WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY?

. . . ASSUMING THERE IS ONE

Steven A. Symes, PhD, DABFA

Department of Applied Forensic Sciences
Mercyhurst Archaeological Institute
Mercyhurst College, 501 E. 38th Str.
Erie, PA 16546
(O) 814/824-3369 (F) 814/824-3627
SSymes@Mercyhurst.edu
//MAI.Mercyhurst.edu

History

Scholarly and public interests in forensic anthropology have a rather recent history even though this applied
field of physical anthropology is all but new. T. Dale Stewart (1979) suggested that the anatomist, Thomas
Dwight qualified for the role of “Father of American Forensic Anthropology” for his publications
beginning in 1878 on skeletal stature, sex, age and variation. Sixty years later, the well-known FBI Guide
to the Identification of Human Skeletal Material by W. M. Krogman (1939) was deemed as the most
important early publication of the 20th century in forensic anthropology. With this rather sluggish
progression, one may ask how forensic anthropology has evolved since the late 1800s. How has research in
the last decade or two of the 20th century stimulated modern forensics today?

Forensic science as a whole has enjoyed a recent unprecedented public popularity. This is especially true
of anthropology, even though there is a basic flaw in funding for anthropologists (similar to pathologists):
their patients do not pay! With funding dependent upon local, state, and federal agencies, a less than
desirable employment situation exists for students and professionals. Anthropologists are also the target of
heightened scrutiny from other physical anthropologists and fellow professionals. Some physical
anthropologists have labeled forensic anthropology as a non-theoretical specialty lacking evolutionary
theory, a pillar to the field as a whole. On the other hand non-anthropological forensic specialists have
been slow or reluctant to recognize anthropologists for their potential contributions in the forensic sciences
(Smith et al. 1990; Symes and Smith 1998) . . . . [Continued at the end, page 15]

This handout includes information on: Page

BALLISTIC BONE TRAUMA 2

O. C. Smith, MD
BLUNT FORCE TRAUMA ON HUMAN CRANIA AND LONG BONES 4
Steven A. Symes, PhD, Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, and O. C. Smith, MD
SHARP FORCE TRAUMA ON HUMAN BONE AND CARTILAGE 9
Steven A. Symes, PhD
BURNED BONE TRAUMA 10
S. A. Symes, PhD, and H. E. Berryman, PhD, and L. A. Zephro, MA
HEALING BONE TRAUMA 13
Steven A. Symes, PhD
WHAT IS THE FUTURE OF FORENSIC ANTHROPOLOGY? . . . (continued) 15
Steven A. Symes, PhD

Attachment:
Taphonomical Context of Sharp Trauma in Suspected Cases of Human Mutilation and Dismemberment.
Symes, Steven A., John A. Williams, Elizabeth A. Murray, J. Michael Hoffman, Thomas D.
Holland, Julie Saul, Frank Saul 2002

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 1

 BALLISTIC BONE TRAUMA

O. C. Smith, MD
Department of Pathology, University of Tennessee, Memphis, 1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN
38104

The act of accelerating some object to velocity high enough to kill is a relatively simple process. The
evaluation of its outcome has plagued us ever since. The complex interaction between bullet and target
material will be the focus of this section, with emphasis on the practical interpretation of ballistic trauma to
bone (see Ballistic Appendix).

Using evidentiary archive specimens, a hands on approach to problem solving is used. Basic morphology
will be presented correlated with analysis for direction and sequence. The variation of wounding
characteristics among different weapons types will be described.

Ballistic Appendix
Penetration Mechanics
• Primary Fractures: plug and spall produced by the penetration process.
- Plug formation seen when thick bone fails in shear due to large radial tensile forces.
- Spalling produces the characteristic internal bevel. A tensile release wave immediately
behind the intense compression wave from impact interacts with the reflected tensile wave at the free
surface of the internal table, producing tensile forces exceeding the bone strength. The result is a cone
shaped defect, similar to a BB hitting plate glass.

• Secondary Fractures: radial fractures with point of origin at impact.

