Cooling of Clinker

Cooling of Clinker

FLSmidth Denmark 1 Cooling of clinker

 Table of Contents

I. CLINKER FORMATION AND CLINKER GRANULOMETRY............................. 3

II. IMPORTANCE OF THE COOLER EFFICIENCY FOR THE HEAT
CONSUMPTION ..................................................................................................................... 5
III. COOLER TYPES ........................................................................................................ 6
A. PLANETARY COOLERS..................................................................................................... 6
B. ROTARY COOLER ............................................................................................................ 9
C. GRATE COOLERS ............................................................................................................. 9
D. FUNDAMENTAL DESIGN FEATURES OF MODERN GRATE COOLERS.......... 10
1. Bridging Plates and Evolved Grate-Line Configurations........................................ 11
2. Internal Wheels with Guide Rollers ......................................................................... 12
3. External Spillage Conveyor & Spillage Valves ....................................................... 12
4. Reduced Fall Through Grates.................................................................................. 12
5. Clinker Crushers ...................................................................................................... 13
6. Three-Component Control System ........................................................................... 13
7. Air Beam Technology............................................................................................... 15
8. Elevated Resistance Grate Plates ............................................................................ 15
9. Stationary Inlet Section............................................................................................ 17
E. PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS................................................................................. 18
F. EFFICIENCY, RECUPERATION AND COOLER HEAT LOSSES ......................... 19
G. IMPACT OF AIR-BEAM & ELEVATED RESISTANCE GRATE PLATE DESIGNS
23
H. MODERN GRATE COOLER SUMMARY & COMMENTARY .............................. 25
IV. SF CROSS-BAR™ COOLER.................................................................................... 26
A. MODULAR DESIGN .................................................................................................. 26
B. FIXED GRATE-LINE FOR AIR DISTRIBUTION .................................................... 27
C. CLINKER CONVEYING SYSTEM ........................................................................... 28
D. AIR DISTRIBUTION PLATES WITH MECHANICAL FLOW REGULATORS .... 28
E. SF COOLER PERFORMANCE .................................................................................. 30
Cooling of Clinker

I. CLINKER FORMATION AND CLINKER GRANULOMETRY

It is a well-known fact that the clinker products granulometry can vary considerably from one
cement plant to another. Even kilns within the same plant are often found to produce quite
different clinker, although fed with the same raw mix.

Figure 1 shows some sieve test results obtained from a wide range of clinker samples. It
appears that the dust content, for example grains finer than half an mm, can vary between 1
and 70%. Also the presence of even a small proportion of oversize clinker, say bigger than
40mm (1-1/2"), contributes very much to the overall appearance of a clinker product. Further,
clinker made up of compactly fused and well shaped nodules appears to be completely
different from clinker with a similar sieve curve, but consisting of coke-like and sharp edged
agglomerations of dust particles.

Such observations have naturally led to investigations of the factors affecting clinker
formation.

In preheater kilns, the formation of nodule shaped clinker must take place in or just above the
burning zone, since the raw mix somewhere further up in the kiln is in the form of meal. In a
wet-process kiln strong nodules often come out from the chains where they have been formed
during the drying of slurry. The extent, to which these nodules affect the final clinker
granulometry, if at all, is unknown. However, wet kilns tend to produce a coarser clinker size
distribution than do precalciner kilns.

Clinker formation is related to raw mix composition and operating conditions. The clinker
formation may start already in the calcining zone, where a certain agglomeration of the fine,
solid particles may take place aided perhaps by the presence of low melting alkali salts.
However, the final result depends on what happens in the burning zone.

Here the formation of liquid phase begins at a temperature slightly below 1300°C, and the
quantity of liquid increases with the temperature up to a certain final value (Figure 2).

The amount of liquid does not increase gradually with the temperature, but in steps on
reaching certain temperatures. Only by applying extreme temperatures can this final amount
of liquid be further increased which, however, usually has disastrous effects on coating and
lining.

The quantity of liquid phase at normal burning temperature amounts to 20-25% of the clinker,
depending on the content of alumina, iron, magnesia, and alkalies. If the quantity of liquid
phase is too small, good clinker formation will not take place. Conditions may then be
improved by changing the raw mix composition, which in practice is usually done by adding
iron ore, thus reducing the silica ratio.

In some cases it will be possible to improve the clinker formation by burning harder, even
harder than required for bringing down free lime. The reason, of course, is an increase in
liquid phase. But it is often seen that if the burning temperature is raised even further, the
result will be dusty clinker, probably due to a too low viscosity of the liquid. At several

FLSmidth Denmark 3 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

plants we have also found a rather sharp limit to the lime saturation factor, if good clinker
grading is to be obtained; if this limit is exceeded the clinker becomes dusty.

The clinker granulometry is important for the satisfactory operation of any cooler: There
must not be too much dust. Less than 15% minus 0.5 mm (0.02") is good. Too much clinker
plus 25 mm (1") increases the clinker temperature after the cooler because of the slow cooling
of this fraction. Less than 10% plus 25 mm (1") is good.

The clinker dust in the cooler tends to blow back into the kiln, thus establishing a dust
circulation between kiln and cooler. The dust can disturb the radiation from the flame in the
kiln, and often it spoils the clinker formation so that the dust circulation tends to accelerate.

Dust circulation means that the amount of heat contained in the clinker entering the cooler
increases. This result is always to lower the efficiency of the cooler.

Cooling of clinker 4 FLSmidth Denmark

Cooling of Clinker

II. IMPORTANCE OF THE COOLER EFFICIENCY FOR THE HEAT

CONSUMPTION

A characteristic heat balance for a kiln with a 4-stage preheater and a conventional grate
cooler can look like this: (Ref. Temperature 18°C - 64°F)

kcal/kg MBTU/T

Heat in Exit Gas+Dust 177 .637

Surface Loss Kiln 56 .202

Surface Loss Preheater 24 .086

Cooler Loss 142 .511

Heat of Reaction 417 1.501

816 2.937

Total Heat Consumption 790 2.843

If we look at the possibilities of bringing down the heat consumption, then about 25 kcal/kg
(0.09 MBTU/ST) can be saved in the exit gas by adding a 5th cyclone stage to the preheater,
but in some plants the full amount of heat in the exit gas is used for drying the coal and raw
materials, so this heat is not wasted.

The surface loss from the kiln shell can be brought down by using a type of insulating bricks
in part of the kiln, but these bricks have generally a poor lifetime.

A better insulation in the preheater will partly result in a higher exit gas temperature instead
of saved heat input to the system.

FLSmidth Denmark 5 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

Regarding the cooler, it is so that if we could establish a perfect counterflow in the heat
exchange between clinker and air, then nearly all the heat in the clinker could be transferred to
the combustion air. Therefore, the largest potential for bringing down the heat consumption
rests with the cooler.

III. COOLER TYPES

In the following the four (4) types of coolers, considered by the industry for modern cement
kilns, are discussed. These are: planetary coolers, rotary coolers, grate coolers, and the newly
introduced SF Cross-Bar™ Cooler.
A. Planetary Coolers
The planetary cooler served the cement industry for many years and was originally designed
for wet process kilns with a high amount of secondary air available for the cooler.

In modern dry process kilns with a low heat consumption, the amount of secondary air
available for cooling (when this is done with secondary air only) is only about 1 kg air per kg
clinker (1 lb. air per lb. clinker) or even less. This requires a very efficient heat transfer
between air and clinker obtained by cascading the clinker through the air flow. It also
requires that the internal parts in the hot end can stand high temperatures, which is obtained
with wear resisting ceramic materials.

In a planetary cooler, such as the Unax, the principle of having a number of cooler tubes
rotating with the kiln and connected directly to the kiln is used.

