Personality and Individual Differences 105 (2017) 312–317

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Personality and Individual Differences

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/paid

Will materialism lead to happiness? A longitudinal analysis of the

mediating role of psychological needs satisfaction
Rong Wang a,c,1, Hongyun Liu a,b,1, Jiang Jiang a,b,⁎, Yue Song a
a
School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
b
Beijing Key Laboratory of Applied Experimental Psychology, School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, Beijing, China
c
College of Management, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, China

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Materialism represents the importance of possessions in one's life. While high materialism ones keep seeking
Received 18 July 2016 happiness from external goals such as money, status, and appearance, self-determination theory (SDT) suggests
Received in revised form 6 October 2016 that basic psychological needs for autonomy, competence, and relatedness should be satisfied in order to expe-
Accepted 8 October 2016
rience well-being. However, materialism, as a type of extrinsic motivation, may forestall the fulfillment of psy-
Available online 14 October 2016
chological needs, and then undermine personal well-being. Drawing on the view of SDT, we conducted a
Keywords:
longitudinal study to test how materialism indirectly influences subjective well-being (SWB) and depression
Materialism via psychological needs satisfaction. Data was collected from Chinese students in three waves (with 6 and
Subjective well-being 12 months in between, respectively), and a total of 565 participants completed all of the three surveys. Using
Depression structural equation modeling, the cross-lagged model revealed that psychological needs satisfaction fully medi-
Psychological needs satisfaction ated the effects of materialism on SWB and depression. Specifically, materialism impairs individuals' psycholog-
ical needs satisfaction, and in turn decreases SWB and increases depression.
© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Well-being is becoming a popular policy concern in not only eco-

