
sought after creature comfort for passengers . Pressurization also allowed the aircraft to operate at
more efficient, i.e. , higher, altitudes, which in tum avoided much of the turbulence associated with
low altitude flight. Introduced just prior to the outbreak of World War II in the Boeing Stratoliner,
pressurization was an i1mnediate hit with passengers fed up with being bounced around in low altitude

Fig. 10.9 After some initial and serious teething problems had been worked out, the DC-6
proved to be one of the finest postwar airliners. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. JA 39277.)

571
Chapter 10

sununer turbulence. World War II put a halt to these developments except for the Boeing B-29 .
Cabin pressurization was accomplished via a Roots type positive displacement blower driven off the
engine. An intercooler reduced air temperature to a comfortable level for passengers. These early
pressurization systems or cabin superchargers as they were sometimes known, exhibited some
interesting idiosyncrasies. Quite frequently, lubricating oil for the blower would leak past seals and
contaminate cabin air! As soon as pressurized piston engined aircraft entered cargo service, the
pressurization system was removed. This not only removed a considerable amount of weigh but
saved several hundred horsepower to drive the blower. Of course with today's jet powered aircraft
these are non-issues; gas turbines simply bleed off air from the compressor section of the engine for
pressurization duties.

Sharing the same 117 foot, 6 inch wing as the DC-4, the XC-112A's fuselage was stretched by 81
inches for a total length of 100 feet, 7 inches. The first flight occurred in February 1946. Following
on its heels was the first flight of the civilian DC-6 in June, 1946. With the introduction of the CB16
version of the R-2800, Douglas took advantage of the additional 300 horsepower per engine by
stretching the fuselage an extra 5 feet and increasing gross weight by 10,000 pounds .

Table 10-2 compares the basic performance parameters of DC-6 variants .

TABLE 10-2 DOUGLAS DC-6 SPECIFICATIONS

PARAMETER DC-6 DC-6A DC-68

Number Built 175 74 288
Winq Span 117ft, 6in. 117 ft, 6 in 117 ft, 6 in .
Winq Area 1463 sq ft 1463 sq ft 1463 sq ft
Lenqth 100ft, 7in . 105 ft, 7 in . 105 ft, 7 in.
Heiqht 29 ft , 1 in. 28 ft, 8 in. 28 ft, 8 in.
Empty Weiqht 53,623 lbs 49,767 lbs 55,357 lbs
Max. Gross TIO Wt. 97,200 lbs 107,000 lbs 107,000 lbs
Winq Loadinq 66.4 lbs/sq ft 73.1 lbs/sq ft 73.1 lbs/sq ft
Power Loadinq 11 .6 lbs/hp 11 .1 lbs/hp 11.1 lbs/hp
Cruisinq Speed 328 mph 315 mph 315 mph
Rate of Climb 900 ft/min 1010 ft/min 1120 ft/min
Service Ceilinq 29,000 ft
Range with Max. Payload 3340 mi 2925 mi 3005 mi
with 21,300 lbs with 28, 188 lbs with 24,565 lbs
Max. Fuel Ranqe 3915 mi 4720 mi 4720 mi
Engine CA15 (Fig. 10.10) CB16 CB16/CB17/-83
/CA 15A/CA18 (Fig. 10.11)
ADI Yes Yes Yes
Propellers Hamilton Std. , Hamilton Std., Hamilton Std. ,
3-blade 3-blade 3-blade

572
 Commercial Applications

Fig. 10.10 Early DC-6s were powered by CA I 5s, fitted with ADI, as were all DC-6 variants
regardless of which R-2800 powered it. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. 10. l 1 DC-6Bs were powered by R-2800-83s; note the GE. ignition system. Interest-
ingly, this engine also powered a Navy fighter, the Vought A U-1. Unlike ground bound
transports such as Mack trucks, transport aircraft need high performance engines. This
would be akin to powering the aforementioned Mack truck with a V-12 Ferrari engine!
(Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

573
Chapter JO

The DC-6A and DC-6B were very similar, the primary difference being their intended mission. The
6A was optimized for cargo duties and therefore did not need cabin windows. To facilitate freight
loading, two upward folding doors one at the rear of the fuselage and one at the front, behind the flight
deck, were provided for. A strengthened floor was also a requirement. The DC-6B was a passenger
carrying version of the DC-6A. Therefore, the requirement of a strengthened floor was dropped and
cabin windows were added. Up to 102 passengers in high density configuration could be carried.
Later versions of the DC-6B could be powered by CB-17 s, offering an additional 100 horsepower
per engine compared to the CB16 powered versions . Passenger accmmnodation varied from 26 to
52. The wing consists of a center section approximately 70 feet in span with detachable outer panels
and wing tips. The 70 foot center section includes the four semi-monocoque engine nacelles. Double
slotted flaps with up to fifty degrees of deflection kept landing speeds to a minimum (Fig. 10.12).

Built from 1946 to 1958, the DC-6 would be a cash cow for Douglas. In all, over 530 variations of the
DC-6 were manufactured. Only the inevitable introduction of jet powered aircraft curtailed its prof-
itable production run. With such an easy to maintain and reliable aircraft, it was not surprising that
most of the major airlines of the 1950s operated DC-6s. Compared to its Wright R-3350 powered
contemporaries such as the DC-7 and Lockheed Constellation, the DC-6 offered relief from unre-
lenting, difficult and expensive maintenance. After its service with the airlines finally came to an end
in the early 1970s, DC-6s took a new lease on life. Cargo operators found its rugged reliability to their
liking. Consequently, many were operated out of South Florida hauling cargo to the Caribbean,
Central and South America-many out of "Corrosion Comer. "

DC-6 Military Versions

The combination of range, reliability, and load carrying capability of the DC-6 was not lost on the
military. As stated above, the first DC-6 ·was the military XC-112A, later redesignated YC-112A.
This aircraft was soon sold to the civilian market where it soldiered on in various guises until being
written off in 1976.

President Harry S. Truman took delivery of the first "Air Force One," even though that term had not
been coined, on July 1, 1947. Truman designated the airplane "The Flying White House. " It later
sported a flashy paint job with its name, "The Independence," emblazoned across the nose section
(Fig. 10.13). It was basically a DC-6 and the 29th delivered . Its military designation was C-118-DO
powered by R-2800-95s, which featured minor modifications compared to the R -2800-34. After
performing government duty for twenty years it was retired to the Smithsonian Air & Space Museum.

The newly formed MATS (Military Air Transport Service), later renamed Military Airlift Command
(MACS), took advantage of the DC-6A's performance as a transport. Its roles included cargo
carrying and troop transport. Powered by R-2 800-52Ws rated at 2500 horsepower, this engine was
the military counterpart to the civilian Double Wasp CB 17.

574
 Commercial Applications

HlP SKIN

FLAP IN RETRACTED POSITION

BOTTOM SKIN FLAP L I NK FAI RING

TOP SK I N

FLAP EXTENDED; 20' ROTATION

BOTTOM SK I N

Fig. 10.12 Three

phases of a DC-6 :S
slotted flap system.
(Erection and
Maintenance
Instructions C-118
Aircraft. Courtesy of
the National Air &
Space Museum.)

Not to be outdone by its Air Force sibling, the Navy designated R6D- l took delivery of 65 aircraft
also powered by the R-2800-52W. When configured as VIP transports the aircraft received the
designation R6D-1Z . In 1962 the Navy reverted to the USAF designations ofC-l 18B and VC-l 18B.

After the inevitable teething problems had been worked out, the DC-6 proved to be a reliable per-
former. One of the initial teething problems turned out to be quite serious. In 194 7 two aircraft

575
 Chapter JO

(A)

(B)

Fig 10.13(A) and Fig 10.l 3(B) The 1950s version of Air Force One, although that term was not
used at this time. Harry Truman named his specially modified DC-6 "The Independence, " no
doubt in deference to his hometown of Independence, Missouri (10.13[A]).

Later, this aircraft was repainted in the now-familiar Air Force One color scheme (J0.13[B]).
Truman s successor, Dwight Eisenhower, chose to use a Lockheed Constellation until just before
the end of his second term when the first Boeing 707 was introduced, and this aircraft lasted
through to the Reagan Administration. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. IA 38482.)

576
 Commercial Applications

caught fire with fatal consequences for one. A United Airlines DC-6 crashed in Bryce Canyon
National Park, Utah, resulting in the loss of 52 lives. The second DC-6 to catch fire was far more
fo1tunate . An American Airlines DC-6 made a successful emergency landing at Gallup, New Mexico.
These incidents resulted in the grounding of the DC-6 fleet until the cause could be determined . It
was found that vented fuel could be drawn into the heating system and ignited. After this discovery,
the appropriate modifications were made.

Airlines from all over the world purchased this versatile aircraft, either new or used. However, it was
inevitable that with the introduction ofjet and gas turbine powered equipment, the DC-6 's days were
numbered-a t least for passenger operations. Late in its life, a new niche was established -that of
cargo carrier for third world nations in the Caribbean, Central and South America. Additionally,
Alaskan operators particularly like the DC-6 's attributes. These operations have kept a number of
R-2800 overhaul facilities in business .

From the outset, easy maintenance was the goal, therefore all four QECs were interchangeable.
Learning from World War II developments, the DC-6 featured a very efficient ejector stack exhaust
system. As an additional assist for high gross takeoffs, an ADI system was installed (Fig. 10.14) .
Although Curtiss Electric propellers were offered as an option, most DC-6s used Hamilton Stan-
dards . A large air-scoop on top of the cowling served as the ram air induction system. A classic
convergent/divergent diffuser was incorporated into its design. Air entering the scoop was diverted
into a plenum chamber for more uniforn1 distribution of induction air and it also acted as a water
separator. For flight into icing conditions, the ram scoop was closed off via a door and heated
induction air came from within the cm;.,1ling (Fig. 10.15). A similar shaped scoop was located at the
bottom of the cowling which housed an elliptically shaped oil cooler. Oil temperature was controlled
by the diverter valve integral with the cooler and by controlling the mass air flow through the cooler
via an exit flap (Fig. 10.16). As with the carburetor ram air scoop, the carefully designed ductwork
controlling air flow featured a convergent/ divergent diffuser. It may be coincidence , but the DC-6's
oil cooler installation is remarkably similar to the North American P-5 lB/C/D Mustang cooling sys-
tem . The fact that Douglas ' main facility in Santa Monica, California, was not far from North
American's facility in Inglewood may have contributed to this design similarity (Refs . 9.3, 9.50, 10.1 ,
10.2) .

577
 PIPE TO
REGULATOR

r:----./
)'\·
'~
/ CARBURETOR ''
DERICHMENT
---
PLUG

\
VALVE 1

VIEW A
LOOKING FORWARD AT CARBURET OR-LH SIDE
\
RETURN VAPOR VENT PIPE

WATER / ALCOHOL SUPPLY PIPE

Vt
-.l
00 No19 :
for continuation of piping
oft of firewall, see
shHI 2

WATER / ALCOHOL INJECTION

JUNCTION BOX
WATER / ALCOHOL PRESSURE-WARNING
INDICATOR LIGHT SWITCH SUPPLY PIPE

WATER / ALCOHOL PRESSURE TRANSMITTER

ELECTRICAL EQUIPMENT MOUNTING BRACKET

........____ __ --- WATER / ALCOHOL PRESSURE-WARNING

INDICATOR LICHT SWITCH

WATER/ ALCOHOL INJECTION SYSTEM-PO WER PLANT INSTALLATIO

N

Fig. 10. 1-/. Douglas made the wise decision to incorp orate ADI to the DC-6. This
offered the necessary
power required for a high gross takeoff without the complexity and weight of a two-stag
e supercharger.
(Erection and Ma intenance Instructions C-11 8 Aircraft. Courtesy of the Nationa l Air
& Space Museum.)
 ··· ·.. · ..... ......... -..
FAIRING

DRUM

CABLE

CABLE

RUBBER SEAL TOP DECK OF MASTER CONTROL

ASSEMBLY ICAUURETOR UNm

Fig 10.15 Ram air scoop design had developed into a fine art by the time of the DC-6 's development. The
classic convergent/divergent scoop offered the maximum efficiency for the engine's intake system. Properly
designed, a good ram air scoop could offer an additional several inches of manifold pressure under cruise
conditions. This would then reduce the power requirements for driving the supercharger (Erection and
Maintenance Instructions C-118 Aircraft. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)
Chapter JO

Fig 10.16 Almost identical in design to the carburetor's ram air scoop, the DC-6 's oil
cooler installation was a magnificent piece of work. Again, the convergent/diverge nt duct
ensured the maximum amount of cooling air got to the oil cooler with the minimum drag It's
interesting to note the similarity of the DC-6's oil cooler design to that of the contemporary
North American P-51 Mustang. (Erection and Maintenance Instructions C-118 Aircrap.
Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

580
 Commercial Applications

Convair Twins

Throughout the late 1940s, 1950s, and even into the 1960s, aircraft manufacturers all over the world
attempted, with varying degrees of success, to build a DC-3 replacement. One that met with moder-
ate success \Vas the series of twin-engined R-2800 powered aircraft produced by Convair. Starting
with the Model 110 (Fig. 10.17), a one-off prototype, Convair would go on to build the 240, 340, and
440 . Many were later converted to gas turbine power. The poor fools who did this conversion didn't
realize what a classic they had when piston powered!

In most respects, the Convair twins were rather unremarkable aircraft, except for one key aspect,
their engine installation.

Design of the Model llO started in July, 1945, and one year later, July, 1946, flew for the first time.
Much of the development work centered on the engine installation and utilization of exhaust gas
energy. Convair later made numerous claims for the Model 240, the first production aircraft follow-
ing the 110. In part, Convair claimed that the exhaust augmentor system overcame cooling drag and

Fig 10.1 7 As a proof of concept aircraft the Convair Model 110 served its purpose well.
(Convair via W M Bodie.)

581
 Chapter JO

added enough thrust to increase level flight speed by 10 mph and takeoff payload by 2000 pounds.
Furthermore, the exhaust augmentor system provided enough hot air for complete cabin heat plus
wing and tail anti-icing . Hot anti-icing air was derived from the heated augmentor tubes. It was then
ducted internally to the wing leading edges and empanage. After circulating through the wing leading
edge and empanage, de-icing air was exhausted overboard via openings in the wing tips and louvers
in a fairing just below the rudder, on the underside of the tail cone and at the elevator 's inboard ends.

One of the identifying characteristics of the 240 compared to the later 340 and 440 models was the
use of two circular augmentor tubes (Fig. 10.18). The later aircraft used a single, rectangular
exhaust. Being a proof of concept design, in many respects the Model 110 was a lash-up. However,
it proved to be a valuable research tool, with the lessons learned being passed on to the 240 (Fig. 10.19),
340 (Fig. 10.20) and 440 (Fig. 10.21) . Part of the design challenge facing Convair was the elimina-
tion of cowl flaps. This was accomplished by the "pumping" action of the exhaust entering the
augmentors, which created a low pressure area in the cowl and consequently forced cooling air
through the cowl (Fig. 10.22). Cowl flaps and their actuators have always been a high maintenance
item . Without them, maintenance personnel could breath a sigh of relief with a troublesome system
eliminated. Another breakthrough in cowl design was the implementation of cantilevered panels
hinged at the firewall. Normal radial engine practice mounts the cowl directly on the engine. Convair 's
approach isolated the cowl from engine vibrations and shake .

Convair experimented with numerous exhaust systems in order to optimize the characteristics they
were searching for. Initially, two collector rings were used which discharged into the pair of augmentor
tubes. The augmentor tubes were routed over the top of the wing, primarily for safety reasons . Any
leaking oil, fuel or hydraulic fluid was unlikely to find its way to the superheated augmentor tubes.
The augmentor tubes were considerably larger than the exhaust pipes which entered into them. The
additional cross-sectional area was used for the discharge of cooling air. This brought up a major
concern for Convair: in the event unburned fuel entered the exhaust system, it would be discharged
into the augmentor tubes which also contained large amounts of cooling air-a perfect environment
for fires and explosions. Convair conducted many tests to satisfactorily contain exhaust system
explosions and afterburning. A pair ofrectangular auxiliary doors were fitted on top of the cowlings
adjacent to the carburetor. Although intended for ground operation to keep ignition components,
particularly spark plug elbows, at a tolerable temperature, they also doubled as "blow-out" doors in
the event of an augmentor explosion.

Despite the fact that cowl flaps could be eliminated with the Convair's unique engine installation
design, at high power settings on hot days and during ground operations, excessively high cylinder
head temperatures could occur. Opening of the auxiliary doors would alleviate this problem.

Mixing of the relatively cool engine cooling air and the high velocity, 1750 degree exhaust caused
further expansion inside the augmentor tubes . Herein lay the secret to the system 's efficiency.
However, it took intensive work for Convair to optimize the ideal cross-sectional area of the augmentors
and to arrive at the best exhaust arrangement. For the Model 240, running METO pO\ver at a climb
speed of 115 mph, thrust per engine was 200 pounds. As with most of the postwar civilian R-2800

582
 Commercial Applications

Fig. 10.18 Based on the pioneering work of the Model 110, the production Convair 240
took full advantage of the R-2800 '.S' formidable exhaust energy. Two sets of ejector exhausts
discharged into a pair of augmentor tubes (shown). (Illustrated Parts Breakdown. USAF
Series C-l 31A Aircraft, 23 February 1955. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

applications, the pilot had ADI at his disposal for high gross takeoffs . Located at the bottom of the
cowling, a flush NACA scoop provided cooling air to the oil cooler.

Once the Model 110 had served its purpose as a proof of concept aircraft it was quickly scrapped in
194 7. The first production model, the 240, was produced in 1948. Based on the pioneering Model

583
Chapter JO

Fig. 10.19 Convair 240, used primarily in the 1950s and 1960s for passenger operations
before being relegated to hauling cargo. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution. Photo No . lA 23339.)

Fig. 10.20 Similar to the 2-10, Convair 's 340 (shown) differed externally by featuring an
increase in wing span and lengthened fuselage. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. IA 2338-1.)

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 Commercial Applications

Fig. 10. 21 The Convair 440 differed from the 340 by utilizing rectangular exhaust openings
rather than the pair of circular openings used previously. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No . IA 23473.)

Fig. 10.22 This line

drawing, copied from an
SAE paper written in 1948,
shows the Convair 240
engine installation. (SAE
Paper, "Advances in
Thrust Augmentation for
Radial Engine Installa-
tions " by William A.
Clegern, Consolidated
Vitltee Aircraft Corp.,
published January 1948.)

585
Chapter JO

llO, the 240 incorporated a number of significant improvements. The nacelle was revamped and now
had a much smaller frontal area. The exhaust system now had what Convair referred to as "triamese
stacks" replacing the 11 O's collector ring set-up. Exhausts from three adjacent cylinders linked
making a total of six. In this way, three sets of simaesed exhausts discharged into each augmentor
tube. The passenger capacity was typically 40 and the wing span 91 feet, 9 inches. Relatively few
were sold on the civilian market, however the day was saved for Convair by the American taxpayer
in the form of three hundred and ninety Model 240s being purchased by the USAF under five differ-
ent designations. Considering the fact that Convair was in dire financial straits at the time of these
purchases, it was indeed a fortuitous sale.

By 1950, with the exception of military variants, sales of the Model 240 had all but evaporated .
Contributing to this state of affairs was Martin Aircraft's recently introduced new and improved
404, which could carry more passengers longer distances than the 240 . Initially designated 240A,
Convair soon affixed the moniker 340 to its challenge to Martin's 404. By stretching the fuselage
16 inches in front of the wing and 38 inches behind the wing, an extra row of seats was incorporated.
Additional payload was demanded from operators so Convair accorrunodated this request by increasing
the wing span from 91 feet, 9 inches to 105 feet, 4 inches resulting in an additional 13 percent wing
area. The larger wings also allowed room for larger fuel tanks . The 340 flew for the first time on
October 5, 1951. It proved to be more of a commercial success than its predecessor with 209 finally
being sold.

Convair kept improving the breed, thanks in part to the plethora of other aircraft manufactured for the
same mission. The final piston version of the Convair twin was designated Model 440. The most
obvious external difference between the 340 and 440 was the use of a single rectangular opening on
the wing trailing edge for the augmentor system on the latter. Other than that, the 340 and 440 were
very similar. An increase in maximum gross weight to 49, 700 pounds represented an appreciable
improvement. The last 440 rolled off the production line in 195 8 ending the manufacture of an
airplane incorporating some of the finest technology for piston engine installation.

Convair Twin Military Versions

Structurally very similar to their civilian counterparts, military versions of the Convair twins had
totally revamped interiors. The initial military order was for T-29As (the equivalent to the civilian
Model 240), which occurred in 1948 (Fig. 10.23). T-29 interiors were configured for fourteen
navigation students . The T29A was followed by the T-29B, T-29C, and T-29D, still based on the
civilian Model 240. Transport versions of the civilian Model 240 were designated C-13 lAs. Their
primary distinguishing feature was a large cargo door on the left side (Refs. 10.3, 10.4, 10.5, 10 .6) .

586
 Commercial Applications

TABLE 10-3 CONVAIRTWINS SPECIFICATIONS AND VARIATIONS

PARAMETER 240 340 440

First Flight March 16, 1947 October5, 1951 December 16, 1955
Wino Span 91 ft, 9 in . 105ft, 4in. 105ft, 4in.
Winq Area 817soft 920 SQ ft 920 sa ft
Lenqth 74 ft, 8 in . 79 ft, 2 in. 79 ft, 2 in.
Heioht 26 ft, 11 in. 28 ft, 2 in. 28 ft, 2 in .
Empty Weiqht 28,000 to 30,000 lbs 29,750 lbs and hiaher 29 ,750 lbs and hiaher
Max. Gross Takeoff Wt. 41 ,790lbs 47,000 lbs 49,700 lbs
Wino Loadina 50 lbs oer sa ft 51 lbs oer sa ft 51 lbs oer sa ft
Power Loadinq 10 lbs per hp 9.8 lbs per hp 9.8 lbs per hp
Cruisinq Speed 270 mph at 16,500 ft 284 mph at 18,000 ft 289 mph at 20,000 ft
Rate of Climb
Service Ceilinq
Ranqe with Max. Payload 1800 miles 2015 miles 1880 miles
Max. Fuel Range
Engine CA 15 (Fig. 10.24), CB16 (Fig. 10.25) CB17
CA18 or CA3
ADI Yes Yes Yes
Propellers Hamilton Standard Hamilton Standard Hamilton Standard
3-blade 23260 3-blade 43E60. 3-blade 43E60.
or Curtiss Electric.
Comments Dual , round exhaust Increased wing span . Single rectangular
outlets. Dual , round exhaust exhaust outlet.
outlets.
340s could be
converted to 440
standard.

Fig 10.23 Convair Twins did not go unnoticed by the military. This photo shows a T-29,
primarily used in the training role for navigators, thus its "T" designation. It could be used
for transporting the brass or other general transport duties. (Courtesy of the National Air
& Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. JA 23676.)

587
Chapter JO

Fig. I0.24 Side view of a CAI5 which powered the Convair 240, along with the following
aircraft : Convair Model IIO, Douglas DC-6A , Canadair C-5, and Martin 202. (Courtesy of
Pratt & Whitney.)

Fig. I 0. 25 Top view of a ubiquitous CBI 6. Note the low tension ignition identifiable by the
individual coils mounted on each cylinder head. CBI 6s are now becoming the engine of choice
for many warbird restorers, despite the fact that CBI 6s are totally incorrect for the airplanes
now being powered by them. This includes aircraft such as Vought F4Us and Republic
P-47s. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

588
 Commercial Applications

Canadair CL-215

Fighting raging forest fires has always been a dangerous and yet inevitable sununertime job. Califor-
nia and parts of Canada in particular have suffered the ravages of this scourge since the dawn of
time. Dumping water from the air is a very effective way to quench the ravenous flames that will
devour acres of forest in no time . Traditionally, tired old transports and WWII bombers such as
Douglas DC-6s, or DC-7s, B-17s, etc., have been used . Fitted with underbelly tanks, the aircraft
flies to the fire and dumps fire retardant on the conflagration, then returns to the nearest airport for
a refill. Despite the effectiveness of this procedure, it could be time-consuming. Then someone had
the bright idea of converting a Consolidated PBY Catalina with scoops that could be raised and
lowered. The pilot would fly at low level over a convenient body of water, lower the scoops and fill
up the tanks, literally and figuratively on the fly. So successful was this concept, Canadair manufac-
tured a purpose built amphibious fire bomber that could scoop up water and deposit it on fires at a
previously unheard of rate.

The CL-215 (Fig. 10.26) made its first flight on October 23, 1967, and its first water takeoff on
May 2, 1968 . This was the last airplane designed around the R-2800. Interestingly, the R-2800 had
been out of production for many years by the time of the CL-215 's first flight. Therefore, it must be
assumed that used, overhauled engines were employed. Initially powered by CA3s, later versions
were powered by CB16s . Canadian DoT certification in the Utility and Restricted category was
obtained in March, 1969, quickly followed by FAA certification in the Restricted category. Many
national governments recognized the capability of the CL-215 and put it to work in its intended role of
fighting fires and, additionally, search and rescue.

Fire fighting water is contained in two internal tanks fed by two retractable scoops. Drop doors dump
the water or fire retardant at the appropriate time. Maximum load is 1350 U.S. gallons of water or
fire retardant. The tanks can be ground filled in 90 seconds or scoop filled on the fly in 10 seconds.
For the latter method, the CL-215 flies at 69 mph in scoop mode with partial flaps deployed. CL-215s
have been knovvn to drop a prodigious 135,000 gallons of water in one day representing 100 drops.
The CL-215 is capable of scooping up water in six foot waves.

A lightweight integrated liquid spray system was developed for app lication of pesticides and oil dis-
persants. In a similar manner to the Convair twins, some CL-215s have been converted to gas
turbine power (Ref. 10.7).

589
Chapter JO

Fig. 10.26 The world's first purpose built fire bomber, Canadair 's CL-215. (Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. 7A 087 38.)

590
 Commercial Applications

Martin Twins: 202 and 404

Built to the same specifications as its fierce competitor, the Convair twins, Martin's twins held their
own against a worthy adversary. The 202 was the first twin-engined airliner of completely postwar
design to be approved by the CAA for airline use. And as with the Convair twins, the Martin twins
were developed as a DC-3 replacement. Interestingly, to this day, no one has developed a true DC-3
replacement.

The 202 (Fig. 10.27) first flew on November 22, 1946, powered by a pair of CA15s (Fig. 10.28), at
Martin's facility in Baltimore, Maryland. It was flight tested at its design gross weight of3 8,000 pounds
on January 6, 194 7. Flight testing did not go well. Serious stability problems, lateral stability about the
longitudinal axis and yaw about the vertical axis, quickly became evident. Fixing these problems
incurred a major redesign of the wing and vertical stabilizer. Increasing the wing dihedral corrected
the lateral stability problem and increasing the area of the vertical stabilizer and dorsal fin corrected
the yaw problem. These types of problems are fairly typical in aircraft development so the lessons
learned in flight testing can be incorporated into production aircraft. Problem was, Martin took the
risky path of making production tooling and even manufacturing aircraft prior to the start of flight
testing. This is even more difficult to comprehend considering Martin made the same mistake with
the B-26 Marauder. Due to this oversight, much of the new and expensive tooling for manufacture of
the 202 had to be scrapped. Furthennore, the partially completed aircraft on the manufacturing line
required extensive upgrades. Despite these setbacks, the 202 was certificated by the CAA in Au-
gust, 194 7, and it entered airline service in October of that year.

The 404 (Fig. 10.29) was a pressurized and stretched version of the 202 . Pressurization was 3.5 psi
and the fuselage length was increased by 49 inches. For additional longitudinal stability, the vertical
stabilizer was, again, increased in area (Ref. 10. 7).

Parameters (202)

Wing span ...... ..... ... ...... ... ......... ............... 93 ft, 3 in.
Wing area .. ....... ..... .......... ...... .. ..... ...... .. ... 864 sq ft
Length .............. ..... ..... ... ... .. ..... .... .. ... ....... 71 ft, 4 in.
Height ..... ... ... ............ ............ ............. ... .. 28 ft, 5 in.
Empty weight ..... ... ... ... .... .... ..... .... ... ..... ... 26,930 lbs
Max. payload ...... .................... ......... ....... 9270 lbs
Max. takeoff weight .. ... ..... .... ........ ......... 39,900 lbs
Max. speed ............................... .... .... ...... 311 mph at 14,000 ft
Cruising speed ....... ........ .... ......... ............ 286 mph at 12,000 ft
Rate of climb at S/L .............. ... .............. 2200 ft per min
Service ceiling .......... .. .... ......................... 33,000 ft
Takeoff distance, max.
takeoff weight over 50 ft ............ ....... ... 1565 ft
Propellers ........................... ...... ...... ......... Hamilton Standard 2Hl 7K3-48R three-blade
Engines ... ............ ...... .... ............ .. ............. CA15 , CA18 or CB16 (202A)

591
Chapter JO

Fig. 10.27 In competition with Convair twins, Martin twins offered stiff competition. Illus -
trated here is the first generation 202. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney A ircraft.)