- Large hoop stresses build up tensile strain despite the relief from the primary fracture.
The material fails in tension and large pie-shaped fragments are produced by the radial
fracture lines.
- The radial cracks form very quickly, and may displace prior to the bullet exit.
- Radial cracks may avoid buttressed areas, travel the line of least resistance along suture
lines or bifurcate in tensile stress fields.

• Tertiary Fractures: concentric heaving fractures.

- Outward displacement of the fragments from increased intracranial pressures.
- Beveling of concentric fractures is external, regardless of entrance or exit.
- Curvature of skull may attenuate bevel.
- Occur later than radial fractures; the concentric fractures terminate when they try to cross
the radial fractures (a propagating fracture does not cross an earlier one.)
- Rare instances where only the concentric fractures have followed the plug and spall, no
radial fractures formed.

• Key features.
- Entrance associated:
Primary plug and spall produce internal beveling of the defect. Magnitude of fractures
reflects the power of the weapon.
Magnitude of entrance associated fractures is greater than exit.
Concentric heaving fractures have more generations, are closer together and are present
out to greater radii than exit associated fractures.

- Exit Associated:
Plug and spall are beveled externally.
Fractures of lesser magnitude: relief of stresses, declining power of bullet.
Exit fractures come to an abrupt end if they cross a previous fracture.
Concentric heaving bevels for the exit fractures are externally beveled.
• Pearls and Pitfalls
SASymes Bone Trauma Page 2
 - Direction of the missile may be determined from the secondary and tertiary fracture
patterns. This is especially valuable when the primary fracture is absent as in post
surgical and anthropological specimens.
- Use the phenomena of intersecting fracture lines to help determine sequence.
- Tangential (keyhole) entrance wounds will be eccentric to oval in shape with some external
bevel. The internal aspect will be fully beveled, however.

Weapon Characteristics
• Low velocity projectiles (usually under 1800 feet per second).
- Number and magnitude of fractures reflects relative power of the weapon.
- The point of rest on x-ray may or may not reflect the wound path.
- Remember the viscoelastic properties of bone. Failure of the bone in a ductile or plastic
phase will cause permanent distortion of the fragments.
- Lead or other bullet materials may be wiped into the site of passage.
- Magnum loads produce wounds with features of high velocity projectiles.

• High velocity projectiles (greater than 1800-2000 feet per second)

- The magnitude of the damage is obvious, shotguns are similar.
- Bullet fragments are often minute, looking like a “snowstorm” on x-ray.
- Bone fragments set into motion as secondary missiles

• Shotguns
- Share many similarities to high velocity wounds.
- At closer ranges, before the shot column has had time to disperse, the tightly patterned
shot produce a billiard ball” effect. Upon striking the tissues the first pellets are slowed
and then sent radially away by being impacted upon by the pellets behind, similar to
breaking a rack of billiard balls. This causes a much wider wound track, with greater
dispersion of the pellets than expected for the range of fire. The skin entrance diameter is
of more use in determining the range of fire.
- Uniform pellet marks on the internal table of skull may be your first clue as to direction
in excavating wounds of the calvarium.

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 3

 BLUNT TRAUMA ON HUMAN CRANIA AND LONG BONES

Steven A. Symes, PhD, Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, and O. C. Smith, MD, Department of Pathology,
University of Tennessee, Memphis, 1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 38104

Introduction:
It is important to understand the basic concepts necessary for the interpretation of blunt trauma to tubular
and cranial bone while demonstrating differences from other common traumas. Evidentiary archival cases
are used to convey concepts of tensile and compressive stresses in fracture formation, variation in local
response to blunt trauma, sequencing blows, and weapon/tool identification.

SIMPLE ANATOMY OF A TUBULAR BONE FRACTURE (Symes, et. al. 1991)

“All fractures are caused by stresses, and a version of the “weakest link” theory applies: fractures
will originate wherever the local stress (load per unit of cross sectional area) first exceeds local strength.”
(Wulpi 1985)
• Long bone breaks consist of major and minor fractures that initially radiate transversely across the
area of tension, begin to trend obliquely in the neutral plane, and finally become longitudinal in
orientation in the area of compression.
• These features often combine to form ‘Butterfly Fractures”
(where the Butterfly body represents tension while wings represent compression)