With increasing economic development, we are exposed to mass
messages in our daily life telling that money, possessions, status, and
image are important. That is why in recent decades, materialism has
emerged as a topic of great interest among philosophers, religious
leaders, and economists, as well as researchers; it was even identified
as one of the basic human characteristics together with greed, avarice,
and financial self-interest (Kasser, 2016).
Materialism is related to a set of centrally held beliefs about the im-
portance of possessions in one's life (Richins and Dawson, 1992, p. 308),
and/or goals to obtain external approval and rewards such as financial
success, social recognition, and an appealing image that are frequently
expressed via money and possessions (Kasser and Ryan, 1993, 1996).
Previous studies have shown clearly that materialism brings many
problematic outcomes: it is detrimental for individuals' financial and
consumption behaviors (Dittmar, Long, and Bond, 2007), interpersonal
relationships (Pieters, 2013), work and educational motivations (Ku,
Dittmar, and Banerjee, 2012), and also personal well-being (Jiang,
Song, Ke, Wang, and Liu, 2016).
⁎ Corresponding author at: School of Psychology, Beijing Normal University, No.19
Xinjiekouwai Street, Haidian District, Beijing 100875, China.
E-mail addresses: wangrong815@szu.edu.cn (R. Wang), hyliu@bnu.edu.cn (H. Liu),
jjiang@bnu.edu.cn (J. Jiang), songyue0925@gmail.com (Y. Song).
1
Author note: Rong Wang and Hongyun Liu have the equal contribution to this paper.
nomically developed but also developing countries. For instance, since
the economic reforms began, China has launched a series of welfare re-
forms related to citizens' well-being (Chan, Ngok, and Phillips, 2008).
Moreover, throughout the world, people are granting increasing impor-
tance to subjective well-being (SWB). SWB, referring to both people's
affective and cognitive evaluations of their lives, is sometimes labeled
as “happiness” (Diener, 2000). Diener (2000) indicated that even in so-
cieties that are not fully westernized, participants considered SWB to be
very important and thought about it frequently.
According to Richins and Dawson (1992), highly materialistic indi-
viduals have a tendency to consider money and possessions as the cen-
ter of success and life, and the source of happiness. That is to say, they
are likely to treat possessions as one of the channels to pursue well-
being, since money enables them to live in desirable ways (Richards,
2016). Interestingly, there is considerable research evidence indicating
that materialistic ones may suffer from a lack of happiness due to
over-concern with possessions (Jiang et al., 2016). Materialistic orienta-
tion is even postulated to necessarily be associated with materialistic
depression (Azibo, 2013).
Self-determination theory (SDT) provides one possible explanation
for the negative effect of materialism on well-being from the perspec-
tive of needs. In SDT, needs specify “innate psychological nutriments
that are essential for ongoing psychological growth, integrity, and
well-being” (Deci and Ryan, 2000, p. 229). SDT maintains that autono-
my, competence, and relatedness are three basic psychological needs:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2016.10.014
0191-8869/© 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 R. Wang et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 105 (2017) 312–317
autonomy involves perceiving that activities are endorsed by or congru-
ent with one's integrated sense of self; competence is fulfilled when de-
sired effects and outcomes are obtained successfully; and relatedness
pertains to belongingness and closeness with others and the environ-
ment (Deci and Ryan, 2014; Reis, Sheldon, Gable, Roscoe, and Ryan,
2000). Basic psychological needs facilitate well-being and they deter-
mine to some extent whether people will display mental health or ex-
perience happiness (Deci and Ryan, 2000). When people place priority
on financial success, popularity, appearance, and other extrinsic motiva-
tions, they are likely to ignore the inherent satisfaction of basic psycho-
logical needs, leading to a decrease in well-being and an increase in
psychological problems (Vansteenkiste et al., 2007).
The negative association between materialism and well-being, as
well as the mediating role of psychological needs satisfaction served in
their relation have been proposed by previous researchers (Dittmar,
Bond, Hurst, and Kasser, 2014). However, the empirical evidence is rel-
atively limited, or, initial studies simply relied on cross-sectional data
(Chen, Yao, and Yan, 2014; Tsang, Carpenter, Roberts, Frisch, and
Carlisle, 2014). Mediation is a causal chain involving at least two causal
relations. When inferences about causality are derived from cross-sec-
tional data, they are often fallacious (Cole and Maxwell, 2003). It is dif-
ficult to tell whether the emphasis on materialistic values/goals impairs
psychological needs satisfaction, or the thwarted needs satisfaction mo-
tivates focal persons to pursue materialism. For example, researchers
have found that enhancing interpersonal security can reduce valuing
possessions (Clark et al., 2011). Therefore, it is believed that in the
area of materialism, improvements in study designs are warranted
(Kasser, 2016): longitudinal studies will make contributions to
uncovering the causal relations between materialism and well-being
outcomes, and their underlying mechanisms.
By employing a three-wave longitudinal design, the purpose of this
study aims at exploring how materialism links to personal well-being