Parameters (404)

Wing span ... ............ ....... ....... ....... ..... .... .. 93 ft, 3 in.
Wing area . ...... ....... ........ ......... ... .... ......... 864 sq ft
Length ......... ...... ......... ... ........ .. ....... ..... .... 74 ft, 7 in.
Height ..... . .. ....... .. ... ..... .. ........ ...... . 28 ft, 5 in.
Empty weight ............ ... ............... ..... ... .... 29,126 lbs
Max. payload ..... ... ..... .. ....... .... ..... ... .... .. . 10,205 lbs
Max. takeoff weight ... ....... ..... .. ... .......... 43 ,650 lbs
Max. speed .. ............................ .. .... ...... ... 312 mph at 14,500 ft
Cruising speed .. ....... ........ ...... ...... .... ....... 280 mph at 18,000 ft
Rate of climb at S.L ..... ...... ....... .. .......... 1905 ft per minute
Service ceiling ... .. .......... ....... ....... ........... . 29,000 ft
Takeoff distance, max.
takeoff weight over 50 ft .......... ..... .... .. . 1980 ft
Propellers .. ... ... ... ........ .... ............. .... ...... Hamilton Standard 2Hl 7K3-48R three-blade
Engines ............ ....... .. .... ............... ... ... ... CB16 (Fig. 10.30)
Accommodation ............ .. ...... ..... ........... .. 3 or 4 crew (pilot, co-pilot, and one or two stewardesses)
and 36 to 40 passengers.

592
 Commercial Applications

Fig. 10.28 CAl 5, power

plant for Martins 202.
(Courtesy of Pratt &
Whitney.)

Fig. 10. 29 Upgrades for the Martin -10-1, shown here, included a taller vertical tail with
considerably more area and a lengthened fitselage. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. lB 19811.)

593
Chapter JO

Fig. 10. 30 Another view of the ubiquitous CBI 6, possibly the most common R-2800
variant still flying. (Courtesy of Pratt & Whitney.)

594
 Commercial Applications

Breguet Type 76 Deux Ponts

For the French to install a foreign engine, a U.S . engine at that, must have grated on their nerves .
Nevertheless, even the French realized that in the austere postwar period their aerospace industry
was still getting back on its feet after the German occupation. Therefore, their only option for an
engine in the 2000 to 2500 horsepower range was the R-2800.

Breguet's early postwar entry into the large four engined transport business was the Type 76 Deux
Pants. This large and ungainly looking aircraft featured two decks in the fuselage. The prototype
was powered (underpowered?) by four 1600 horsepower Gnome-Rhone 14R fourteen-cylinder radi-
als. First flight, powered by the Gnome-Rhone 14Rs, occurred on Februa1y 15 , 1949. It was probably
the experience with the Gnome-Rhones that prompted Breguet to go with the R-2800 in subsequent
aircraft. The prototype was followed by three Type 76-ls powered by R-2800s driving French Ratier
propellers . First flown in 1951 it had an all-up weight of 88,000 pounds. After the 76-1, Breguet
developed the 76-3 (Fig. 10.31) powered by R-2800 CB-16s (Fig. 10.32) driving Hamilton Stan-
dard reversible propellers and an all-up weight of 99,00 pounds. Twelve 76-3s were manufactured
for Air France. To accommodate the greater gross weight, the wing span was increased to 140 feet,
10 inches and the wing reinforced. Air France inaugurated the use of the 76-3 in March 1953 . A
typical configuration would consist of the upper deck seating 59 tourist passengers and the lower
deck seating 48 second class passengers . In the event passengers and freight were on board, removable
bulkheads separated passengers from freight. Loading and unloading freight was accomplished

Fig. 10.31 Breguet's rather portly and pig-ugly Type 76-3 Deux-Ponts. Little wonder that
relatively few of these things were manufactured. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No. IA 15833.)

595
Chapter JO

Fig. 10. 32 Breguet Type

76-3 Deux-Ponts could be
powered by CAI 8s or, as
shown in this photo, CBI 6s.
Either way, it would appear
to be a waste of good
engines. (Courtesy ofPratt
& Whitney.)

through large panels located at the rear of the fuselage operated by hydraulic jacks . Not surprisingly,
due to its poor performance, few of these aircraft were built. Compared to the contemporary DC-6,
this thing was a dog (Ref 10. 8).

Parameters

Wing span .... ................... .................... ........ 140 ft, 10 in.

Length .. .............. ................ ....... ............... ... 94 ft, 11 in .
Height ....... .............. ........ .. ... ... ... ..... ... ......... 32 ft, 7 in.
Engine ..................... ............ ........ .. .. .. ... .... ... CA-18 or CB-16
Empty weight ............. ........ .......... ........ .... ... 71 ,000 Ibs
Max. takeoff weight ... ... ...... ... ... ...... ... ........ 113,000 lbs
Max. landing weight .............. .......... ... .. ... ... 96,560 lbs
Max. cruising speed at 10,000 ft .. ..... ......... 231 mph
Economic cruising speed ......... ...... ............. 210 mph
Rate of climb at sea level .................... ..... .. 1080 ft per min
Rate of climb at sea level-3 engines ........ 460 ft per min
Rate of climb at 5000 feet ....... .... .. ..... ........ 813 ft per min
Climb to 9840 feet.. ... ............ .......... ..... ...... 22 min
Takeoff distance to clear 50 ft ............ ...... 5580 ft
Landing distance from 50 ft ..... ....... .... ... ... 3600 ft
Max. range ... ....... ... ..... .... .......... .................. 2100 mi

596
 Commercial Applications

Sud Ouest S.0.-30P Bretagne

The Sud Ouest Bretagne (Fig. 10.33) was yet another French attempt to get into the civilian airliner
market. Comparable to the Convair and Martin twins, its performance measured up quite favorably
with its competitors from across the Atlantic. The original design was initiated during World War II
in unoccupied France. During this time period, Martin B-26s were making regular bombing runs over
France so it may have been this aircraft that influenced the design of the engine cowls, the S.0 .-30Ps
have a striking similarity to the B-26 . From 30 to 43 passengers could be accommodated in air
conditioned and pressurized comfort. It received its Certificate of Airworthiness in September, 1950.
A number of French airlines, as well as the French president, used it (Ref. l 0. 8).

Parameters

Wing span ............. .. ... ..... ............. ... ..... .. 88 ft, 2 in.
Length .... .............. ........... .... ... .... ....... ...... 62 ft, 2 in.
Height ...... ........ .... .... ... ....... .. .. .... ...... ... .. .. 19 ft, 4 in.
Empty weight ................................... ... .... 30,350 lb
Max. takeoff weight .. ..... .... ... .... .. ... ....... . 44,400 lb
Cruising speed at 20,000 ft ...... ......... .. .... 225 mph
Takeoff distance to clear 50 ft ........ ........ 4350 ft
Landing distance from 50 ft .............. ...... 3600 ft
Max. range ......... .. .... ....... ..... ... .......... ...... 1750 mi
Fuel capacity .. ... ... .. .. ... ............ ...... ..... ..... 1180 gal
Propellers .......... .. .. .... ..... .... ... .. ........ ... ..... Four-blade Curtiss Electric

Fig. 10.33 Comparab le to the Martin twins and Convair twins, the French Sud Guest SO.
30 offered good performance from its pair of CAl Bs. (Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No . IA .f.21 7../.)

597
Chapter 10

Howard 500

Dee Unger Howard was one of the most innovative aircraft designers of the 1950s and 1960s.
Starting out by modifying and converting standard military aircraft, he eventually developed his own
design. One of his earlier eff01ts was a straight conversion of the Lockheed 18, known as the
Howard 250. This was soon followed by the Howard 350, a conversion of the Lockheed PV-1.
However, Howard was not totally satisfied with these efforts ; he needed an aircraft capable of
cruising at an altitude of 23 , 000 to 25 , 000 feet and flying coast to coast with no fuel stops and ample
reserves. Of course, these requirements demanded pressurization and, for the comfort of the corpo-
rate executives riding in this aircraft, air conditioning, and a restroom. In 1956 to 1957 Howard
designed his definitive 500 (Fig. 10.34). Following the Lockheed PV-1/ PV-2 theme, a totally new
airplane was hand built. Pressurization demanded thicker skins, closer former spacing and other
beef-ups. Powered by a pair of CB-16s, Howard used F4U-4 Corsair propeller hubs with modified
Constellation blades . It is remarkable to note that the geared CB-16s at cruise (2200 rpm on the
crank and .450 :1 gearing), turned the 12-foot props at only 990 rpm, as stated by one of the pilots,
"You could just about read the words 'Ham Standard ' on the blades' decal as they swung by. " It also
made for a surprisingly quiet cabin as the passengers sat more than 20 feet. behind the props. This
hybrid propeller had auto feather capability-a major safety addition in the event of an engine failure.

The modification of the Constellation blades consisted primarily of reducing their diameter to avoid
interfering with the fuselage sides . As it was, Howard moved the engines out eleven inches com-
pared to a PV-l /PV-2. A yaw damper and yaw limiter topped off the necessary transport category
requirements. Not one for reinventing the wheel, Howard used the anti-lock braking system that he

Fig. 10.34 Dee Howard's Model 500 represented the zenith for piston powered executive
aircraft. (Courtesy of David Cummings.)

598
 Commercial Applications

designed for Bill Lear on his Lear 23 ; these consisted of Goodyear anti-skid units that had frequency
generators installed in the wheel axles. The brakes themselves were modified from the Lockheed
1649 Starliner (the ultimate derivative of the Constellation series) . The landing gear, was derived
from the PV-2, as the PV-1 gear was too light for the new, much heavier airframe. Both the gear and
the brakes had redundant emergency nitrogen activation systems, as today 's modem jet transports
do. The wing of the 500 was a new design as well; not only was it a wet wing, its planform was
changed to accommodate the higher altitudes and gain the desired speeds Dee Howard was striving
to achieve. They had a very sophisticated, and rather large Fowler flap system that featured five
independent sections per side. Control forces were reduced thanks to a hydraulic boost system (an
absolute necessity in the event of an engine failure). Lastly, the ship was smart enough to go after its
own fuel in case a sleepy pilot forgot to select one of the six tanks with fuel in it. A series of switches
and valves enabled the Auto Fuel feature. It was a pleasant item to have when it came time to
change tanks ; there wasn't an eye-opening, white knuckling event of the engine surging as it ran dry
of fuel, just a little red light telling the pilot to move the lever to the appropriate tank as the Howard
went on to seek out it own fuel source.

A total of sixteen 500s were manufactured from 1959 to 1963. Unfortunately, Howard's timing was
poor; the demanding transport category requirements that he sought for the 500, and the introduction
of the first jet powered executive aircraft took their toll on Dee's financial situation. Howard Aero
closed it doors for good in 1965. Like Dee himself, the resulting aircraft was way ahead of its time
for a piston engined, propeller driven aircraft. A remarkable performer, capable of over 420 mph at
sea level at METO power, and at 55% to 65% power, it would cruise around 320 mph. Only two of
these wonderful aircraft are still known to be flying (Ref. 10.9) .

Wing span ...................... .. ...... ................. 72 ft

Length ....... .............. ........ ..... .. ... .......... ... . 67 ft
Pressurized cabin .. ... ... ... ........... ..... .. ....... 39 ft, 11 in. long
Empty weight ......... ..... .. ......... ..... ..... ... .... 24,000 lbs
Max. takeoff weight ..... ............ .... ... ...... . 35,565 lbs
Cruising speed at 24,000 ft ...... .. ...... ....... 320+ mph
Max. range ............................... ............... 2600 mi
Fuel capacity ........... .. ... ..... ... ...... .... .. ....... 1546 gal
Fuel consumption .......... ....... ...... ............. 200 gal/hr (100 gal hr/engine at cruise)
Propellers ...................... ........ .................. 24E60 four-blade Hamilton Standard
Engines .................. ........ ............. ......... .... CB- l 6s

599
Chapter JO

References
9.3 Jane, Fred T., Jane's All the World's Aircraft 194516, published by Sampson Low Marston &
Company Limited, 1946.
10.1 Erection and Maintenance Instructions C-118 Aircraft.

10.2 Francillon Ph.D. , Rene J. , McDonnell Douglas Aircraft Since 1920, Putnam, London, 1979.
10.3 Gradidge, J.M. , The Convairliners Story, Air Britain.

10.4 Illustrated Parts Breakdown. USAF Series C-1 3 lA Aircraft. 23 February 1955.
10.5 Air Force C-13 lAAir-Evacuation Transport Design Completed, Convair Public Relations, San
Diego, Calif., July 11 , 1952.
10.6 SAE Paper: Advances in Thrust Augmentation for Radial Engine Installations by William A.
Clegem, Consolidated VulteeAircraft Corp. , published January 1948.
10.7 Jane's All The World's Aircraft, compiled and edited by John W.R. Taylor RRHisS , FSLAET,
1981- 82.
10.8 Jane's All The World's Aircraft. 1951- 52.
10.9 Author's interview with David Cummings, Howard 500 pilot.

600
 Chapter 11

Helicopters

Prior to the introduction of lightweight and compact gas turbines, helicopter designers had no choice
but to use adaptations of existing aircraft engines. From the designer 's perspective, for larger heli-
copters this meant the R-2800 was a prime candidate as a power source. Two companies, Bell and
Sikorsky, utilized R-2800 power for their helicopter designs. Rather than redesign the R-2800, Pratt
& Whitney took the simple route of modifying an existing single-stage, single-speed "C" series-48
by eliminating the reduction gears in the nose case and replacing them with a direct drive shaft
driven right off the crankshaft resulting in the R-2800-50. A splined coupler connected the propeller
shaft to the crankshaft. In this way all speed reducing requirements were taken care of at the main
rotor(s). Harnessing the power of an R-2800 with all its idiosyncrasies was a difficult design chal-
lenge. The two helicopters described give an inclination of what faced the engineers and designers
of these complex machines (Ref. 4.15) .

Sikorsky S-56, HRS-1, H-37A

Of the two helicopters powered by the R-2800, Sikorsky's (Figs. 11.1 and 11.2) was by far the more
successful. Designated S-56 by the Army, HRS-1 by the Marine Corps and Navy, and H-3 7A by the
Air Force, it provided yeoman service until the introduction of gas turbine powered helicopters.

With a conventional configuration of a main rotor and anti-torque rotor, the S-56 's power train was
anything but conventional. Powered by a pair of R-2800-50s or R-2800-54s, its total of almost
5000 horsepower made for a formidable helicopter. As with all helicopters powered by big cubic
inch, high perfom1ance piston engines, one problem that proved to be all but insurmountable was the
incredible racket produced by these engines. In the case of the S-56 the problem must have been
extremely severe due to the close proximity of the pair of R-2800s to the cabin. Exacerbating the
problem was the fact that the big Sikorsky used an individual pipe, ejector type exhaust discharging
into an augmentor. Somewhat reminiscent of the Convair twin's exhaust system, the S-56 's exhaust
discharged into a plenum (Fig. 11.3 and Fig. 11.4). The partial vacuum created by the ejector effect
of the exhaust sucked cooling air through the oil cooler. One of the many problems facing the
engineers was how to operate the throttle. Normal helicopter practice has the throttle on top of the

601
Chapter 11

Fig 11.1 Sikorsky H-37A .

(Courtesy of the National
Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution.
Photo No. JB 38768.)

collective lever operated via a twist grip, reminiscent of the throttle control of a motorcycle . With the
carburetor 's heavy return springs and overcoming friction in the lengthy control rnns meant that
without some kind of assistance this concept would be impractical. Both Sikorsky and Bell overcame
this problem by incorporating a throttle servo that allowed the conventional twist grip to be used
without requiring the pilots to use excessive force (Ref 10. 7) .

Transmission

Each engine is mounted in a nacelle on the end of small stub wings (Figs. 11.5 and Fig. 11.6) . They
are pointed in towards the center and canted rearwards approximately 25 degrees. A hydro-mechanical
clutch and fan assembly is utilized for coupling each engine to the common main transmission
mounted under the main rotor. Each hydro-mechanical clutch incorporates a fan for engine cooling.
The hydro-mechanical clutch allows the engine to be sta11ed and rnn unloaded, i.e. , not driving the
rotor. A smooth transition to drive the rotor and at the same time a positive mechanical coupling of
the engine to the transmission is provided by the fluid coupling. In the event of engine failure(s) , the
fluid coupling allows the main rotor to free-wheel and thus allow auto rotation. The fluid coupling is
typical of its type, featuring a vaned driving impeller attached to the engine's output shaft and a vaned
driven rnnner attached to the main drive shaft and the mechanical coupling, composed of a free wheel
unit controlled by the action of a flyball governor, actuator, and blocker plate. The mechanical cou-
pling contains either 12 or 15 rollers, depending on the type of clutch installed. The cooling fan is
made up of the splined hub that mates with the engine, fan plates, and fan blades. Oil used in the fluid
coupling clutch is supplied by an independent system consisting of a reservoir and pump mounted

602
 I T:iil HPtor 17 N11\t: Dt\OfS
l111cnm~Ju1c.· Cl..11 Dux C:oo l int: Air Jnlc·1 IH. Gu11 Pons
\ I» Ion FotJ Jur) Strut llJ . Piln1 's Comparinu:m An.ess f <1mwcll s
-i . S1.11 it· Pon:> lCI. PJ1m Tube"
<; , lkating and Vcn1ila.cin~ Air !nuke 11. Main I.anding Gear
(•. St:t'•i(c \'(/alkway 1.2. Moorin~ Finings
7. Au:ess Foo1wells (Left Side) l \ . f.nt:in c C.volinF Air Outlets
8. En!!ioc Prchc::u Oun Connections 24. Engine fxhau!>c fje(to t Duccs
9. Main Gca.r Box Oil Coo lin~ Air Outlcc 25. Wa lkway
I 0. Ma in Roior 2G. Passcngtr Ooor and CarJ!o Door
11. Main Grar Box Oi l Cool ing Ai r [make 27. S1abiliza
12. Rotor Clutch and Engine Cooling 28. Scabiliur OampH Strut
13. Engine Accc-ss Door 29. Tail Wheel
14. Cirburccor Cold Air Intake .)0. Moorinj.! fittin,:;
15. F re-(' Air Thermometer 31 Pylon Hinges
16. Wind:>hield Wiper

14

31

0\
0
w

26

25

22 ---..,,

Fig. 11.2 Line drawing of all the major components of a Sikorsky S-56/H-37. (Handbook Maintenance
Instructions Navy Model HR2S-l Helicopters. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)
Chapter 11

Fig. 11. 3 Augmentor exhaust system of a Sikorsky S-56. The partial vacuum created in the
mixing tube (item 6) sucked air through the circular oil cooler (item 18). (Handbook Mainte-
nance Instructions Navy Model HR2S-l Helicopters, 15 July 1957. Courtesy of the National Air
& Space Museum.)

inside the inboard side of each nacelle. A pressure hose supplies oil from the pump to the fluid
coupling. A return hose leads oil from the clutch back to the reservoir. The oil is used in the clutch
fluid coupling only during the engagement period . When the clutch pumps are turned off after
mechanical engagement, the oil drains out of the fluid coupling. Output from the fluid coupling is
transmitted to the main transmission. The initial speed reduction and torque multiplication takes place
via a spiral bevel pinion driving a larger gear. A planetary reduction gear then completes the neces-
sary speed reduction to the main rotor. Drive for the tail rotor is tapped off the main transmission
(Fig. 11.7) (Refs. 11.1 , 11.2, 11.3).

604
 Helicopters

Fig. 11 .4 S-56 ejector

type exhaust system,
reminiscent of the
Convair Twins. The
exhaust discharged into
the plenum chamber,
item 17 in Fig. 11 .3.
(Handbook Mainte-
nance Instructions Navy
Mode l HR2S-l He licop-
ters, 15 July 1957.
Courtesy of the Nation -
al Air & Space
Museum.)

Operational History

Comparable in size and load carrying capability to a DC-3, the S-56 was designed to meet the
requirements of the U.S. Marine Corps as an assault helicopter. With this mission in mind, it was
able to carry 26 fully equipped troops. Large clamshell doors at the front allowed rapid loading and
unloading. December 18, 1953, marked the S-56's first flight. It served with the Marines and Navy
from the rnid-1950s to the Vietnam era.

Parameters

Maximum speed .. ... .............. .. ... 130 mph

Cruising speed .... .... .. .... .... ......... 115 mph
Best rate of climb .................. .... 910 ft per min
Service ceiling .... ...... .... .. ............ 8700 ft
Range .... .................. .. ............ ..... 230 mi
Engine ............. ... .......... .. ......... ... R-2800-50, or R-2800-54
Empty weight.. .. ... .... .... .............. 20,690 lbs
Normal gross weight ...... .. ... .... .. 3 1,3 10 lbs
Useful load .. .................... .. .... .. .. 10,310 lbs
Fuel capacity ........ ... .. .... ........ ..... 400 gal
Fuselage length .. ........... .. .. .. .... ... 82 ft, 10 in.
Main rotor diameter ...... .. ........... 72 ft

605
Chapter 11

19

18

17
9
16
-----10

13

15 14

I. Exhaust System Installation (RH) 8. Main Fuel Sys1em (LH) IS. Auxiliary Fuel System (LH)
2. Lubrication System (RH) 9. Lubrkation System (LH) 16. Engine Controls
3. Main Fuel System (RH) 10. Exhaust Ejenor Installation 17. Auxiliary Fuel System (RH)
4. Ignition System (RH) I I. Exhaust System Installation (LH) 18. Cooling System (RH)
5. Exhaust Ejector Installation (RH) 12. Starter System (LH) 19. Staner System (RH)
G. Cooling System (LH) 13. Power Package (LH) 20. Power Package (RH)
7. Ignition System (LH) 14. Carburetor Air Induction System (LH) 21. Carbure1or Air Induction System (RH)

Fig. 11. 5 Power package layout for the S-5 6. (Handbook Maintenance Ins tructions Navy Model
HR2S-1 Helicopters. Courtesy of the National A ir & Space Museu m.)

606
 Helicopters

·I 0

17

12

,./
15 14 13

I. Engine 7. Power Con11ols

2. Cooling Sy stem 8. Engine Mount (Outboard) 13. Fuel Sysrem
3. Clutch and Fan Assembly 9. Electrical Wiring 14. Lubrication Sy stem
4. Engine Moum (Inboard) LO. Fire Extinguisher System 15. Engine Accessories
S. Exhaust System lns1alla1ion lJ. Instrument Lines 16. Accessory Compartment Shroud
6. Fire De1ec1or lns101lation 12. Hydraulic Lines 17. Air lnduciion System

Fig. 11. 6 Left-hand engine for an S-5 6. (Handbook Maintenance instructions Navy Model
HR2S-l Helicopters. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

607
Chapter 11

Fig. 11. 7 Layout of the S-56 transmission system showing the clutch/fan assembly, transmission
oil cooler, angle drives to the tail rotor, and tail rotor gear box.

1. Clutch and Fan Assembly 6. Transmission System - Forward

2. Reservoir and Pump Installation 7. Transmission System - Aft
3. Filler 8. Lines and Shaft Installation
4. Rotor Assembly 9. Box Installation
5. Gear Box Assembly
(Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model HR2S-l Helicopters, 15 July 1957. Courtesy
of the National Air & Space Museum.)

608
 Helicopters

Bell HSL-1

The winner ofa 1950 Navy competition for anti-submarine warfare (ASW), Bell's HSL-1(Figs.11.8
and 11.9) suffered from a checkered career. It was also the first and only Bell helicopter with
tandem rotors . The early 1950s were the pioneering days for helicopter development, consequently,
the HSL-1 suffered its share of development problems, primarily vibration, the plague of all helicopter
designs. The complex dynamic loads generated by helicopters were not as well understood as they
are today. Although the Navy had preferred a twin-engine design, Bell chose to go with a single
R-2800 mounted amidships in the long fuselage. Mounted at a slight angle pointing up, the R-2800
was conventionally mounted on a tubular chromium-molybdenum mount attached to the monocoque
fuselage (Fig. 11.10) . To facilitate engine maintenance and engine changes the four point mount
was hinged on the left side allowing the entire engine to swing out. Fan cooling was incorporated at
the end of the engine's output shaft running at engine speed. Cooling air was drawn in from the top
of the fuselage via adjustable shutters which controlled engine temperature. The cooling fan dis-
charged to the rear of the engine, i.e. , the front of the helicopter. A shroud surrounded the engine for
ducting air through the engine's cooling baffles. A rectangular panel at the bottom of the shroud
ducted air to the oil cooler located at the bottom of the fuselage (Fig. 11.11). The engine drove an
inclined shaft that terminated at the rear transmission v,rhich drove the rear rotor. Tapping off the
rear transmission (Fig. 11.12), another output shaft (Fig. 11.13) ran the length of the fuselage termi-
nating at the front transmission which drove the front rotor (Fig. 11.14) .

Visibility from a helicopter's cockpit is critical, therefore it is rather surprising that Bell chose to
mount the massive front transmission right in front of the pilots. A servo powered throttle was

Fig. 11 .8 Bell HSL-1.

(Courtesy of the National
Air & Space Museum,
Smithsonian Institution.
Photo No. lA 07323.)

609
Chapter 11

Fig. 11.9 Major sub-assemblies of the Bell HSL-1.

1. Forward Pylon Installation 6. Nose Landing Gear Installation
2. Aft Pylon Installation 7. Main Landing Gear Installation
3. Cabin Assembly 8. Power Plant Installation
4. Center Fuselage Assembly 9. Upper Drive Shaft Installation
5. Aft Fuselage Assembly 10. Lower Drive Shaft Installation
(Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model HSL-1 Helicopters, 15 July 1957. Courtesy of
the National Air & Space Museum.)

incorporated to overcome the throttle system's friction and carburetor springs. It consisted of con-
ventional twist grips on the collective pitch levers geared to a series of push pull tubes. A synchroniz-
ing cam, operated from the throttle's push pull tubes, which actuated a hydraulic power cylinder,
which in tum operated the carburetor throttle. The synchronizing cam was connected to the rotor
control system in such a manner that an increase in rotor pitch automatically increased the throttle

610
 Helicopters

, ·--.~
I •' I

~::;

...····,,, .
..···
'
- -~·- : ·~---~J--~f . ~ .

.;,· · -.~\,,.
~

\ _;::
)
19
11

1. Welded Mount Assembly

2. Hinge Fittlng Assembly - Upper
3. Hinge Fitting Assembly - Lower 11 . Ring Pad
4. Fitting - Hinge-Welded Mount 12. Vibr ation Dampening Mount
5. Male Pilot 13. Fitting - Welded Mount - Lower
6. Bolt - Attaching - Right Side 14 . Fitting - Bulkhead - Lower
7. Fem ale Pilot 15. Fitting - Bulkhead - Upper 19. Locking Lug
8. Fitting - Hinge - Bulkhead 16. Fitting - Welded Mount - Upper 20. Male Pilot
9. Barrel Nut 1 7, Bracket - Beam Assembly 21. Bo lt - Attaching - Left Side
10. Hinge 10. Bracket - Beam Assembly 22 . Female Pilot

Fig. 11 .10 For easier maintenance, the HSL-1 s R-2800-50 was designed to pivot on its
mount, which allowed the engine to be swung out. This view shows how the engine was
mounted inside the monocoque fuselage. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model
HSL-1 Helicopters, 15 July 1957. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)

611
Chapter 11

{
I
I
I

''
:
..···'
I

1. Control Lever
2. Control Cables
3. Side Fan Screen Bulkhead Panels
4. Upper Fan Screen Bulkhead Panel
5. Ring
6, Cooling Air Shutter
7. Cut-out Fan Screen Bulkhead Panel
8. Lower Fan Screen Bulkhead Panel
.··.- : 9. Cooling Fan
. ·..:•·""'..·
.. . : • ' f

10. Oil Cooler Duct

11. Oil Cooler
12. Engine Shroud

Fig. 11.11 Due to the relatively low speed of a helicopter, augmented cooling is necessary. In the
case of the HSL-1 , cooling air is drawn in via a fan and discharged through the engine shroud,
item 12. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model HSL-1 Helicopters. Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum.)

opening, commensurate with the increased rotor pitch. With carrier operations in mind, both rotors
could be folded (Refs . 4.15 , 10.7, 11.4).

HSL-1 Parameters

Rotor diameter (both) ......... .... ....... .. ....... 51 ft, 6 in.

Length of fuselage ........ ........ .... .............. 39 ft, 2% in.
Overall height over rear pylon ................ 14 ft, 6 in.
Width (rotors folded) ......... .. .. ...... .. ... ....... 11 ft, 8Yi in.
Max. weight ............ .. .............. ................ 26,500 lbs
Max. speed .............. ...... .. ....................... 115 mph
Cruising speed ....................... ...... ........... 96 mph
Range ..................... .. .. .. ......... .................. 350 mi
Engine ...... ... .......... ................ ........ ...... .... R-2800-50

612
 Helicopters

PYLON

(~~~
I i-- --
1 -:;,

I ,~

Fig 11.12 The HSL-1 :S- R-2800-50 transmitted its power to the rear transmission first. A
power takeoff coupling transmitted power to the front transmission. (Handbook Mainte-
nance Instru ctions Navy Model HSL-1 Helicopters. Courtesy of the National Air & Space
Museum.)

613
 ' 9
\ {3
...,~
..._
..._

',
' '·
'I -·-
"" -. ..,- ....
,.... . \, ~.--,:·:'\- 10
,·,

~ ~-:~ ~:.~ ~-,

,.
11

~ .. . - .'
'' .•··· -.•·_____•••• --------···················'' ...12
... _.. )
.. ---~ : .. '' ~ :' :'
. . :;.:
_; __\..'...·, ...
''
''' ''
., ......
... -· \
,
' . .. -·· '

'- """"·........... -· ....