A breakthrough for the new planetary cooling principles came when a kiln support below the
cooler was introduced. This permitted heavy cooler tubes with the necessary internal fittings
to be supported without excessive stresses in the kiln shell and opened the way for designing
Unax coolers for kilns with a high capacity.

The one shown (Figure 3) is producing 4000 t/d clinker (4,400 STPD), and the cooler consists
of 10 tubes, each 2.4 x 29 m (7'10"x 94'9"). It is only for kilns having capacity less than 1000
t/d (1100 STPD) for which it is economical to leave out the support below.

Each cooler tube is attached to the kiln with a fixed and a movable support, welded to heavy
kiln sections. (See Figure 4).

The inlet to the cooler has a special design which prevents clinker from falling back into the
kiln when a tube is in top position.

The cooling is based upon cascading the clinker through the air flow. This is not as simple as
it seems, as fine clinker falling down from the lifters through the air is carried the wrong way
by the air, and an excessive number of lifters has proved to lead to overfilling the coolers,
back spilling into the kiln and high exit clinker temperatures.

The shape and number of the lifters in the various temperature zones have to be carefully
determined by means of a mathematical model, the input being an anticipated grading of the
clinker (See Figure 5).

Cooling of clinker 6 FLSmidth Denmark

Cooling of Clinker

At the cooler outlet the fine clinker falls through a grizzly to the clinker transport, while
coarse clinker and lumps are discharged at the side to a hammer mill clinker crusher. (Figure
6)

In principle, coarse clinker requires more cascading and fine clinker less in the hot end of the
cooler in order to avoid excessive circulation between cooler and kiln, which conveys more
heat to the coolers.

The inlet part with a special shape is lined with castables. In recent years special, dense
castables have been developed for such a purpose, fulfilling all requirements regarding
abrasion resistance, shock resistance, chemical resistance against alkali attack etc., and the
practical experience with these modern castables has been very good.

In the cylindrical part of the coolers there is first a section of corrugated brick lining, followed
by cast heat resistant steel lifters of special design, either lined with steel plates, as shown, or
for the hot part with a ceramic lining, either bricks or castables.

In the cold end of the coolers, mild steel lifters with a high lifting capacity, increasing towards
the outlet, are used, and no lining is used here.

The outlet of the kiln to the coolers was previously made with steel casings, which caused
problems when exposed to high temperatures. The problems have been solved by using a
ceramic outlet made of the high quality, dense castables now available.

The cooling effect depends, of course, on the size of the cooler. It can be expressed as the
clinker production in relation to surface and volume for the cooler tube by the following
formula:

⎛ P ⎞ ⎡ t ⎤ ⎡ shT ⎤
Specific Load = ⎜ ⎟=
x L ⎠ ⎢⎣ m 2.5d ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ m 2.5d ⎥⎦
or
⎝n x D
1.5

Where:

P = clinker production in t/24 h (shT/24 h)

n = number of cooler tubes
L = length of cooler tubes in m
D = cooler tube diameter in m

A normal specific load would be 3.65 t/m2.5 or (0.208 shT/m2.5)

The air velocity in the cooler tubes should not be too high to avoid excessive dust circulation.
Therefore the expression:
P
Π
n x x D2
4

FLSmidth Denmark 7 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

should not exceed 70 t/m2 or (77 shT/m2).

The temperature of the clinker from an Unax cooler of an economical dry process kiln will
usually average 150°C (300°F) above ambient temperature. It can vary with the clinker
grading, and, of course, it increases by forced output. The temperature can be reduced, if
required, by addition of water to the coolers near the outlet. The equipment required is very
simple: Just a gutter around the coolers, from which the water runs into the individual cooler
tubes. The amount of water is controlled by the clinker temperature, and it has been
established that 1% water on clinker basis reduces the clinker temperature by about 15-20°C
(68°F), which is close to the theoretical maximum. The effect on the heat consumption is
therefore small, as long as the amount of water is kept below 3% of the clinker weight.

The heat losses from a planetary cooler consist of: (1) radiation loss and (2) sensible heat in
the clinker leaving the cooler. A normal cooler loss would be: (20°C ref. temp. /68°F).

TYPICAL COOLER LOSS-PLANETARY TYPE

Radiation 97 kcal/kg 0.349 MBTU/shT

Clinker (150°C/300°F) 25 kcal/kg 0.090 MBTU/shT

SUM 122 kcal/kg 0.439 MBTU/shT

This compares favourably with a conventional grate cooler especially when the lower power
consumption is also taken into consideration.

Depending on the cost relation between fuel and power, 1 kWh/t will often correspond to the
cost of 7 kcal/kg clinker (0.025 MBTU/shT).

It would, of course, be possible to insulate the cooler much better, but that would lead to an
excessive clinker temperature - a certain amount of heat has to be wasted through radiation.
The length of the different types of lining has to be chosen so that the cooler shell temperature
does not become excessive at any point.
Another favourable feature is the low power consumption, only about 1.0-1.5 kWh/t (0.9-1.5
kWh/shT) clinker added to the kiln drive and exhaust fan.

The Planetary cooler is unique in its simplicity, no excess air to handle, no motors or fans, no
instruments. In operation there is nothing to control, it is self-adjusting.

One disadvantage is that the clinker temperature is higher than for grate coolers. The primary
disadvantage is that the planetary cooler does not permit take-out for hot tertiary air as

Cooling of clinker 8 FLSmidth Denmark

Cooling of Clinker

required for modern calciner kilns. The higher noise level can also be a problem in some
areas.

B. Rotary Cooler
As mentioned above, the main drawback of the planetary cooler is that it was not suited for
modern precalciner kilns with external tertiary duct. This had (prior to the dominance of grate
coolers) given the separate rotary cooler a come-back.

The rotary cooler is also operated without excess air, but it permits take out of tertiary air for a
precalciner through a specially designed “rabbit-ear” kiln hood.

The cooler shown (Figure 7) is designed for a 2000 t/d (2200 shT/D) kiln with precalciner and
has the dimensions 4.75 x 55 m (15'6" x 180'), which means that it is bigger than the kiln.

Just as for the planetary cooler, the cooling is based upon cascading the clinker but with
specially designed lifters, which prevent clinker from hammering on the lining when dropping
into the large diameter cooler. The mild steel section is divided into six compartments so that
efficient cascading is permitted.

The rotary cooler necessitates two efficient seals. The cooler has a 4.5% inclination and a
max. rotation speed of 4.0 RPM. The power consumption for the cooler drive is 3.5 kWh/t
(3.2 kWh/shT).

Because the specific surface is lower than for a planetary cooler, the surfaces heats losses are
also lower,
and that gives a favourable thermal efficiency, but it also results in a higher clinker
temperature, 200-250°C (390-480°F). Again, however, this can be reduced somewhat by
spraying water into the outlet.

The investments for a rotary cooler are higher than for a planetary cooler, but may in some
cases be lower than for a grate cooler when efficient cleaning of excess air is required.

C. Grate Coolers
The grate cooler, however, is overwhelmingly accepted as the preferred method of clinker
cooling for today's modern cement plants.

As shown in Figure 8, for the grate cooler, the clinker drops from the kiln onto reciprocating,
air-quenching grates with compartmentized high-pressure cooling fans.

Below the grates, the cooler is divided into a number of compartments, each provided with
fans having adjustable inlet vanes for automatic air flow control and minimum power
consumption. Clinker spillage through the grates is collected in hoppers and removed through
air-tight flap valves to the clinker conveyor.

FLSmidth Denmark 9 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

Figure 9 summarises the advantages of the grate cooler over other types of coolers. As
shown, the reasons for grate cooler’s preference are because the grate cooler is capable of
handling large outputs (10,000 MTPD or more) and because it is capable of cooling clinker to
very low temperatures (65 degrees Celsius above ambient or less). The grate cooler (Figure
10) also permits recuperation of hot tertiary air for today's precalciner kiln systems. Finally,
the air-beam type grate cooler has a standard cooler heat loss of 90 to 110 kcal/kg, which is a
significant improvement over other cooler types such as the rotary and planetary coolers.
This, in itself, is remarkable since these other cooler types operate without excess air; excess
air being far and away the most significant area of heat loss from the grate cooler.