via psychological needs satisfaction from the perspective of SDT. In-
spired by the results of Dittmar and colleagues' meta-analysis, we
chose one positive (i.e., SWB) and one negative (i.e., depression) indica-
tor to represent well-being (Dittmar et al., 2014). We expected that psy-
chological needs satisfaction would mediate relations between
materialism and both SWB and depression. Specifically, when people
prioritize materialistic values/goals, they will experience relatively low
satisfaction of basic psychological needs. Then, they will hold low levels
of SWB and high levels of depression.
2. Method
2.1. Participants and procedure
Our participants were undergraduate students from a university in
Eastern China. A three-wave cross-lagged design was used, and the
sample size of each wave was 908 in Wave 1 (392 males, 488 females,
28 unspecified; Mage = 19.42 years, SDage = 1.08 years); 657 in Wave
2 (262 males, 395 females; Mage = 19.91 years, SDage = 1.04 years);
and 680 in Wave 3 (256 males, 424 females; Mage = 20.79 years,
SDage = 1.04 years). In total, 565 students (204 males, 361 females)
ranging in age from 17 to 23 years (M = 19.34 years, SD =
1.06 years) completed all of the three waves. Compared with the first
wave, the response rate of this study was 62.22%. The distribution of
participants' yearly family income was shown as follows: b 3000 RMB
(2.1%); 3001 to 6000 RMB (5.0%); 6001 to 10,000 RMB (12.4%);
10,001 to 30,000 RMB (24.8%); 30,001 to 50,000 RMB (21.5%); 50,001
to 100,000 RMB (16.7%); 100,001 to 150,000 RMB (6.8%); 150,001 to
200,000 RMB (2.6%); N200,001 RMB (2.0%); and missing value (6.1%).
In each wave, participants were required to complete all the scales to
measure the target variables, and to provide their demographic infor-
mation. The interval between Wave 1 and Wave 2 was 6 months, and
between Wave 2 and Wave 3 was 12 months. We did not explain the
purpose of this study to participants until the survey of Wave 3 was
313
collected. After finishing each survey, participants received a gift
(costs around 5 RMB) as a token of appreciation.
2.2. Measures
2.2.1. Materialism
Materialism was measured by the Material Values Scale (Richins and
Dawson, 1992), which includes 18 items belonging to three dimensions
(success, centrality, and happiness). Participants rated all the items on a
five-point scale from 1 “strongly disagree” to 5 “strongly agree.” Example
item is “Some of the most important achievements in life include ac-
quiring material possessions”. Higher scores indicate higher levels of
materialism. The Cronbach's α coefficients were 0.69 for Wave 1, 0.73
for Wave 2, and 0.75 for Wave 3.
2.2.2. Psychological needs satisfaction
Basic Need Satisfaction in Relationships Scale (BNS) (La Guardia,
Ryan, Couchman, and Deci, 2000) was used. It has 9 items and three
subscales, that is, autonomy, competence, and relatedness, based on a
seven-point scale ranging from 1 “completely contradictory to reality”
to 7 “completely conforms to reality.” Example item includes “I feel free
to be whom I am”. An overall score of need fulfillment was obtained
by averaging all of the nine items. Higher scores represent higher levels
of satisfaction of psychological needs. In the current sample, the
Cronbach's α coefficients of the whole scale were 0.81 for Wave 1,
0.80 for Wave 2, and 0.80 for Wave 3.
2.2.3. Subjective well-being
Following previous research (e.g., Hayes and Joseph, 2003), SWB
was measured by the 5-item Satisfaction with Life Scale (SWLS)
(Diener, Emmons, Larsen, and Griffin, 1985). Participants indicated
their agreement about each item on a scale from 1 “strongly disagree”
to 7 “strongly agree.” Higher scores show higher levels of life satisfaction.
An example item from this scale is “In most ways my life is close to my
ideal.” The SWLS is a trait-like measure yielding desirable psychometric
properties (Diener et al., 1985). In this sample, the Cronbach's α coeffi-
cients of SWLS were 0.79 for Wave 1, 0.83 for Wave 2, and 0.86 for Wave
3.
2.2.4. Depression
The short form of Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale
(CES-D) (Cole, Rabin, Smith, and Kaufman, 2004) was employed. It in-
cludes 10 items such as “I felt fearful”, which belong to 4 dimensions.
Participants indicated how often they had felt these ways during the
past week on a three-point scale anchored from 0 “rarely or none of
the time (less than 1 day)” to 3 “most or all of the time (5–7 days).” Higher
scores indicate higher levels of depression. In this sample, the
Cronbach's α coefficients were 0.74 for Wave 1, 0.74 for Wave 2, and
0.80 for Wave 3.
3. Results
Missing data (e.g., wave nonresponse), as a part of longitudinal data
set, should be accounted for in data analysis in order to draw valid con-
clusions. Moreover, we found the significant gender (χ2 = 45.51, df = 1,
p b 0.001) and age differences (Age Time 1: t = −3.61, p b 0.001; Age
Time 2: t = − 2.78, p b 0.001; Age Time 3: t = − 2.94, p b 0.001) be-
tween participants who dropped out and participants who continued
in the study, showing our data were not randomly missing. Therefore,
the Full Information Maximum Likelihood (FIML) estimation approach
was employed to deal with missing data (Little and Rubin, 2002;
Muthén, Kaplan, and Hollis, 1987). FIML replaces missing data with
probable values by using the linear relationship between the variable
with missing data and other variables in the model. Compared with
other techniques such as listwise deletion, pairwise deletion, and
314 R. Wang et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 105 (2017) 312–317