._ ~
.~ -
- _... ;:~:~(~-))
-.... •'- - - - - ~ -- .... - '- '
·..-·
:,__ _, ..... . "
_

1. Forward Section - Interconnecting Sha.ft 7. Center Section - Aft - Interconnecting Shaft

2. Coupling Assembly - Interconnecting Shaft 8. Coupling ASlembly - Interconnecttng Shaft
3. Center Section - Forward - Interconnecting Shaft 9. Aft Section - Interconnecting Shaft
4. Hydraulic Pump Drive and Coupling Assembly 10. Aft Section - Input Shaft
5. Center Section - Interconnecting Shaft 11. Input Shaft Coupling
6. Coupling Assembly - Interconnecting Shaft 12. Forward Section - Input Shaft

Fig. 11.13 Drive shaft installation for the Bell HSL-1. (Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model
HSL-1 Helicopters. Courtesy of the National Air & Space Museum.)
 Helicopters

PYLON

Fig. 11.14 Vis ibility in a helicopter is essential, therefore, it's hard to understand why Bell
placed the front transmission, shown in this illustration, right in front of the pilots. (Hand-
book Maintenance Instructions Navy Model HSL-1 H elicopters. Courtesy of the National
Air & Space Museum.)

615
Chapter 11

References
4.15 Parts Catalog for R-2800-50, -50A , -52W, -54, -99W and -103W Aircraft Engines ,
15 April 1958.
10.7 Jane 's All The World's Aircraft. 1951- 52.

11 .1 S-56 H elicopter Pe1formance and Specifications (HR2S-l Marine, H -37 Army), 2-28-58.

11.2 Delear, Frank J., Public Relations Mgr., Fact Sheet. Sikorsky S-56, Sikorsky Aircraft, Divi-
sion of United Aircraft Corporation, Stratford, Conn ., March 1968.
11.3 Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model HR2S-l Helicopters, 15 July 1957.

11.4 Handbook Maintenance Instructions Navy Model HSL-1 Helicopters, 15 July 19 5 7.

616
 Chapter 12

Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

Sitting behind the power of one, two, or four R-2800s can be an intimidating and yet exhilarating
experience. The pilot/flight engineer needs the dexterity and skill of an organ player as throttles,
mixture controls, propeller controls, cowl flaps , magneto switches, boost pumps, and oil cooler flaps
are manipulated in a mechanical ballet of flying arms and fingers . At the same time, the condition of
the engine(s) is/are monitored via the oil pressure, cylinder head temperature, oil temperature, fuel
pressure, tachometer, and BMEP meter. All R-2800s being operated now use direct crank electric
starters. Engaging the starter emits that sweet sounding high pitched whine that could only come
from straight-cut, precision reduction gearing. Bringing an R-2800 to life is like awakening a giant
dinosaur: somewhat reluctant, but once in motion you have a tiger by the tail. Normal procedure is to
motor the engine over on the starter for about four revolutions of the propeller, then energize the
magnetos. During the initial cranking, a judicious amount of prime in the form of raw gasoline is
injected into the intake system. This is where a skilled pilot/flight engineer can show his worth by
judging what amount of prime is required based on ambient temperature and how long it has been
since the engine was last shut down. As soon as the mag switches are energized, providing the
correct amount of prime has been administered and the engine is in reasonably good mechanical
condition, the cowl will shudder as the first couple of cylinders realize that a highly volatile and
combustible mixture is trapped inside and a source of ignition has just been provided. Blue smoke
from entrapped oil burning with the fuel/air mixture starts to emit from the exhaust stacks. As
cranking continues, more cylinders come on line announced by further clouds of dense blue smoke.
When all eighteen cylinders are hitting-some better than others, the blue smoke starts to diminish.
Even so, it takes several minutes for the lower cylinders, the ones that are more vulnerable to oil
build-up, to clear. This is evidenced by characteristic puffs of blue smoke from individual cylinders
blowing out of the exhaust stacks, almost like smoke signals. Warm-up is then commenced at 800 to
1000 rpm. Anything less will not ensure adequate oil flow to the bearings and anything greater
imposes too much thermal stress and loading on the engine.

Following is an operating procedure issued by Pratt & Whitney during the 1950s for CB engines .
This procedure has been paraphrased and abbreviated by the author. Even so, it gives an idea of
what it takes to operate an R-2800.

617
Chapter 12

The following engine operating reco1mnendations are intended to promote the most successful and
efficient use of the Pratt & Whitney R-2800.

I. Ground Operation

A. Ground Considerations-Since the R-2800 's engine cooling provisions are not primarily designed
for ground operation, additional consideration is required, not only to the engine but also to the
accessories. To assist in maintaining adequate heat dissipation throughout the engine during
wann-up and to provide maximum cooling thereafter, cowl flaps are left wide open during all
ground operation.

The fuel booster pump is switched on prior to starting the engine. Especially on installations
equipped with one-position boost pumps, the initial surge of boost fuel pressure, sometimes
referred to as "hanuner effect," due to "hydraulic-locking," is often sufficient to unseat the
carburetor 's mixture control plate and introduce a variable quantity of fuel into the intake system.
This variable quantity of fu el may be sufficiently large to confuse priming requirements. By
actuating the boost pump prior to sta1ting, however, any excess fuel is dissipated during cranking,
thus maintaining priming requirements at a relatively constant level.

B. Starting-Like any piston engine, a rich mixture is required for starting. The standard priming
system is designed to provide sufficient fuel to start a cold engine during cold weather operation.
In very cold conditions it may be necessary to actuate the primer continuously to get the R-2800
fired up. Conversely, in more temperate or tropical conditions, it is found that the standard
system has a tendency to flood unless used intennittently with considerable caution. Therefore,
like many aspects of the R-2800, sense of "feel" is required. The standard primer fuel flow is
250 to 300 pounds per hour. However, for aircraft operated in warmer climes this flow rate is
reduced to l 00 to 15 0 pounds per hour.

Prior to starting, the throttle should be positioned to yield 800 to 1000 rpm after the engine
starts. Mixture is set to idle/cutoff and the propeller is set to fine pitch or max. rpm. At this
point the engine is motored with the starter and magnetos off to purge the cylinders of residual
fuel. This also insures initial lubrication of the reduction gearing is adequate. Should any
hesitation or stoppage of propeller motion be noted, cranking should be discontinued immedi-
ately and the cause removed . This would indicate a classic case of a "hydraulic-locked" cylin-
der due to excessive fuel and/or oil. The primer switch should be actuated as required at, or just
prior to, fifteen blades (six blades if engine was shut down within one hour) . It is more desirable
to underprime than overprime and risk the effects of a blower fire. A blower fire is due to a lean
mixture backfire that causes fuel inside the supercharger to ignite . They are typically fairly
harmless and will quickly burn themselves out as all the fuel is consumed. At fifteen blades (or
six blades with a warm engine) the magneto switch is positioned to "Both" and cranking contin-
ued until the engine fires. The initial rpm surge should not be permitted to exceed 1100 rpm.
After the engine fires , hold continuous prime, adjust the throttle to 800 rpm and note a rise in oil
pressure. At this point, as the engine burns off the prime, the mixture control is slowly moved to
the auto-rich position and priming discontinued when approximately l 00 rpm decrease is noted.

618
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

The throttle is then adjusted to 1000 rpm and warm-up is considered complete when the oil
temperature reaches 40°C.

C. Idling-Correct idle mixture is extremely important in obtaining a combination of proper engine

operation with the least tendency toward spark plug fouling . In the idle range, fuel flow varies
with throttle opening. Idle mixture must be set to accommodate desired ground idle as well as
windmilling (touchdown), acceleration (wave oft), and reversing operational characteristics. To
best satisfy these requirements and minimize spark plug fouling, idle mixture should be adjusted
at the speed most commonly used for ground operation (800 to 1000 rpm).

Idle mixture is not automatically compensated for changes in altitude. Therefore, when operating
from a sea level base to a field above 4000 feet, it may become necessary to lean with the
mixture control at the higher elevation, i.e. , the mixture lever is positioned between auto-lean
and idle cut-off Of course, a pilot/flight engineer would need to exercise caution, however, to
preclude taking off with a leaned mixture that would result in a severely damaged engine due to
detonation.

When extended ground operation is necessary, it is helpful in preventing spark plug fouling to
open the throttle to field barometric pressure for one minute during each ten-minute period of idle.
Ground maintenance and flight personnel should be cautioned against excessive ground power
and/or excessively long periods of power application during ground burnout procedures. If the
procedure used is going to take effect, it should do so in ten or fifteen seconds . Also, excessively
high power or long periods of power application on the ground when engine cooling is least
effective will probably result in oil leaks from "cooked out" seals, possible ignition harness or low
tension coil failures , or engine rubber mount core distress from excessive heat.

Again, as a concession to the marginal cooling available during ground operations, using reverse
thrust for reverse taxiing is to be avoided due to its adverse effect on engine cooling. The
cooling system and cylinder head temperature (CHT) locations were not designed to accommo-
date reverse flow.

D. Engine Run-Up-Scuffed pistons have resulted by pulling power too quickly after starting cold
engines . This is due to the aluminum pistons expanding at a faster rate than the steel barrel.
Pilots have to exercise care not to exceed 1000 rpm until the oil temperature has reached 40°C.
When the oil has warmed to this temperature, the propeller check may be started. The propeller
check is perfonned at 1600 rpm.

While still at 1600 rpm and if desired, the spark advance check may be accomplished by switch-
ing to the "Cruise" (25 degrees of advance) position and then back to the "Takeoff and Climb"
(20 degrees of advance) position, noting a BMEP fluctuation each time the switch position is
changed. Usually, a satisfactory shift prior to the last descent will suffice, however, a visual
check should be made to assure that the switch is in the "Takeoff and Climb" position. A takeoff
made with spark advance in the "Cruise" position may result in a complete engine failure. This

619
Chapter 12

foregoing procedure is now all but redundant for the R-2800 because most, if not every, R-2800
operating in the world has had this feature disabled.

Engine power output is checked at a manifold pressure equal to field barometric pressure, as
indicated by the manifold pressure gage prior to starting. Revolutions per minute at this mani-
fold pressure should be approximately 2050-2200 rpm, depending on the propeller low pitch
stop setting, the accessory load on the engine, and relative wind, regardless of field elevation.
BMEP and fuel flow wi ll vary with local atmospheric conditions. Should the rpm not fall within
the prescribed rpm limits for the particular installation, a check for improper low pitch propeller
settings and/or engine malfunction may be the culprit.

The blower shift check, if desired, may be performed by switching from low to high blower at
field barometric and noting a rise (approximately of 2 in. Hg) in manifold pressure, a decrease in
BMEP, and a momentary drop in oil pressure. The blower is then shifted back to the low posi-
tion which is indicated by a drop in manifold pressure to the original value, an increase in
BMEP, and a momentary drop in oil pressure. Should erratic indications of a shift be observed
the cycle may be repeated after first idling the engine at 1000 rpm to allow the clutches to cool
for two minutes. For en route run-up, a switch position check is usually regarded as sufficient.

The magneto check is also performed at field barometric pressure. The nonnal drop on one
magneto is 5 0-75 rpm (5-7 BMEP) and should not exceed 100 rpm ( 10 BMEP). The maximum
spread between the drops ofright and left magnetos should not exceed 40 rpm (4 BMEP).

The ADI system is checked as follows ; pump switch may be actuated at field barometric pres-
sure and a partial system check made by noting the water pressure light, ADI pressure of
approximately 26 or 30 psi (depending on installation), and a fuel derichment of approximately
100- 150 pph (pounds per hour) fuel flow. The ADI flow at lower powers is negligible and may
be left on without appreciably depleting the ADI supply. In any event, it is desirable to switch on
the AD I at least several seconds prior to the application of takeoff power to purge the system of
entrapped air. When ADI is needed, it is really needed!

II. Flight Operation

A. Takeoff-Again, cooling is a prime consideration. A conscientious effort should be made to

secure the lowest practicable cylinder head temperature immediately prior to the application of
takeoff power for the following reasons : (1) the power available at 2800 rpm increases with
decreasing CHT at an approximate rate of 30 bhp per 20 degrees Centigrade; (2) common types
of spark plug deposits become more conductive with increasing temperature and their ground-
ing tendencies can be reduced or eliminated through the control of peak CHTs; (3) since CHT
will rise 40 to 60 degrees Centigrade during a normal takeoff, less cowl flap drag will be incurred
in establishing the desired 190 to 200 degrees Centigrade CHT for climb; and (4) the tendency
toward detonation and/or pre-ignition decreases with a cooler CHT. If a malfunction were to

620
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

occur which could lead to possible detonation, operating at a cooler CHT would delay or prevent
this detonation.

Minimum pre-takeoff CHTs may be attained: (1) through efficient use of the briefest possible
engine run-up time necessary to ascertain normal functioning; (2) through use of minimum post
run-up rpm commensurate with generator and ventilating system requirements; (3) by facing the
aircraft directly into the wind when practicable; and (4) by delaying cowl flap closure to the
takeoff setting until inunediately prior to the application of takeoff power. Desired CHT before
takeoff is on the order of 15 0°C. There is no minimum pre-takeoff CHT

Although it is desirable that all types of aircraft are faced into the wind during run-up , this is
particularly important for the Convair twins . In this case, a downwind component will not only
reduce the cooling air flow over the engine, but it will also impede the efficient operation of the
augmentor tubes, resulting in a further rise in CHT

With a fixed throttle setting from the start of takeoff to the point at which the first power reduc-
tion is affected, increasing airscoop ram pressure, resulting from the increase in airspeed, will
cause a manifold pressure rise of from one to three inches, depending on flight techniques. If
lift-off is abrupt, a momentary decrease of one or two inches of manifold pressure will result due
to the change in airscoop attitude. This situation is somewhat analogous to compressor stall
with an axial flow gas turbine. These characteristics should be anticipated and the throttle
monitored in an effort to maintain the desired manifold pressure.

During a wet takeoff, the ADI pressure, fuel flow, and BMEP are monitored to assure proper
ADI operation. It is not uncommon to see the maximum "no flow" pressure limit (32 psi on
Convair twins, 29 psi on DC-6s) when the ADI pump is first turned on. Although this condition
is referred to as "no flow" it really means "no flow" to the engine. Actually a total flow of about
150 pph per engine is being pumped through the lines and returned to the ADI tank through the
vapor vent line . As the throttles are opened beyond 36-38 in. Hg, a pressure drop (3 to 7 psi on
Convairs, 1 to 4 psi on the DC-6), depending upon the particular engine installation, will occur,
indicating that ADI is flowing to the engine. The desired ADI pressure with flow is 22 to 25 psi.
If at any time during a wet takeoff the ADI pressure drops below approximately 18 psi and the
carburetor enriches to more than 1800 pph fuel flow, the rich mixture, resulting from both fuel
and ADI flow, will probably cause a severe power loss which will be indicated on the BMEP
gage. A slight throttle closure may reduce ADI flow requirements sufficiently to restore
derichment pressure and result in a BMEP higher than that for dry operation.

In the event the foregoing procedure proved ineffective and conditions permitted a takeoff with
dry power on the affected engine or engines, dry takeoff power is set and the ADI switch turned
off.

Maximum flight safety dictates the use of full authorized power for every takeoff and retaining
this power and takeoff flap setting until the gear is retracted and it is apparent that all obstacles

621
Chapter 12

will be cleared by a comfortable margin. The use of takeoff power is authorized for a period of
two minutes and, subject to limiting cylinder head and oil temperatures, this authorization may
be utilized when required by abnormal conditions. Nonnally however, takeoff power is used for
much shorter periods that seldom exceed one minute even at maximum gross weight on a hot
day. Of course, when this procedure was written, Corrosion Corner did not exist I

In the interest of preserving the supply of ADI fluid, ADI switches may be turned off at any time
during the first power reduction when the manifold pressure is below the dry takeoff rating . An
increase in fuel flow should be noted as the ADI is switched off Approximately one to one and
a half gallons of ADI are consumed per engine during a takeoff.

B. Climb-Climb power should be set with rpm and manifold pressure as selected from the appro-
priate climb chart for the existing carburetor air temperature and pressure attitude. Throttles
should be adjusted to yield the same manifold pressure for all engines. By setting equal air flow
or engine output in this manner, the resulting fuel flow may be more easily monitored. BMEP
differences between engines with equal manifold pressure, rpm, carburetor air temperature, and
fuel flow are due entirely to unequal accessory loads, engine condition, and/or instrument inac-
curacy. Here it should be noted that on some installations cabin superchargers (pressurization
systems) will absorb as much as 6-8 BMEP.

It is important that fuel flow be monitored throughout the climb to ascertain that it is within
prescribed limits. The minimum fuel flow limit is not an engine limit at normal climb power. It
is, however, a carburetor limit designed to obviate damage which might otherwise result at
higher power, where the margin between a safe fuel flow and engine detonation is diminishing .
At climb power, therefore, it is considered safe to continue operation when the fuel flow is at, or
50 pph below, the minimum fuel flow, providing CHT and CAT limits are observed. If the climb
fuel flow falls more than 50 pph below published minimum, power should be reduced by incre-
ments of 100 bhp until the fuel flow is not more than 50 pph below the limit for that particular
reduced power. CHT and CAT limits must still be monitored. Because fuel/air mixture strength
versus air flow, schedules vary to accommodate individual aircraft airscoop and exhaust system
characteristics, note that minimum climb fuel flows differ among aircraft and carburetor settings .

Power settings for each blower configuration are made with manifold pressure and rpm. Fuel
flow is frequently checked to assure it is within limits. The carburetor knows what power the
engine is pulling only by measuring the air flow that the engine pumps to produce this power.
The carburetor then meters fuel according to the mass air flow it senses. In order to properly
monitor fuel flow and evaluate engine performance, the engine should be kept on the pre-arranged
schedule of air flow that can only be set by the proper rpm and manifold pressure for the existing
CAT and pressure altitude. The fuel flow-limits given, therefore, are only valid at the prescribed
rpm, MP, CAT, and pressure altitude schedule .

Blower Shifting-A blower shift may be accomplished as indicated on the climb chart even
though low blower cruise is anticipated. This practice will eliminate one desludging shift during

622
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

the subsequent cruise period. To shift from low to high blower, merely retard the throttle by three
or four inches of manifold pressure, actuate the supercharger switch, and readjust the manifold
pressure to that called for by the high blower climb chart.

Not surprisingly, during climb operation in hot weather the cooling air flow, required to main-
tain desired CHT (190 to 200°C) is necessarily greater than in winter. Two choices are available
to the pilot/flight engineer: (1) through higher airspeed, or (2) higher cowl flap opening. In
general the former is preferable from the standpoint of total trip fuel and block speed. Larger
cowl flap gap and maximum LID (lift/drag) airspeed can only be justified when a higher angle (as
opposed to the high rate of climb) is required.

C. Cruise Operation-Up on reaching cruise altitude, climb power is maintained until the indicated
airspeed slightly exceeds that anticipated for the paiticular altitude, gross weight, and cruise
power to be used. This higher airspeed will afford a cushion so that the airspeed dissipation
incurred during trim and power adjustments (blower shift, etc.) will not result in an airspeed at
the start of cruise less than that anticipated for cruise .

From the cruise chart for the selected bhp find the appropriate manifold pressure for the existing
pressure altitude and carburetor air temperature. This will be listed directly opposite the pres-
sure altitude and under the carburetor air temperature. From this point move toward the right
and downward staying within the parallel lines to find rpm, blower ratio, BMEP drop, fuel flow,
and nominal BMEP. Cruise power will then be set in this sequence:

1. Set cruise rpm.

2. Shift blower, if required.

3. Set cowl flaps to the angle anticipated to yield 190 to 200°C cylinder head temperature
when stabilized.

4. Adjust throttle to selected manifold pressure, allowing for any known gage error.

5. While carefully observing BMEP, lean mixtures individually until BMEP has been reduced
from its maximum value (best power) by the amount of the prescribed BMEP drop. Since
the transport carburetor has been specifically designed to facilitate manual leaning, a dis-
tinct rise in BMEP should be seen during the initial leaning process . If this initial BMEP
rise is not observed but instead an immediate decrease in BMEP is noted, the carburetor,
even though in the auto-rich position, is at or slightly on the lean side of best power in the
cruise range. In this case intermittent prime may be used to detennine best power. Since the
BMEP drop setting is based on a constant manifold pressure, it is essential that airspeed and
altitude be held constant during this step. A change in airspeed at constant throttle affects
ram and therefore manifold pressure and BMEP to the extent that an airspeed change of ten
knots can result in as much as a five BMEP change. This gives an indication of the powerful
power enhancing aspect of ram air induction.

623
Chapter 12

6. Readjust cowl flaps to provide the desired CHT, 190 to 200°C. When stabilized, cross check
engine instruments. With equal manifold pressure, rpm, carburetor air, and cylinder head
temperatures, equal engine air flow is normally obtained. With identical BMEP drop settings,
fuel/air ratio and therefore fuel flows will also be equal, regardless of the condition of the
ignition system. Any difference in fuel flow under these conditions must be due to instrument
inaccuracy, either flowmeter or manifold pressure, or to a mechanical malfunction, such as a
stuck valve or broken pushrod, which affects mixture flow. In summary, BMEP differences
will be due entirely to unequal accessory loads, instrument inaccuracy, and/or mechanical
discrepancies.

7. Once cruise power has been set and stabilized, the maximum difference in indicated BMEP,
after allowing for that due to unequal accessory loading, should not exceed 10 BMEP. With
discrepancies greater than 10 BMEP, the pilot/flight engineer would make a note of it to
assist in troubleshooting.

Mixtures adjusted in this manner should remain substantially the same regardless of small throttle
adjustments necessary to counteract small changes in airspeed, altitude, and/or CAT Mixtures,
however, should be periodically checked during cruise and adjusted as required particularly
after appreciable changes in CAT, power, or altitude. Mixture strength or BMEP drop can be
quickly checked by applying prime in varying amounts to determine best power or peak BMEP.

Note that throttles were first set according to manifold pressure and they were not moved. This
procedure affords the simplest and quickest adjustment to cruise power since it involves the
fewest control movements. Another advantage is that by setting equal air flow (rpm, MP, CAT,
and CHT) and fuel/air ratio (BMEP drop) on all engines, any discrepancies are in greater evi-
dence and in-flight troubleshooting is facilitated.

It is recommended that blowers be momentarily shifted to the opposite ratio once during every
two hours of cruise operation. This procedure is effective in purging the clutch chamber of
sludge build-up, which in their advanced stages can render a blower shift impossible. The shock
that usually accompanies a blower shift is not harmful to the engine, but may be objectionable to
passengers. This shock can be minimized by reducing the pumping load on the supercharger
through a manifold pressure reduction of approximately 4 inches while making the shift. No
change in rpm is necessary. The use of auto-rich mixture during this procedure is beneficial for
several reasons . Most important, the change in fuel/air ratio will alter the temperature pattern
within the combustion chamber and cause undesirable deposits to flake off and be exhausted
thus prolonging spark plug life.

D. BMEP Fluctuations-BME P fluctuations associated with lean cruise mixtures (10 to 12 BMEP
drop) are attributed to one or a combination of several phenomena characteristic of lean mixture
operation depending on the specific circumstances of each individual case.

From the classical curve of BMEP response with mixture strength at fixed throttle and rpm, it
should be remembered that at and around best power the manifold pressure response is relatively

624
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

flat but becomes increasingly steep with leaner mixtures. Thus, while the effect of any fluctua-
tion in engine input may not be visible on the torquemeter at richer mixtures, the effect of this
same magnitude of input fluctuation becomes increasingly magnified on the torquemeter with
the leaner mixtures. In addition, marginal ignition has a tendency to exacerbate this condition
even further as do pa1tially fouled plugs since the leaner mixture may cause partially fouled
plugs to misfire, which would otherwise fire normally at the richer mixtures.

To further compound this situation, the cooler combustion temperatures of the leaner cmise
mixtures are conducive to certain types of plug deposits not associated with the hotter richer
mixtures. It is for this reason that P&W recommends the application of prime for 30 to 60 sec-
onds should severe BMEP fluctuations develop after prolonged lean mixture operation. Under
these circumstances when BMEP fluctuations develop with time and are indicative of incipient
cold plug fouling , the severe combustion temperature change resulting from the use of prime is
beneficial in causing undesirable plug deposits to flake off from thermal shock and be passed
harmlessly through the exhaust system.

On the other hand, if severe BMEP fluctuations occur from the start of lean operation, the other
engine instmments should be consulted to aid in determining the primary cause of the situation.
If all other instmments are normal and steady, this could be an indication of an ignition or spark
plug problem that has existed all along but remained unnoticed at the rich mixtures. The previ-
ously mentioned bum-out procedure might help if fouled plugs are the cause. Use of an ignition
analyzer (Fig. 12.1) would also help at this time to check the remaining parts of the ignition
system to determine any maintenance action that might be indicated.

Pressure pulsations, peculiar to some carburetor airscoop installations, may cause a fluctuating
signal in air metering forces in the carburetor of sufficient magnitude as to be transmitted to the
fuel metering section and result in a fluctuating fuel flow which may or may not be picked up by
the flowmeter. This engine input phenomenon will not affect torquemeter stability at rich mix-
tures but will become visible at the leaner mixtures du e to the steeper BMEP response at these
lean mixtures. Carburetor heat door rigging should be checked for security in this case . In many
instances of this nature the following heat door manipulation proved successful with the DC-6
type of installation. Move the carburetor heat lever out of full cold slowly until the CAT gage
just starts to increase. Then return the lever back toward cold a small increment to obtain the
same CAT that previously existed in full cold, making the last movement of the lever toward the
full cold position. In essence, this leaves the heat door open the small amount necessary to bleed
higher pressure air from behind the engine into a lower pressure turbulent region immediately
downstream of the sharp bend in the induction system. The overall effect is to dampen the
pressure pulsations created at the bend making for steadier fuel metering.

In some cases, engine vibration could cause pulsating impact pressure metering through the
automatic mixture control that could indicate maintenance action on the automatic mixture con-
trol (AMC) unit. In other cases, engine excited vibrations could cause mixture control plate
oscillations. In either of these instances any resulting fuel flow fluctuations would not affect
torquemeter response at rich mixtures but could very well be visible at lean mixtures. Mixture

625
Chapter 12

NORMAL PATIERHS LOW AMPLITUDE OF PAffiRNS INDIC4TES

LOW MAGNETO VOLTAGE OUTPUT

SLOW SWEEP
SLOW SWEEP

NORMAL PATIERN LOW MAGNETO VOLTAGE OUTPUr

SLOW SWEEP
RISULT OF OPEN SECONDARY OF OPEN PRIMARY IN
ONE CYLINDER AND SHORTED ONE MAGNETO CIRCUIT
SECONDARY ON ANOTHER

INDUCTIVE PICKUP ROM OTHER MAGNETO

\~~· "'~' ROM O™" ~ONRO

SLOW SWEEP SLOW SWEEP

SHORTED PRIMARY IN OPEN "P" LIAD, ONE PRIMARY

ONE MAGNETO CIRCUIT ONE MAGNETO IL' OR La OR R' OR R'I

Fig. 12.1 (A) Keeping track of the health of the R-2800s in a multi-engined aircraft is key.
The engine analyzer could alert the flight engineer of a problem before it becomes cata-
strophic. An oscilloscope monitors the ignition. In the hands of a skilled operator many
anomalies could be interpreted. Possibly one of the more serious is the shorted secondary
indicating a peened over spark plug probably du e to a piston failure resulting from detona-
tion. At the first sign of a shorted secondary, if the engine is shut down immediately, consid-
erable damage will be prevented. (Pi lots Manual for USAF C-118.)

626
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

\::•mu
\ u<• """n
il"NO

FAST SWEEP
···~···~
ARCING BREAKER POINTS
FAST SWEEP
···~'""~
FIRST STAGE HIGH RESISTANCE

~' ,,.., """ """'""

TRACE LINE SEPARATING TWO

FAST SWEEP INITIAL HIGH AMPLITUDES

BOUNCING IRIAKIJl POINTS SICOND ITAOI HIGH RISISTANCI

MEAKER POINT
OPENING FIRST ~ STAGE HIGH RfSISTANCI

FAST SWEEP

INCORRECT BREAKER THIRD STAGE HIGH RESISTANCI

POINT SYNCHRONIZATION

Fig. 12. l (B)

627
Chapter 12

\ """" ~OM OTH.. MAGNrn>

FAST SWEEP NORMAL PATTERN

OPEN SECONDARY BREAKER POINT SYNC.

<CONDITION ON L OR RI

NO OSCILLATION

FOULED SPARK PLUG SHORTED SECONDARY

7
LOW FREQUENCY OSCILLATION

"°'" "" °'

FAST SWEEP NORMAL PATTERN FAST SWEEP

INnlAL SPARK PLUG FOULING OPEN PRIMARY ONE CYLINDER COIL

Fig. 1 2.1 (C)

628
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

control rigging should be secure and on occasion it has been found helpful to make the last
mixture control adjustment toward the rich position to preset the linkage toward that direction.

It goes without saying that the use of lean mixtures indicates utilization of the so-called long
range mixture control plate. This plate results in a flatter fuel flow response with mixture con-
trol lever travel in the leaner range .