Nevertheless, 90 to 110 kcal/kg (air-beam grate cooler heat loss) is still a substantial portion
of the overall loss of the kiln system. Therefore, the clinker cooler offers the largest potential
for further decreasing the heat consumption of today's modern pyroprocessing systems

(See Figure 11). Undoubtedly, further developments will be made in the area of clinker
cooling. One point is obvious: the grate cooler of today represents a compromise between
reliability and efficiency.

During the period of time since Fuller Company first developed the air-quenching grate cooler
during the late 1930s, the reciprocating grate cooler emerged as the logical choice for any new
clinker cooler installation. Today's grate cooler designs employ a number of fundamental
design features that have evolved over the last 60 years. Currently, all of the major cement
equipment suppliers are offering cooler designs that incorporate the latest developments in
grate plate and air distribution technologies. These new technologies have been integrated
with the fundamental design attributes which made the Grate Cooler an industry standard for
many decades. As a consequence, the grate coolers of today are more reliable, require less
maintenance, and are more thermally efficient than ever before.

The following section will highlight the mechanical design features present in all modern
grate coolers and describe the maintenance and process benefits of each.

D. FUNDAMENTAL DESIGN FEATURES OF MODERN GRATE COOLERS

Over the last 60 years, a number of developments have made the grate cooler a reliable and
efficient piece of machinery; namely,

(a) Bridging Plates and Evolved Grate-Line Configurations

(b) Internal Wheels with Guide Rollers
(c) External Spillage Conveyor & Spillage Valves
(d) Reduced Fall Through Grates
(e) Hydraulic Grate Drives
(f) Clinker Crushers
(g) Three-Component Control System
(h) Air Beam Technology
(i) Elevated Resistance Grate Plates
(j) Stationary Inlet Section

Cooling of clinker 10 FLSmidth Denmark

Cooling of Clinker

These design features are universally accepted staples of the modern grate cooler. Though
variations in design exist, all major equipment suppliers generally are offering the above
components. Moreover, the variations offered usually have very similar results in practice. A
description of maintenance and process benefits of each component follows.

1. Bridging Plates and Evolved Grate-Line Configurations

Bridging plates (conversion of a moving plate to a fixed plate by bridging from fixed to fixed
over the moving) were introduced first during the mid-1960s in order to rectify problems
associated with hot fines coming into contact with side castings. Bridging plates (Figure 12)
were installed adjacent to the side castings, then covered with castable refractory to protect
the cooler's structural frame from the hot clinker fines. Bridging plates were found to
improve cooler performance and increase capacity. Observation showed reduction in cooler
width gave a deeper bed depth and greater uniformity across the width of the cooler.

With a deeper and more uniform clinker bed, it was found that the material cooled quicker,
the air to the kiln was warmer, and the operation of the kiln-cooler was more stable. At the
time of their development, bridging plates allowed for an increase in the cooler's specific
loading from 38 to 42 MTPD/m2. Today bridging plates also are used on modern air-beam
coolers, which have a loading of 50 MTPD/m2 or more. For these coolers, bridging plates and
tapered refractory are installed on the static inlet rows. This results in a narrower and
consequently thicker layer of clinker, compared to some meters further down-stream in the
cooler, where the clinker layer is spread over full width and therefore thinner. Especially the
narrow stream makes it easier to distribute clinker evenly across the cooler's width.

1) Maintenance Benefit – Bridging plates act as a barrier to prevent damage to the

structural frame.
2) Process Benefit - The bridging plates allow deep bed operation, improving cooling
efficiency.

Over the years, many different grate line configurations have been employed. The earliest
grate designs were known as inclined coolers and were sloped at 10 degrees using horizontal
grate plates. In order to re-gain control over the clinker transport efficiency, grate lines of 5
degrees, 3 degrees, and eventually 0 degrees (horizontal) were employed. The reciprocating
action of
the grates takes place on a 10 degree inclination resulting in an overall horizontal grate line as
determined by the height of the grate’s pusher face (Figure 13).

For modern air-beam coolers, the transport capacity of the cooler is generally increased due to
a more complete aeration of the grate line. It is important to control the clinker transport to
avoid the possibility for “running” clinker, but it is also important to minimise grate speeds so
as to minimise wear. For this purpose, a four (4) degree inclination of the grate line
employing a configuration of “one movable row followed by two stationary rows” has been
found by some suppliers as a proper compromise between grate wear and transport efficiency.

FLSmidth Denmark 11 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

2. Internal Wheels with Guide Rollers

Since early cooler designs employed external wheels for carrying the movable frame, a
common maintenance problem was found in the area of the sliding seals where wheel shafts
penetrated the cooler housing. Over the years, it was found that the most simple and elegant
solution to this problem was the use of internal wheels (see Figures 14 and 15). This
eliminated potential loss of cooling air and prevented clinker dust from escaping through this
area. Internal wheel design has developed to a point where such components are essentially
maintenance free. The preferred design is a wide, flat wheel constructed of cast steel
combined with anti-friction bearings. This design is essentially wear-free and so robust that a
sunken movable frame or a worn underside grate plate is unheard of. Center guide rollers are
used at standard locations along the movable frame to ensure proper tracking. Finally, an
automatic lubrication system, protected by a large pipe diameter, keeps the bearings purged of
contaminants.

1) Maintenance Benefit - Rugged, wide, flat wheels ensure minimal wear and sturdy
support of the movable frame.
2) Process Benefit - This arrangement eliminates the wheel seals as a potential source of
lost cooling air.

3. External Spillage Conveyor & Spillage Valves

Early on, it was found that proper distribution of cooling air into the respective undergrate
chambers was a predominant factor in determining the thermal efficiency of the cooler. For
this reason, Fuller led the industry in its recommendations for small, controllable undergrate
chambers. However, it was recognized that proper distribution of this cooling air would still
be ineffective if the air were allowed to escape with the removal of undergrate clinker
spillage. Thus, modern coolers are equipped with an airtight floor and pneumatically operated,
double tipping valves for removal of spillage without the loss of cooling air (see Figure 16).
Coolers equipped with an internal, open drag chain have sleeve seals between compartments,
but it is Fuller's experience that these seals are not effective at the higher undergrate static
pressures demanded by the industry for improved efficiency and deeper clinker bed depths.
For this reason, the use of external spillage conveyors and double tipping valves remains a
staple of modern cooler design.

1) Maintenance Benefit - This method provides low maintenance, pneumatically

operated tipping valves.
2) Process Benefit - High pressure, deep bed operation results from eliminating
the spillage/product conveyor as a potential source of lost cooling air.

4. Reduced Fall Through Grates

Reduced fall through grate plates were first employed by Fuller Company in 1990 as an
alternative to the conventional grate plate with holes. The grates were designed to reduce
spillage into the under grate area by means of labyrinth-type slots (see Figure 17). In this

Cooling of clinker 12 FLSmidth Denmark

Cooling of Clinker

regard, their design is similar to modern air beam grate plates, which feature labyrinth-type
slots to prevent the possibility of clinker falling into the air beam. These slots promote the
uniform distribution of cooling air into the clinker bed. In fact, many operators report that
higher levels of aeration can be accommodated without fluidization of the clinker layer as
compared with conventional grate plates with holes. Reduced fall through grates are designed
to be mounted on conventional grate plate supports with open bottoms. Thus, the air enters
RFT-type grate plates conventionally, that is, by means of a pressurized undergrate chamber.

1) Maintenance Benefit - Less clinker fall-through minimises damage to under

grate components and spillage conveying system.
2) Process Benefit - Less spillage allows more clinker to remain available for
cooling/recuperation.