similar response pattern imputation, FIML estimates have shown to be Table 2

unbiased and more efficient (for details, see Enders and Bandalos, Results for analyses of invariance.

2001). Factor and model χ2 df Δχ2 Δdf RMSEA CFI TLI SRMR

Materialism
3.1. Descriptive analyses Model la: Equal form 18.17 15 0.02 1.00 1.00 0.02
Model lb: Equal factor 24.73 21 6.56 6 0.01 1.00 1.00 0.04
loading
Table 1 shows the means, standard deviations, and inter-correla- Psychological needs
tions of the measured variables. At each time point, materialism was satisfaction
negatively related to psychological needs satisfaction (Time 1: Model 2a: Equal form 67.80 16 0.06 0.98 0.96 0.03
Model 2b: Equal factor 72.70 22 4.90 6 0.05 0.98 0.97 0.05
r = − 0.30, p b 0.001; Time 2: r = − 0.28, p b 0.001; Time 3:
loading
r = −0.24, p b 0.001), and subjective well-being (Time 1: r = −0.27, Depression
p b 0.001; Time 2: r = − 0.25, p b 0.001; Time 3: r = − 0.28, Model 4a: Equal form 146.26 39 0.06 0.98 0.96 0.04
p b 0.001), but it was positively related to depression (Time 1: r = Model 4b: Equal factor 178.72 47 32.46 8 0.06 0.97 0.96 0.04
0.27, p b 0.001; Time 2: r = 0.27, p b 0.001; Time 3: r = 0.25, loading

p b 0.001). Moreover, psychological needs satisfaction was found to be
positively correlated with subjective well-being (Time 1: r = 0.33,
p b 0.001; Time 2: r = 0.33, p b 0.001; Time 3: r = 0.43, p b 0.001),
and negatively correlated with depression (Time 1: r = − 0.61,
p b 0.001; Time 2: r = −0.62, p b 0.001; Time 3: r = −0.68, p b 0.001).
3.2. Testing for mediation (cross-lagged longitudinal mediation model)
Considering that materialism, psychological needs satisfaction and
depression are multi-dimensional variables, we tested the longitudinal
invariance prior to examining the hypotheses (see Table 2). Specifically,
for each of aforementioned variables, two sets of models (i.e., Models -a
and Models -b) were built. In Models -a, the structure of construct was
the same in three waves; in Models -b, factor loadings were constrained
to be equal across three waves. The chi-square tests were employed to
compare Models -a and Models -b. For materialism and psychological
needs satisfaction, the results were statistically insignificant at the
0.05 level, and for depression, the result was statistically insignificant
at the 0.01 level, suggesting invariance of factor loadings. Furthermore,
all the other model fit indices also keeps consistent across times,
supporting the longitudinal invariance.
Next, based on the recommendations from Cole and Maxwell
(2003), and Selig and Preacher (2009), we used structural equation
modeling (SEM) to examine whether psychological needs satisfaction
mediated the effects of materialism on subjective well-being and de-
pression. Fig. 1 illustrates the cross-lagged panel models (CLPM) tested
in the current study. Materialism, psychological needs satisfaction and
depression were treated as latent variables. For each variable, the resid-
uals over time were allowed to be correlated with each other.
The time-specific indirect effects from Materialism Time 1 to SWB/
Depression Time 3, namely, the product of the path from Materialism
Note. RMSEA = Root-Mean-Square Error of Approximation; CFI = Comparative Fit Index;
TLI = Tucker-Lewis Index; SRMR = Standardized Root-Mean-Square Residual.
Time 1 to Psychological Needs Satisfaction Time 2 and the path from
Psychological Needs Satisfaction Time 2 to SWB/Depression Time 3,
were examined. It is worth mentioning that CLPM should contain differ-
ent types of indirect effects depending on the number of waves of mea-
surement, and the total indirect effect (i.e., the sum of all time-specific
indirect effects) together with time-specific indirect effects should be
reported. A three-wave longitudinal design was employed in this re-
search, so there was only one type of time-specific indirect effect.
As shown in Table 3, the fit indices of the two models were satisfy-
ing. The indirect effects were significant in both Model 1 (indirect ef-
fect = − 0.05, SE = 0.02, p b 0.05) and Model 2 (indirect effect =
0.06, SE = 0.03, p b 0.05). Moreover, as shown in Fig. 2a and b, the direct
effect from Materialism Time 1 to SWB Time 3 was −0.09 (SE = 0.13,
p N 0.05), and from Materialism Time 1 to Depression Time 3 was
−0.02 (SE = 0.05, p N 0.05). All the above findings supported that psy-
chological needs satisfaction fully mediated the relations between ma-
terialism and SWB, and between materialism and depression.
4. Discussion
Some articles have hypothesized that the satisfaction of basic psy-
chological needs is a mediational variable that may explain the inverse
relationship between materialism and well-being (Diener and
Biswas-Diener, 2002; Dittmar et al., 2014; Kasser and Ahuvia, 2002).
However, this potential explanation has been supported by few longitu-
dinal studies. In the present study, we employed a three-wave longitu-
dinal design to clarify the causal relations among materialism,

Table 1
Descriptive statistics and variable inter-correlations.