CHARACTERISTICS:
• Bone tear (“pulled apart” look)
- tension characteristic (initial fracture) (Blunt Figure 1)
- present but difficult to assess with naked eye in older individuals or very small long bones also
difficult in angled blows
- mottled -- billowy -- similar appearance to unfused epiphysis
• Breakaway spur or notch
- compression characteristics
- longitudinal orientation in fracture is always present in compression
- “Dog-eared” notch delineates breakaway spur--generally present on at least on one side
- easily recognized due to jagged appearance.
• Minor fracture lines
- found between bone tear and the break-away spur (in neutral plane)
- micro fractures originate or form parallel to the major fracture
- major and minor fractures join to point to tension surface of bone
- these fractures generally run out of energy after a short distance
- difficult to see with naked eye -- but still detectable
• Shear area (neutral plane)
- found between bone tear and the break-away spur
- takes on a “shear appearance” (see definition)
- not a good diagnostic characteristic but still a feature in the anatomy of a fracture

Shear is defined as “that type of force that causes or tends to cause two contiguous parts of the same body
to slide relative to each other in a direction parallel to their plane of contact
(Wulpi, D.J., 1985 Understanding How Components Fail. Pp 108. ASM International. Metals Park, OH )

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 4

 Blunt Figure 1.

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 5

Appendix. Characteristics distinguishing postmortem carnivore trauma and perimortem blunt force
trauma.

Characteristics
Postmortem Carnivore Trauma Perimortem Blunt Trauma

Literature Review (1)

Tooth punctures, pits, scores, furrows
Tooth marks-transverse orientation
Tooth marks follow contour of bone
Fracture on bone ends, cancellous bone
Fracture on smaller bones and extremities
Attack areas of previous injury
Bones chewed and transported-
difficult to reconstruct
Tool marks not limited to description
Tool marks-any orientation
Tool marks may skip over bone features
Fracture at any location
Fracture on any bone
Original fracture contained in
tissue-reconstructable with
good recovery techniques

Mechanical Features/Contact Surface Analysis

Low Energy Vice-Like Crushing Creates:
tooth punctures, pits, scores, furrows
Punched in cortical bone
Splintering/frayed ends
Increased longitudinal fractures
Contact point: tooth
Low To High Energy Blunt Impact:
tool marks not limited to description
Impact with radiating fractures
Sharp, well-defined fractures
longitudinal fractures less common
(except axial load or longitudinal
Component of spiral)
Contact point: blunt

Low Energy Prying: Low To High Energy Blunt Impact:

Delamination Fracture perpendicular to surface
Tear tags (dog tag) Break away spur (dog eared)
Prying characteristics Plastic deformation
Flaking Flakes only in compression
Rounded or frayed fracture lines (slow load) Blocky, stepped fracture, secondary
fractures (exude energy)
Not seeking direct path-combination of insults

Summary
Recognize coalescence of fractures Sharp appearance, possible radiating
due to chewing action fractures and enhanced compression
Animals attack available and preferred areas Tool marks more random

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 6

(1) Excellent literature reviews from the forensic anthropologists point of view is available in the
following articles:

Haglund, William D., Donald T. Reay, and Daris R. Swindler

1988 Tooth mark artifacts and survival of bones in animal scavenged human skeletons. Journal of
Forensic Sciences 33:985-997.

Haglund, William D., Donald T. Reay, and Daris R. Swindler

1989 Canid scavenging/disarticulation sequence of human remains in the Pacific Northwest. Journal of
Forensic Sciences 34:587-606.

Milner, George R.
1989 Carnivore alteration of human bone from a late prehistoric site in Illinois. American Journal of
Physical Anthropology 79(1):43-49.

Willey, P. and Lynn M. Snyder

1989 Canid modification of human remains: implications for time-since-death estimations. Journal
of Forensic Sciences 34:894-901.

Blunt Force Bibliography:

Berryman, H. E.; Symes, S. A., Smith, O. C., and Moore, S. J.
1991 Bone fracture II: gross examination of fractures. Paper presented to the 43rd Annual Meeting of
the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Anaheim, California.

Curry, J. D.
1970 The mechanical properties of bone. Clin. Orthop., 73: 210-231.