5. Clinker Crushers
Clinker Crushers are employed to reduce clinker lumps to typically less than 25 mm. This is
done either by means of a conventional clinker breaker (Figure 18) at the discharge of the
cooler or by means of a modern roll crusher (Figure 19) at either a mid-cooler or end-cooler
position.

Though roller breakers are sometimes used to replace conventional clinker breakers, they
were primarily designed to create more uniform size reduction for better cooling obtained by
mounting between the drives of the cooler. The roll breaker provides distinct advantages over
the conventional hammer mill type: It runs slower, creates less dust, and receives less wear.

1) Maintenance Benefit - Causes less wear than conventional hammer breaker due
to lower speeds.
2) Process Benefit - Improved cooling results from increased surface area.

The rollers consist of transport and crushing rolls. The number of rolls is determined by the
capacity of the unit. The transport rolls turn at approximately 2 rpm; crushing rolls at about 4
rpm. By comparison, the operating speed of a conventional hammer mill is about 350 rpm.
Normally roll breakers are hydraulically driven and the rolls automatically reverse if material
jams in the rolls. A unique feature of the Fuller/FLS HRB is the ability to reposition the first
crushing roll to compensate for wear and thereby maintain clinker product size. This so-
called “exclusive cavity feature” also enables the efficient size reduction of very large (e.g.
1m diameter) clinker balls.

6. Three-Component Control System

The grate cooler is based on cross-current cooling air. It therefore needs more air for cooling
than can be used in the precalciner kiln and the excess air must be removed and dedusted.

The amount of air needed depends very much on the type of grate cooler (air-beam or
conventional) but varies also according to the clinker grading and to the clinker temperature

FLSmidth Denmark 13 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

required. It is costly to cool to low temperatures, but often this is a requirement for cement
grinding operations.

Efficient sealing between the compartments permits operation with relative high and different
pressures in the various compartments. With a normal clinker bed of 750 mm (30") the
pressure drop at a constant air flow per m2 of grate area will decrease from about 750 mm
WG (30") in the hot end to about 250 mm WG (10") in the cold end. The fans are sized
accordingly, so that the maximum pressure decreases from 810 to 300 mm WG (32" to 12").
For trouble-free operation it is an advantage to use a larger air flow in the hot end, up to 150
kg/min./m2 (400 SCFM//ft2), and less in the cold part, minimum 60 kg/min./m2 (165
SCFM/ft2).

The width of the grate is typically reduced at the inlet in order to spread the clinker more
evenly. Having a high air flow and a thick layer of clinker, it is possible to get an imperfect,
but acceptable, uniform clinker bed and a usable air flow over the width of the grate. This is
essential not only to avoid local overheating of the grate in the fine side of the clinker but also
to avoid “snow-men”, as the clinker is kept moving throughout the whole grate until the
surface solidifies.

The speed of the grate can normally be varied between 4 and 25 strokes/min. Normal
operation would be around 10-12 strokes/min. Efficient cooler operation requires automatic
control. A simple and reliable system involves three main functions (Please see Figures 20,
21, 22).

1. Constant air flow to each under-grate compartment (using piezometer or some

other air-flow device).

2. Constant under-pressure in kiln hood (using pressure indicators spaced around the
circumference of the kiln).

3. Regulation of grate speed for constant bed thickness (using the pressure under the
first or second under-grate compartment as a measure of bed depth). Note: The
second and third grate sections are usually “slaved” in proportion to the first one.

If the clinker happens to become very coarse, the undergrate pressure may not correspond to
the bed depth, and in such cases the pressure control may be overruled by the power
consumption of the grate.

Such a simple system functions without problems, and in automated plants it can be
supplemented with automatic control of the clinker temperature or constant air flow to the
grate for a given capacity.

Cooling of clinker 14 FLSmidth Denmark

Cooling of Clinker

7. Air Beam Technology

In a conventional grate cooler, air distribution and, therefore, cooling efficiency, is largely
determined by the mechanical condition of the cooler. A significant improvement in grate
cooler efficiency was gained in the late 1980s with IKN’s introduction of air beams at the
inlet to the cooler. During the early 1990’s, all major equipment suppliers developed air-
beam systems and such systems have largely replaced conventionally aerated grate coolers.
In essence, air beam systems prevent the possibility that cooling air can bypass the clinker
layer. In this way, air beam technology works by improving the air distribution below the
grate by connecting individual rows of the cooler directly to the air supply, rather than by
blowing air into the undergrate chamber in the conventional manner (See Figure 23). In such
systems, the grate plate supports are used to duct the cooling air directly to the grate plates
and into the clinker bed. Depending on the equipment supplier, the air beam may be further
subdivided across the width of the cooler such that only a few individual grate plates receive
air from a separate, controllable source. Preference is given to the extension of air beams
throughout the entire recuperation zone of the cooler. For this reason, most equipment
suppliers have developed air beam systems for use on both the stationary and movable rows
of the cooler. However, in many markets, simplicity (rather than efficiency) is the key and,
therefore, Hybrid Designs (which incorporate air beams only on the stationary rows) have
been developed (See Figure 24).

1) Maintenance Benefit - Air beam technology improves cooling of grate plates and
supports.
2) Process Benefit - This method improves cooling air distribution below grate,
minimising the effect of the cooler's mechanical undergrate condition on thermal
efficiency.

Favourable results have been demonstrated in a number of coolers that were converted to air-
beam systems. Results were shown to be dependent upon how many of the existing rows
were converted to air beam technology. Savings in fuel consumption resulted in a reduction
of kiln and preheater exit gas, both in terms of mass flow and temperature. In most instances,
this reduction was used to increase clinker capacity.

8. Elevated Resistance Grate Plates

A well known phenomena in the traditional grate cooler is the “red river”, which is a narrow
stream of the clinker, which continues far down in the cooler at a temperature, which far
exceeds that of the neighbouring clinker. It is often red hot (hence the name) long after the
other clinker has turned dark, and it has been seen, that such “red rivers” can reach the clinker
crusher. This is due to the difference in resistance to the air flow across a transverse section
of the cooler. The fine clinker offers a much higher resistance to the air flow, than does the
coarse clinker and the air, of course, takes the easiest path. The clinker segregates out of the
kiln, with the fine clinker on the kiln load side and the coarse clinker on the other.
Furthermore the air is not confined to the holes in the grate plates, but can also pass between
the gaps between the grate plates. Investigations have shown that as much of 60% of the
cooling air may pass in the gaps between grate plates, thus decreasing the quality of the air

FLSmidth Denmark 15 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

distribution. Since it is easier to blow air through the coarse clinker layer, an excess of air
must be applied to the component as a whole to ensure that enough air is applied at the fine
side. Figure 25 shows how this phenomenon effects the air distribution in traditional coolers
and how it can be avoided in a modern grate cooler.

The distribution of air in the clinker bed is best described by watching the pressure drop
through a cold layer of clinker. This can be described by Ergun's equation as follows:

∆P (1 − ε )2 ηo Vo (1 − ε ) ρ o Vo ⎡ Pa ⎤
2

= 150 + 1.75
H ε3 D pm
2
ε3 D pm ⎢⎣ m ⎥⎦

Where:

∆P = Pressure Drop Through Clinker Bed

H = Thickness of Clinker Bed
γ = Clinker Bed Void
0o = Air Viscosity
Vo = Air Velocity
Dpm = Average Particle Diameter

In Figure 26 the pressure drops of various clinker sizes are shown as a function of the free air
velocity. The dramatic influence of particle size on air distribution is clearly seen.