E. Icing

Keeping in mind the old adage, "Prevention is better than cure," when icing conditions are
anticipated, it is desirable to apply preventative carburetor heat rather than risk the possibility of
having to employ the more drastic deicing procedures once icing has occurred. A carburetor air
temperature of 15 to 20°C is usually sufficient to prevent severe power loss when entering icing
condition if applied several minutes prior to entry into those conditions. The automatic mixture
control requires three to five minutes to adjust to large temperature changes and may tend to
overcompensate for temperatures appreciably above standard. It is desirable, therefore, to enrich
the mixture prior to the application of carburetor heat and delay resetting the chart BMEP drop
to allow the automatic mixture control time to stabilize. New power settings should then be
made for the existing carburetor air temperature. For operators using 25 degrees spark advance
in cruise, it should be noted here, that spark must be retarded to the normal 20 degrees position
before applying carburetor heat. Again, it should be noted that when this procedure was written,
most R-2800s still had the automatic spark advance installed and operational.

When preventative preheat is applied, the maximum carburetor air temperature limit in low
blower is 38°C. In high blower the maximum CAT is 15°C; however, this limit has been extended
to as high as 30°C for some cruise power settings. It is mandatory that these higher CAT limits
in high blower, along with the specified BHP, RPM, BMEP, and CHT limits, not be exceeded. If
any of these limits are exceeded, the maximum CAT limit reverts to 15 °C.

In connection with preheat application, it should be recognized that, with the carburetor heat
control in a fixed position, CAT will fluctuate with changes in power, airspeed, cowl flap opening,
and particularly changes in the moisture content of the air. It is necessary, therefore, to monitor
CAT to assure that sufficient CAT for ice prevention is maintained and that the above mentioned
limits are not exceeded.

The first indication of carburetor ice is normally a change in fuel flow and BMEP, which may or
may not be accompanied by a decrease in manifold pressure. If ice forms in the air metering
elements of the carburetor, a false decrease in air flow will be sensed and the carburetor will
reduce fuel metering proportionally to the reduction in air flow indicated by this faulty sense . If
this icing occurs during cruise when the mixture is already on the lean side of best power, it has

629
Chapter 12

the same effect as further leaning the mixture, thus effecting a further drop in BMEP. Another
less common type of carburetor icing may be encountered when descending through a warm
moist region with cold-soaked fuel in the tanks. The fuel , acting as a refrigerant, may cause ice
to form in the bleeds between the air chambers of the carburetor, thus increasing the metering
suction differential and fuel flow. If the mixture is adjusted to the lean side of best power when
bleed ice occurs, BMEP will initially increase. However, if allowed to progress, power will
reach a peak and decrease as the mixture enriches further. Throttle ice, screen ice, or any induc-
tion ice that restricts air flow would be indicated directly by a loss of manifold pressure and a
decrease in fuel flow propo1tional to the reduction in air flow. This reduced air flow would also
be indicated by a loss in BMEP, which in all probability would be the first sign noticed by the
pilot.

In the event that carburetor ice occurs, accompanied by a decrease in fuel flow, normal correc-
tive action is to: (i) select nonnal 20 degree (takeoff and climb) spark advance, (ii) move the
mixture control to auto-rich, and (iii) apply full carburetor heat for 30 seconds. If icing has been
allowed to reach an advanced state where engine power is greatly reduced, the preheat effective-
ness of the engine will also be reduced. It may be necessary to apply full preheat for a longer
period of time. The carburetor heat control should then be moved slowly toward the cold position
and a check made of fuel flow and BMEP to assure that the ice has been removed. If determined
that the carburetor is free of ice, the CAT should be readjusted to maintain a minimum of 15°C.

Should icing conditions progress far enough to seriously impair engine power, it may be found
difficult to obtain enough preheat to deice the carburetor and engine induction system. In this
condition the use of continuous primer may be found useful in restoring enough engine power to
reestablish a heat source.

When the fuel temperature is known to be well below freezing and bleed-air ice is encountered,
as evidenced by an increased fuel flow, the following deicing procedure should be used: Apply
carburetor heat to maintain the maximum preheat permissible for that particular power combi-
nation. As much as five to fifteen minutes or longer at maximum preheat temperature may be
necessary to restore normal operation. If the carburetor has enriched sufficiently to bring about
a severe loss in power, the mixture should be manually leaned to restore the desired fuel flow
and BMEP. This manual leaning, however, should be practiced only in the cruise or climb
power range, with the exception of emergency conditions that may dictate this procedure at
higher powers.

After manual leaning fuel flow and BMEP should be closely monitored be cause mixtures will
tend to lean out rapidly as the ice is dispelled. With normal operation restored and the ice
contributing condition still present, a carburetor air temperature of 15°C should be maintained.

Carburetor alcohol, in the opinion of a few operators, has been helpful in ice elimination, although
heat is generally found to be the more effective remedy.

630
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

Wing and tail anti-icing for Convair twins is accomplished by routing heated air, taken from the
engine augmentor muffs, through ducts in the leading edge structures. Occasionally, in extreme
icing conditions, the desired climb and cruise CHT of 200°C has been found to be incapable of
providing adequate heat to the anti-icing system. Under these conditions it is permissible to raise
CHT as necessary to a maximum of 232°C provided the following procedure is followed:

1. Engine operation must be confined to normal 20 degree spark advance.

2. Place mixture control in auto-rich.

3. After CAT, CHT, and engine operation have stabilized, it is permissible to manually lean to
a maximum of 2 BMEP drop .

F. Descent-If high spark advance was used during cruise, a recommended time for shifting to
normal spark is just before starting descent while the mixtures are still leaned. A shift at this
point will be evidenced by a positive indication on the BMEP gage whereas a shift during descent
is not so apparent, especially if mixtures have been moved to a richer position . In all cases,
however, the return to normal spark advance must be accomplished before the final approach
and a positive indication of shift should be observed on the BMEP gage.

With pressurized aircraft, the rate of descent is not normally restricted by passenger comfort
considerations, and many operators have found it expedient to maintain cruise altitude until
relatively close to destination before starting their descent. This procedure permits rapid passage
(approximately 2000 feet per minute) through turbulent strata at a conservative airspeed which
will impose the least passenger discomfort and likelihood of structural damage from turbulence.

With power combinations of high rpm and low manifold pressure the centrifugal loads of piston
movement are no longer sufficiently cushioned by the combustion chamber gas charge and they
are transmitted through the link rods to the master rod bearings. These power combinations are
known to be detrimental to master rod bearings and if frequently used for prolonged periods of
time can eventually lead to bearing distress, thus they should be avoided. In other words this
condition is "reverse loading," further described in Chapter 3, under the subheading "Master Rod
Bearings. " A good rule of thumb for reduced power setting is that a minimum of one inch
manifold pressure should be used for each 100 rpm.

Engine stability also dictates that when power is reduced it should be accomplished by a reduc-
tion in both manifold pressure and rpm. While it is true that some difficulty may be encountered
in maintaining desired cylinder head temperatures during descent at reduced power, these cooler
CHTs and the resulting engine instability are largely due to reduced manifold pressure and intake
port temperature. It is also true that a reduction in rpm will further cool CHTs, however, it will
also facilitate more stable engine operation by allowing more time for the combustion cycle of
the slower burning mixture.

631
Chapter 12

It is a safe, although somewhat wasteful procedure, to place mixture controls in the auto-rich
position when departing cruise altitude. To effect greater economy, especially on long descents,
mixtures may remain manually leaned, however they should be closely monitored to eliminate any
tendency toward instability or backfiring which could come about with appreciable changes in
altitude, power, and carburetor air temperature. Engine prime may be used to check BMEP drop
and mixtures adjusted as required. During a descent with lean mixtures, BMEP and MP must be
limited to the maximum cruise values so they also must be monitored and power reduced accord-
ingly.

Blowers may be shifted at any convenient time during descent that pov,rer requirement can be
met in low blower.

G. Approach-During this period cockpit controls are positioned to prepare the aircraft and engines
for the intended landing or possible go-around. If low blower ratio, auto-rich mixtures and
takeoff and climb spark advance have not already been selected, they should be at this time. If
carburetor heat was used during descent and is not required for a balked landing, it should be
removed well in advance of anticipated touchdown to allow time for the automatic mixture
control to adjust to the colder temperature and preclude excessive leaning should a go-around at
high power be necessary.

It is recommended that approach rpm not be set until the landing gear is extended. This will
minimize the detrimental effect associated with operation at high rpm and low manifold pres-
sure. When employing this procedure, however, caution must be exercised not to carry low rpm
too far into the approach pattern. Should a go-around be necessary or any situation arises where
high power is required quickly, the engine is better prepared to provide this power when the rpm
has already been advanced .

Whenever the use of full wet takeoff power is anticipated in the event of a rejected landing, AD I
should be switched on in sufficient time to allow the system to bleed. At powers less than
1000 bhp or 123 BMEP ADI flow will be negligible and its use should not be postponed beyond
the pre-landing check.

H. Landing-Propeller reversing provides more effective deceleration at higher airspeeds and should,
therefore, be initiated as soon as possible after the nose wheel is touched dovvn. In manipulating
the throttles, it has been found generally desirable to pause momentarily at the reverse idle
detent before applying appreciable reverse thrust. This will reduce the yaw tendency that would
accompany differing rates of propeller blade actuation and engine power response.

Cowl flaps should be positioned full open as soon as reverse power is applied. The engine
baffies, cowling, and CHT instrumentation are designed for fore-to-aft air flow, and are much
less effective during reverse pitch operation at low airspeeds.

632
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

Propellers should normally be returned to forward pitch before the airplane has decelerated to 40
knots. Below this speed severe flight control buffeting is usually encountered and exhaust fumes
may enter the cabin ventilation system in an objectionable quantity. Nothing like poisoning the
passengers with carbon monoxide! Throttles should be returned directly to 1300 rpm and then
retarded as required for taxiing. At low airspeeds, reverse propeller wash tends to starve the
carburetor scoops, richening the fuel/air ratio at low rpm to the point that backfiring or popping
may occur, particularly with throttles in the reverse detent. If desired, positive return to forward
pitch may be checked by momentarily depressing the feathering button and observing a decrease
in rpm. Correct idle mixture adjustment is of utmost importance to consistent reversing and
unreversing performance and also to smooth engine perfonnance during final approach with
windmilling propellers and partially closed throttles.

I. Taxi and Shutdown-As previously stated, cowl flaps should be full open for all ground opera-
tions, even in cold weather, to prevent excessive temperatures which may not be reflected on
CHT gages.

Preference should be given to the 800 to 1000 rpm range for which the optimum idle mixture has
been set. This will extend spark plug life considerably. Of course, rpm consistent with genera-
tor requirements w·ill take precedence.

Shut down with the mixture control whenever the CHT has dropped to 200°C. It is suggested
that throttles are positioned to 1000 rpm and tachometers observed as the mixture control is
slowly moved to idle cutoff A rise of 10 to 20 rpm before dying indicates a correct idle mixture.

If for any reason it is desired to close cowl flaps , this should be delayed until at least 15 minutes
after shutdown to allow residual heat to escape. Without this precaution fried ignition harnesses
and damaged seals may be the result (Ref. 12.1).

Operating Difficulties

The foregoing abbreviated and paraphrased process gives the reader a good indication of what pilots/
flight engineers from a bygone age had to contend with in order to safely transport passengers . With
such a complex and idiosyncratic mechanical marvel, it was inevitable that operating difficulties
would arise-and they did in spades. Like the skilled organ player alluded to above, the life expect-
ancy of the R-2800 hinged on good operating practices. As with all large, high performance aircraft
piston engines, it had its sensitivities. Even so, some problems could not be overcome even in the
most skilled hands. Perhaps the most common difficulties experienced by commercial operators
were spark plug fouling and top piston ring land failure. As we shall see they were both connected.

By the time the CB series of engines was being commercially operated it was what is known in
industry as a "mature" product. Furthennore, it had been developed into a high performance engine
and consequently shrinking margins of error. And yet conunercial operators demanded ever increas-
ing times between overhaul.

633
Chapter 12

Starting out with a simple spark problem, a chain of events could lead to catastrophic engine damage.
At wet takeoff power, a CB engine is producing 2400 horsepower at 2800 rpm. This means 23 power
events per second . Although the flight deck or cockpit is well instrumented, these instruments cannot
instantly react to the aforementioned 23 power strokes per second. For instance, the CHT has a
relatively slow response to temperature change. At the beginning of a takeoff roll and full takeoff
power is applied, it takes approximately 15 to 20 seconds for peak temperatures to be reached.
Clearly, at maximum power and minimum speed cooling is inadequate. This results in hot spots
occurring, particularly at the rear of the cylinder heads. This situation is aggravated if hot heat-range
spark plugs are installed in the rear position. These hot spots now induce pre-ignition which quickly
degenerates to the point of top piston land overheating, broken spark plug nose ceramics, and loss of
BMEP. This chain of events typically originates in the upper cylinders and yet ironically, the only
cylinders instrumented for CHT are #8 and #9, both of which are located in the cooler running lower
section of the engine. By the time over-temps are observed for CHT serious damage has already
wreaked havoc inside the engine and the hot running upper cylinders are already well into pre-
ignition. One preventive measure that some operators found to be successful was the practice of
installing a colder heat range plug in the rear positions. With hot plugs installed in the rear position,
some degree of pre-ignition would occur at each takeoff. With this kind of thermal and mechanical
distress, the top ring land is softened. After many takeoffs, the top ring land opens up and allows an
excessive clearance to develop. After hundreds of takeoffs, the top ring land is opened up to the
point where it no longer gives adequate support for the ring . Under normal operating conditions, rings
rotate in their groove. With a damaged top ring land, the ring gap eventually coincides with the widest
part of the ring groove-typically during a takeoff when temperatures are at the maximum and
probably aided by pre-ignition. The now-softened ring land now offers minimal support and Y2 inch to
5 Is inch of the
top ring breaks off due to fatigue failure. As takeoff power is reduced to cruise power,
the piston land cools off and the piece of broken piston ring is trapped in the groove. As the flight
continues or on subsequent flights , the piece of broken piston ring flutters until it finally hammers its
way out and escapes into the combustion chamber. As this piece of piston ring bounces around inside
the combustion chamber, it eventually peens over the spark plugs. If the operator is in luck, the
offending piece of piston ring will pass hannlessly through the exhaust. The damaged piston, particu-
larly around the area of the broken land, acts as a glow plug that quickly deteriorates into complete
piston failure by burning down through the lands. This classic piston failure invariably occurs at the
rear of the piston adjacent to the exhaust port area.

The foregoing describes the most common manifestation of piston failure and pre-ignition along
with spark plug failure , i.e. , nose ceramics. By far the most common form of piston failure is by
excessive temperatures. This can lead to other types of mechanical failure . When operated in pre-
ignition mode, pressures inside the cylinder are two to three times that of normal operation. This
puts additional load and stress on the valve train. Remember, the R-2800 opens its exhaust valve
70 degrees before bottom dead center. With an engine that is operating normally, a significant amount
of residual pressure still resides inside the cylinder at the point of exhaust valve opening . Initial
opening of the exhaust valve imposes a heavy load on the cam ring, pushrods, rocker arm, and valve .
When this residual pressure is increased two or threefold, the resulting excessive loads on the valve
gear lead to accelerated wear and eventually failure, usually a scuffed cam ring lobe. By "tricking"
the engine with colder heat range plugs in the rear positions, many of these failures can be headed off

634
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

by postponing the onset of pre-ignition. However, a ham fisted pilot/flight engineer can still cause
distress to the engine if takeoff power is applied too suddenly. For several reasons, power applications
on the R-2800 need to be added slowly: (i) temperatures have more time to stabilize without develop-
ing hot spots and (ii) many gear trains inside the engine are heavily loaded, especially the blower drive
gears which need to spin up a supercharger impeller 7 to 8 times crank speed. With a sudden
acceleration of the engine these gear loads are magnified.

The Ethyl Corporation, the world 's largest supplier of tetraethyl lead when it was commonly used,
issued a report in the 1950s . They found that lead deposits on spark plug nose cores reacted with
each other. As temperatures increased, new compounds were formed of higher melting points and
higher insulating value. This in tum caused the core nose insulating value to stay above the critical
value at which spark plug misfire occurred. If the temperature rise was rapid, i.e. , our ham fisted
pilot/flight engineer slammed the throttles forward , the deposit would lower in insulation value. The
critical point, or worse, could occur allowing the classic copper flow scenario whereby the plug is
shorted by bridging the gap. Of course, at this point the plug is rendered useless . Again, good
operating procedures could have alleviated some of these plug maladies (Refs. 12.2, 12.3, 12.4, 12.5,
12.6, 12.7, 12.8).

Ground Fouling

Ground fouling of the spark plugs is a function of idle mixture strength and the temperature of the
plug electrodes and nose ceramics. Since the plug temperatures at idle are essentially the same as
the CHT, it follows that ground fouling tendencies are the same for all plug heat ranges. In other
words it make no difference whether the plug heat range rating is hot or cold. If the idle mixture is
too rich, ground fouling will occur. The plug heat range rating is only valid at maximum or takeoff
power. When ground fouling occurs, it is due to excessive carbon deposits on the plugs which then
cause misfiring . This, however, can be rectified by bum-out procedures (Ref. 12.9).

Problems of Oil Viscosity at Start-Up

At low temperatures aircraft oil congeals and takes on the consistency of molasses. Highly viscous
oil can wreak havoc with an aircraft engine lubrication system by causing excessively high oil pres-
sure and little or no oil flow. Oil flow may be reduced to the point where metal to metal contact can
occur resulting in local seizure. Abnormally high oil pressures are generated, both on the pressure
side and the scavenge side. This leads to blown seals, burst oil coolers, and burst oil lines. Two
methods of controlling this damage are at the disposal of the designer. One is the controversial "oil
dilution" system . As its name suggests, the oil is diluted via the oil scavenge line. The pilot/flight
engineer has the option to inject raw gasoline into the oil system, while the engine is still hot, prior
to shutting the engine down. Even on a frosty morning, the oil will be considerably less viscous and
consequently cause less harm to the engine on start-up . As the engine warms up, the gasoline
evaporates off. However, there is a serious downside to oil dilution. Gasoline acts as an excellent
solvent, especially inside the bowels of an engine . Sludge is that nasty looking black stuff resulting
from the byproducts of combustion. Its make-up includes carbon, acids, and water. After a number
of hours have accumulated on an engine, sludge builds up, particularly in those areas exposed to

635
Chapter 12

centrifugal force such as inside crank pins and propeller domes . After oil dilution, special mainte-
nance procedures are usually called for such as cleaning oil screens and filters to remove the sludge
broken loose due to the dilution process.

Another method of increasing the rate of oil temperature warm-up is the stand pipe (Fig. 12.2) . A
typical oil system for an R-2800 may contain up to 30 or more gallons. Rather than circulate all
30 gallons, it is advantageous to only circulate the amount of oil necessary to accomplish lubrication
requirements. This may be as little as a couple of gallons . Built into the de-aerator is a stand pipe
that only allows its contents to be circulated. As the engine warms up, a valve inside the oil tank
opens and allows the full contents of the tank to be circulated. Another key role of the stand pipe is
that of ensuring an oil supply in the event the propeller needs to be feathered. This is especially
important if the engine suffers a catastrophic failure that result in the contents of the oil tank being
dumped overboard (Ref. 9.26) .

TBO, Overhaul and Testing

One of the more frequently asked questions about the R-2800 is, how many hours between over-
hauls? And the trite answer is, it all depends . As can be seen from the foregoing, operating and
maintenance procedures are key to longevity. Unlike the gas turbine which can withstand ham fisted
throttle movements and less than stellar maintenance thanks to devices such as FADEC (full author-
ity digital engine control), a sensitive mechanical device such as the R-2800 demands an equally
sensitive operator. Under conditions of regular use, skilled operation and good maintenance, the
R-2800 could survive for 3000 hours between overhauls, but 2000 hours is more typical. During this
time, however, it would not be unusual for a number of cylinders to be replaced. Nothing like
replacing a lower cylinder in below freezing weather at a remote outpost, and a schedule to meet!
And of course it's been 200 hours since the oil was changed so as soon as the cylinder is pulled it
pours out of the crankcase like a nasty, black, stinky, gooey mess to shower the poor mechanic stuck
with this unenviable task.

Overhaul

With several thousand hours accumulated, the exterior of an R-2800 looks pretty nasty v.1ith all the
burned-on oil, grease, dirt, and other accumulation of crud. So naturally, the first order of business
is to clean this mess up. The engine is set up in a stand, which can take many forms. One of the more
versatile is the Whiting stand which cantilevers the engine from the propeller shaft. This ingenious
stand allows the engine to be turned on all its axes. A worm gear rotates the engine along its
longitudinal axis and a chain drive rotates the engine about its lateral axis, i.e. , from horizontal to
vertical (Ref 12.10).

Disassembly:

Oil is drained from the sumps then the process of disassembly can corrunence . Spark plugs are
removed first. Before anything else is removed, a key check takes place: propeller shaft run-out

636
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

Oil TANK
SUMP ASSEMBLY -- ~

MARMAN CLAMP COTTER

llNSTALL WITH CLAMP PIN

MARMAN CU.MP

COTT£R PlN
SUMP b\1
'
!ALIGN SLOT IN SUMP WITH
COTTER PIN IN ADAPTER RINGI VIEW 8

VALVE CRANK IN
RJU OPEN POSITION

VALVE otANK IN
FULL CLOSED POSITION
VIEW A-A LOOKING DOWN -
SHOWING INSTALLATION ANGLE HOPPER VANE
OF SUMP, VALVE, AND CRANK
ENGINE OIL SUPPLY
STANDPIPE

SUMP Oil DRAIN VALVE

RETURN LINE FROM
COOLER

PORT FOR Oil

TEMPERATURE
INDICATOR BULB

MAIN OIL TANK

REFERENCE-DOUGLAS DRAWING 5342754

Fig. 12. 2 It s always desirable to get the oil temperature in the green as soon as possible. To aid
in this endeavor, only a small p ercentage of the engines oil supply is circulated when its cold.
This is achieved through the built-in hopper or stand pipe. As the oil warms up, more is allowed
to circulate. (Erection and Maintenance Instructions USAF C-118 Aircraft. Courtesy of the
National Air & Space Museum.)

637
Chapter 12

(Fig. 12.3). Oftentimes an engine will have suffered a propeller strike that does not get c01mnuni-
cated to the overhaul shop . If run-out exceeds limits it's a good indicator to look for further distress
inside the engine.

Order of disassembly is typically as follows : magnetos; harnesses; exhaust pipes ; front section
(Fig. 12.4); front accessory section; front cylinders (Fig. 12.5), remembering, of course to remove
the master rod cylinder last; rear cylinders: pistons (Fig. 12.6); reduction drive gear coupling
(Fig. 12.7); front support plate; crankshaft gear (cam drive gear) (Fig. 12.8); crankcase front
section (Fig. 12.9); rear support plate; crankcase rear section; crankshaft rear section (Fig. 12.10);
crankshaft front section; crankshaft center section; rear section; intennediate rear section; and finally
the supercharger (Fig. 12.11 and Fig. 12.12). The foregoing represent the major sub-assemblies
which in tum then need to be disassembled. When finally disassembled into its detail components, the
cleaning process is begun. The accumulated sludge liberally coating the interior of the engine needs
to be removed. Sludge traps such as the interior of the crankshaft need additional elbow grease to
remove sludge that can build up to an inch thick.

Inspection:

This phase constitutes the most critical and time-consuming part of the over haul process . It also
requires a great deal of skill, expertise, and experience .

Fig. 12. 3 "B " series propeller shaft being

checked.for run-out. (Overhaul Manual
Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines,
19-1-1. Author s collection.)

638
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

Fig 12.4 Nose case being removed.

(Overhaul Manual Double Wasp B Series
Two Stage Engines, 1944. Author :S
collection.)

Fig 12. 5 Removal offi'ont

cylinder. (Overhaul Manual
Double Wasp B Series Two
Stage Engines, 1944.
Author :S collection.)

Inspectors will typically take a look at all the parts laid out on a table in order to determine if the
engine had suffered any undue stress or internal failure. Conditions an inspector would look for
include:

(1) Abrasion.
(2) Blistering found on plated or painted pa1ts.

639
Chapter 12

11~f, " I

~b1·f'. '
~·~
-.t::·
( ~. ,. l
\j J

Fig 12. 6 Removal of a piston. (Overhaul Fig 12. 7 Removal of the propeller shaft
Manual Double Wasp B Series Two Stage gear coupling. (Overhaul Manual Double
Engines, 194-1. Authors collection.) Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines, 1944.
Authors collection.)

Fig 12. 8 Removal of crankshaft gear

(cam driver gear). (Overhaul Manual
Double Wasp B Series Two Stage En-
gines, 194-1. Authors collection.)

640
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

Fig. 12.9 Removal of

crankcase front section.
(Overhaul Manual Double
Wasp B Series Two Stage
Engines, 1944. Authors
collection.)

...___s:e:: •
.g ·~ I+ ~1
CRANKSHAFT DISASSEMBLY HYDRAULIC PUSHER

HOSE FROM
HAND PUMP

TAM-20

L20 TON PORTO POWER RAM

Fig. 12.10 Removal of crankshaft rear section. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp B Series
Two Stage Engines, 194-1. Authors collection.)

641
Chapter 12

Fig. 12.11 Blower section being removed

Ji-om power section. (Overhaul Manual
Double Wasp B Series Two Stage Engines,
1944. Authors collection.)

Fig. 12.12 Blower removed

from power section. This view
shows the blower impeller
being removed from its drive
shaft. (Overhaul Manual
Double Wasp B Series Two
Stage Engines, 1944. Authors
collection.)

(3) Blow-by on pistons and valves.

(4) Fatigue failures evidenced by a break.
(5) Brinelling usually found on rolling element bearings.
(6) Burning, typically caused by excessive heat, lack oflubrication, tight fits , blow-by, detona-
tion, etc.

642
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

(7) Burnishing evidenced by slight discoloration of mating pa1ts. This is not necessarily bad if
it's not excessive.
(8) Burrs from machining operations, excessive wear, and peening .
(9) Chafing, also referred to as fretting. Caused by minute relative motion between two parts .
When steel frets it can be seen as a red pov.rder in the vicinity of the fretting . In this case
it is known as fretting corrosion.
(10) Chipping, i.e. , small broken pieces.
(11) Cupping-hollowed out areas caused by repeated contact of two operating parts.
(12) Dents, typically in sheet metal parts such as cylinder baffles, magneto covers, etc.
(13) Electrolytic action causing breakdown of a surface between two dissimilar metals.
(14) Erosion which causes material to be carried away due to hot gases, grit, or chemicals.
(15) Fatigue failure . This is a complex, and in the early days of aviation, little understood
phenomenon . Progressive yielding of one or local areas of weakness such as tool marks,
sharp indentations, minute cracks, inclusions, etc. , under repeated stress induces fatigue
failure. As the working stress on the component is repeated, cracks start to fonn. The
ends of the cracks develop even higher concentrations of stress. The cracks spread, usu -
ally from the surface, or near the surface. After repeated stress cycles a component is so
weakened that the normal stress is on the component is higher than the strength of the
remaining material. At this point the component fails. Even today, many mechanics fail
to recognize a fatigue failure and instead chalk it up to "crystallization. " They are in good
company with this assumption. It was not until the early 1920s that fatigue failure was
recognized for what it was. Prior to that discove1y, fatigue failures were categorized as
--crystallization. As a fatigue failure proceeds, the severed parts rub and batter each other,
crushing the grains of the material producing a dull, smooth surface . The remaining
unfractured portion preserves the nonnal grain structure up to the moment of failure. The
progressive nature of the failure is usually indicated by several concentric lines, the center,
or "focus ," of which discloses the original point or line of failure . After reading the above
description of fatigue failure, it is easier to understand why Pratt & Whitney and other
manufacturers of high performance aircraft engines went to excruciating pains and expense
to obtain the finest finish possible on highly stressed parts.
(16) Feathering evidenced by a featherlike edge . Typically found on high time piston rings.
(17) Galling-a transfer of metal from one surface to another.
(18) Glazing-a hard, glossy surface on plain bearings or pistons. Not necessarily bad. Caused
by a combination of pressure and oil.
(19) Gouging-displacem ent of material from a surface due to cutting or tearing. Usually
indicative of a major failure accompanied by a large foreign body between moving parts.
(20) Guttering-deep_ concentrated erosion. A typical example of guttering is a burned exhaust
valve or exhaust valve seat.
(21) Inclusion-foreign material entrapped in the parent metal. Surface inclusions are indi-
cated by dark spots or lines. Inclusions may be detected during magnetic inspection. If a
part fails under fatigue due to an inclusion, the focal point will pinpoint the offending
inclusion.