Evans, F. G.
1973 Mechanical Properties of Bone, Springfield, Illinois, Charles C Thomas.

Gurdjian, S.; Webster, J. E., and Lissner, H. R.

1950A The mechanism of skull fracture. J. Neurosurgery., 7:106-114,.

Gurdjian, S.; Webster, J. E., and Lissner, H. R.

1950B The mechanism of skull fracture. Radiology, 54:313-338.

Harkess, J. W.; Ramsey, W. C., and Ahmadi, B.

1984 Principles of fractures and dislocations, In: Fractures in Adults, Volume 1, (edited by C. A.
Rockwood, Jr., and D. P. Green), Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Company, Chapter 1.

Johnson, E.
1985 Current developments in bone technology, In: Advances in Archaeological Method and Theory,
Volume 8, (edited by M. B. Schiffer), Orlando, Academic Press, Inc.

LeCount, R.; and Hockzema, J.

1934 Symmetrical traumatic fractures of the cranium; symmetrical fragmentation: comments on their
mechanism. Arch. Surg., 29:171-226.

LeFort, R.
1972 Experimental study of fractures of the upper jaw. Part III. Rev. Chir. Pris., 23:479-507. Reprinted
in : Plast. Reconstr. Surg., 50:600-605.

Moritz, A. R.: The Pathology of Trauma, Second Edition, Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1954.

Reichs, K. J.
1996 Forensic Osteology II, Advances in the Identification of Human Remains, Springfield, Illinois:
Charles C. Thomas.

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 7

Rogers, L. F.
1982 Radiology of Skeletal Trauma, New York, Churchill Livingstone.

Smith, O. C.; Berryman, H. E., Symes, S. A., and Moore, S. J.

1991 Bone fracture I: the physics of fracture. Paper presented to the 43rd Annual Meeting of the
American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Anaheim, California,.

Spitz, Werner U.
1980A Blunt force injury, Medicolegal Investigation of Death: Guidelines for the Application of
Pathology to Crime Investigation, Spitz, Werner U., and Fisher, Russell S. Springfield, Illinois:
Charles C Thomas.

Symes, S. A.; Smith, O. C., Berryman, H. E., and Moore, S. J.

1991 Bone fracture III: microscopic fracture analysis of bone. Paper presented to the 43rd Annual
Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Anaheim, California.

Symes, Steven A., Hugh E. Berryman, and O. C. Smith,

1994 Large Carnivore Scavenging on Bone: Separating Taphonomic Features from Perimortem
Fractures of Bone. Paper presented to the 46th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of
Forensic Sciences, San Antonio, TX.

Vance, B. M.
1927 Fractures of the skull. Arch. Surg., 14:1023-1091.

Zhi-Jin, Z.; and Jia-Zhen, Z.

1991 Study on the microstructures of skull fracture. Forensic Science International, 50: 1-14.

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 8

 SHARP FORCE TRAUMA INTRODUCTION

Sharp Force Trauma on Human Bone and Cartilage

Steven A. Symes, PhD

Department of Pathology, University of Tennessee, Memphis,
1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 38104

Introduction
Knives and saws, the sharp tools of violent acts, have little in common. Knives are familiar
antemortem/perimortem weapons that create chop, stab, and incised wounds in the living or may be
reserved for rare situations of postmortem dismemberment and mutilation. Everyone is familiar with knife
cut wounds (KCW’s) and their resulting defects. It would seem that the experts are so familiar, that
predictions of knife design and dimensions from these defects are commonly attempted, though not so
commonly substantiated.

Saw marks involve a multiplicity of repetitive movements reserved for situations of postmortem
dismemberment and mutilation. Presence of saw marks in bone is rare and commonly considered of little
use forensically. Seldom do saw marks get more notice than a presence or absence to the forensic
examiner. What KCW’s and saw marks do have in common is their potential to produce characteristics
that may contribute to a better understanding of a heinous crime.

This handout will demonstrate the range of possible identifying characteristics and the complexity of sharp
trauma assessment in bone. This research attempts to go beyond the standard forensic analysis results of
“single edged” and “very sharp” in an attempt to better understand the weapon creating the trauma.