Let us look at an example where the "fine" side (50% of the width) mainly consists of 2 mm
clinker and the "coarse" side (also 50% of the width) of 5 mm clinker. Here the relationship
between air velocities will be 1/5, meaning that only approx. 17% of the cooling air is blown
up through the "fine" side and the rest in the "coarse" side. In cases where the kiln is
producing very dusty clinker, red river will usually be an almost inevitable consequence.

Air beam systems ensure that virtually all of the cooling air is directed into all areas of the
clinker bed (where some air may have otherwise bypassed the clinker layer altogether).
However, the air distribution above the grate line is largely influenced by differences in
granulometry within the clinker layer, itself. To ensure a more uniform air distribution above
the grate line, suppliers have developed increased flow resistance grate plates for use with
their air beam systems. These grate plates must have anti-sifting features so that clinker-dust
cannot fall through the plates and into the air beams (even if the air supply is interrupted).
The increased flow resistance gives high-pressure losses (See Figure 27).

Cooling of clinker 16 FLSmidth Denmark

Cooling of Clinker

The higher-pressure losses "normalise" the effects of unequal airflow velocities through the
clinker caused by different regions of resistance within the clinker bed. This results in an
even-velocity profile in all areas of the clinker bed and a low-mean velocity value. This
lower-mean velocity through the clinker layer tends to reduce the quantity of dust
recirculation between the kiln and cooler, thereby improving the cooler's recuperation
efficiency.

Over the years many different systems have been developed, but common for all the systems
and the “secret” behind any type any of the second generation grate coolers is “built in”
resistance in the grate plate which is approximately 25 mbar at an air quantity of
approximately 110 kg air/m²/min. By having this initial resistance the air supply will even out
to the individual plates within an aeration field.

1) Maintenance Benefit - Lower thermal loading of grate plates is possible.

2) Process Benefit - Improved cooling air distribution above the grate minimise the
effect of clinker granulometry on thermal efficiency.

Each of the equipment suppliers has proprietary grate plate designs. Ideally, the grate plates
have narrow air stream apertures designed to create flat air jets and high-pressure losses (see
Figure 28). However, the differences between these grate plates is less important than the fact
that it is the grate's air-flow resistance that gives the desired heat exchange. Despite the
claims of some suppliers, there are no magic grate plates. As long as flow is uniform over the
entire grate surface, then the distribution of cooling air through the clinker layer will also be
uniform, provided the bed is not too deep. A satisfactory level of grate resistance is on the
same order of magnitude as the bed resistance and a satisfactory air distribution is one that
allows high aeration rates without fluidization of the clinker bed.

The basic philosophy behind all of the second generation grate systems is to provide a more
uniform distribution of air through the clinker bed in a way such that the heat transfer is
maximized. It is a scientific fact that the cooling air always seeks the path of least resistance.
With this in mind, all of the major equipment suppliers have devised schemes to gain more
control over the air distribution. While Air Beam Technology works by improving the cooling
air distribution below the grate line, Elevated Resistance Grate Plates work by improving the
air distribution above the grate.

9. Stationary Inlet Section

Mechanical air beam designs vary from supplier to supplier and have changed over time as
operational experience has been gained. This is a natural development. Obtaining the best
heat recuperation is not always the primary goal. On the contrary, fixed inlet designs deliver
a higher degree of utilisation and minimise overall maintenance costs. For this reason,
modern cooler designs employ some type of stationary inlet section offering a rigid support
against the impact of chunks. This largely eliminates wear due to the absence of any movable
parts. In this manner, a favourable compromise between maintenance costs and thermal
efficiency is obtained.

FLSmidth Denmark 17 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

Equipment suppliers have adopted the use of a stationary inlet, sloped section of 3 to 8 rows
of air beams inclined at about 15 degrees (Figure 29). Individual designs vary from one
supplier to another, but these design features are irrelevant in relation to the reasons for the
derived benefits: (1) maintenance savings result from the absence of any moving parts and
(2) fuel savings result from the use of air beam technology.

1) Maintenance Benefit - Having no moving parts ensures extended grate plate life for
many years; rugged stationary designs protect grate plates from falling
clinker/coating.
2) Process Benefit - May provide lower efficiency than alternating movable and
stationary air beams for operational reasons; however, little is gained in relation to
maintenance savings gained through the absence of any moving parts.

Preferred Inlet Systems allow the operator to control the amount of air to each side of the
cooler and to each row of the static section. Preference is given for a 5 to 9 row stationary
inlet module. In the subsequent stationary and movable grate section, a grate slope of 4
degrees together with the use of two stationary rows for every movable row is preferred to
minimise grate speed and grate wear. Again, preference is given to the extension of air beams
throughout the entire recuperation zone of the cooler.
E. PROCESS CONSIDERATIONS
The above section has identified the mechanical design features present in all modern grate
coolers and has described the maintenance and process benefits of each. In the sections that
follow, the impact of these mechanical components on process design will be considered.

Handling and dedusting of the excess air is the main disadvantage of the grate cooler and is
also decisive for a comparison between the investment costs of different cooler types.

The excess air varies with regard to quantity, temperature and dust content, and the system for
its handling, of course, has to be designed for the worst condition. Fuller typically uses
design figures corresponding to 2.8 kg excess air/kg clinker (2.8 lb/lb clinker) and 400°C
(700°F) for conventional coolers and about 1.9 kg/kg clinker for air-beam grate coolers..

The preferred method of handling the excess air is by means of an air-to-air heat exchanger
and bagfilter. Air cleaning with multi-cyclones is not acceptable in a modern plant.

Another option is to use electrostatic precipitators for excess air. They have proven reliable
and efficient with low operation costs. To reduce the size of the precipitator, a small quantity
of atomised water can be injected through nozzles in the cooler ceiling. However, a study of
investment costs between precipitators and bag filters demonstrates the cost effectiveness of
bag filters over precipitators for emission requirements of less than 50 mg/Nm3 (dry basis).
This is because the size of the precipitator becomes increases exponentially with decreasing
emissions levels whereas the size of the fabric filter remains constant. For this reason, bag

Cooling of clinker 18 FLSmidth Denmark

Cooling of Clinker

filters combined with air to air heat exchangers are preferred in many parts of the world,
where demands for very low emission rates are required. The decisive factors for the choice
between these solutions are operating costs and reliability, especially the ability to cope with
upset conditions.

The advantage of the grate cooler is that it is independent of the kiln and very flexible with
regard to production. Also a low clinker temperature can be obtained, 65°C (150°F).

An important consideration is the high power consumption of the grate cooler, for
conventional type cooler 5-7 kWh/t (4.5-6.3 kWh/shT), exclusive of power for dedusting.
Depending on the cost relation between fuel and power, 1 kWh/t will often correspond to the
cost of 7 kcal/kg clinker (0.025 MBTU/shT).
F. EFFICIENCY, RECUPERATION AND COOLER HEAT LOSSES
When you wish to specify a new cooler or evaluate how well your existing cooler is
performing with respect to heat recuperation and cooling of the clinker, it is convenient to be
able to do that by means of some characteristic key figures. Often, terms like cooler
efficiency, heat recuperation or cooler loss are used.

It is necessary to define exactly what we understand by those terms and how we calculate
them.

The grate cooler heat losses consist of (1) radiation loss, (2) heat contained in the hot excess
air and (3) sensible heat in the clinker leaving the cooler

A typical heat loss for a conventional grate cooler would be:

TYPICAL COOLER LOSS-CONVENTIONAL GRATE COOLER

20°C ref. temp. (68°F) KCAL/KG MBTU/shT

Radiation 5 0.018
Excess Air, 2 kg/kg cl. @ 246°C 119 0.428
(475°F)
Clinker, 85°C (185°F) 12 0.043
Sum 136 KCAL/KG 0.489 MBTU/shT

In cases where low-temperature heat can be utilized for drying of raw materials or coal, up to
50 kcal/kg clinker (0.180 MBTU/shT) of the waste heat can be recuperated and then, of
course, the thermal efficiency becomes very favourable.