Variable 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

1 T1 Materialism
2 T1 SWB −0.27
3 T1 PNS −0.30 0.33
4 T1 Depression 0.27 −0.36 −0.61
5 T2 Materialism 0.65 −0.19 −0.26 0.20
6 T2 SWB −0.19 0.55 0.24 −0.27 −0.25
7 T2 PNS −0.21 0.26 0.56 −0.43 −0.28 0.33
8 T2 Depression 0.21 −0.29 −0.43 0.56 0.27 −0.38 −0.62
9 T3 Materialism 0.51 −0.23 −0.24 0.26 0.64 −0.22 −0.22 0.27
10 T3 SWB −0.19 0.53 0.26 −0.28 −0.15 0.60 0.27 −0.27 −0.28
11 T3 PNS −0.20 0.29 0.51 −0.40 −0.26 0.31 0.66 −0.48 −0.24 0.43
12 T3 Depression 0.18 −0.27 −0.36 0.47 0.18 −0.28 −0.46 0.52 0.25 −0.39 −0.68
M 2.81 3.86 4.94 0.87 2.86 4.00 4.96 0.85 2.88 4.05 4.91 0.88
SD 0.37 1.15 0.82 0.41 0.39 1.20 0.76 0.39 0.40 1.24 0.78 0.43