Key points: (1) Recognition of KCW’s and saw trauma is foremost. Once sharp trauma is identified, it is
important to attempt to (2) identify true margins, and (3) recognize unique characteristics like telltale
residual striae that may indicate manufactured traits of the weapon. Knife and saw marks can and do
produce measurable characteristics that assist in the narrowing of the field of suspect tools. An emphasis is
placed on the identification of sharp weapon “class” characteristics as opposed to “type” characteristics.
Sharp Appendix:

Analysis of Saw Marks in Bone

See chapter:

Symes, Steven A., John A. Williams, Elizabeth A. Murray, J. Michael Hoffman, Thomas D. Holland, Julie
Saul, Frank Saul , and Elayne J. Pope
2002 Taphonomical Context of Sharp Trauma in Suspected Cases of Human Mutilation and
Dismemberment. In Advances in Forensic Taphonomy: Method, Theory and Archaeological
Perspectives. William D. Haglund and Marcella H. Sorg, Eds, CRC Press, New York.

http://www.forensicnetbase.com/ejournals/search/SearchQuery.asp?Idx=app
lications%5C3&request=Sharp+force+trauma&stemming=True&phonic=False&nat
lang=False&maxfiles=500&sort=Hits&sort_type=0&chkShowAbstract=0&perpage
=25&startat=1&onpage=1

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 9

 BURNED BONE TRAUMA

Steven A. Symes, PhD, O. C. Smith, MD, and Hugh E. Berryman, PhD, Department of Pathology,
University of Tennessee, Memphis, 1060 Madison Avenue, Memphis, TN 38104 and Lauren A. Zephro,
MA, Santa Cruz, CA.

The ability to recognize perimortem bone trauma after exposure to heat and fire can only be accomplished
with an insight into thermal destruction to bone and soft tissue. By charting various stages of thermal
destruction to bone, predictable patterns are revealed. If one assumes that thermal exposure is uniform,
fracture patterns are created by differential tissues and tissue depths surrounding bone. Recognition of this
patterning, even with extensively burned remains, allows the researcher to track the progression of bone
destruction. Tracking thermal destruction may reveal subtle information as to body positioning, thermal
shielding and differential thermal sources.

Patterning are dependent upon the pugilistic pose. The pugilistic pose of burned remains is the natural
position of thermal induced muscle shrinkage. Despite initial body positioning, the pugilistic posture will
influence the subsequent pattern of burning and fracture production. Muscle contraction can dislocate and
fracture heat compromised bone and joints. Coupled with pugilistic pose as an influence on bone, is the
protective properties of soft tissues and their variable thicknesses. The absence of a burn pattern typical of
a body in the pugilistic pose may reflect conditions that restricted or confined the body.

Anthropologists have studied bone fractures for decades. A cursory summary of gross bone fractures are
presented:
• Longitudinal-Fracture lines that run down the long axis of a bone shaft. These fractures usually will run
with the "grain" of the bone, although longitudinal fractures can also take a somewhat helical path down the
long axis of the bone.
• Step--Fractures that extend from the margin of the longitudinal fracture transversely across the bone shaft
through the compact bone.
• Transverse--Very similar to step fractures, but entire bone shaft is not broken at any given point. Like
step fractures, transverse usually extend from longitudinal fractures.
• Patina--This fracture type affects the outer layers of cortical bone, and has a cracked appearance. Patina
also appears on epiphysial ends and cranial bones.
• Splintering and Delamination--Characterized by the delamination or splintering away of bone layers. For
example, the separation of cortical bone from spongy bone, separation of the inner and outer tables of
cranial bones.
• Curved transverse--Typically (but not always) appear grouped linearly down the long axis of a bone shaft.
These fractures are strongly associated with fleshed cremations. The bone heats, then cracks as protective
soft tissue and periostium shrinks and burns off the bone (thus also called soft tissue shrinkage lines).
• Burn line fractures: --These fractures follow the burn exposure line, seen clearly in reconstruction: burned
bone followed anatomically by a fracture, followed by unburned bone.