The heat recuperation is also at times called cooler efficiency. It is necessary to know the
temperature of the clinker coming from the kiln to calculate the % heat recuperation; this

FLSmidth Denmark 19 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

temperature is nearly impossible to measure. Arayo-tube gives incorrect values, because the
clinker at the kiln outlet is often covered with a layer of dust coming from the cooler, and also
the temperature at the surface can be different from that in the centre of the clinker particles.
It is also difficult to take out a representative sample of clinker into a bucket and to measure
the temperature outside the kiln.

What is important for the heat consumption in the kiln is the heat recuperation from the
moment the clinker leaves the burning zone. The burning zone temperature is also difficult to
measure, but often 1450°C is taken as a standard value.

For the same cooler working with the same type of clinker, the heat recuperation will depend
on the amount of combustion air that goes from the cooler to the kiln. This amount again
depends on the heat consumption, excess air for the combustion, the amount of primary air
and the amount of false air through the kiln seals.

Figure 30 shows the cooler loss and heat recuperation in relation to the amount of combustion
air. The different lines represent coolers with different recuperation abilities. As the grate
cooler is not a cooler with a perfect counterflow, there is an absolute maximum for the heat
recuperation ability. The lines K = 1.00 represent such an ideal cooler with maximum
recuperation ability.

The curve K = 0.23 corresponds to an traditional cooler working well.

The following comments can be made on the amount of combustion air:

A dry process kiln using 750 kcal/kg clinker will only need half as much combustion air as a
wet process kiln using 1500 kcal/kg clinker. It is therefore obvious that the cooler loss will be
much less for the wet process kiln than for the dry process kiln, even when the amount and
temperature of the clinker from the kiln, and of the cooling air blown into the cooler, is
exactly the same in both cases.

The only difference is: (1) the amount and, (2) temperature of the excess air will be very
much different; clinker temperature and surface loss of the cooler will be the same in the two
cases.

Figures for cooler losses are therefore without meaning if the amount of combustion air from
the cooler to the kiln system is not known. The same, of course, applies to cooler efficiency
or recuperation percent which is basically 100 minus the cooler loss expressed as percent of
the heat in the clinker leaving the kiln.

Although it is possible to measure the amount of tertiary air on precalciner kilns by a Pitot
tube or similar, there is no way to measure the amount of secondary air from cooler to kiln
tube. It is therefore better to determine the amount of recuperated air by calculation, Lambda
= 1.00.

Usually the figure works out at about 1.41 - 1.42 kg air per 1000 kcal lower (net) heat value
fired when the fuel is bituminous coal or fuel oil; for fuels with a high content of water the
figure will typically be higher.

Cooling of clinker 20 FLSmidth Denmark

Cooling of Clinker

The combustion air actually used will (in addition to the stoichiometric air) also include the
air excess, which can be calculated from the O2 - and CO2 - content in the gas after the
combustion process. The formula is:

1
Lambda =
79.1 02
1 − x
20.9 100 − CO2 − O 2

Lambda = 1.20 for instance means that there was 20% air excess where the gas analysis was
made.

From the total combustion air Lcom = Lambda x Lmin it is necessary to subtract the various
sources of false air, including primary air, which do not come from the clinker cooler.

The most complicated case is when there are two combustion processes in series, such as ILC
precalciner kilns.

Estimation of the secondary air requires a measurement of the O2 - and CO2 - percent in the
kiln tube exit. From this the lambda value can be calculated and hence Lcom.

Not all of this air has come from the cooler. The primary air, including transport air for coal
meal (if any), must be measured and subtracted. Further, false air entering at the kiln outlet
seal between kiln tube and kiln hood and through gaps in the kiln hood, must be subtracted.

If the probe sampling the gas after the kiln tube is not located inside the kiln tube, but rather
in the riser duct, false air entering through the kiln back end seal must also be subtracted.

The tertiary air can be determined in a similar way. Lmin for the total amount of fuel burned
in kiln and calciner is calculated. O2 and CO2 after the calciner are measured, and the lambda
is calculated. The total amount of combustion air is calculated.

From this must now be subtracted secondary air from cooler to kiln, primary air to kiln
burner, false air at kiln hood/outlet seal, false air through back end seal, primary air/transport
air calciner, false air in calciner and false air in tertiary air dust trap. If O2 and CO2 analysis
are not made immediately after the calciner but after the top cyclone, false air in the cyclone
preheater including air from pneumatic kiln feed transport (if any) must also be deducted.

Cooler losses are usually measured and calculated according to rules laid down by the
German Cement Makers Association VDZ, which use ambient temperature as the reference.
When calculating the recuperation efficiency, VDZ assumes a clinker temperature of 1450 °C
and nil dust circulation between kiln and cooler. The latter can have a huge influence on the
actual cooler loss. VDZ further does not take into consideration that practically all
mechanical energy put into the cooling fans has been converted into heat when the air leaves
the surface of the clinker bed with zero pressure and velocity. The latter can be eliminated if
the temperature of the cooling air is measured on the pressure side of the fans.

FLSmidth Denmark 21 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

Figures 31 and 32 give the definitions for Cooler Loss including Total Cooler Loss (reference
temperature 0°C), VDZ Cooler Loss (reference temperature = cooling air temperature), and
Standard Cooler Loss (normalised combustion air requirement). FLS has introduced the
concept standard cooler loss, which means the VDZ cooler loss at a total recuperated
amount of cooling air of 1.155 kg/kg clinker. Similarly, the standard efficiency must refer
also to 1.155 kg/kg clinker of recuperated air.

Figure 33 shows how the cooler loss and process heat recuperation vary as a function of the
amount of recuperated air. The more recuperated air, the lower the cooler loss and the higher
recuperation efficiency.

Cooling of clinker 22 FLSmidth Denmark

Cooling of Clinker

G. IMPACT OF AIR-BEAM & ELEVATED RESISTANCE GRATE PLATE

DESIGNS

A significant development in the efficiency of grate coolers was made in the early 1990's with
the introduction of (1) Air-Beam technology and (2) Elevated Resistance Grate Plates.

The amount of air for air-beam coolers generally lies between 2.3 and 2.6 kg air/kg clinker
(2.3-2.6 lb air/lb) but in order to cope with forced conditions and fluctuations, we normally
install a fan capacity corresponding to approx. 2.8 kg air/kg clinker (2.8 lb air/lb). In
comparison, the conventional type grate coolers were designed for 3.5 to 3.8 kg air/kg clinker
(3.5 to 3.8 lb air/lb).

The specific load of new type grate coolers expressed in t/d per m2 is normally 50-55
MTPD/m2 compared to 38-42 MTPD/m2 for conventional grate coolers. This higher grate
load is mainly possibly due to a much better heat recuperation in the air-beam type grate
coolers which allow for a lower retention time and partly the result of the tendency to work
with a thicker clinker bed.

Air-beam coolers and modern grate plate designs were developed in response to traditional
deficiencies of the conventional grate cooler (such as red-rivers discussed above) whose
correction would contribute to better grate lifetime and better heat recuperation.

It is clear that the area on which attention should be focused is in the first section of the cooler
(heat recuperation zone). If more heat can be recovered from the clinker and utilized in the
process, we can save energy and obtain a more stable kiln and cooler operation.

Again, many different systems have been developed, but common for all the systems and the
“secret” behind any type of the new grate coolers are a “built-in” resistance in the grate plate
which is approximately 250 mmWG (10 inWG) at an air quantity of approximately 110 kg
air/m2/min (300 SCFM/ft2).