Note. All correlation coefficients are significant at the 0.001 probability level.
T1 = Time 1; T2 = Time 2; T3 = Time 3.
SWB = subjective well-being; PNS = psychological needs satisfaction.
 R. Wang et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 105 (2017) 312–317
Fig. 1. The cross-lagged model examined in the current study. Note. PNS = psychological needs satisfaction; SWB = subjective well-being. The product of the path from materialism at
Time 1 to psychological needs satisfaction at Time 2 and the path from psychological needs satisfaction at Time 2 to SWB/depression at Time 3 indicates the time specific indirect effect (i.e.,
the total indirect effect in three-wave longitudinal design).
psychological needs satisfaction, and personal well-being. In line with
our hypothesis, we found that materialism indirectly influenced SWB
and depression via psychological needs satisfaction.
Materialism is widely viewed as an important life value or goal
(Richins and Dawson, 1992). Values conflict theory posits that material-
ism falls within the cluster of self-enhancement values (e.g., achieve-
ment and power), and stands in relative conflict with collective-
oriented or self-transcendence values such as family, community, and
religiosity (Burroughs and Rindfleisch, 2002). By investigating a group
of undergraduates from fifteen cultures, Grouzet et al. (2005) have
also revealed that popularity, image, and financial success, are extrinsic
goals, opposite to community, affiliation, and self-acceptance goals.
According to SDT, autonomy, competence, and relatedness are es-
sential for the well-being of all individuals regardless of culture, and
they are more likely to be satisfied by the pursuit of intrinsic rather
than extrinsic goals (Deci and Ryan, 2000). When individuals place
too much priority and importance on materialism, there are two possi-
ble outcomes: intrinsic goals are deprioritized in order to avoid value
conflicts and incongruent cognitions that may lead to psychological ten-
sion; intrinsic goals are “crowded out” or ignored since attention has
been paid to popularity, image, and financial success (Burroughs and
Rindfleisch, 2002; Kasser, 2016).
Indeed, previous research has provided direct or indirect evidence
from different areas to show that materialism is tied closely to thwarted
psychological needs. For example, materialism may do harm to the ac-
tors' autonomous motives: materialistic children tend to learn to serve
performance goals rather than mastery goals (e.g., self-growth) (Ku,
Dittmar, and Banerjee, 2014). Competence is experienced when there
are opportunities to exercise and express one's capacities (Ryan and
La Guardia, 2000). However, Ku et al. (2012) found that earlier endorse-
ment of materialistic values predicted later deterioration of school per-
formance. Materialism is also associated with negative social attitudes
toward other people. It has been shown that materialism decreases
helping behaviors among youth volunteers (Briggs, Landry, and Wood,
2007), and materialism can even foster social isolation, increasing the
sense of loneliness (Pieters, 2013).
Table 3
Fit indices of structural models.
Model DV χ2 df CFI TLI
Model 1 Subjective well-being 601.48 269 0.93 0.92
Model 2 Depression 1340.35 534 0.90 0.90
Note. CFI = Comparative Fit Index; TLI = Tucker–Lewis Index; RMSEA = Root-Mean-
Square Error of Approximation.
315
Beyond cross sectional designs, longitudinal designs enable re-
searchers to examine mediation effects in a more rigorous manner
(Cole and Maxwell, 2003). Admittedly, until the present, there has
been only one longitudinal study exploring how materialism relates to
well-being via psychological needs satisfaction. Kasser et al. (2014) in
their Study 2 found that over a two-year period when participants be-
came less (or more) materialistic, they reported increased (or de-
creased) satisfaction of psychological needs, which fully accounted for
the reported increase (or decrease) in well-being. However, considering
their findings, our research still makes several contributions. First, longi-
tudinal data from three waves rather than two waves was collected in
the current study, since Collins, Graham, and Flaherty (1998) stated
that three waves were necessary to test mediation. Second, advanced
statistical techniques (i.e., SEM) were employed to test hypotheses in-
stead of regression. The SEM approach estimates everything at the
same time, while the causal-steps approach assumes independent
equations and does not provide a quantification of the indirect effect
(Zhao, Lynch, and Chen, 2010). Third, we recruited a larger sample
(565 vs. 147) and used different operationalizations of materialism
(Material Values Scale vs. Aspiration Index). More importantly, besides
SWB we also measured participants' levels of depression as one of the
indicators of personal well-being. Thus, this research helps to shed
light on the influence process through which materialism undermines
well-being, providing further evidence for the related assumptions of
SDT.
4.1. Limitations and future directions
The current study has some limitations that are worth mentioning.
Guided by SDT, we explored the process of influence from materialism
to well-being via psychological needs satisfaction. Other variables are
also likely to mediate such a relation (Christopher, Saliba, and
Deadmarsh, 2009). For example, Sirgy (1998) has pointed out that ma-
terialism may result in lower financial satisfaction, and then lower fi-
nancial satisfaction will spill over into satisfaction with other life
domains, leading to diminished well-being. Therefore, further research
is encouraged to delineate how materialism undermines personal
well-being according to different theoretical frameworks.
In terms of psychological needs satisfaction, to simplify the model
and analytical process, we aggregated and averaged all the scale items
RMSEA to obtain an overall score of need fulfillment. Future researchers can at-
0.04 tempt to examine the relative contributions of autonomy, competence,
0.05 and relatedness. Moreover, SWB and depression were chosen as two in-
dicators of well-being in this research. It would also be interesting to
take eudaimonic well-being (i.e., the pursuit of pleasure and the
316 R. Wang et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 105 (2017) 312–317

Fig. 2. a. The longitudinal mediation model of materialism, psychological needs satisfaction and subjective well-being. Note. PNS = psychological needs satisfaction; SWB = subjective
well-being. The unstandardized coefficients were reported; numbers shown in parentheses are standard errors (SE). Materialism, PNS and Depression were treated as latent variables.
**p b 0.01; ***p b 0.001. b. The longitudinal mediation model of materialism, psychological needs satisfaction and depression. Note. PNS = psychological needs satisfaction. The
unstandardized coefficients were reported; numbers shown in parentheses are standard errors (SE). Materialism, PNS and Depression were treated as latent variables. *p b 0.05;
**p b 0.01; ***p b 0.001.

satisfaction of desires) and indexes of social well-being (e.g., preference
for social involvement) into account to enrich the research model.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Social Science Foundation
of China (No. 13BSH055); and the National Natural Science Foundation
of China (No. 31571152).
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