While quick to classify features of fractures, anthropologists often fail to recognize the order and placement
of these fractures. These patterns lend insight into the sequencing of destruction. Through close
examination of bodies in all stages of burning, pathologists and anthropologists are able to chart the thermal
fractures and their exact location. This research indicates that bodies allowed to achieve the pugilistic
position initially burn in predictable patters that are easily charted. For example, the appearance of
longitudinal fractures in the proximal radius are a reoccurring phenomenon and quite predictable.
Longitudinal fractures have long thought to be a primary feature of bone destruction (see Mayne 1990).
However, new research has shown that they can often be secondary to fractures that form as a function of
soft tissue shrinkage, i.e. curved transverse fractures. Stress fractures can also predictably occur in heat-
compromised bone. Using the distal radius as an example, fractures are often found immediately proximal
to the epiphyses on the anterior surface the when forearm muscles contract in heat, stressing a bone that has
already been heat compromised on the posterior surface.

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 10

Patterning is revealed through thermal tracking. Tracking heat destruction requires an understanding of
fracture types and color gradients. Many of these features, when considering shape and location of bone,
are instrumental for reconstruction of thermal destruction. For example, the classic thumbnail fracture is
indicative of the direction of destruction. Its presence allows the researcher to actually trace the thermal
fracture pattern along the shaft of a bone.

Color changes in burned bone (Burn Figure 1) have been described in four stages (Symes et al 1999).
• Unaltered fresh bone (normal bone color) Protected by soft tissue insulation.
• Heat line (white line or translucent bone) Initial line of contact and heat destruction to bone.
• Heat border (brown to white band of variable width) Location where organic material (collagen) is
permanently altered and destroyed by heat, which distinguishes it from green bone. This feature follows
contours of the preceding heat line.
• Charred (black) Advanced stage of burning. Bone is thought to be directly in contact with fire and heat,
hence the color resulting from a reduction atmosphere. Complete loss of organic material and moisture,
which compromises the bone structure, resulting in tensile shrinkage fractures that run both parallel and
perpendicular to the heat border.
• Calcined (gray to white) Post-organic destruction and modification of bone mineral content
(crystallization of hydroxyapatite in bone). Structures exhibit deformation and distortion along with heat-
induced fractures and shrinkage.

Finally, cognizant awareness of thermal fracture pattern characteristics assists the researcher with
occasional unexplained fractures. When a radiating fracture can be demonstrated to 1) follow the path of
least resistance (e.g. parallel to the grain the long bone or between areas of buttressing in the skull), 2) can
be traced back to an area of thermal destruction, and 3) can be shown to initially affect external bone, the
probability that it is related to thermal trauma is increased.

This research demonstrates the predictable patterning of thermal destruction to the human skeleton. Even
though these patterns are heavily dependent upon muscle shrinkage, body morphology, and body
positioning, their recognition allows the investigator to separate heat related fractures from those produced
by other forces.

Exerpts from:
Steven A. Symes, O. C. Smith, Hugh E. Berryman, and Elayne J. Pope
1999 Patterned Thermal Destruction of Human Remains. Paper to be presented to the “Advances in
Personal Identification in Mass Disasters.” Conference sponsored by the Central Identification
Laboratory, Hawaii and Smithsonian Institution, November 17, 1999.

See also:
O. C. Smith, MD, Steven A. Symes, PhD, Elayne J. Pope, MA, Cynthia Gardner MD
2001 Burning Observations I: Identification of Normal Human
Anatomical Patterns in a Thermal Event. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic
Sciences 7:214.

Mayne, Pamela M.
1997 Fire Modification of Bone: A review of the literature. In Forensic Taphonomy: The Post-Mortem
Fate of Human Remains. W. Haglund and M. Sorg, eds., CRC Press, New York.

Symes, Steven A., PhD, Elayne J. Pope, MA, O. C. Smith, MD, Cynthia D. Gardner, MD, Lauren A.
Zephro, MA
2001 Burning Observations III: Analysis of Fracture Patterns in Burned Human Remains
Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences 7:278.

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 11

 Burned Figure 1.

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 12

 HEALING BONE TRAUMA

Steven A. Symes, PhD

See Healing Figure 1.

Healing of bones is commonly described in phases: Inflammatory, Reparative, and Remodeling Phases
(Ogden 1984). It is important to recognize these stages and understand that there are many variables
affecting these sequential phases of bone trauma healing, i.e. Location of the fracture on the bone, which
bone is fractured, age and sex of the individual, etc.