To have full control over the flow/speed of the clinker layer, to avoid “red rivers”, and to
guard against snowmen formations, it was decided to use a horizontal grate lay out and a
moveable first row. However due to maintenance reasons and the general lifetime of the
impact zone, the use of five to seven stationary rows at a slope of 15° became accepted - even
at the expense of some process efficiency. For this reason, most equipment suppliers today
use an inclined impact zone line, followed by a 4° sloped where every second and third grate
row is stationary. To avoid material build up and “snowman” formation it is necessary to
install 5 - 8 Shock Blasters, for the stationary inlet section, depending on the clinker materials
tendency to form “snowmen” and the cooler size

After the Stationary Inlet Section, modern cooler designs typically employ a series of air-
beam grates that cover the rest of the recuperation zone. After the air-beam section, Reduced
Fall Through grates will cover the rest of the drive sections (Figure 34).

FLSmidth Denmark 23 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

If required the air beam system can cover the entire cooler grate area, but due to increased
operational complexity and cost, such an arrangement is uncommon.

When air-beams are extended throughout the recuperation zone, the result is a highly efficient
grate cooler where the heat recuperation is greatly improved compared to coolers of
conventional design.

The overall result of an air-beam cooler compared to a conventional cooler is:

30 - 40 kcal/kg clinker reduction in standard cooler loss.

- reduced size of Cooler, approx. 30%
30 - 40% reduction in size of Cooler ventilation system.
- improved Kiln and Cooler operation.
- possibly lower maintenance cost.
reduced tendency to “red river” formation.

Not only new coolers can be supplied with the air-beam systems. An existing grate cooler can
be modified to include these features. With the air-beam systems, the grate load can be
increased (and together with an improved heat recuperation) the clinker production can be
increased.

For a retrofit, normally only the first cooler grate is modified. The remainder of the grate(s)
and cooling systems are left untouched.

By retrofitting the complete first grate, maximum benefits will be delivered since this grate (in
most cases) will cover the complete heat recuperation zone.

However, the system can also be offered for less than the complete first grate, i.e. installing a
static inlet section only.

In addition to the operating advantages, there are compelling economic considerations like
heat savings of 30-85 kcal/kg clinker, a yearly capacity increase typically in the
neighbourhood of 5% and a payback time of less than 1 year.

In addition to reduced maintenance requirements, conversion of an existing cooler to a

modern air-beam type offers some evident operational benefits, including:

- heat savings of 30 - 85 kcal/kg clinker

- reduced dust circulation
- reduced wear on grate plates
- reduced air consumption
- reduced tendency to “red river” formation
- more stable kiln and cooler operation

During the Work Session on Clinker Coolers, you will have the opportunity to make an
estimate of the heat savings resulting from a retrofit to the cooler’s first grate. You will find
that the savings is proportional to the amount of “air-beam” air. In other words, the savings is

Cooling of clinker 24 FLSmidth Denmark

Cooling of Clinker

proportional to the number of installed air-beam grates rows, but also to the mechanical
condition of the cooler.

When carrying out a retrofit, it is preferable to change the complete recuperation zone. The
only thing remaining of the previous equipment is the side frames. With careful planning
retrofits can be undertaken very efficiently. The erection can be done in less than 3 weeks
during a planned kiln stop.

H. MODERN GRATE COOLER SUMMARY & COMMENTARY

For the past ten years, the cement industry's cooler market has been dominated by air-beam
technology and resistance grate plates. As a result, all major equipment suppliers now offer
some type of air-beam technology and high-pressure resistance grate plate designs.
Unquestionably, these technological improvements to the conventional grate cooler have
made a significant contribution to today's plant designs for cement processing.

With the advances that have been made to the grate cooler since its inception, vast
improvements have been made to the air distribution below the grate, through the grate, and
above the grate. As a result, the heat transfer between the air and clinker has improved and
substantial reductions in specific cooling air requirements have been realised.

Taken as a whole, continually improved design features have made it possible to substantially
improve the thermal efficiency of the grate cooler as compared to just 10 years ago. The
enclosed diagrams (Figure 35 and Figure 36) present comparative heat balances of typical
grate cooler performance resulting from design improvements during the last 10 years. As
shown, it has been made possible to reduce the cooler's heat losses from 160-130 kcal/kg to
125-100 kcal/kg or even less. These heat loss savings are the result of a reduction in the
specific cooling air requirement from 3.1 kg air/kg clinker to 2.5 kg air/kg clinker during this
time. This reduction in cooling air input has resulted in a corresponding reduction in the
cooler's excess air requirements from 2.0 kg air/kg clinker to 1.4 kg air/kg clinker, thereby
decreasing the capital costs of cooler vent systems.

However, the grate cooler of today still represents a compromise between efficiency and
reliability. In many respects, potential process benefits have taken a back seat to maintenance
benefits, or more aptly, availability. This is because mechanical simplicity is favoured over
process complexity. Further improvements will undoubtedly be made. The key for the future
will be to further improve thermal efficiency without causing increased operational
complexity (which most often gives rise to higher maintenance costs).

FLSmidth Denmark 25 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

IV. SF CROSS-BAR™ COOLER

Despite dramatic improvements, today's air-beam grate coolers are still plagued by relatively
high maintenance costs and operational complexities associated with these same equipment
innovations. Disadvantages include:

The valves, pipes, dampers and connectors for the air-beams require operator adjustment.
Furthermore, these components may preclude access to the under-grate chamber.
Since the cooling and conveying mechanisms are integrated, air-beam coolers suffer from
deteriorating cooling performance as the grate plates (located in the moving sections) begin to
wear.
The requirement to supplement the air-beam air with "sealing" air (introduced in the
conventional manner) is one of the primary disadvantages of today's high-pressure resistance
grate plate designs.

The possibility for clinker fall-through and the resultant need for an under-grate spillage
conveying system constitute a further disadvantage.

For these reasons, engineers at F.L. Smidth and Fuller set out to develop a cooler that was
superior to the grate cooler including the most efficient of air-beam coolers. The goal was to
develop a cooler having maximum availability by focusing on a design which was simpler to
operate and simpler to maintain than either the conventional grate cooler or the air-beam
technologies. Many ideas were proposed and discussed. The requirement was to separate the
cooling mechanism from the conveying mechanism so that inefficient sealing air would not be
required, clinker fall-through would be eliminated, and the need for under-grate sealing and
transport systems could be avoided. The result was the Smidth-Fuller Cooler (Figure 37)
which has the following design features:

A. MODULAR DESIGN
The entire cooler is constructed in modular form. The air distribution plates are comparable in
size to traditional grate plates. Each module is four (4) plates wide and fourteen (14) plates
long (1.3 m wide and 4.2 m long) (See Figure 38).

A single module could be a whole cooler or several modules could be assembled to form a
larger cooler. The modules are set side-by-side and end-to-end. For example, a 2400 tpd
cooler, is a 2 x 4 unit plus a fixed inlet. That is, such a cooler is two modules (8 plates) wide
and three modules (56 plate rows) long. It has just four cooling fans.

The modules consist of an under-grate chamber with a grate-line at the top. The air
distribution plates are supported on a stationary tray system. Each module, thus, forms a 4 x
14 plate matrix. None of the air distribution plates move.

A stationary inlet section is installed ahead of the first module at the inlet of the cooler. Again,
the concept of "modular design" is employed. Each “Controlled Impact Module" is composed
by five rows of air distribution plates. The plates are arranged in a stair-case manner to form a

Cooling of clinker 26 FLSmidth Denmark

Cooling of Clinker

12 degree incline. A series of air blasters are used to prevent "snowmen" formations. The high
pressure air system is integrated into the back wall of the cooler. The plates in the impact
section are the same as those used in the rest of the cooler. The plates are significantly
different from traditional grate plates and, in themselves, represent one of the new and
innovative design features of this cooler.