643
Chapter 12

(22) Lead sweating-patches of lead on the surface of a bearing or bushing that is fonnulated
from a high lead content alloy. Caused by high pressure producing separation of free lead .
(23) Nicks-sharp indentations typically caused by allowing two pa1ts to come into contact
with each other. Careless handling of pa1ts is the major contributor to nicks. If left
unattended, they can lead to fatigue failure of heavily loaded parts such as master rods,
link rods, crankshafts, etc.
(24) Peening-deformation of a surface. Typically caused by hammer blows.
(25) Pickup-the rolling up of metal, or transfer of metal from one surface to another. Classic
examples of pickup include incipient bearing failure due to insufficient lubrication, pres-
ence of grit between surfaces during assembly, and unbroken edges of press fit parts .
(26) Pile-up-displacement of particles of a surface from one point to another. Pile-up is
distinguished from pick-up by the presence of depression at the point from which the
material has been displaced.
(27) Pitting-small, irregularly shaped cavities in a surface from which material has been
removed by corrosion or chipping. Corrosive pitting is usually accompanied by a deposit
formed by the action of a corrosive agent on the base material. Pitting due to chipping is
usually due to overloading, improper fits and clearances, or the presence of foreign
particles.
(28) Scoring-deep scratches made during engine operation by sharp edges or foreign par-
ticles . Scoring is caused by chips between loaded surfaces having relative motion. In
other words, if an engine is contaminated with chips, the master rods bearing is usually the
most obvious evidence of scoring .
(29) Scuffing-surface injury resulting from the incipient seizure of reciprocating parts. Evi-
denced by pick-up and pile-up-in other words, pretty serious stuff.
(30) Spalling-sharply roughened area characteristic of the progressive chipping or peeling of
surface material. Not to be confused with flaking .
(31) Stresses. A somewhat generic term when used in describing the cause of failure of machine
parts. Stresses generally fall into five categories: (1) compression, (2) tension, (3) shear,
(4) torsion, and (5) shock.

In determining if any of the above conditions exist, the inspector has a number of tools at his dis-
posal. For crack detection the two methods of choice are fluorescent penetrant inspection and mag-
netic particle inspection. Both methods are non-destructive; however, parts inspected by magnetic
particle inspection must be de-magnetized after inspection. Fluorescent penetrant is the method of
choice for non-ferrous materials and magnetic particle for ferrous materials (Fig. 12.13) .

All fits, clearances, and tolerances are checked against Pratt & Whitney specifications. Every single
component in the engine, right dmvn to the last nut, bolt, and washer, is inspected. Blower clutch
linings are usually replaced. Crankshaft overhaul is naturally a skilled and difficult proposition.
Counterweight rollers are copper flashed and lead flashed. The propeller shaft rear bearing that
resides in the front of the crankshaft is typically good for three overhauls or 6000 to 9000 hours-
provided of course it still inspects within limits at each overhaul. The " C" series crankshaft mating

644
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

NONCONDUCTING
·•·~:I:
·-·
BLOCK
RUBER COVERED
COPPER ROD :3: - ·
•er>·<:>

Magnetizing Cam, Circularly, Using a Copper Magnetizing Crankshaft Rear Section, Longi-
Rod tudinally, by Wrapping it in a Cable

NO. 0000

-·
STRANDED CABLE
·A:I:
·•·--·W
.,.
Ii@·<:>
NONCONDUCTING
BLOCK

Magnetizing Crankshaft Rear Section, Circularly, Magnetizing Cylinder, Longitudinally, by

by Holding the Ends Between Brass Balls Wrapping it in a Cable

Fig. 12.13 Various components being Magnajluxed. (Overhaul Manual Double Wasp B
Series Two Stage Engines, 1944. Authors collection.)

645
Chapter 12

surfaces are other heavily loaded and critical areas that requires the highest levels of expe1tise and
skill . Due to the tremendous loads imposed upon them, the mating face splines tend to fret. When
wear becomes excessive, the face spline is built up with chrome plate. Using Prussian blue, the face
splines are then hand fitted to each other, a time-consuming and difficult job. Prepping the bolts that
hold the crankshaft together is equally critical. The seat ends are silver plated and thread ends are tin
plated. After assembly, the crank is checked for run-out. Cylinders go through a painstaking over-
haul process. Barrel cooling muffs, cylinder head cooling fins are inspected for cracks and broken
fins-a fairly common problem. Pratt & Whitney publishes specs on what amount of cooling fin
damage is acceptable. Each cooling fin in the cylinder assembly has a designated alpha or numeric
designation and each fm has a clearly defined amount of acceptable damage. Fatigue failure is one
of the more common failure mechanisms for cooling fins . To alleviate this situation, a bead of high
temperature silicone is spread along rows of fins. The silicone acts as a damping agent thus reducing
the high frequency vibrations that can occur, pa1ticularly with "C" engines with their deep and
closely pitched fins. Like any other piston engine going through overhaul, R-2800s receive a valve
job. This includes the replacement of valve seats, new valve guides, and final hand lapping of the
valve to its seat.

Hold-down studs for the cylinders are inspected for damage such as stretch, straightness, looseness
in the crankcase, tears, nicks, etc. The hold-down nuts receive the same kind of inspection and
attention. They are cadmium plated for lubricity, which offers consistent torque values when tight-
ened. The cad plate also offers corrosion protection. Cylinder hold-down pads are susceptible to
fatigue cracks. These need to be inspected for. All gears-and there are a large number in an
R-2800-are inspected for wear, cracks, etc., after magnetic particle inspection. The supercharger
components are susceptible to FOD or foreign object damage. With a massive centrifugal compressor
spinning at over 20,000 rpm it can be imagined what kind of damage will result if debris gets inside
the induction system. It is crucial that connecting rods do not exhibit any signs of fatigue, or fatigue
inducing damage such as nicks, scratches, or corrosion. The bronze bushings in both ends of the link
rods are replaced. Rods , both master and link, are checked for straightness, stretch, alignment, and
any bends.

Piston rings are replaced, after each one has been fitted to its respective cylinder barrel to check for
end gap .

Assembly:

After all the foregoing cleaning and inspection has taken place, the engine is then built up from its
major sub-assemblies. The supercharger section is typically assembled first followed by the inter-
mediate rear section.

The power section is assembled next. Starting with the crankshaft center section, it is inserted into
the crankcase center section . The split center main bearing shells are then fitted and retained with
six screws and nuts. The crank front and rear sections are assembled with their dynamic

646
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

counterweights. Both master rods are assembled with their respective link rods . A simple fixture
holds the link rods in proper relationship to each other. The master rod/link rods assemblies are slid
over their respective front and rear crankshaft journals. The remaining crankshaft components such
as sludge retainers are then installed. The crank can now be bolted together. Front and rear crankcase
sections are fitted along with front and rear support plates . Tappets, cam rings and associated drive
gears are installed including, second order counterweights, magneto, and distributor. Eighteen over-
hauled cylinder assemblies are installed along with pushrods and pushrod tubes. Tappet clearances
are then set. The front accessory section is now bolted to the front of the crankcase. The propeller
shaft, with the assembled propeller reduction gearing, is inserted through the front accessory section
and seats into the front of the crankshaft. Finally, the front end of the engine is completed by installing
the front section. The previously completed blower and rear section can now be installed. Intake
pipes, cylinder baffles, installing spark plugs, installing the ignition system (magneto[s] and distribu-
tors), installing engines mounts and the carburetor complete the overhaul. The foregoing is an overly
brief description of the overhaul process. In reality, it is a time-consuming and complex process
(Refs. 5.2, 12.11). Now the fun part begins-testing.

Testing:

After rebuild, the R-2800 is mounted in what is known as a test cell in order to properly monitor the
vital signs of the engine. The test accomplishes many purposes, some of the more important
being: (i) piston ring break-in, (ii) bearing "burnishing," (iii) oil flow monitoring, (iv) oil pressure, (v) oil
in and oil out temperatures, (vi) fuel flow, (vii) engine performance, and (viii) checking for metal in the
oil screens/filters .

Test Cell Design:

Prior to World War II, little thought was given to the testing of aircraft engines when they came out
of overhaul. The demands of World War II changed all that. Typical test cells consist of a circular
concrete enclosure with the engine mounted in the middle. Two methods of mounting were used:
rigid (Fig. 12.14) and suspended cable (Fig. 12.15). As its name implies, the rigid mount was a
plinth made up of tubular steel legs on top of which sat a cylindrical drum designed to accept the
engine mount. The suspended cable still used the cylindrical drum for the mount, however that's
where the similarity ended. Massive, flexible steel cables in tension attached to three points in the
cell tied into the drum. Tension was applied via turnbuckles. Torque was counteracted by the use of
two horizontal stabilizer anchors, one on each side of the drum. The primary advantage of cable
suspension was its ability to absorb vibration. A bulletproof glass window for the operator to observe
functions such as exhaust flame color, leaks, exhaust smoke etc., was situated opposite the engine.
At takeoff power, the racket issuing from the engine, depending on one's likes and dislikes, was either
an ear shattering racket or the most incredible volume of engine noise that even the most jaded "gear
head" could imagine. Noise levels could exceed 130 decibels at "wet" takeoff power. Clearly, a
method was required to dampen out some of the racket at higher power settings. The use of porous
concrete to line the cell 's walls went a long way to accomplishing this acoustical goal. Large, vertical

647
Chapter 12

Fig. 12. J-1. So-called rigid test cell with the engine mounted on a plinth. (Engine Test
Manual for Aircraft Engines, Navy Department Bureau of Aeronautics. Author 5· collection.)

baffles, the size of the cell, were situated at the exhaust end offering further acoustical attenuation.
The test cell operator 's office had the same engine controls as the airplane . In addition, gages for
fuel flow, oil flow in and out of the engine, and oil temperature in and out of the engine were monitored.
To protect operators in the event of a catastrophic failure, particularly with the propeller or reduction
gearing, reinforcing steel bars were inserted in the cell 's concrete adjacent to the propeller.

648
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

Fig 12.15 Suspended cable test cell. Advantage with this system is its ability to absorb
vibration. (Engine Test Manual for Aircraft Engines, Navy Department Bureau of Aeronau-
tics. Authors collection.)

Power Absorption:

All manner of power absorption methods have been tried over the years including electric dynamom-
eters, water brakes, test clubs, flight propellers, and ground adjustable test clubs. Ground adjustable
test clubs were the method of choice during the R-2800 's heyday (Fig. 12.16). Today, any of the
above methods may be used . Test clubs have the advantage of having a relatively small diameter and
consequently very course pitch. With these attributes, a very concentrated air flow results and
consequently sufficient cooling is assured in the test cell environment.

649
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Author s collection.)
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

When an engine is as complex and heavily loaded as the R-2800, it goes without saying the oil system
is equally complex and circuitous. If the engine were simply hooked up to an oil tank and fuel system
and started up, significant damage would result. Even though the mechanic applied copious amounts
of oil to all moving parts during re-build, the entire oil system is full of air. If this air is not purged, upon
start-up, the entrapped air will be blown across the bearings resulting in metal to metal contact. To
ensure the oil system is primed, an electrically driven, positive displacement, pump is connected to
one of the pressure take-off ports on the rear case . One of the upper rocker box covers is removed
for evidence that the engine is pre-oiled. When oil starts issuing from the rocker shaft pivot bearing,
that is a good indication that the rest of the engine is pre-oiled. Hook-ups required for testing include:
(i) thermocouple lines to cylinders 1, 4, 12, 16, and 18; (ii) breather lines on intermediate rear case; (iii)
throttle control (Fig. 12.17); (iv) mixture control; (v) number 1 inlet port manifold pressure manom-
eter line for registering manifold pressure; (vi) fuel pressure gage line to carburetor; (vii) vapor
separator chamber vent line to the opening directly behind the carburetor fuel inlet connection ; (viii)
fuel lines to the engine driven fuel pump and carburetor and a fuel pressure relief valve, if the pump
does not incorporate one; (ix) high and low clutch pressure gage lines to the front and rear of the
selector valve; (x) clutch selector valve control; (xi) main oil pressure gage line at either the upper left
or upper right side of the rear case; (xii) low pressure oil gage line just above the low pressure relief
valve; (xiii) tachometer generator; (xiv) fuel pump drainline; (xv) oil inlet and scavenge lines; (xvi)
exhaust stacks; (xvii) priming system; (xviii) front oil pressure line to governor mount pad cover;
(xviv) torquemeter booster oil pressure gage line at the lower right side of the front accessory case;
(xx) torquemeter gage line to the pressure transfer cover; (xxi) carburetor air intake duct to the
airscoop on the carburetor; (xxii) air intake thermometer line to the air intake duct; (xx iii) cooling
cowl; (xxiv) electrical hook-up for starter control and any other electrical hook-ups the starter may
require; (xxv) induction vibrator hook-up; and (xxvi) mount test club .

Prior to starting, the usual procedures are gone through to ensure the engine is not hydraulic-locked .
This entails removing the lower, front plugs and motoring the engine over on the starter. With all the
plugs installed, starting can commence. Oil pressure is normally in the range of 80 to 90 psi and this
is the focus of attention on initial start-up . Break-in usually takes two hours. Starting with 1400 rpm,
the speed is increased by 100 rpm increments over the two hour period finishing up at 70 percent
rated power. At each speed increase, the blower clutches are exercised. The engine is run at
89 percent power at 2300 rpm for half an hour. At this point the engine is shut down and checked for
leaks . It's then run for another half hour at 89 percent and 2300 rpm. Finally, a one minute run is
conducted at takeoff power dry and one minute at takeoff power wet. Throughout the test, all engine
parameters are logged, magneto checks made, numerous blower shifts are made.

Torquemeter Checks:

The torquemeter is monitored closely throughout the test to ensure there are no fluctuations. A
fluctuation is a bad omen indicating internal engine failure or ignition problems . Torquemeter pressure
can be converted to BHP by use of the equation:

Torque pressure x RPM x torque constant = BHP

651
Chapter 12

PRESSURE STROKE RETURN STROKE

Fig. 12.17 In order to make throttle hook-ups easier in the test cell, Sperry Exactor hydrau-
lically actuated throttles were used In this way, it was not critical where the carburetor
throttle arm was located; the Exactor could accommodate any position. (Engine Test
Manual for Aircraft Engines, Navy Department Bureau of Aeronautics. Author '.s' collection.)

For example, with a typical CB-16 if the constant of the torque nose 0.00632 and the torquemeter
pressure is 61.3 pounds at an engine speed of 2000 rpm the horsepower can be equated to: 61.3
pounds times 2000 rpm times 0.00632, which equals 775 BHP.

Even after an R-2800 comes out of test, it still needs more time to break-in. Newly overhauled
R-2800s typically need 50 hours before they can be considered fully broken-in.

Upon successful completion of testing, the engine is pickled and packed. Pickling takes the form of
spraying preservative oil into each cylinder, replacing the spark plugs with a preservative plug,
plugging off all openings, spraying the exterior with preservative, wrapping with plastic wrap, and
installing in a shipping container. During World War II, shipping engines to all parts of the world in
the most inhospitable and corrosive environments forced Pratt & Whitney to development a steel
shipping can. Configured like a massive 55-gallon oil drum, they were split on their horizontal
center line. Brackets welded inside the can supported the engine and any ancillary tools and acces-
sories such as the carburetor. The two halves were sealed with a gasket, evacuated then charged with

652
 Operating, Service Difficulties and Overhaul

nitrogen. The ability to float was another prerequisite. It was not uncommon during the island
hopping campaigns of World War II for cans containing their precious R-2800 cargo to be dumped
overboard from ships and floated ashore to be retrieved and installed in waiting aircraft (Ref. 12.12).

References
12.1 Airlines Engineering Depaitment Letter Report No. 195, December 31 , 1951 , revised July 18,
1958, Notes on Operation of Pratt & Whitney Aircraft R-2800-CB Series Engine.

12.2 R-2800 Piston Top Land Failure, Internal Pratt & Whitney report dated March 13, 1956.
12.3 Letter from W.G. Anderson (Pratt & Whitney Airlines Engineer) to W.G. Heil, Power Plant
Engineering Section, United Airlines. Dated July 12, 1956.

12.4 Internal Pratt & Whitney memo from A. Lewis MacClain to L.H. Gitzinger, R-2800 Piston
Dishing or Hydraulicking at National Airlines, Jacksonville . Dated March 23 , 1949.
12.5 Letter from A.E. Hale, Flight Operations Engineer, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft to Mr.
Charles Blair, Power Plant Engineer, An1erican Airlines. Dated May 19, 1964.

12.6 Report from F.H. Flynn, Pratt & Whitney Service Manager to Commander, San Antonio Air
Material Area, Kelly Air Force Base. Reported Inconsistent Power Versus AMP Indications
On R-2800-99W engines at SAMA. Dated 9/23/66.

12.7 Correspondence between Lemcke S.A. Industria E Comercio, Rio De Janeiro and N.H. Bell,
Pratt & Whitney Flight Operations Engineer. Subject: Information on P&W R-2800-CBl 7
Engine Operation. Dated February 1965 .

12.8 Report from N .H . Bell, Pratt & Whitney Flight Operations Engineer. Stuck High Blower
Operation for CB-16 and CB-17 engines.

9.26 Erection and Maintenance Instructions for Army Models P-61A and B , 30 December
1944.

12.9 R-2800 Engine Reliability, Internal Pratt & Whitney report. Dated 12/21/67.
12.10 Author's interviews with numerous operators and overhaul shops.
5.2 Double Wasp (R-2800) CB Series Overhaul Manual, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Group,
United Technologies, March 1957, revised February 1980.
12.11 Double Wasp (R-2800) CB Series Maintenance Manual, Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Group,
United Technologies, March 1957, revised October 1977.
12.12 Engine Test Manual for Aircraft Engines, Navy Department Bureau of Aeronautics.

653
 Chapter 13

Racing

From the beginning of time humans have raced. No doubt the earliest caveman looking for his neJ1..'t
meal, in all probability, raced his neighbor to the hunt. Since then, just about everything that moves
has been raced. At the dawn of the 20th century, when aviation was still in its infancy and it was all
aviators could do to stay aloft, airplanes were pitted against each other in contests of speed. Over the
years, highly prestigious aircraft racing events developed. The 1930s are recognized as the "Golden
Age" of racing in the United States . Prestigious trophies such as the Bendix Trophy and the Thompson
Trophy v11ere hotly contested during this time. Everything, including air racing, was put on hold
during World War II. 1946 saw the recommencement of air racing once again. This time, the
Thompson Trophy Race was the preeminent contest. Held in Cleveland, Ohio, and therefore some-
times referred to as the Cleveland Air Races, the postwar races were radically different from the
prewar races. Tens of thousands of high performance fighters had been manufactured during the
duration of World War II that incorporated the latest in aviation technology. Unlike the home built
specials of prewar days, these sophisticated and modem fighters had far superior performance to
their prewar racing counterparts. In fact, any late World War II fighter could have walked away with
any of the prewar races. The fact that these surplus aircraft were available at bargain basement
prices added to the attraction.

Cook Cleland 's FG-1 "Lucky Gallon" (Fig. 13.1), the Goodyear-built equivalent to a Vought F4U- l
was this famous racers first mount. Cleland eliminated the ram air induction scoop in the wing
leading edge and instead fabricated a ram scoop that ran along the bottom of the cowl, somewhat
reminiscent of an F4U-4 . Competing as race number 90, he finished in an uninspiring sixth position
with a race average of 35 7 mph (Ref. 13 .1).

As Frank Walker found out during the war with his ADI work and R-4360 vs. R-2800 contest, there
is no replacement for displacement. Cook Cleland came to the same conclusion. For that reason, he
campaigned an R-4360 powered Goodyear F2G in 1947, 1948, and 1949. This time, even though it
was essentially the same airframe raced in 1946, Cleland was victorious. However, the 1946 effort
was not totally wasted. Leaming from the experience of the R-2800 powered FG-1 , Cleland fitted an
extended induction ram air scoop that reached to the front of the cowl's nose bowl. The stock

655
Chapter 13

Fig 13.1 Coo~ Cleland campaigned this Goodyear FG-1 at the 1946 Cleveland National Air
Races. Jn subsequent years, Cleland successfitlly raced a highly modified R-4360 powered
Goodyear F2G (Photo by Warren M Bodie.)

configuration had the ram scoop situated just ahead of the carburetor, i.e., some distance from the
front of the cowl. It has been theorized that the stock design compromised induction efficiency by
picking up the boundary layer air flow and therefore reduced or even eliminated the ram effect.

Cleland was not the only one to campaign an FG-1 in the 1946 Thompson: Thomas Call raced FG-1
race number 90 . However, he was not in the running (Fig. 13.2). This same aircraft was also used
as a Vought corporate airplane (Fig. 13.3)

In the late 1960s and into the early 1970s an F4U-7 by the name "Blue Max" was extensively raced,
sponsored by Flight Systems, Inc. (Fig. 13.4) .

Immediately after World War II racers almost had their pick of service aircraft. However, a few
experimental aircraft were up for grabs . It seems Curtiss was only too happy to get rid of their failed
attempts at producing a fighter aircraft. Among the ones to end up in racer 's hands were the beautiful
XP-40Q and the not so beautiful XP-60E. With a potent two-stage, two-speed R-2800-10, the XP-60E
could have been a viable contender. Interestingly, Curtiss modified the airplane for owner James
DeSanto, who literally sold the farm in the form of his flying school to finance this project. Unfor-
tunately, the tail surfaces failed during a test flight and DeSanto was forced to bail out thus ending
the flying career of the P-60 series .

Due to several unfortunate and fatal accidents, the Thompson Trophy Races were ended in 1949.
Unlimited class air racing would not recommence until 1964. This time the venue would be Reno,

656
 Racing

tl:I.
G
3
3
s
2

F;g. 13.2 Another Goodyear FG-1 was entered for the 19-16 National Air Races. Race number 90
was piloted by Thomas Call. (Photo by Warren M Bodie.)

--!

Fig. 13. 3 Race number 90 was later acquired by Vought Corporation as a corporate airplane.
(Bob Stevens photo courtesy of Warren M Bodie.)

657
Chapter 13

Fig. 13.-1 F-IU--1 "Blue Max" entered in the 1971 California 1000 Races. (Photo by
Warren M Bodie)

Nevada. Picking up from the 1949 Thompson races, aircraft of choice were, again, World War II
fighters. Lessons learned from the ensuing fifteen years resulted in radically modified racers. Perhaps
the personification of this development was Daryl Greenamayer 's remarkable Gmmman F8F Bearcat
(Fig. 13.5) . When the races were resurrected in 1964, thought was given to having a racehorse start,
i.e. , a standing start. With this in mind, Greenamayer modified the Bearcat's landing gear by con-
verting it from hydraulic operation to pressurized nitrogen. This not only reduced weight but more
importantly, gave a considerably faster cycle time . Of course, the downside was that it was a one-shot
deal, in other words, the gear could only be cycled once per flight Oil cooling drag was eliminated
by fairing over the oil cooler airscoops in the wing root Of course, the engine would not survive
without some method of taking heat away from the oil. This was accomplished by using a "boiler"
system, in other words, the oil cooler was immersed in water and consequently boiled it off during
the course of a race. This idea was not new; the Germans used it in their highly modified record
breaking aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 109R or Bf 209, which captured the absolute world 's air
speed record at 469 mph. Again, this was a one-shot deal: the water tank needed to be replenished
after each flight In fact it has been argued that this airplane was a one-flight airplane. Greenamayer's
R-2800 was a mix of the best R-2800 components available: a -44W nose case; -30W power section;
and a single-stage, two-speed CB-17 blower. A slower turning prop with relatively low tip speed,
i.e. , less than 900 feet per second, offers more efficiency over one that exhibits a tip speed of
1000 feet per second or greater. Several remedies were at the disposal of Greenamayer; however,
the R-2800-44W utilized the lowest propeller reduction ratio of any R-2800 . At .350:1 , the -44W's
propeller reduction ratio allowed Greenamayer to use a larger diameter, slower turning prop from a

658
 Racing

Fig. 13.5 By far the most radically modified R-2800 powered F8F Bearcat, Darryl Greenamay-
er s "Conquest 1, " garnered many victories including an outright world air speed record for
piston powered aircraft. (Bob Stevens photo, courtesy of Warren M Bodie.)

Douglas AD Skyraider. Fortunately, the Skyraider 's engine, the Wright R-3350, used the same
SAE 60 spline propeller shaft as the "C" series -44W nose case. This meant the Skyraider's propel-
ler was a relatively simple bolt-on. Greenamayer corresponded with Pratt & Whitney in the 1960s
for advice on such things as how much manifold pressure he could use and blower ratios. He also
corresponded with DuPont on the feasibility ofusing nitromethane. Rather surprisingly, considering
today 's litigious society, attitudes were far more enlightened back in the 1960s before the advent of
frivolous multi-million-dollar law suits. Pratt & Whitney sent a flurry of internal memos to their top
R-2800 engineers for answers to Greenamayer's questions. Standard blower ratios for a CB-17 are
7.29: 1and8.56: 1. Initially, Greenamayer ran the engine in low blower-7.29: 1. In the quest for more
power, Pratt & Whitney engineers studied the prospect of running at full throttle with a 9: 66: 1 blower
ratio . This ratio was manufactured for a limited number of civilian "E" series that did not go into
production. Concerns were raised as to whether the blower drive gears would hold up driving a
9.66 :1 ratio at 80 inches of manifold pressure at 3000 rpm. Clearly, this set-up did work as evidenced
by Greenamayer winning numerous Reno Unlimited Championships and breaking the world speed
record for piston driven aircraft at 484 mph. After its racing days were over, Greenamayer donated
the aircraft to the Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum in Washington, D.C. (Ref. 13.2).

Multi-Engined Aircraft

Although conventional wisdom says single-engined aircraft are more suitable for racing, several
notable exceptions to this belief have raced over the years, the Douglas A-26 Invader being one of

659
Chapter 13

those exceptions. Despite the fact that they were relatively difficult to obtain after World War II
because they were still a state-of-the-art, front-line aircraft, several wound up in private hands during
the 1940s . Perhaps the best known A-26 racer was Milton Reynolds ' "Reynolds Bombshell"
(Fig. 13.6). Reynolds made his fortune by manufacturing some of the earliest ballpoint pens, most of
which did not work. One of the early accomplishments of Reynolds ' A-26 was twice setting new
round the world records of 76 hours, 56 minutes; and later, 73 hours, 5 minutes. The "Bombshell"
was flown by well-known race pilot Bill Odum, who was to lose his life, flying a highly modified
P-5 lB, in a tragic accident during the 1949 Thompson. This accident also claimed the life of a young
mother and 13-month-old son. This accident was the last straw: too many pilots had lost their lives in
racing accidents. Unlimited racing was put on hold until 1964 (Ref. 9.11).

Don Husted piloted an A-26 to very credible sixth place in the 1946 Bendix Trophy Race. The
course ran from Van Nuys, California, and finished at Cleveland, Ohio, a distance of 2048 miles.
Husted 's average speed in the A-26 was 367 mph (Fig. 13. 7).

One would never expect a Martin B-26 Marauder to be raced and yet that is exactly what happened
in the 1949 Thompson-or nearly did! To be raced by Lee Cameron, he arrived beyond the check-in
deadline and thus could not compete.

Fig. 13. 6 Douglas A-26s were not immune to the racers urge to see how fast she'll go. The
Reynolds Bombshell broke the round the world record- twice. (Cou rtesy of the National Air &
Space Museum, Smithsonian Institution. Photo No . JA 37621)

660
 Racing

Fig. 13. 7 Another A-26 that saw action at the hands of the racers, Don Husted's A-26 raced in
1946 at the National Air Races. (Photo by Warren M Bodie.)

References
13.1 Huntington, Roger, Thompson Trophy Racers. The Pilots and Plans ofAmerica~· Glory Days
1929- 1949, published by Motorbooks International. 1989.
13.2 Internal Pratt & Whitney memos dated 1966.

9.11 Mesko, Jim, A-26 Invader in Action, Squadron/Signal Publications, Carrollton, Tex., 1980.

661
 Chapter 14

The Future

Preserving a Piece of History

As a part of our rich aviation heritage, the R-2800 has proved its worth. If there were such a thing as
an Aircraft Engine Hall of Fame, the R-2800 would be front and center.

From its beginnings in the late 1930s to its phase-out from production in the early 1960s, the R-2800
powered a diverse range of military and civilian aircraft. From small, high performance military
fighters to large, four-engined transports and everything else in between, the R-2800 fulfilled its
promise of dependable power. Always at the forefront of piston engine and manufacturing technol-
ogy, it represented a prime example of what U.S. design, development, manufacturing , and good old
ingenuity was capable of. Although its days of powering front-line military aircraft and transport
category aircraft are now a distant but fond memory, there 's no denying that this loud and raucous
power plant endeared itself to everyone who flew behind it. Like any high performance piston
engine, its needs had to be taken care of and in return the R-2800 would give hours of trouble free
running. Unlike the modern gas turbines that eclipsed it, the R-2800 had charisma and personality.
On a cold morning, many a flight engineer or pilot has fussed and cussed at the R-2800 as it took its
own sweet time to come to life. The pilot or flight engineer needed the dexterity of an organ player,
the skill of an engineer and a little luck to operate this charismatic aircraft engine. Yes, this pam-
pered lady could be a monumental pain in the rear but treated nicely it would reward with its own
brand of mechanical music.

It still sends chills down the spines of aviation enthusiasts, or any enthusiast of high performance
engines, to watch the wonderful acoustical, pyrotechnic, and smoke screen antics of this wonderful
old engine being brought to life. Sensitivity to machinery is a prerequisite for operating an R-2800 .
Abused and it will bite back in the form of low time between overhaul, high fuel consumption, and
other maladies. This is an old lady that does not take well to mistreatment.