Inflammatory Phase Healing involves both resorption of the fracture line and deposition of initial
external callus. The callus is formed from woven bone mineralized from blood clots.
Reparative Phase Healing involves cellular organization. Circumferential tissues serve as a base for
reparative cells to attempt stabilizing repair (see Histology Figure).
-Children can form a reparative callus in 10 to 14 days, consisting of primarily woven bone.
-Clinical union occurs in this phase when the bone is stable with no pain during manipulation.
Eventual bridging of the bone fragments is accomplished by the internal callus.
Remodeling Phase Healing is the slowest of the healing phases and involves the eventual remodeling of
unorganized bone into organized cortical bone according to predominant stress patterns (see Histology
Figure).

Influences On Healing Time:

Age is the most important factor (in my opinion) in determining the rate of healing in bone,
especially during childhood. This is closely related to the osteogenic activity of the periostium
and endosteum, a process that is remarkably active at birth, becomes progressively less active with
each year of childhood, and remains relatively constant from early adult life to old age.

Fractures of the shaft of the femur serve as an example of this phenomenon. A femoral shaft fracture
occurring at:

Birth will be united in 3 weeks;

A comparable fracture at the age of 8 years will be united in 8 weeks;
At the age of 12 years it will be united at 12 weeks;
And from the age of 20 years to old age: will be united in approx. 20 weeks.

Bibliography:
Ham, Arthur W.
1974 Histology . J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia.

Harkess, James W., William C. Ramsey, and James W. Harkess

1991 Principles of fractures and dislocations. In Fractures in Adults. Rockwood, C.A. Jr., David P.
Green, and R.W. Bucholz, (eds), J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia.

Moritz, A. R.
1954 The Pathology of Trauma. Second Edition, Lea and Febiger, Philadelphia.

Ogden, John A.
1984 The uniqueness of growing bone. In Fractures In Children . Rockwood, C.A. Jr., K.E. Wilkins
and R.E. King, eds., Vol. 3., J.B. Lippincott Co., Philadelphia.

Salter, R.
1980, Birth and Pediatric Fractures. IN Fracture Treatment and Healing. R. B. Heppenstall ed. W. B.
Saunders Co., Philadelphia, PA, P. 190.

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 13

 Healing Figure 1.

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 14

 . . . [What is the Future of Forensic Anthropology? Continued from Page 1]

The 21st Century

With increased media attention combined with public support of victim’s and human rights, the opportunity
has arrived for forensic anthropologists to demonstrate new areas of applied research in skeletal biology
and human variation. This research can potentially educate the masses while demonstrating the utility of
anthropology to other forensic scientists. Flooding the field with forensic anthropologists can only result in
a flooded market. Educating the scientific community with innovative techniques and applicable research
topics can result in an awareness that will eventually enlist anthropologists as partners in death
investigations.

Forensic anthropology has burst onto the scene with innovative areas of research that will identify this
discipline as an essential part of death investigation. Three promising areas of research include
accumulation of a (1) modern forensic data bank and its analysis using FORDISC (Jantz 1999; Jantz 2000;
Moore-Jansen et al. 1994). This research constitutes the ‘modern’ population data and evolutionary theory
for this applied area of anthropology. The second area of research is the (2)application of human skeletal
taphonomy to crime scene and laboratory investigations taphonomy (see Haglund and Sorg 1997, 2002;
Nawrocki 1995). This is the practical aspect of the field that not only contributes to death investigation, but
it also brings the anthropologist to the field and offers incredible teaching potential to students, whether it
be a single decomposed body in the woods, or a disaster of the magnitude of the twin towers. The third
area to be discussed here is the (3)examination of trauma, in the form of biomechanics of bone fracture and
tool mark analysis in bone material (Berryman et al. 1991; Smith et al. 1991; Symes et al. 1991; Symes et
al. 1996; also see Galloway 2000; Reichs 1998).