The "modular design" is demonstrated in that each module can be pre-assembled prior to
installation, including its refractory. The modules are simply set side-by-side and end-to-end.
As a result, existing grate coolers can be completely replaced with a new SF Cross-Bar cooler
in as little as 3 to 4 weeks. Also, because all modules are duplicates of one another, it is
possible to significantly shorten delivery times.
B. FIXED GRATE-LINE FOR AIR DISTRIBUTION
Just as for a conventional grate cooler, the grate-line is on top a under grate compartment (See
Figure 39). However, because the sealed grate-line is completely stationary, the grate plates
can be locked together.

Each air distribution plate is 300 mm square, making them comparable in size to conventional
grate plates. The first and second air distribution plates in each longitudinal row (or column)
of every module have a small separation that enables a drive plate to extend from the under-
grate chamber to the above-grate (cross bar) conveying system.

Similarly, the third and fourth grate plates in each column have the same separation, which
allows the conveying system to penetrate the grate line. Each 4 x 14 plate matrix is therefore
arranged in a 1-2-1 configuration of columns across the width of the cooler.

The sealing system of the grate-line is so effective that no devices are provided for removal of
spillage from the under-grate chamber. The bottom of the under-grate chamber has a steel
floor without any openings. No spillage removal valves are provided and no spillage conveyor
is installed under any of the SF Cross-Bar coolers. This means less items for maintenance. It
also means lower head room requirements. For new kiln line installations, the lower head
room requirements may yield a savings of 2 – 4 meters in height for the entire preheater tower
and kiln which significantly contributes to lower civil costs. For existing installations, it
enables the SF Cross-Bar cooler to replace existing coolers with low headroom (i.e. coolers
with internal drag conveyors or disc gate spillage removal systems).

Unlike air-beam coolers, no sealing air is required because both the grate-line and the under-
grate chamber are effectively locked. By eliminating the need for inefficient cooling air and
by eliminating the possibility for under-grate spillage, significant gains in thermal efficiency
are obtained.

FLSmidth Denmark 27 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

C. CLINKER CONVEYING SYSTEM

There are two types of cross bars: stationary and movable. The stationary and movable cross
bars alternate the same as stationary and movable grate rows alternate in conventional coolers
(See Figures 40 and 41). The movable cross bars are driven by a drive plate. The drive plate
is attached to a movable frame.

Unlike the movable frame used in a conventional grate cooler, the frame does not support any
grate plates or their support beams. Quite simply, there are no movable grate plate supports.
As a result, a much more simple design of movable frame is employed. This allows a simple
system of linear bearings to be used. The bearings do not require continuous lubrication. In
fact, the bearings are lubricated annually.

The cross bars are attached to the drive plate by a retainer bracket that attaches to ears
extending from the drive plate. The retainer bracket and cross bars are locked by wedges
driven in by hammer. Replacement of the cross bar is simply made by knocking the wedges
out with a hammer and removing the retainer bracket.

Spillage is prevented from entering the plenum chamber by a series of sealing profiles. The
sealing profiles combine to form a labyrinth type seal that prevents undergrate spillage. Since
the grate plates do not move, it is possible to make a very effective seal between the stationary
air distribution system and the moving drive plate.

Each module has a hydraulic cylinder located in the under-grate chamber that imparts a
reciprocating motion to the movable frame that is parallel to the grate-line. When modules are
installed end-to-end, the movable frames of each module are connected in such a way that
they move in unison. Modules installed side-by-side do not have their movable frames
connected. In other words, a module positioned alongside of another module may be stroking
rearward while the other module is stroking forward. In addition, their speeds could be
different.

The modules are installed on a three to five degree slope which represents a favourable
compromise between clinker transport efficiency and the speed of the reciprocating cross-
bars.
D. AIR DISTRIBUTION PLATES WITH MECHANICAL FLOW REGULATORS
The heart of the SF Cross-Bar cooler is its unique air distribution system. Each air distribution
plate consists of a stainless steel top section that looks similar to a pocket-style Controlled
Flow Grate (CFG) plate.

On the bottom of each individual plate is a rectangular tower containing a weighted

Mechanical Flow Regulator (MFR). Depending on the pressure inside the tower the regulator
opens or closes. Because the pressure inside the tower is an exact measure of the resistance of
the material layer above it, the regulator opens to compensate for an increase in the
"measured" resistance or closes to compensate for a decrease in the "measured" resistance.

Cooling of clinker 28 FLSmidth Denmark

Cooling of Clinker

The MFR, thus, controls the amount of cooling air that flows from the under-grate chamber
into each individual air distribution plate (See Figure 42).

The regulators are specially designed to maintain a constant air flow through the air plate and
the clinker layer, irrespective of the clinker bed height, particle size distribution, temperature,
etc. In his way, every air plate in the cooler is provided with the quantity of cooling air that it
needs. (see figure 43)

The MFR consists of a special orifice plate which hangs from the tower. The hanging plate
acts as a variable orifice that moves relative to the difference in pressure on either side of the
plate. The regulator, therefore, only introduces a pressure drop through it self in the event that
the resistance of the clinker layer is below normal. This is in contrast to CFG grate plates
which introduce a constant pressure loss for a given air volume. Normally a pressure loss of at
least 200 mm WG is required to normalize differences in the clinker layer in order to ensure
uniform distribution of cooling air.

With the self regulating mechanical flow device, it is possible to obtain constant air-flow
through the clinker layer without paying for the required pressure loss of 200 mm WG. This,
coupled with higher thermal efficiency, results in a power savings compared to modern air
beam coolers.

Cooling air is supplied to the under-grate chamber of each module by fans equipped with
piezometers. The mechanical flow regulators are so effective that the required number of fans
is only determined by the number of modules set end-to-end. That is, modules set side-by-side
have their undergrate chambers joined so that only one fan supplies air to both the right and
left. For example, the 3x5 F Cooler for 3600 tpd is equipped with a total of only 6 cooling
fans even though it is a triple-wide cooler. It has one fan for the "Controlled Impact Module"
plus one fan for each of the five cross bar modules in length.

The regulator used in each module is designed for a specific air-flow rate. The design of the
mechanical flow regulators is varied between each of the modules set end-to-end. The
regulator design is varied (along the cooler's length) to compensate for changes in the
resistance of the clinker layer as the clinker temperature decreases.

It is possible to employ a higher specific air-flow to the air plates at the inlet to the cooler
simply by using one regulator design over another. It is also possible to vary the regulator
design across the width of the cooler. For example, "Zero Flow" regulators may be used along
both sides of the cooler within the "Stationary Impact Module" as a means to compensate for
non-uniform distribution of clinker across the cooler's width. Normally, this would be done by
installing tapered refractory on the fixed inlet section. However, the mechanical regulators are
so effective that they may be used as an alternative to refractory curbing.

FLSmidth Denmark 29 Cooling of clinker

 Cooling of clinker

E. SF COOLER PERFORMANCE
The performance, heat efficiency vice, of SF cross-bar has shown a Standard Cooler Loss of
80 to 85 kcal/kg. In comparison, CFG coolers typically have a Standard Cooler Loss of 90 to
120 kcal/kg. This means that the heat recovery is extremely high for the new type of clinker
cooler.

Improved thermal efficiency of the SF Cross-Bar Cooler is made possible by the following
design features:

• Inefficient sealing air is not required.

• Clinker fall-through is completely avoided.
• The grate-line is completely stationary, so no
• gaps exist for possible short-circuiting of cooling air.
• The clinker conveying system and clinker
• cooling systems are completely independent therefore cooling efficiency does not
deteriorate over time.
• The MFR system (a separate air flow regulator
• for each grate plate) is used throughout the entire cooler (not just the inlet section and
not just the recuperation zone of the cooler).
• The regulation valves ensure that each plate in the
• cooler is provided with the quantity of cooling air that it needs regardless of process
conditions.

Figure 44 presents a typical cooler balance for a cross-bar type cooler. As shown, significant
improvements can be gained compared to “modern” air-beam coolers.

Cooling of clinker 30 FLSmidth Denmark