663
 Chapter 14

Parts Availability

It's amazing what nostalgia will do for the survivability of a piece of old technology. In the case of
the R-2800, it's fortunate that it exudes the necessary nostalgia to ensure its future. However, nostal-
gia does not supply badly needed parts that are all but irreplaceable. It is indeed fortuitous that,
thanks in part to the huge number of engines manufactured during and after World War II, a large
number of repair parts are still available as NOS (New Old Stock, or Neat Old Stuff, depending on
your viewpoint). Nevertheless, care is taken during the overhaul and maintenance of these now
increasingly rare artifacts. Nothing is arbitrarily dispatched to the scrap bin unless it is blatantly
obvious that a component really has expired. Things that are taken for granted in a modern engine,
such as bearings, cannot receive a similar cavalier attitude of just popping out the old ones and
slipping in new components . Bearings, for example, are refurbished by removing the remaining lead
and rep lating, pistons are carefully inspected and if they measure within Pratt & Whitney tolerances,
are reused. Every component is now a precious piece that, in many cases, is irreplaceable. In the
event an irreplaceable part, such as a crankshaft, needs to be replaced another is scavenged from a
"donor" engine. A few high replacement parts such as pistons are being reproduced in Brazil or
Poland. As good as these pistons are, they are not up to the durability of the originals. Even though
replacement parts are manufactured to the same specifications as the originals, it is a fact of life in
manufacturing, particularly high precision parts, that regardless of how much documentation was
used in specifying a part, a few "tweaks" were introduced into the manufacturing process. The
British call this the "Fred Factor. " In other words a mythical manufacturing line worker by the name
of Fred introduced small but key improvements into the production of parts. This may entail the
melt point of aluminum for an intricate casting, the feed rate for a machine tool, how much coolant
to apply to a cutting tool, or a myriad of other ideas incorporated into the manufacturing process.
Much of the Fred Factor ideas simply came from experience and intuition. This was rarely, if ever,
documented. In today 's tightly controlled, computer operated and controlled manufacturing envi-
ronment, the Fred Factor, for better or worse, has all but disappeared. Lower oil control rings are
becoming scarce, but compression rings are still available as NOS. Top compression rings are all
interchangeable between all series of R-2800 so that feature eases this problem . Second and third
compression rings are different between "B" engines and "C" engines . The "B" uses a fifteen-degree
taper and the "C" uses a seven-degree taper. Front cam rings are another high attrition rate part that
is now getting in short supply. But again, refurbishment is possible by regrinding and re-nitriding.
Nevertheless, the day is fast approaching when this difficult to manufacture component will have to
be remade. Crankshafts are so ruggedly designed and built that provided an engine has not suffered
a major internal failure, they typically only need a light honing and polishing. When the journals do
not meet specification, the master rod journal can ground down up to 0.020 inches and the main
bearing journals, to 0.007 inches. Of course, when a journal is ground undersize, an oversize bear-
ing needs to be fitted. It is not possible to compensate by adding more lead . Special, oversize
bearings are required. "CB" rear cylinders and "B" series front cylinders are increasingly difficult to
come by. The front "B" series cylinders have been modified and adapted for use on Pratt & Whitney
R-2000s and R-1340s thus soaking up the available supply. Rear "CB" cylinders tend be a higher
attrition part than the fronts because they nm hotter and therefore suffer more failures .

664
 The Future

Modificatio ns

With the scarcity of some parts and the desirability of others, R-2800s have been dramatically modi-
fied to keep them running. One of the more popular and obvious to the eye, is the fitting of " C"
cylinders to a "B" power section. C-46 operators, in particular, would perform this modification to
the R-2800-S l. The resulting engine was known as an R-2800-S lMl, the "Ml " designation standing
for "modification 1. " However this modification was not performed because of the lack of "B"
cylinders but rather the better cooling offered by the " C" cylinders. When in commercial service,
the airlines performed many modifications such as the R-2800-34Ml. American Airlines modified
-34s to -34Ml status for their Convair 440s with water injection.

Until their worth in warbirds was recognized, NOS "B" cylinders could be had for a song, particu-
larly rears . Four-blade, SO-spline propellers are now a scarcity and yet many WWII aircraft powered
by "B" engines with SO-spline prop shafts had four-blade props. In order to maintain the authentic-
ity of aircraft such as P-47s, "C" nose sections have been grafted onto "B" power sections. With the
" C" nose, a 60-spline propeller shaft is used and fortunately, four-blade, 60-spline props are rela-
tively common. A P-47 parked on the ramp with a three-blade propeller just wouldn't look right. Of
course, it is not a simple bolt-on conversion, however, it is a relatively easy modification .

War birds

As the days of commercially operated R-2800s draw to a close, another chapter in the R-2800 's life
is opening up. By the late 1960s it became apparent to a number of enthusiasts that the great aerial
armadas that made a major contribution to mankind's greatest conflict were fast disappearing. The
scrapping drives of the late 1940s and 19SOs had taken their inevitable toll. Some models of aircraft,
built in the thousands, had all but disappeared. Even the P-47, the most produced U.S. fighter ever,
was close to extinction in the late 1960s. With none flying in the U.S. and only a few flying with
third world countries the situation was dire. Thankfully, organizations such as the Confederate Air
Force saw the writing on the wall in the 1960s and immediately started to purchase whatever they
could. Starting at a grassroots level, the warbird community has now burgeoned into big business.
As the value and historical significance of these now retired warriors was recognized, their mon-
etary value escalated into the stratosphere. Long gone are the days when one could find, for example,
a derelict F4U at the local airport, even though this was a common sight in the 19SOs and 1960s .
Thanks to the dedication of owners, these aircraft are restored to impeccable standards of workman-
ship. However, even though, for the most part, workmanship is of the highest order, the same cannot
be said for historical accuracy. Unfortunately, very few restored F4U Corsairs flying today, for
example, have the correct engine . Few flying Corsairs have the two-stage, intercooled supercharger
they are supposed to have. And yet by comparison, interestingly, no P-S lD Mustangs are flying with
single-stage supercharged engines . In fact the single-stage Merlin is almost regarded as a joke
among Mustang aficionados, so it's puzzling why this attitude is not prevalent with the R-2800
powered warbirds. Especially since they are air-cooled and therefore are visible for the enthusiast to
see what engine resides inside the cowl, it is immediately apparent that an incorrect engine is installed.

665
Chapter 14

Therefore, the historian and modeler should be cautioned about using a restored warbird as a histori-
cal reference. For the most part they are quite inaccurate. Seeing an F4U-l with a "C" series engine
with a single-stage blower is bad enough but when aviation enthusiasts are convinced that that is the
way it was built is sadder still. The engine of choice for R-2800 powered warbirds is the CB-16,
which was never even a military engine. Worse yet, the correct engines and two-stage superchargers
are available. It is not unusual to see an F4U-l , powered by a CB 16, walk off with a prestigious
warbird award-even the judges don't know the difference.

A similar situation has occurred with P-47s. Again, the engine of choice seems to be the CB-16, a
totally incorrect power plant for this aircraft. The General Electric turbosupercharger, in many
cases, has been removed or deactivated. The argument one typically hears is: " ... but these aircraft
are never flown at high altitude so why use the two-stage, intercooled supercharger?" or "why install
the turbo when we never fly over 12,000 feet? Besides, the areas taken up by the intercoolers make
great baggage compartments! " Of course, the response to that is buy a Beech Bonanza: similar
performance at a fraction of the cost. Thankfully, a few of these priceless, historical artifacts are
being restored correctly with the correct power plant and all systems operational. Still, historians
and enthusiasts need to be ever vigilant when visiting an air show featuring warbirds. Don 't be
fooled by what appears to be an immaculate looking aircraft and thinking it is correctly restored.

Other Restored R-2800 Powered Aircraft

Fortunately for all of us, various groups have taken it upon themselves to keep some of the less
glamorous but still significant R-2800 powered aircraft flying. These include a Martin 404 restored
as a Coast Guard aircraft, Convair 440 restored as a T-29, Fairchild C-82, and a Curtiss C-46. As
one could imagine, operating large transport aircraft is an expensive undertaking. Nevertheless, it
indicates the amount of charisma and interest in these now unique aircraft. For the organizations
putting forth the effort to keep them airwo1thy it is a cause that deserves all of our collective support.

Commercial Operations

Once a common sight and sound, the roar of the R-2800 is now a rare occurrence. A few niche
markets are still soldiering on with R-2800 powered aircraft such as the DC-6, Convair twins, and a
few C-46s. Now that Corrosion Comer has been shut down, the DC-6 and C-46 population in South
Florida has been decimated. Also contributing to this sad state of affairs is the lack of spares, not
only for the engine but more significantly, airframe parts. Items such as brakes and tires have all but
grounded the C-46 . DC-6s seem to have faired better with regard to airframe parts. Nevertheless,
operating a 50- to 60-year-old plus transport aircraft as if it were a brand new airplane and loading it
beyond its legal maximum gross weight takes its toll. Factor in incompetent or lack of maintenance
and the situation looks even worse. The niche markets remaining seem to be the Caribbean, South
America, and Alaska, with a sprinkling of aircraft in other parts. Once an aircraft ends up in the
Caribbean, South America, or Central America, its death warrant has been signed. Rather than
being treated as historical masterpieces of a bygone age, they are simply treated as commodities to
be used up then junked.

666
 The Future

Fire fighting has, ironically, saved a number of significant aircraft. For example, many of the surviv-
ing B-17 s served as firefighters until their historical significance and value escalated. The DC-6 is
not quite at the stage of the B-17 so many are still being put to good use fighting fires in the West.
One would hope that their days of retirement under the loving care of enthusiasts is in the near
future. Ironically, the illicit drug trade saved a number of C-123s. Due to their load carrying ability
and capability of operating out of rough strips, drug smugglers found them to be ideal, until the DEA
started using more sophisticated surveillance equipment.

The Canadair CL-215 is a more modem R-2800 powered aircraft but even this is suffering the
indignity of being conve1ted to gas turbine power. Still, the CL-215, even R-2800 powered, has
many years ahead of it fighting one of Mother Nature's worst natural disasters.

Museum Aircraft and Rare and Extinct Types

At the present only a handful of R-2800 powered transport aircraft reside in museums. For the most
part they are Curtiss C-46s, due to this aircraft's significant role during World War II and the fact that
it survived the great scrapping binges. At least one Martin 202 survives in a museum albeit in
derelict condition. As time passes by it is the fervent hope ofthis writer that more transport category
aircraft are preserved, either in airworthy condition or as static displays in museums.

The situation for front-line military aircraft is much better with some significant omissions. Despite
the fact that huge numbers of Martin B-26s were built and it proved to be one of the most successful
and significant medium bombers of World War II, very few have survived, in fact it's on the brink of
extinction. As of this writing only one remains in flying condition albeit inaccurately restored with
Hamilton Standard propellers, etc. , and the U.S. Air Force Museum has one example. There is a
possibility that one or two other B-26s may be restored from wrecks.

A similar fate has befallen the Northrop P-61. Again the Air Force Museum has a P-61B and the
Smithsonian has a P-61 C in storage. Both aircraft are in excellent condition. One group of hardy
souls have taken upon themselves the task of restoring a P-61 that crashed into a mountain. When
finished it will be close to being a "data plate" restoration, i.e. , very little of the original aircraft will
be utilized . Nevertheless, this effort is highly commendable if for no other reason than the enormity
of rebuilding, almost from scratch, a large and complex military aircraft. Another P-61 resides in a
Chinese museum stored outside in less than ideal condition. Rumor has it that this aircraft is for sale
but at an exorbitant price. A few P-6ls were purchased by civilians for fire bombing, however, this
activity took its inevitable toll and its days were ended by being destroyed in accidents.

An aircraft that personified the technology of installing and cooling a high performance, turbosuper-
charged radial, the AJ Savage has just about disappeared off the face of the earth. Pensacola's Naval
Aviation Museum has the sole survivor of this very advanced aircraft.

Of the experimental aircraft powered by an R-2800, it appears that only the Northrop XP-56 Black
Bullet has survived, albeit hidden away in storage at the Smithsonian. None of the Curtiss P-60

667
Chapter 14

series survived. The same fate befell the Fleetwings XBTK-1, Vought XTBU-1 , North American
XB-28 . Of the helicopters, nothing has survived of the Bell HSL-1 and only pieces of the Sikorsky S-
56 appear to have survived.

Epilogue

The brilliant engineers who conceived the R-2800 were the brightest and best that the United States
had. They were graduates of the finest engineering schools and extolled the qualities so necessary
for a demanding discipline .

The problems, redesigns, and new generations that were developed, always seeking more power, for
less fuel consumption and lower weight, kept this dedicated team continually on their toes. These
contradictory goals were not only met by these engineers, designers, and manufacturers, they were
exceeded by a handsome margin. It is thanks to them that the Allies enjoyed such an advantage over
the Axis foes . Postwar, the R-2800 demonstrated itself as a metaphor of converting guns to plow-
shares. The fledgling postwar airline industry relied heavily on the reliability, power, fuel economy,
and time between overhauls of the R-2800 . At the same time, while the airlines were finally enjoy-
ing the profits to be reaped from aircraft powered by a reliable power plant, the great aerial fleets of
just a few short years prior were being disbanded and the aircraft scrapped at a furious rate.

We will never again see the type of technology employed by the R-2800-technolog y such as highly
sophisticated supercharging systems, workmanship of an incredibly high order, all internal parts
machined and highly polished, ingenious carburetion systems; those days are gone forever. The
present generation can enjoy what the brightest and best minds of the early to mid-20th century
could achieve . For that we should all be grateful.

The End (Phew.. ! ! !)

668
 Index

Abbreviations are used to indicate figures (j) and tables (t).

"A" series engines (general)

development chronology of, 100-101
external configuration, 24/
P&W production photographs, 104/
X-77 as first of series, 23
See also Military specifications, "A" series
A-20 Havoc
tracked landing gear experiments with, 526
A-26 Invader
-71 engine used in, 422/
A-26Bs in flight, 420f 422/
B-26K variant of, 415 , 418f 42lt
defensive armament, 42 lt
engine mounts, 415 , 416/
forward armament, 415 , 419f 420f 42lt
glass-nosed version, 415 , 418/
Heinemann design of, 415
manufacturer designations for, 417, 419
specifications, 421 t
tricycle landing gear, 415 , 417/
XA-26 prototype, 415 , 416/
ABC Dragonfly engine
configuration, 3/
fatigue failure, overheating, xx-xxi
introduction of, xx
See also Bradshaw, Granville
Accessory section, front ("C" series)
general configuration, 164, 167/
Accessory section, rear ("A" series)
accessory drive gears, 94
configuration, 97/

669
Index

Accessory section, rear ("A" series) (continued)

generator, 120V/400Hz, 94, 96
hydraulic pump, 94, 96
synchronizer/synchrophaser, 94, 95
tachometer generator, 94
See also Starting systems
ADI (anti-detonation injection)
altitude performance improvements (by series), 296t
authorized ADI mixtures, 218
in Bendix PT-13 carburetor, 311, 313, 314[
in commercial applications, 563, 564
in DC-6, 578/
engine run-up check of, 620
flow rates, typical, 21 7
in F4U-4, 44Qf
low temperature, problems with, 216-217, 313
power-to-weight improvements (by series), 296t
R-2800 engine nomenclature for, 217
typical installation, 219
in Walker 's highly boosted R-2800, 218-219
water injection, initial use of, 216
wet takeoff ADI pressure/flow, 621
See also Detonation; Operation, engine
AF-2W aircraft. See Grumman Guardian
Air induction systems
in C-46, 547, 549/
in C-82 Packet, 526, 527/
cockpit controls for (F4U-6/AU-l Corsair), 451/
in DC-6, 577, 579/
F4U-l/-2 Corsair induction scoops, 453 , 454/, 455/
in F4U-l Corsair, 428, 429/, 434/
in F4U-5 Corsair, 437, 448/
in F4U-6/AU-l Corsair, 445 , 447, 451/
in F4U-7 Corsair, 447
in F6F Hellcat, 503 -504, 505/
in F7F Tigercat, 512, 515f
in P-61NB Black Widow, 473 -474, 474/, 475/
in P-61C Black Widow, 475 , 478/
for "Sidewinder" supercharger, 437, 477/
in XP-56 Black Bullet, 538, 540
AJ-1/AJ-2 Savage
-44/-44W engine in, 532-533 , 535/, 537/
AJ-2 characteristics, missions, 537

670
 Index

AJ-1/AJ-2 Savage (continued)

Allison J-33-10 jet engine in, 533
cowling assembly, 535/
exploded view, 533/
GE. type CH-5 supercharger in, 532-533, 534/
in-flight photographs, 532/
oil system, 53 6/
in Pensacola Naval Aviation Museum, 667
specifications, 537
Allison J-33-10
in AJ-1 Savage, 533
Allison V-1710 inline engine, 134, 135/ 543
Aluminum
tensile strength, forged vs. cast, 61
American Bosch
DF18RU/LU magnetos, 73/ 76
Anderson, Elaine, xiif
Anderson, Ray, xvi
Arana, Carlos, xvii
Archer, Harold, xii
Arcing, electrical
of Curtiss Electric propeller brush assemblies, 332
of high-tension ignition systems, 77, 78/ 79/
Augmented exhausts
in Convair Twins, 582, 583/ 585/ 586
in Sikorsky S-56, 601 , 604/
See also Exhaust systems

"B" series engines (general)

-25 engines specified, produced, modified, 129
-63 single-stage engine for P-4 7, 131/
first Ford engine shipped, 129
Ford production photographs, 112/ 126/
initial design changes, summary of, 127-1 28
NACA turbo-compound engine study, 211/
program evolution/design objectives, 125-126
P&W production photographs, 104f 105/
two -4ls converted to fuel-injected -45s, 129
two-stage -8 (B2G) type test conducted, 129
two-stage (BAG) model tests conducted, 128
two-stage engine released to production, 129
See also Military specifications, "B" series

671
Index

B-23 Dragon
dual rotation propellers on, 558-559/
in-flight sketch, 559/
B-26 (Martin) Marauder
-5 engine in, 497/
-43 engine in, 499/
APU (auxiliary power unit), 494, 496/
A1my Air Force serial numbers, 50lt
B-26A, side view, 496/
B-26B, three-quarter front view, 498/
B-26C in flight, 498/
B-26F, front view, 500/
B-26G in flight, 502/
crew positions, 493/
early accidents with, 493
exploded view, 495/
NACA engine cowl (B-26G), 5/
"One-a-day in Tampa Bay," 493
specifications, 497 t, 499-500t
surviving specimens, 667
USAAF-RAF designations for, 494
B-26K (Douglas A-26 Invader variant), 415 , 418/ 42lt
Baffles, cylinder. See Cooling, cylinder; Cowlings
Bearings
cam ring bearings, front/rear, 63
corrosion of, 65
counterweight bearings, failures of, 114/ 114-115
crankshaft, 39
development of (historical note), 63
layered bearings, 65
lubrication of, 85
main, 62
master rod bearings/journals, 39, 63 -66, 631
master rod bearings, reverse loading of, 65-66, 631
oil transfer bearing, propeller shaft, 160-161 , 163/
propeller thrust bearing (Curtiss Electric), 325, 327, 328/
rocker arm, 25
rocker arm pivot bearings, shortage of, 112-113 , 113/
rolling element, propeller shaft, 67
thrust bearing, "C" series propeller shaft, 161
Beckwith, Gordon, xiif
Bell HSL-1
augmentor cooling system, 612/

672
 Index

Bell HSL-1 (continued)

drive shaft installation, 614/
front transmission system, 609, 615f
in-flight photograph, 609/
major sub-assemblies, 61 Of
pivoting engine mount, 611/
rear transmission system, 613/
rotor pitch/throttle control synchronization, 610, 612
specifications, 612t
throttle control, servo-assisted, 609-610
Bendix Corporation
Bendix-Scintilla DF 18RN/LN magneto, 73/
Bendix-Scintilla distributor, 74, 74j,' 76
carburetors (See Carburetors, Bendix)
DLN-10 low-tension ignition system, 212, 214-215 , 214-215j,' 216j,' 217/
Bird, Clarence, xii
Birman, Rudolph, 428
Blow-by, piston ring, 30
Blue Angels, 520
BMEP (brake mean effective pressure)
during cruise, 623 , 624
effect of carburetor icing on, 629-630
during engine run-up, 619, 620
of R-1340 Wasp, 15
typical R-2800, 28
of 1920-era engines, 15
See also Operation, engine
Bodie, Warren, xvii
Bradshaw, Granville, xx
Breguet Type 76 Deux Ponts
design development/details, 595
in-flight photograph, 595/
specifications, 596t
Briggs, Nonmm, xiif
Bristol Aeroplane Company
forged engine crankcases, 13
Jupiter engine, 13
See also Feddon, Roy
British Fleet Air Arm (FAA)
Mk. II Corsair for (F4U-l), 457, 458t
Brown, Don, 17

673
Index

"C" series engines (general)

introduction to, 144
development, milestone events in, l 94- l 96t
P&W production photographs, 104(, 105/
See also Military specifications, "C" series
C-46
-43 engine for, 551/
air induction system, 547, 549/
at Corrosion Comer, 567/
cowling configuration, 549/
design history, 546-547
"double bubble" fuselage construction, 546
flying "The Hump," 546, 547
in-flight photograph, 546/
landing gear configuration, 550/
major sub-assemblies, 548/
postwar employment of, 547
specifications, 548t
C-69E Constellation
-83 engine for, 292/
Wright engines in, 557
C-82 Packet
air induction system, 526, 527[
design history, 524
in-flight photograph, 525/
load ramps/clamshell doors, 524, 525/
main landing gear, 526, 528/
nose landing gear, 526, 529/
oil system, 526, 527/
ski landing gear, 526
specifications, 528
tracked landing gear system, 526
C-123 Provider
C-123B on skis, 487/
cowl design, 486, 488/
diverse roles of, 486
exhaust system, 486, 489/
Fulton Device on, 486
main landing gear, 486, 490/
nose gear, 486, 49 lf
oil cooling system, 486, 489/
origin/development of, 485-486
specifications, 487t
XC-123 on runway, 485/

674
 Index

"CA," "CE" series engines (general)

design improvements in, l 98 -l 99t
See also Military specifications, "CA," "CE" series
CA3 engine ("CA" series)
right side view, 239/
specifications for, 23 7t
CA15 engine (" CA" series)
front, side views, 239/ 573/ 588/ 593/
specifications, 23 8t
CA18/CA-18A engines ("CA" series)
right side view, 245/
specifications, 240t, 245/
Call, Thomas, 656, 657/
Cam rings/cam followers ("A" series)
cam followers , 3~{, 34[
cam ring bearings, front and rear, 63
configuration, front cam ring, 32/
functional description, 31-32
reduction gearing, 32-33, 33/ 34, 64
single can1 rings, disadvantages of, 33
support plates, front and rear, 32/ 63, 64{
See also Valve trains
Cameron, Kevin, xvi
Cameron, Lee, 660
Canadair CL-215
fire bomber role of, 589, 590/
Carburetor performance requirements, 299
Carburetors, Bendix PR-58
on "C" series engines, 300
in F4U-4 Corsair, 436/ 43 7/
Carburetors, Bendix PR-64
on -32 engine, 442/
on "E" series engines, 200, 300
in F4U-5 aircraft, 140, 142/ 437, 442/ 448/
Carburetors, Bendix PT-13/PR-58
on "A," "B" series engines, 300, 301/
accelerator pump, 311 , 3 12/
anti-detonation injection (ADI), 311 , 313, 314{
automatic mixture control (AMC), 302, 304, 306/ C2f
F4U-l carburetor "Y" duct, 428, 431/
fuel/air circuits in (sectional view), C2-C3/
fuel feed valve, 307, 308/
functional description, 301
icing of (See Icing/deicing, carburetor)

675
Index

Carburetors, Bendix PT-13/PR-58 (continued)

idle spring, idle needle, 310
major sub-assemblies, 300-301
manual mixture control, 3 10, 31 Of
metering system, 311, C3f
on -8 engine (with triple venturis), 427/
on -lOW engine, 130/
in P-61 Black Widow, 473-474, 475
Pesco positive-displacement fuel pump, 301, 305/
regulator assembly, description of, 303-304[, 305
regulator assembly, air section, 306
regulator assembly, fuel section, 307, C2f
regulator assembly, operation of, 308-310, C2-C3f
throttle body assembly, 302, 303-304/
"water regulator" in, 313, 3 14/
See also ADI; Fuel injection
Carburetors, Chandler Evans CECO PR-64
in semi-production -30W, -32W engines, 300
in semi-production F4U-5 , 264t
See also Carburetors, Bendix PR-64
Carburetors, direct port injection
limitations of, 300
Luftwaffe use of, 88, 313
See also Fuel injection
Carburetors, downdraft
on -10 powered Hellcats and P-6ls, 140, 142/
on early R-2800s, 89
in F4U-6/AU-l , 445
Carburetors, float type
limitations of, 299-300
in small to medium engines, 88
vs. injection, 88
Carburetors, Stromberg. See Carburetors, Bendix PT-13, Bendix PR-58
Carburetors, updraft. See Carburetors, Bendix PR-64
Carlson, Larry, xiif, xvi, 191-194
Cartoons, training, 378
Castor oil, xx
CB16 engine ("CB" series)
in Howard 500, 598
as R-2800 replacement, xxii
side view, 596/
three-quarter left front view, 245/
three-quarter right front view, 594f
top view, 588/

676
 Index

Chase Aircraft Company (C-123), 485

Chenoweth, Opie, 216
Chevrolet
R-2800 production sunm1ary, l l 7t
Chilton, Roland
Chilton floating "bifilar" damper, 36
Choking, cylinder, 28, 29
Chrysler XIV-2220 engine
in XPNP-60, 543
in XP-47H, 406t, 407/
Cleland, Cook, 655 , 656/
Coking, oil
in exhaust valve rocker boxes, 25
and piston ring sticking, 31
See also Cooling, oil
Combustion processes, fuel, 86-88
Commercial applications, Double Wasp
introduction, 563
ADI, use of, 563 , 564
aging aircraft/engines, problems with, 664, 666-667
high power, degradation caused by, 564
by manufacturer/aircraft, 570t
See also specific aircraft; Racing applications
Commercial engines, Double Wasp (general)
introduction, 225
modifications to, 665
operating curve index, 295t
parts availability, problems with, 664
P&W/AN specification designations, 228
supercharger designations for, 226, 226t
See also specific engines; Commercial specifications, Double Wasp; Operation, engine
Commercial specifications, "A" series
A4-G, 229t
A5 -G, 23lt
S 1A2-G, 229t
S 1A4-G, 230t
S 1A6-G, 232t
S2A4-G, 23 lt
S2A6-G, 232t
SA-G, 229t
SSA5-G, 23lt
C011U11ercial specifications, "B" series
2SB-G, 233t
2SB3-G, 233t

677
Index

Commercial specifications, "B" series (continued)

S2B-G, 232t
SSB2-G, 234t
TSBl-G, 233t
Commercial specifications, "C" series
2SC-G, 234t
2SC13-G, 235t
2SC14-G, 235t
2SC14W-G, 236t
2SC15-G, 236t
SSC22-G, 237t
TSC2-G, 235t
Commercial specifications, "CA" series
CA3, 237t
CA15/-15A, 238t
CA17, 238t
CA18/-18A, 240t
CA19, 240t
Commercial specifications, "CB" series
CBI , 24lt
CB2, 24lt
CB3 , 24lt
CB4, 242t
CBS , 242t
CBll , 242t
CB12, 243t
CB13 , 243t
CB14, 243t
CB15, 244t
CB16, 244t
CB17, 244t
CB18, 246t
Commercial specifications, "CE" series
CE4, 246t
CE16, 246t
CE21 , 247t
Commercial specifications, "E" series
El2, 248t
E22, 248t
VSEll-G, 247t
VSSE21-G, 247t
Compression ratio
"C" series vs. "B" series, 144-145
typical, R-2800, 28

678
 Index

Connecting rods, master

"B'' series distress in, 150
bearings/bearing journals, 39, 63 -66
evolution of, 157/
fabrication/polishing of, 66, 67/, 106
linear vibration, master rod contribution to, 36
one-piece vs. split, 38-39
reverse loading of, 631
Connecting rods ("A" series)
in built-up crank exploded view, 40/
cylinder assembly/disassembly order, importance of, 66-67
lubrication, 84
rod failure, consequences of, 66
Connecting rods ("C" series)
in -18W vs. -42W engines, 437/
" CA" and "CB" rods, 157
Connecting rods ("D," "E" series), 158
Connors, Jack, xvi
Constellation
in-flight photograph, 568/
military version (C-69E), 292/, 557
Contra-rotating propellers . See Propellers, dual rotation
Convair Twins (240/340/440)
exhaust augmentor system, 581 -582, 583/, 585/, 586
Martin 404, competition from, 586
Model 110 prototype, 5 8 lj
Model 240, CA15 engine for, 588/
Model 240 in flight, 5 84f
Model 440 on runway, in flight, 584.f. 585/
specifications, 5 87 t
T-29 (military) versions, 586, 587/
wing and tail deicing procedure, 631
Cook, Lt. Orval, 3 5
Cooling
See Air induction systems
Cooling, cylinder
Cooling, early radial engines
Cooling, oil
Cooling, rotary engines
Cooling, water
Cooling systems
Cowlings
Liquid-cooled engines
Valves, cooling of