Bone Trauma
Recognition, examination, and interpretation of trauma in modern human remains is an area of expertise
that potentially makes anthropologists invaluable to medical examiners, coroners and the judicial system.
With advanced training in sharp, blunt, ballistic, burned and healing trauma, anthropologists can
demonstrate that bone trauma is a “Moment Frozen in Time,” consistently contributing not only to the
investigation of human bone scatters, but also to the examination of the freshly dead. This new approach
will witness anthropologists not only examining, but removing, analyzing, and retaining as evidence,
trauma that aids in the interpretation of criminal behavior, and data admissible in a court of law.

Armed with a knowledge of human variation and an understanding of how that variation can be expressed
in modern humans, forensic anthropologists are quickly adapting new tools for use in the examination of
human remains. The new forensic anthropology innovations should allow the victim’s story to be told like
never before.

Bibliography

Berryman, Hugh E., Steven A. Symes, O. C. Smith, and S. J. Moore

1991 Bone Fracture II: Gross Examination of Fractures. Paper presented to the 43rd Annual Meeting of
the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Anaheim, CA.

Galloway, A.
1999 Broken Bones. C. C. Thomas.

Haglund, W. D. and M. H. Sorg

1997 Forensic Taphonomy: The Postmortem Fate of Human Remains. CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton.

Haglund, William D., and Marcella H. Sorg

2002 Advances in Forensic Taphonomy: Method, Theory and Archaeological perspectives. CRC Press,
Inc., Boca Raton.

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 15

Jantz, R.
1999 Secular change and ancestry estimation. Paper presented to the 30th Anniversary Edition of the T.
D. Stewart Personal Identification in Mass Disasters. Sponsored by the Central Identification
Laboratory, Hawaii and the Smithsonian Institution, Washington DC.

Jantz, R.
2000 Cranial change in Americans 1850-1975. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic
Sciences 6:227.

Krogman, Wilton Marion

1939 A guide to the identification of human skeletal material. FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin 8(8): 531.

Moore-Jansen, P., Ousley, S. and Jantz, R.

1994 Data Collection Procedure for Forensic Skeletal Material Report Investigations no. 48 The
University of Tennessee, Knoxville Department of Anthropology. Third edition.

Nawrocki, S.
1995 Taphonomy processes in Historic Cemeteries. In Bodies of Evidence. A. Grauer, ed., pp. 49-66.
John Wiley & Sons.

Reichs, Kathleen J.
1998 Forensic Osteology II. C.C. Thomas, Springfield, IL.

Smith, O. C., H. E. Berryman and S. A. Symes

1990 Changing role for the forensic anthropologist. Paper presented to the 42nd Annual Meeting of the
American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Cincinnati, OH.

Smith, O. C., Hugh E. Berryman, Steven A. Symes, and S. J. Moore,

1991 Bone Fracture I: The Physics of Fractures. Paper presented to the 43rd Annual Meeting of the
American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Anaheim, CA.

Stewart, Thomas Dale

1979 Essentials of Forensic Anthropology. CC Thomas, Springfield, Illinois.

Symes, S. A., and O. C. Smith

1998 It takes two: Combining disciplines of pathology and physical anthropology to get the rest of the
story. Proceedings of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences 4:208.

Symes, Steven A., O. C. Smith, Hugh E. Berryman, and S. J. Moore

1991 Bone Fracture III: Microscopic Fracture Analysis of Bone. Paper presented to the 43rd Annual
Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Anaheim, CA.

Symes, S. A., O. C. Smith, H. E. Berryman, C.E. Peters, L. A. Rockhold, S. J. Haun, J. T. Francisco, and T.
P. Sutton
1996 Bones: Bullets, Burns, Bludgeons, Blunderers, And Why. Bone Trauma Workshop presented to
the 48th Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Forensic Sciences, Nashville, TN.

Symes, Steven A., John A. Williams, Elizabeth A. Murray, J. Michael Hoffman, Thomas D. Holland, Julie
Saul, Frank Saul, and Elayne J. Pope
2000 Taphonomical Context of Sharp Trauma in Suspected Cases of Human Mutilation and
Dismemberment. In Advances in Forensic Taphonomy: Method, Theory and Archaeological
perspectives. William D. Haglund and Marcella H. Sorg, Eds, CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton.

SASymes Bone Trauma Page 16