679
Index

Cooling, cylinder
cooling fin area vs. horsepower, 145, 145t
forged vs. cast cylinder heads, 148-149
inter-ear deflectors for, 27/, 146f
by propeller blade shank cuffs, 318t, 327, 329f
sheet metal baffies around, 26-27, 27/, 28, 146f
See also Cowlings
Cooling, early radial engines
introduction, 1-2
Heron contributions to, 2-4
poultice head, 2
Cooling, oil
in AJ-1 Savage, 536f
Bell HSL-1 augmentor cooling system, 612f
in C-82 Packet, 526, 527f
C-123 oil cooling system/cockpit controls, 486, 489f
cockpit oil cooler controls in F4U-4 Corsair, 435/, 438f
in DC-6, 577, 580f
in F4U-l Corsair, 428, 43 lf
in F4U-4 Corsair, 432, 438f
in P-47 Thunderbolt, 381, 392f
in P-61 Black Widow, 474f 475
in PV-1 Ventura, 465
viscosity at start-up, problems with, 635-636, 637f
water-immersed "boiler" oil coolers, 658
in XP-56 Black Bullet, 540
Cooling, rotary engines, 2
Cooling, water
of P&W R-2060, 18
U.S . Navy antipathy toward, 11
water-immersed "boiler" oil coolers, 658
See also Liquid-cooled engines
Cooling systems
F4U-6/AU-l Corsair, 447, 452f
See also Air induction systems; Cooling, oil
Coriolis force
supercharger problems with, 191 , 200
Corrosion Comer, 564-569
Corsair Mk. II
for British Fleet Air Arm (FAA), 457, 458t
Counterweights/dampers ("A" series)
Chilton floating "bifilar" damper, 36
counterweight bearing failures , 114-115
location of (phantom view), 33f

680
 Index

Counterweights/dampers ("A" series) (continued)

Royce vibrational damper (V-12 Eagle), 35
Salomon ("hockey puck") pendulum dampers, 35, 39, 40j 61/
second-order counterweights, 36, 37j 38, 38/
Taylor research on, 35
See also Vibration, torsional
Counterweights/dampers (" C" series)
in -29 engine (on XP-56 Black Bullet), 538, 540
bifilar counterweights in, 15 lj 15 2
4-1 /2 order vibration, optimization for, 15 2
Cowlings
air flow control flaps in, 4, 5j 6f
on AJ-1 Savage, 535/
in C-46, 549/
in C-123 Provider, 486, 488/
drag reduction by, 4-5 , 7
NACA cowl, aerodynamics of, 4
NACA cowl, typical (for B-26G), Sf
in P-47 Thunderbolt, 380-381
ring cowls for rotary engines, xx
Townend cowling ring, 4
See also Air induction systems; Cooling, cylinder
Crankcase ("A" series)
crankcase assembly, configuration of, 61-62, 62/
forged vs. cast aluminum, 61
Crankcase ("C" series)
crankcase assembly, configuration of, l 49j 149-150
Crankshaft ("A"/"B" series)
"A"/"B" series, assembled, 61/
bearing, front, 39
built-up crank, 39, 40
development/evolution of, 4 l -60t, l 54t
failures of, 39-40
Ford production line, 112/
lubrication of, 85
P&W vibration analyses, 41-60, 156
Salomon counterweights on, 35, 39, 40, 40j 61/
See also Vibration, linear; Vibration, torsional
Crankshaft (" C" series)
"C" crank, involute face splines in, 150-15lj 152
" CA," "CB" crankshaft configuration, 152, 153/
evolution of, 154t
P&W vibration analyses, 156
See also Vibration, linear; Vibration, torsional

681
Index

Crankshaft ("D" series)

configuration of, 152
Crankshaft ("E" series)
configuration of, 152, 155/
Crankshafts ("E" series)
evolution of, 154t
Cullen, James K. , 11
Cummings, David, xvii
Curtiss, Glenn, 10
Curtiss Aeroplane Company, 10
Curtiss Wright Company, 542
Cylinders ("A" series)
assembly/disassembly order, importance of, 66-67
choking, 28 , 29/
cooling (See Cooling, cylinder)
cylinder barrel/head configuration, 23-25 , 25f 28
Cylinders ("B" series)
Ford cast cylinder barrel production, 111, 113/
Cylinders (" C" series)
cast aluminum head limitations, 144, 145
forged cylinder head, configuration of, 145
forged cylinder head, manufacture of, 148
inlet/exhaust valve assemblies, 14 7t
temperature, forged vs. cast cylinder heads, 148-149

"D" series engines (general)

configuration of, 142-143
dual rotating propeller shafts in, 143
in Nmthrop XP-56 (Black Bullet), 140, 142-143
single- vs. two-speed nose in, 142
See also Military specifications, "D" series
Dampers. See Counterweights/dampers
Davis, June, xiif
Davisson, Bob, xii
DC-3 , 564/
DC-4 (C-54 Skymaster), 566/
DC-6 (commercial versions)
ADI system, 578/
air induction system, 577, 579/
at Corrosion Comer, 566/
DC-6A/6B, differences between, 574
design history, 571-572
fire hazard in, 577

682
 Index

DC-6 (commercial versions) (continued)

in-flight photograph, 57 lf
oil cooler installation, 577, 580t
QECs, interchangeability of, 577
slotted flaps , 574, 575f
specifications (DC-6/6A/6B) , 572t
DC-6 (military versions)
Harry Truman's "Independence ," 574, 576f
MATS use of, 574
U.S . Navy use of, 575
DC-7, 567f
De Havilland Comet
fatigue failure of, xxii
De Seversky, Alexander, 379
Deicing. See Icing/deicing
DeSanto, James, 656
Descent and landing
approach rpm, setting, 632
cowl flaps , setting, 632
engine stability, CHT during, 631
low airspeeds, propeller forward pitch during, 633
mixture control during, 632
propeller reversing, 632
rejected landing, power/ADI settings for, 632
reverse loading, master rod bearing, 631
taxi and shutdown, 633
See also Flight operation; Ground operation
Desludging
blower clutch, 196, 504, 624
Hamilton Standard propellers, 362-363
Detonation, fuel
combustion processes for, 27, 86-88
during full-power takeoff roll, 634
manifold pressure/temperature as factors in, 133, 300
from piston ring failure, 634
and Unilever power control, 382, 384
See also ADI (anti-detonation injection)
Direct drive noses ("C" series)
helicopter applications of, 171
Distributors ("A" series)
compensated (even-firing) earns in, 76
drive mechanism, 76
functional description, 76
General Electric integral, 79, 80f

683
Index

Distributors ("A" series) (continued)

pressurizing vane pump for (Scintilla), 77, 79/
See also Ignition systems, high-tension; Ignition systems, low-tension
Distributors ("C" series)
distributor drive gear trains, 166-167
Drag, reduction by cowlings, 4-5 , 7
Dragonfly engine. See ABC Dragonfly engine
Dual rotation propellers. See Propellers, dual rotation

"E" series engines (general)

configuration, 200-201 , 201/ 202/
See also Military specifications, "E" series
E-12 engine
typical commercial installation, 205/
E-22 engine
typical commercial installation, 206/
Ely, Roland, xii
Engine mounts
Bell HSL-1 pivoting engine mount, 611/
discussion of, 94
dynafocal principle, 94, 96/
in F4U-5 , 437, 439, 448/
Lord engine mount, exploded view, 95/
in P-61 Black Widow, 475 , 478/
snubbing disc (damping), 94/
solid, in F4U-4, 437
typical mount arrangement, 96/
in XP-56 Black Bullet, 540, 541/
See also QEC (Quick Engine Change)
Esgar, Jack, xiif
Exhaust ducting
See Exhaust systems
Exhaust systems
augmented exhausts, defined, 4, 7
exhaust augmentor system (Convair Twins), 581-582, 583/ 585/
exhaust ducting ("D'' series), 143
exhaust system experiments, 213t
in F4U-5 Corsair, 439, 439f 449/
in P-47 Thunderbolt, 381-382, 383/
Sikorsky S-56 augmentor system, 601 , 604/
Sikorsky S-56 ejector type system, 601 , 605/
See also Valves, exhaust

684
 Index

F-2G/XF-2G Corsair
discussion of, 453-454
photograph, 456/
specifications, 464t
See also F 4U Corsair
F4U Corsair (general)
British Fleet Air Arm (FAA) version (F4U-l), 457, 458t
development history, 423
as dual rotation propeller test bed, 457/
dual rotation propellers on, 457/
incorrect restoration of, 665 , 666
main landing gear components, 425/
specifications, variations and permutations, 456t, 458-459t, 462-464t
tail wheel, tail hook, 425/ 426/
XF4U, 424/ 456t
See also F-2GIXF-2G Corsair; Racing applications
F4U-l/F4U-2 Corsair
-1 air intake/induction system, 428, 429/
-1 air-to-air intercoolers, 428, 431/
-1 dual oil coolers, 428, 431/
-1 "Y" duct (to carburetor), 428, 429/
-8/-8W engine in, 42/ 142/ 426, 432
"birdcage" version, 450, 455/
differences between -1 , -2, 426, 460
flush induction scoop (for R-4360 versions), 453 , 454{
foreign object engine damage, 428
as night fighter, 459t, 460/
R-4360 powered experimental aircraft, 447, 450, 453/ 453-454, 454/ 455/ 464t
raised induction scoop (for R-4360 versions), 453 , 455/
specifications, 456t, 458t, 459t
two-stage supercharging, 426-428
updraft carburetors in, 140, 142/ 426
as "Whistling death,'' 428
wing fold location, 424{
See also XF4U-l Corsair
F4U-3A, -3B Corsair
-14W engine in (-3B), 461/
-16 engine in (-3A), 461/
specifications, 459t
F4U-4 Corsair
-18W engine in, 432
-18W engine milestones, 198
ADI system, 440/

685
Index

F4U-4 Corsair (continued)

chin air scoop, 432, 432/, 435/, 436/
cockpit oil cooler, flap controls, 435/, 438/
cutaway view, 433/
dual air-to-air intercoolers, 435/
exhaust system, 439/
induction system (phantom view), 434[
main landing gear components, 425/
QEC configuration, 441/
single elliptical oil cooler, 432/, 438/
specifications, 462t
tail wheel, tail hook, 425/, 426/
F4U-5 Corsair
-32W engine in, 200-201 , 437, 439, 443/, 445/, 446/
air induction system, 437, 448/
dual air-to-air intercoolers, 437, 447/
dual cowl-mounted airscoops, 437, 448/
engine mounts, 439, 448/
front view, 443/
PR-64 updraft carburetor, 437, 448/
"Sidewinder" supercharger in, 437, 443/, 446/, 448/
specifications, 462t
triamesed exhaust ejector stacks, 439, 449/
See also "Sidewinder" supercharger
F4U-6/AU-l Corsair
-83 engine for, 449/
air induction system, 445 , 447, 451/
engine cooling system, 447, 452/
general configuration, 449-450/
induction system, cockpit controls for, 451/
specifications, 463t
F4U-7 Corsair
engine installation and induction system, 44 7
specifications, 463t
F6F Hellcat
-10 engine in, 130/
air induction system, 503-504, 505/
armament, 516/
blower clutch desludging, 504
development of, 503
downdraft carburetors, 140, 142/
float-equipped F6F, 504, 507/
in-flight photograph, 503/
oil cooling system, 504, 506/

686
 Index

F6F Hellcat (continued)

specifications, 508-5 llt
supercharging, 503 , 504
F7F Tigercat
- l 8W engine milestones, 198
air induction system, 512, 515f
front view, 514/
internal configuration/components, 513f
main landing gear, 515f
nose gear, 515f
specifications, 5 l 7-5 l 9t
turbosupercharger failure (XP-50), 512
F8F Bearcat
-30W engine in, 520-521 , 521/
" C" series engines in, 520
in-flight photograph, 520/
oil cooling system, 521 , 523/
specifications, 522t
FAA. See British Fleet Air Arm (FAA)
Fairchild C-82
cowling air flow control flaps , 6/
Fatigue failure
in ABC Dragonfly engine, xx
of de Havilland Comet, xxii
discussion of, 642
Feddon, Roy
develops forged crankcase, 13
develops forged cylinder head, 144
sleeve valve designs of, 25
sleeve valve engine designs of, 25 , 219-220
Fire bomber (Canadair CL-215), 589, 590/
Firing impulses
and crankshaft torsional vibration, 15 6
Firing order, ignition, 74
Fleetwings XBTK, 553 , 553/
Flight operation
BMEP fluctuations/pressure pulsations, 624-625 , 629
climb power blower settings/blower shift, 622-623
climb power/fuel flow, 622
cruise power, sequence for setting, 623-624
cylinder head temperatures, importance of, 620-621
engine analyzer, typical patterns on, 626-628/
full authorized [takeoff] power, 621-622
upwind takeoff, importance of, 621

687
Index

Flight operation (continued)

wet takeoff, ADI pressure/flow during, 621
See also Ground operation; Descent and landing
Ford, Edsel, 107, 110/
Ford Motor Company
Aircraft Engine (River Rouge) Plant, 106
automobile vs. aircraft engine production, 103, 105-106
"B" series engines, 1q[, 126/
cast cylinder barrel production, 111, 113/
combination build stand/test stand, 115f, 119/
first "B" series engine shipped, 129
P&W license fee, 106-107
R-2800 production milestone events, 107, 109-111
R-2800 production summary, 108-109t
Foreign object engine damage
in F4U Corsairs, 428
Fuel, aircraft engine
octane ratings, xxi
PN scale development, xxi
See also Detonation, fuel
Fuel injection
"B" -4ls converted to fuel injected -45s, 129
Luftwaffe use of, 313
U.S. Navy objections to, 313, 314-315
See also Carburetors, direct port injection
Fuel metering, speed density, 315
Fuel supply. See Carburetors; Superchargers
Fulton Device
on C-123 Provider, 486

Gears . See Reduction gearing (various)

General Electric Corporation
Turtleback magneto, 79, 80/, 81 , 398/
See also Turbosuperchargers, General Electric
Generator, rear section (120V/400Hz), 94, 96
Generator drive, high-speed, 292/
Glenn L. Martin Company, 10
Governors, propeller. See Propeller governors
Green, A.W.F., 40
Greenamayer, Daryl, 658-659, 659/
Ground operation
introduction, 617
ADI system check, 620

688
 Index

Ground operation (continued)

engine run-up, cautions regarding, 619-620
fuel booster pump, actuating, 618
hydraulic lock during, 618
idling/idle mixture, 619
oil stand pipe, importance of, 636, 637/
oil viscosity, problems with, 635-636
starting procedure, 618-619
See also Descent and landing; Flight operation
Grununan Guardian
design history, 530
in-flight photograph (AF-2 versions), 530/
specifications, 530
Gun synchronizer, 94, 95

H-3130 sleeve-valve engine, 18, 19

Haigh, Richard, xvi
Hamilton Standard Propellers
company formed , 17
See also Propellers, Hamilton Standard
Hamm, Hilton, xiif
Harnesses, ignition. See Ignition systems
Hartog, Den, 40
Helicopter applications
direct drive noses ("C" series), 171 , 601
output shaft ("C" series), 171/
See also Bell HSL-1 ; Sikorsky S-56
Hendershot, Jesse, xvi
Hendy, Fred, xiif
Heron, Sam
biographical note, 2-4, 4f
cylinder head design of, 23
PN scale development, xxi
sodium-cooled valve development, 2-4, 5, 25
Hickner, Bob, xiif
High-altitude performance
of Curtiss Electric propeller brush assemblies, 332
of Curtiss Electric propeller speed reducer, 327
of high-tension ignition systems, 77, 78j 79/
improvements in (by engine series), 296t
Pikes Peak high-altitude test, 132, 133/
See also Superchargers
Hispano-Suiza V-8 engine, 10, lOj 11

689
Index

Hobbs, Luke
biographical note, 13, 13/, 18-19, 21
resolves counterweight bearing failures , 114-115
Hooker, Sir Stanley, 133, 134[
Hornet, P&W, 16
Horsepower
and overboosting, 228
of R-2800 vs. R-4360, 218
vs. cooling fin area, 145, 145t
See also individual engine specifications
Howard 500
design history, 598-599
in-flight photograph, 598/
specifications, 599t
Hughes D2A/XA-37/XP-73
-49 engine in, 554/, 555
design development of, 554
Husted, Don, 660, 661/
Hydraulic lock
danger of, 100
in ground operation, 618
prior to test-cell startup, 651
Hydraulic pump ("A" series), 94, 96

Icing/deicing, carburetor
BMEP, effect on, 630
carburetor air temperature, setting, 629
carburetor icing, indications of, 629-630
deicing procedure, 630
Icing/deicing, propeller
anti-icing device, Hamilton Standard propellers, 337/, 350/, 351 , 352/
Icing/deicing, wing and tail (Convair)
deicing procedure, 631
Ignition systems, high-tension
introduction, 72
firing order, 74
harnesses, G.E., 79, 81/
harnesses, Scintilla, 77, 77/, 78/
radio shielding in, 72, 75
twin-engine installation, typical, 81/
See also Distributors; Ignition systems, low-tension; Magnetos
Ignition systems, low-tension
CB-16 engine fitted with, 217/

690
 Index

Ignition systems, low-tension (continued)

discussion of, 212, 215
DLN-10 magneto cross section, 215/
simplified schematic diagram, low- vs. high-tension, 214[
step-up transformers, cylinder head, 216/
Ignition systems ("C" series)
spark advance operating unit, 167-168, 169.f. 170.f. 183
Ignition timing, variable ("C" series), 26
Intake pipes/intake manifolds ("A" series)
initial configuration, 22-23
nine-manifold configuration, 8 9, 91/
rubber couplings/split clamps, 91.f. 127/
See also Air induction systems
Intake pipes/intake manifolds (" B'' series)
flanged "pork chop" clamps, 127/
See also Air induction systems
Isfdeld, Bill, xii

Jordan, Don, xvii

Kaiser, Henry J. , 485

Kartveli, Alexander, 3 79
KC-97 (at Corrosion Comer), 569/
Kennedy, Bill, xii
Khurt, Wes, xii
Koffel, John, xiif
Krill, Art, xiif

Lanchester, Frederick, 35
Langley, Samuel P. , xix
Law, Pete, xvii
Liberty engine
Pikes Peak high-altitude tests of, 132, 133/
Lindbergh, Charles, 2
Liquid-cooled engines
Allison V-1710 F32, 134, 135.f. 543
Chrysler XIV-2220, 407.f. 543
P&W X-1800, 18, 538
See also Cooling, water
Lubrication, rotary engine
castor oil, xx

691
Index

Lubrication, rotary engine (continued)

total loss system in, x,-x
Lubrication systems ("A" series)
first branch, functional description of, 84
second branch, functional description of, 84-85
third branch, functional description of, 85
de-aeration baffies, 82, 83/
dry pump system, 80, 82
low pressure oil system, 86
main oil pressure pmnp, 82, 83/
oil pressure relief valve, 86, 87/
oil pressure/temperature ranges, 87
overall lubrication system (cutaway view), 84f
pressure relief valve, temperature compensation of, 82
scavenge pumps, 82, 82/
supercharger clutch lubrication, 84, 85
"top hat" oil shield, llLif, 114-115
Lubrication systems ("C" series)
introduction, 172
first branch, 173
second branch (supercharger oil supply), 173
third branch (crankshaft), 173, 182
fourth branch (cam rings, accessory drive gears), 182
fifth branch (access01y drive gears, propeller), 182
sixth branch (booster pump, torquemeter), 183
seventh branch (spark advance mechanism), 183
detailed sectional view, 174-181/
front scavenge/torquemeter pump, 171-172, 172j 178/
functional description, 183-184
low pressure oil system, 184-185
rear scavenge pump, 184[
Ludvigsen, Karl, xvii
Luftwaffe
Arado Ar 232B, 524
direct port injection carburetors in, 88
fuel injection in, 313
FW-190, QEC on, 366/
ME-109R water-inunersed "boiler" oil coolers, 65 8
Messerschmitt ME 323 , 524
QEC concept development, 365
WWII V-12 engines in, 437

692
 Index

Magnetos ("A" series)

American Bosch, 73/, 76
Bendix-Scintilla DF18RN/LN, 73/
dual, failures of, 27
General Electric Turtleback, 79, 80/, 81/
magneto drive gears, lubrication of, 86
nomenclature code for, 74-76
See also Ignition systems, high-tension; Ignition systems, low-tension
Maintenance and overhaul
introduction, 636
blower impeller removal, 642/
blower section removal, 642/
crankcase front section removal, 641/
crankcase rear section removal, 641/
crankshaft gear (cam driver gear) removal, 640/
cylinder hold-down studs, inspecting, 644, 646
engine assembly sequence, 646-64 7
engine disassembly sequence, 63 7-63 8
engine preservation, packaging, 652-653
fatigue failure, discussion of, 642
fits/clearances/tolerances, checking, 644, 646
front cylinder removal, 639/
inspection criteria, 638-639, 642-644
Magnaflux part inspection, 645/, 646
nose case removal, 639/
piston removal, 640/
propeller shaft gear coupling removal, 640/
propeller shaft runout, checking, 638/
test cells, rigid/suspended cable, 647-648, 648/, 649/
test club, 649, 650/
test hookups, required, 651
test procedures, prestart/preliminary, 651
torquemeter checks, 651-65 2
Malcolm, Charles, xiif
Manifold pressure
during approach, 632
and automatic engine controls, 13 7-13 9
under carburetor icing conditions, 629-630
during climb, 622
during descent, 631
effect on induction temperature, 136

693
Index

Manifold pressure (continued)

as factor in detonation, 133, 300
and supercharger impeller end thrust, 134
during takeoff, 621
Manly, Charles, xix
Manufacturing, R-2800
Chevrolet production summary, 117 t
Ford production summary, 109-lllt
manufacturer SIN code designations, l l 6t
Nash-Kelvinator production summary, 116t, 118t
by Pratt & Whitney, 101-103, 103-105
yearly production summary, 296t
See also Ford Motor Company
Marcucci, Al, xvii
Martin, Glenn, 10
Martin Twins (202/404)
CA15 engine for, 593/
competition with Convair Twins, 586
design development of, 5 91
in-flight photograph (202), 592/
in-flight photograph (404), 593/
specifications (202), 59 lt
specifications (404), 592t
McBumey, Craig, xvi
McCutcheon, Kim, xv
McDermott, Jack, xiif
McRae, Grady, xiif
Meade, George
biographical note, 12, 17
develops sleeve-valve engines, 18, 19, 5 3 8
Meloy, George, 39-40
Merlin engine. See Rolls-Royce Merlin engine
Meyer, Bob, xiif
Miami International Airp01t, 564-569
Military-commercial designation cross-reference, 293-294t
Military engines, R-2800 Double Wasp (general)
Army-Navy numerical suffixes for, 227-228
horsepower ratings, 228t
military applications (by aircraft model), 375-378t
military designation cross-reference, 293 -294t
specifications for (See Military specifications, (various))
See also specific engines; R-2800 (general)

694
 Index

Military specifications, "A" series

R-2800-1 , 249t
R-2800-5 , 250t
R-2800-6, 250t
R-2800-7, 250t
R-2800-11 , 255t
R-2800-13 , 255t
R-2800-15 , 256t
R-2800-17, 257t
R-2800-19, 260t
R-2800-21 , 260t
R-2800-39, 270t
R-2800-X-2, 249t
R-2800-X-4, 249t
Military specifications, "B" series
R-2800-8/-8W, 25 l-252t
R-2800-9, 251-252t
R-2800-10/-lOW, 251-252t
R-2800-12 , 255t
R-2800-16, 256t
R-2800-20, 260t
R-2800-25 , 262t
R-2800-26, 262t
R-2800-27, 262t
R-2800-31, 265t
R-2800-33 , 267-268t
R-2800-35 (semi-production), 269t
R-2800-41 , 27lt
R-2800-43 , 273t
R-2800-45 , 273t
R-2800-47, 275t
R-2800-49, 276t
R-2800-51 , 277-278t
R-2800-53 , 277-278t
R-2800-59, 280t
R-2800-63 , 280t
R-2800-65 , 282t
R-2800-67, 282t
R-2800-69, 282t
R-2800-71 , 283t
R-2800-75 , 283t
R-2800-79, 285t

695
Index

Military specifications, "C" series

R-2800-14/-14W, 256t
R-2800-18/-18W/-1 8WA, 257t
R-2800-22/-22W, 26lt
R-2800-24 and X-24, 26lt
R-2800-28 , 263t
R-2800-34/-34W/-34WA, 267-268t
R-2800-34A, 269t
R-2800-36, 269t
R-2800-37W, 270t
R-2800-38W, 270t
R-2800-40/-40W, 27lt
R-2800-42W, 27lt
R-2800-55 , 279t
R-2800-57, 279t
R-2800-61 , 280t
R-2800-73 , 283t
R-2800-77, 285t
R-2800-81 , 285t
R-2800-83/-83W/-83WA, 287-288t
R-2800-85/-85W/-85XA, 287-288t
R-2800-87, 289t
R-2800-89, 289t
R-2800-91 , 289t
R-2800-93 , 290t
R-2800-101 , 29lt, 292/
Military specifications, "CA" series
R-2800-46/-46W, 275t
R-2800-95 , 290t
R-2800-97 , 290t
Military specifications, "CB" series
R-2800-48 , 275t
R-2800-50, 276t
R-2800-50A, 276t
R-2800-52/-52W/-52WA, 277-278t
R-2800-54, 279t
R-2800-99W, 29lt
R-2800-103W, 29lt
Military specifications, " CE" series
R-2800-44/-44W, 273t
Military specifications, "D" series
R-2800-23 , 26lt
R-2800-29, 263t

696
 Index

Military specifications, "E" series"

R-2800-30W (production), 265t
R-2800-30W (semi-production), 263t
R-2800-32W (production), 267-268t
R-2800-32W (semi-production), 265t
Moffett, Rear Adm. W.A., 11
Moss, Sanford
biographical note, 131-13 2, 13 2/
Pikes Peak Liberty engine tests, 132, 133/
Mounts . See Engine mounts
Museum aircraft, 667-668

NACA (National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics). See Cowlings

Nash-Kelvinator
R-2800 production summary by dash number, 118t
R-2800 total production by year, 116t
Nassau, Jim, xiif
Nene engine (Rolls-Royce), 13, 14/, 436/
Niles-Bement-Pond, 11
Northrop, Jack
P-61 Black Widow design, 4 71
XP-56 Black Bullet design, 538
Nose section ("A" series)
description, configuration of, 67-68, 68/
See also Reduction gearing, propeller
Nose section (" C" series)
configuration, 159/, 160/
design advances, 158
front section cutaway view, 158, 161f
Nose section ("D" series)
single- vs. two-speed nose, 142

Oil temperature, "B" series

reducing, design modifications for, 127
See also Coking, oil
Operation, engine
introduction, 617
operating curve index, 295t
See also ADI (anti-detonation injection); Descent and landing; Flight operation; Ground opera-
tion; Icing/deicing, carburetor; Maintenance and overhaul
Osborne, Clay, xii

697
Index

Overboosting
dangers of, 137, 207
and horsepower increases, 228
preventing (-18W engines), 193-194, 197/
and R-2800 vs. R-4360, 218
See also Carburetors; Manifold pressure
Overhaul, engine. See Maintenance and overhaul

P-47 Thunderbolt (general)

-21 engine released to production for, 129
dorsal fins , 386, 386f 403t
dual air-to-air intercoolers, 379-380, 381/
dual oil coolers, 381, 382/
early design history, 379
engines used, 3 8 7 t
exhaust system, 381-382, 383/
fuselage ducting configuration, 379-381 , 380/
incorrect restoration of, 666
on assembly line, 379/
specifications, variations and pennutations of, 388t, 389t, 392-397t, 399-404t, 406t, 408t,
412-413t
Unilever power control, 208-209, 382, 383f 384
See also XP-47H; XP-47J; XP-72 (P-47 derivative)
P-47B/XP-47B Thunderbolt
side, in-flight views, 389/
specifications, 3 88t
P-4 7C Thunderbolt
-63 engine for, 13 lf 398/
in-flight view, 391/
specifications, 388t, 390t
P-47D Thunderbolt
-11-RE photograph, 391/
-25-RE bubble canopy, 400t, 405/
-25-RE in-flight photograph, 405/
-30-RE, blunt-nosed ailerons on, 40lt
-40-RA dorsal fin, 386, 386f 403t
specifications for (all variants), 390t, 392-397t, 399-403t
P-47G-l-CU Thunderbolt
three-quarter rear view, 405/
P-4 7M Thunderbolt
-14W engine for, 409/
specifications, 408t
top rear view, 41 Of

698
 Index

P-47N/XP-47N Thunderbolt
-73 engine used in, 411/
clipped wing tips on, 41 Of
specifications, 408t, 412-413t, 414[
P-60. See XPIYP-60 (Curtiss)
P-61 Black Widow
-10 engine in, 473 , 473/
-25 engine designed, modified for, 129
-57 engine in, 475 , 477/
-73/-77 engines in, 473 , 477/
at Air Force Musewn, Smithsonian, 667
bubble canopy on (P-61E), 484[
cockpit layout, 480/
ditching, sketch of, 480/
downdraft carburetor, 140
engine installation (-A/-B), 473-474
engine installation (-C), 4 74-4 7 5, 4 78/
exploded view, 472/
induction air/intercoolers/cowling (P-61C), 475, 478/
induction air/intercoolers (P-61A/P-61B) , 473-474, 474/, 475/
main landing gear, nose gear, 4 79/
oil cooling in, 4 74f 4 7 5
P-61A in-flight photograph, 471
P-61C three-quarter view, 476/
photo recon. variant (F-15A), 484/
specifications, 476t, 481-483t
spoilers and full-span flaps , 471
supercharging, alternative approaches to, 4 71 , 4 73
XP-61D side view, 483/
Page, Ralph, xiif
Parkins, Wright, 156-157
PBM-5 Mariner, 492, 492/
Pierce, Bev, xiif
Piston rings
collapse of, 3 0
configuration of, R-2800, 31/
failure during takeoff roll/takeoff, 634
functional description, 29-30
hammering, 3 0
high-temperature failure, 634-635
oil control, dual, 3 1
oil scraper, 31
ring flutter, 30

699
Index

Pistons ("A" series)

configuration, 28
Pistons ("B" series)
domed heads on, 128
PN (performance number) scale, xxi
Poultice head, 2
Power management, engine, 136-140
Power recovery (engine test), 115f
Power-to-weight improvements (by series), 296t
Pratt, Perry, 21
Pratt & Whitney Aircraft Company
British government orders, 102
engine production license fees , 106-107
expansion of East Hartford facilities, 101-102
formed by Rentschler, 11-12
French government orders, 101-102
R-2800 engine production, photos of, 103-105f
U.S . government orders, 101-103
Propeller governors
double capacity governor developed, 3 l 8t
electric governor head developed/tested, 320t
governor drive gear train ("C" series), 169
Hamilton Standard Hydromatic, 353-354, 354.f, 355-357/ C4-C8f
high-pressure oil supply ("C" series), 159, 160-161, 16lf, 163f
oil source ("A" series), 86
speeder spring, Hamilton Standard Hydromatic, 354, 357f
See also Propellers, Curtiss Electric; Propellers, Hamilton Standard
Propeller shaft ("A" series)
configuration, 70, 72f
splines on, 70, 72f
See also Reduction gearing, propeller
Propeller shaft (" C" series)
configuration, 158-159, 162f
thrust bearing for, 161
Propellers, Curtiss Electric
adapter plate, speed reducer, 327, 329f
bearings, thrust, 325, 327, 328f
brake assembly, 323/ 324
cuffs, blade shank, 3 l 8t, 327, 329f
development chronology, 3 l 7-320t
electric motor/speed reducer, 322-323/ 324, 330f
exploded view, 32lf
functional description, 321 , 324-325

700
 Index

Propellers, Curtiss Electric (continued)

governor, functional description of, 325, 326f 329
hub, one-piece, 325, 327/
pilot/flight engineer control of, 324-325
pitch and feathering switch operation, 324, 325
reliability concerns regarding, 33 1-3 32
ring gear/blade gear quadrant, 324/, 325/
slip ring and brush assembly, 3 l 8t, 322f 331/
See also Propellers/propeller blades
Propellers, dual rotation
on Douglas B-23 , 558-559/
engine designations for, 227
on F4U Corsair, 457/
Hamilton Standard development of, 318, 319-320
in Northrop XP-56, 140, 143
on XP-56 Black Bullet, 140, 538
Propellers, Hamilton Standard
air separator plug, 353, C4f
anti-icing device assembly, 337f 350f 351 , 352/
barrel, 337f 338, 339f 340
barrel supports, 339f 340
blade angle stop rings, 343f 348
blade assembly, "E" shank, 340, 341/
blade balancing plug, 34 lf 342
blade bushings, 340, 34 lf 342
blade gear segment, 339f 34lf 342
blade packing, 339f 342
cam styles, 346, 347/
cams, coaxial, rotating/fixed, 343f 345
chafing ring, 34lf 342
distributor shell assembly, 337f 349, 352/
dome and barrel seal, 343f 349
dome assembly, 337f 343f 344, 347/
dome breather hole/breather assembly, 337f 343f 351
dome pressure relief valve, 362, C4f
dome retaining nut, 343f 349
dome shell, 343f 348
dynamic forces acting on, 332-334, 333f 334/
engine shaft extension, 351-353 , 352/
governor, functional description of, 353-354, 354/, 355-357f C4-C8/
high-pressure oil supply for ("C" series), 159, 160-161, 16lf 163/
Hydromatic hub assembly, exploded view, 337/
major subassemblies of, 332

701
Index

Propellers, Hamilton Standard (continued)

model designations (basic/blade/special), 334-336
piston, 343f 346, 348
roller assemblies, 343f 348
shim plates and shims, 339f 344
speeder spring, governor, 354, 357f
sp1"d er, ...,...,6
.J .J , ..,..,8
.J.J , ""9l.(
.J.J 'J

spring pack assemblies, 339f 344

thrust plate, blade bushing, 34lf 342
thrust washers, 340, 34lf
See also Propellers, Hamilton Standard (Operation); Propellers/propeller blades
Propellers, Hamilton Standard (Operation)
introduction, 3 53
air separator plug, 353, C4f
feathering, 359-361 , C7f
feathering installation, typical, 363f
governor, functional description of, 353-354, 354f 355-357f C4-C8f
maintenance of, 362-363
on-speed condition, 355f 358, C5f
overspeed condition, 356f 358-359, C6f
sludging in, 362-363
speeder spring, governor, 354, 357f
underspeed condition, 356f 357-358, C4f
unfeathering, 361-362, C8f
See also Propellers, Hamilton Standard
Propellers, variable pitch
dynamic forces acting on, 332-334, 333f 334[
high-pressure oil supply for ("C" series), 159, 160-161 , 16lf 163f
need for, 132
propeller governor oil source ("A" series), 86
propeller shaft oil transfer bearing (" C" series), 86
See also Propellers, Curtiss Electric; Propellers, Hamilton Standard
Propellers/propeller blades
blade tip shock waves, problems with, 465
contribution to torsional vibration, 35-36
development chronology, 317-3 21 t
dynamic forces acting on, 332-334, 333f 334[
Hydromatic steel/aluminum propellers tested, 320t
P&W vibration analyses (in SMRs), 41-60
synchronizing, synchrophasing, 95
tip speed constraints, 68-69
10-foot aluminum NACA propeller tested, 319t
12-foot aluminum propeller tested, 318t

702
 Index

Propellers/propeller blades (continued)

18-foot magnesium propeller tested, 3 l 9t
See also Propellers, dual rotation; Propellers, variable pitch; Reduction gearing, propeller
Pumps, oil. See Lubrication systems; Propellers, Hamilton Standard
Pusher aircraft. See XP-56 Black Bullet
Pushrods. See Valve trains
PV-1 Ventura/PV-2 Harpoon
-31 engine in, 465 , 4 70/
as Lockheed Lodestar derivative, 465
multi-role capability of, 415
oil cooler, 415
PV-2 loading torpedo, 467/
PV-2s in flight, 467/
RAF PV-1 , 466/
single-wheel main landing gear, 465, 469/
specifications, 468t
USAAF PV-1 s in flight, 466/

QEC (Quick Engine Change)

interchangeable (in DC-6 commercial versions), 577
Luftwaffe development of, 365
R-2800-18W in F4U-4, 441/
R-2800-32W in F4U-5, 446/
See also Engine mounts

R-985 Wasp Jr., 15

R-1340 Wasp
BMEP of, 15
design specifications, 13, 14
first flight of, 16
first production orders, 16
first test run (illus.) , 15/
Navy requirements for, 11, 12
one-piece crankshaft, 14
R-2060, configuration of, 18
R-2800 (general)
altitude perfom1ance improvements (by series), 296t
design series of, 22
initial configuration/specifications, 22-23
military-commercial nomenclature cross-reference, 293-294t
oil stand pipe, importance of, 636, 637/

703
Index

R-2800 (general) (continued)

power-to-weight improvements (by series), 296t
prototype engines for, 23
X-80 as development mule, 23
See also specific components and series; Commercial specifications (various); Military specifi-
cations (various); Operation, engine
R-2800-5
in B-26 Marauder, 497f
specifications for, 250t
R-2800-8/-8W
Bendix PT-13 carburetor on, 427f
front view, 253f
in F4U-l Corsair, 142f
specifications, 251-252, 253f
updraft carburetor on, 140
R-2800-10/-lOW
Bendix PT-13 carburetor on, 130f
blower desludging (in F6F Hellcat), 504
first engines tested, shipped, 131
front, rear views, 254[
in F6F Hellcat, 13Qf, l42f
specifications, 25 l-252t
supercharger for, cutaway view, 136f
R-2800-14/-1 4W
in P-4 7M Thunderbolt, 409f
seven-eighth left front, top views, 258f
specifications, 256t
R-2800-18/-18W/-l 8WA
in Curtiss YP-60, 543 , 544t, 545f
left side view (-18WA), 436f
milestone events in (SSC22G), 198
QEC configuration (in F4U-5), 446f
right side view, 186-187/, 25~(
single elliptical oil cooler for (in F4U-4), 432, 438f
specifications, 25 7t
three-quarter front view, 189, 190f
three-qua1ter rear view, 188/, 189
top view, 259f
See also Superchargers (" C" series)
R-2800-22/-22W
milestone events in (2SC 13G), 198
side views, 264/, 5 l 6f
specifications, 26 lt

704
 Index

R-2800-25
blower design modified, 129
designed for P-61 (Black Widow), 129
specifications, 262t
R-2800-27
in North American XB-28, 531
specifications, 262t
R-2800-29
on display (rear view), 264[
specifications, 263t
torsional vibration problems, 538, 540
in XP-56 Black Bullet, 140, 142-143, 538, 539j 540
R-2800-30W
automatic engine control, 204
front, rear views, 521/
introduction, 204
side views, 205j 266/
specifications, 263t, 265t
typical installation, E-12 version, 205/
R-2800-31
left side view, 4 70/
specifications, 265t
three-quarter left front view, 266/
R-2800-32W
automatic engine control in, 204
front view, 442/
in F4U-5 Corsair, 200-201 , 437, 439, 443j 445 , 446/
F4U-5 mount for, 439, 448/
F4U-5 QEC configuration, 446/
rear views, 20lj 442/
side view, 272/
"sidewinder " supercharger on, 201j 202-203j 272j 442/
specifications, 265t, 267-268t
triarnesed exhaust stacks, 439, 448/
typical installation, E-22 version, 206/
R-2800-34/-34W/-34A
-34Ml modification to, 665
aircraft applications , 198
in Curtiss XF-15C, 542
in Grumman Guardian, 530/
milestone events (2SC14G), 198
in PBM-5 Mariner, 492
specifications, 267-268t, 269t

705
Index

R-2800-42W
in postwar F4U-4s, 432, 437/
specifications, 27 lt
three-quarter right front view, 272/
R-2800-43
in B-26 Marauder, 499/
left side view, 274/
specifications, 273t
three-quaiter left rear view, 551/
R-2800-44/-44W
in AJ-1 Savage, 532-533 , 535f 537/
left side view, 274/
right side view, 537/
specifications, 273t
R-2800-48
in Grununan Guardian, 530
specifications, 2 75t
R-2800-51
-5 lMl modification, 665
specifications, 277-278t
R-2800-52/-52W/-52WA
in Douglas B-26K, 415
specifications, 2 77 -2 7 8t
R-2800-57
bottom view, 281/
specifications, 279t
in XP-47J Thunderbolt, 384/
R-2800-59
side view, 281/
specifications, 280t
top view, 398/
R-2800-63
for P-47D/C, 13 lf 398/
right side view, 281/
specifications, 280t
three-quarter rear view, 131/
R-2800-71
side view, 422/
three-quarter right front view, 284/
specifications, 283t
R-2800-73
bottom view, 284/
in P-47N, 411/
specifications, 283t

706
 Index

R-2800-75
front view, 286/
specifications, 283t
R-2800-77
specifications, 285t
top view, 28qf
R-2800-83 /-83W/-83WA
for C-69E Constellation, 292/
right side view, 573/
specifications, 287-288t
top view, 292/
in XA-26D, 415
R-2800-99W
in C-123 , 485
specifications, 29lt
R-4360 (Wasp Major)
cutaway view, 414/
in F4U-l aircraft, 447, 450, 453/, 453 -454, 455/, 464t
in Goodyear F2G aircraft, 453 , 454, 456/
Ryder cylinder development for, 12
three-quarter left front view, 219/
vs. R-2800, 218
in XP-72 (P-47 derivative), 414/
Rabel, Armin, xiif
Racing applications
introduction, 655
"Blue Max" F4U, 657/
Call races "Number 90" FG-1, 656, 657/
Cleland-modified air scoop in FG-2, 655 -656
Cleland races "Lucky Gallon" FG-1, 655, 656/
DeSanto races, loses, XP-60E, 656
Greenamayer 's highly modified F8F Bearcat, 658-659, 65Qf
Husted races A-26, 660, 661/
Reynolds A-26 "Bombshell," 660, 660/
Thompson Trophy race, 655 , 656
Radial engines, early
ABC Dragonfly, x,-x
Manly engine, xix
Sallnson (French), xx
Rare and extinct aircraft, 667-668
Reduction gearing, cam ring-crankshaft, 32-33, 33/
Reduction gearing, propeller ("A"/"B" series)
aerodynamic need for, 68-69
fifteen pinion, 16:9 ratio, 69, 71/

707
Index

Reduction gearing, propeller ("A"/"B" series) (continued)

lubrication of, 84
six pinion, 2: 1 ratio, 69, 70[
six pinion, 5:2 ratio, 69
Reduction gearing, propeller ("C" series)
functional description, 159-160, 162/
Rentschler, Frederick
biographical note, 9/, 9-10, 11-12, 17
vice president, Wright Aeronautical, 9/, 11
Republic P-47 Thunderbolt. See P-47 Thunderbolt
Reynolds, Milton, 660, 661/
Ricardo, Sir Harry, 30/
Richards, Andrew, xvii
Rings , cam. See Cam rings
Rings , piston. See Piston rings
Rocker arms. See Valve trains
Roets, Jim, xiif
Rolls-Royce Eagle engine
torsional vibration in, 35
Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust, xvi
Rolls-Royce Merlin engine
blade frequency problems with, 465
in Curtiss XP/YP-60, 543
speed density fuel metering in, 315
supercharger design, 132, 133, 137
600 series engine, 563 , 564/
Rolls-Royce Nene engine, 13, 14[, 533
Rotary engines, aircraft
functional description, xix-xx
lubrication, xx
ring cowls, xx
Royce, Sir Henry, 35
Royce vibrational damper (V-12 Eagle), 35
Ryder, Earle A.
biographical note, 12
cylinder cooling research, 26

Salomon ("hockey puck") pendulum dampers, 35, 39, 40/, 61/

SB2C (Curtiss), 555
Scavenging, oil
importance of, 126-127
See also Lubrication systems

708
 Index

Sceggel, Elton, xiif

Shielding, interference
in R-2800 ignition systems, 72, 75
Short Memorandum Reports (SMRs), 41-60t
Siddeley, S.D.
design of, 23
"Sidewinder" supercharger
introduction, 200-201
dual air-to-air intercoolers, 437, 447/
in F4U-5 aircraft, 437, 443/, 446/, 448/
impellers, hydraulically driven, 43 7
impellers, sectional view of, 202-203/
induction system, 437, 477/
origin of name, 201 , 437
on R-2800-32W engine, 20 lf, 202-203/, 272/, 442/
three-quarter rear view (line drawing), 444/
See also Superchargers ("C" series)
Sikorsky S-56 (HRS-l/H-37A)
augmentor exhaust system, 601, 604/
ejector type exhaust system, 601, 605/
H-37 A in flight, 602/
left-hand engine, sketch of, 607/
load carrying capacity, deployment, 605
major components of (sketch), 603/
noise problems, 601
power package layout, 606/
specifications, 605t
throttle control, servo-assisted, 601-602
transmission/hydromechanical clutch, 602, 604, 608/
Simoon, Wright (engine), 13, 16
Sims, Lt. Turner A. , 35
Sleeve-valve engines
P&W H-3740, 18, 19/
P&W X-1800, 18, 538
Roy Feddon work on, 219-220
Sludging/desludging
in Hamilton Standard propellers, 362-363
supercharger clutch, 196
Sodium-cooled valves, 2-4, 5, 25
See also Heron, Sam
Sorenson, Charles, 106, 107
Spark plugs
cold plugs, use of, 635 -636

709
Index

Spark plugs (continued)

damage from piston ring failure, 634
dual, importance of, 2 7
fouled plug, on ignition analyzer, 627/
ground fouling, 635
lead fouling, 636
LS 86 spark plug, sectional view, 75/
shielding, 7 5
See also Ignition systems; Operation, engine
Speed density fuel metering, 315
SSB2G engine
production release of, 129
Stand pipe, oil, 636, 637/
Starting systems
combustion staiters, 100
development, chronology of, 97-98t
direct crank, 98, 99/
electric inertia, 98, 100
hydraulic lock, danger of, 100
Stroukoff, Michael, 485
Sud Ouest S.0.-30P Bretagne, 597, 597/
Superchargers (general)
air/fuel mixture dynamics, 89
basic design factors , 135
centrifugal, fuel atomization in, 88
combustion processes, discussion of, 86-88
Hooker research on, 133, 134[
impeller end thrust, compensating for, 134
mechanical vs. turbosupercharging, 134
metallurgical problems with, 132
Rolls-Royce Merlin design, 132, 133 , 137
Sanford Moss research on, 133, 134/
slinger ring, fuel feed from , 88
sludging/desludging, clutch, 196, 504, 624
two-stage supercharging, necessity for, 133-134
variable impeller speed, importance of, 88-89
See also Flight operation; Turbosuperchargers, General Electric
Superchargers ("A" series)
blower drive gear lubrication, 84-85 , 85/
clutch lubrication, 84, 85 , 85/
collector section, 92f 92-93
drive gears/clutches, 89, 92, 92/
drive system torsional vibration, 89, 92

710
 Index

Superchargers ("A" series) (continued)

impeller/diffuser, single-stage, two-speed, 89, 90
intermediate rear section, 93-94
Superchargers ("B" series)
on -8 engine (in P&W F4U-l , -2), 426, 428, 432
aftercoolers in, 13 5
early design (for R-1830 powered F4F-3 Wildcat), 135, 136/
impeller fluid coupling ("accelerator") in, 139-140, 141/
intercoolers in, 13 5
P&W face-to-face impeller configuration, 135, 136j 137/
R-2800-lOW supercharger, cutaway view of, 136/
total production, single- and two-stage, 140
valving and controls for, 137-139, 138j 139/
Superchargers ("C" series)
on -18W engine (in F4U-4), 432
automatic boost control, 193-194, 197/
auxiliary impeller assembly, 189
"CA' and "CB" slinger rings, 193
Coriolis force, problems with, 191 , 200
description of, 187, 189
drive couplings, exploded/phantom views, 192/
fuel feed valve, 193, 194/
hydraulic coupling slip measurement, 193
hydraulic couplings, functional description of, 191
regulator for (on -8 engine), 428 , 429/
second-branch oil supply for, 173
"sidewinder" (on -32W engine) (See "Sidewinder" supercharger)
See also Turbosuperchargers, General Electric
Swansson, Al, xiif
Synchronizer/synchrophaser, 94, 95

T-29 (Convair) aircraft, 586, 587/

T-36A (Beech)
development history, 556
in-flight sketch, 556/
specifications, 557t
Tachometer generator, 94
Tappets/tappet rollers
configuration, 32-34, 32-34/
lubrication, 85 , 86
Taylor, E.S.
pendulum damper research, 36

711
Index

TBF (Grumman), 555

Telephone, notches on, 38-40
Temperature
carburetor air, setting, 629
cylinder head, importance of, 620-621
of forged vs. cast cylinder heads, 148-149
of fuel charge as detonation factor, 133, 300
See also Cooling
Teneyck, Bob, xiif
Test stands, engine
Ford combination build stand/test stand, 115/ 119/
power recovery using, 115/
Thompson Company
self-adjusting pushrods, 26
Tillinghast, T.E. , 216
Torquemeter ("C" series)
functional description, 163-164, 165/
pistons/piston assembly for, 166/
Travis, Jim, xvii
Turbo-compounding
application to Wright R-3350 engine, 210, 212/
discussion of, 209-210
early NACA study (" B'' series engine), 211/
in exhaust system experiments, 2 l 3t
VDT (variable discharge turbine) development, 210-212
See also Turbosuperchargers , General Electric
Turbo Engineering Company, 428
Turbosuperchargers , General Electric
discussion of, 204, 206-207
electronic regulator, 207-208, 208/
in Hughes D2A, 554-555
mechanical vs. turbosupercharging, 134
models/applications of, 21 tO
overspeeding, 206-207
in P-61 Black Widow, 474-475
turbocharger designations/applications, 210t, 387
Type CH-5 , cutaway view, Clf
Type CH-5 , in AJ-1 Savage, 532-533 , 534[
Type CH-5 , in P-47 Thunderbolt, 379, 380/
Unilever power control for, 208-209, 382, 383/ 384
waste gate (butterfly valve) in, 206, 207, 208/ 381-382, 382/ 383/
See also Superchargers
Turtleback magneto (G.E.), 79, 80/ 81/

712
 Index

Unilever power control, 208-209, 382, 383f 384

Valve failures
valve springs, early failures of, 13-14
See also Valves, exhaust
Valve springs
early failures of, 13-14
Valve timing
"A" vs. "B" series, 26
"A/B" vs. " C" series, 169
of early-series RT-2800 engines, 32
variable, in "C" series engines, 26
See also Cam rings/cam followers
Valve trains ("A" series)
front row lubrication, 86
pushrod configuration, 26
pushrods, Thompson self-adjusting, 26
rear row lubrication, 85
reduction gearing, 32-34, 32-34f 63 , 64/
rocker arm lift ratio, 25
rocker arm lubrication, 85 , 86
rocker arm pivot bearings, shortage of, 112-113
rod bearing failures , 26-27
tappets/tappet rollers, 32-34, 32-34(
valve clearance adjustment, 25-26
See also Cam rings/cam followers
Valve trains ("B" series)
one-piece pushrods in, 127
rocker arm pivot bearings, shortage of, 112-113
Valves, exhaust
for "C" series engines, 147/
high-temperature problems with, 25
rocker boxes, oil coking in, 25
sodium-cooled, 2-4, 5, 25
Valves, inlet
for "C" series engines, 147/
configuration, 25
Valves, sleeve
Feddon designs for, 25
Valves, sodium-cooled, 2-4, 5, 25
Vandermark, Bruce, xvii

713
Index

Vibration, linear
of "B" and " C" series crankshafts, 156
master rod/link rod contribution to, 36
P&W analyses of (in SMRs), 41-60t
second-order counterweights, 36, 37j 38, 38f
Vibration, torsional
of "B" and "C" series crankshafts, 156
and counterweight gearing, 36, 38
origins of, 34
propeller contribution to, 35-36
P&Wanalyses of (in SMRs), 41-60t
in Rolls-Royce Eagle V-12, 35
in supercharger drive systems, 89, 92
in XP-56 Black Bullet, 538, 540
See also Counterweights/dampers
Vibration stress, propeller, 3 l 8t
Vickers-Armstrong Warwick
in-flight photograph of, 55'2f
Wallis design of, 55 2
Vought F4U Corsair. See F4U Corsair
Vultee V-11
as R-2800 "B" series test mule, 128
Vultee Y-19
as R-2800 "A" series test mule, 100, lOlf

Walker, Frank
and AD I system optimization, 215
and aviation fuel tests, 218
in group photo, xiif
and highly boosted R-2800 "B" engine, 218-219
Wallis, Sir Barnes, 552
Walter, Willie, xvii
Warbirds, incorrect restoration of, 665 -666
Waring, Dana, 143
Wasp Jr. (R-985), 15f
Wasp engines
naming of, 13
See also specific engines
Water injection. See ADI (anti-detonation injection)
Wellman, Dick, xv-xvi
"Whistling death" (F4U Corsair), 428
Whitney, Dan, xvii

714
 Index

Willgoos, Andy, 12, 15, 21

Wright Aeronautical Corporation, 11
Wright brothers, 10
Wright Company, 10
Wright-Martin Company, 11
Wright R-3350 turbo-compound engine, 210, 212/

X-77 engine
first "A" series engine, 23
initial configuration/specifications, 22-23
X-80 engine
as R-2800 development mule, 23
X-1800 sleeve-valve engine, 18, 538
XB-28 (North American)
design details, specifications, 531
side view, 531/
XF-15C (Curtiss), 542, 542/
XF4U-l Corsair
specifications, 456t
XF4U in flight, 424/
XP-47H Thunderbolt
Chrysler IV-2220 engine in, 406t, 407/
three-quarter front view, 407/
XP-4 7J Thunderbolt
-57 engine for, 384/
front view, 409/
intercooler, 385, 385/
line drawing of, 3 84/
specifications, 406t
supercharging system, 384-385, 385/
XP-56 Black Bullet
-29 engine for, 140, 142-143, 538, 539/ 540
air induction system, 538, 540
dual rotation propeller on, 140, 538
engine mount, 540, 541/
general configuration, 140
longitudinal instability of, 540
oil cooling system, 540
pilot egress from, 143
propeller, jettisoning, 143
right side view, 539/
at Smithsonian, 667

715
Index

XP-56 Black Bullet (continued)

torsional vibration problems with, 538, 540
XP-72 (P-47 derivative)
specifications, 413 t
three-quarter rear view, 414[
XPNP-60 (Curtiss)
alternative engines for, 543, 545/
on runway (YP-60), 543/
specifications, 544t
XTBU-1 (Vought), 555/
XTB3F aircraft. See Grumman Guardian

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 About the Author

Born in the aftermath of World War II in 1945, Graham White spent his fo1mative years in England.
Like many aviation enthusiasts, he got his start in aviation by racing U control model airplanes.
Upon reaching driving age his interests shifted to cars and soon after, car racing. This passion
consumed the next eight years of his life.

Graham White moved to the Bahamas in 1969 after being offered a job there. Even though he was
still racing cars while living there, his interests were shifting to aircraft, in particular, aircraft engines.
Those wonderful round radials were fascinating to him. While living in the Bahamas, he was drawn
to the many piston powered aircraft that visited Freeport International Airport, including Lockheed
Constellations, Martin Twins, Convair Twins, Curtiss C-46s, and all the Douglas transports . He
spent many happy hours roaming through a Douglas A-26 Invader, a refugee from the abortive Bay
Pigs invasion, hidden in the weeds-that is, until it was used for fire practice.

After five glorious years in the Bahamas, Florida beckoned. It was while living in Florida that
Graham White got his private pilot's license and purchased a Cessna 150. He eventually racked up
over 2000 hours in this aircraft before selling it. Florida also provided the opportunity to further
explore the world of piston powered aircraft. South Florida in the 1970s and 1980s was a haven for
large piston powered transports. In particular, the northwest corner of Miami International Airport,
known as "Corrosion Corner,"
attracted Graham White's
interest.

He was a kid in a candy store

roaming around the "Corner"
with all kinds of engines, pro-
pellers, landing gear and other
cast-off components laying
around. He also visited the
numerous engine overhaul
shops located in the Miami
area. It was during these vis-
its that the remarkable work-
manship and quality exhibited

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About the Author

by these engines hit home.

Even poking around in the
scrap bins would often yield
gems for his office. Items such
supercharger impellers, master
connecting rods-which can be
made into beautiful clocks-
and other precision compo-
nents caught his attention . Of
course, it was not long before
he befriended the operators of
these wonderful aircraft and
had the opportunity to catch
rides on them to all points in
the Caribbean.

In 1982 Graham White had the opportunity to purchase a Rolls-Royce Griffon liquid cooled V-12
engine from England. Although it was in derelict condition, he set to and over the course of a year
converted this derelict into a showpiece. This was soon followed by a Pratt & Whitney R-2800,
purchased out of Corrosion Comer, which got the same treatment as the Griffon. It is now not only
a showpiece but a runner as well, complete with a purpose-built trailer designed and built by Graham
White.

The R-2800 is just one of Graham White's pride and joys. Other engines in his collection include an
ultra-rare Continental IV-1430 Hyper engine, Packard built Rolls-Royce Merlin and two Pratt &
Whitney R-4360s. Some people 's mission in life is to save the whales; Graham White 's is to save
the engines. To this end, his intention is to get all the engines in his collection into running condi-
tion. These fast disappearing masterpieces may then be enjoyed and appreciated by those who
would normally not have this opportunity. This includes aviation groups, university students, boy
scout troops and other organizations.

Graham White married later in life, thus becoming a stepfather to four beautiful daughters . His
adoring wife, Diane, is very supportive of his unusual pastime. In addition to spending time with his
family, Graham White is active in SAE, Rolls-Royce Owners Club, Rolls-Royce Enthusiasts Club,
Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust, EAA including EAA Warbirds of America, The Napier Power Heritage
and American Aviation Historical Society (AAHS).

As this book is going to print, Graham White is involved in founding the Aircraft Engine Historical
Society (AEHS). It is the goal of the AEHS to acquaint aviation enthusiasts with the proud heritage
of aircraft engine development. The AEHS will expose students, educators and historians to the
characteristics, idiosyncrasies, development and manufacture of the finest and most powerful examples
of prime movers. For more information about the AEHS and related activities, see the AEHS website,
http: //www.enginehistory.org .

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