From Chapter 1 (What is OB): (2 questions)

 Understand the history of OB

There are a number of significant stages in the development of organizational behavior. The
Hawthorne or observer effect, which states that changes in the workplace had less of an effect on
employee productivity than the simple fact that researchers were watching them, was highlighted
in the 1920s and 1930s by the Hawthorne experiments. The majority of OB research in the 1940s
was quantitative, concentrating on calculations like sales and profitability. The Carnegie School
placed a strong emphasis on the economic side of OB from the 1950s through the 1970s,
highlighting resource reliance and the firm's resource-based perspective. Since the 1980s, OB
research has centered its attention on individuals, highlighting the distinct perspectives, values,
attitudes, and personalities they possess as elements that affect the success of organizations.

 Understand RBV

According to the firm's Resource-Based View (RBV), resources are most valuable when they
help an organization maintain a competitive edge over rivals. It implies that in order to create a
competitive edge, resources must be uncommon, valued, and unique. Resources can come in
many different shapes, including monetary, material (like technology), technological, and
knowledge, skills, and abilities (KSAs) that individuals bring to the workplace. The RBV places
a strong emphasis on the value of each employee's distinctive talents and KSAs, which make
them stand out in the workplace. As a result, employees' traits and skills are important assets for
businesses.

 Understand the Rule of 1/8th

According to the Rule of 1/8th, only a small percentage of businesses genuinely feel that
successfully managing people (by using OB principles) and the success of the company are
related. Although about half of firms are aware of this link, barely half of them systematically
improve their people management. Furthermore, only 50% of those who implement systematic
changes stick with them long enough to see results. These probabilities (1/2 x 1/2 x 1/2) are
multiplied to give the anticipated 1/8th of organizations that genuinely believe in, put into
practice, and continue to use OB principles successfully.

 Understand the generalizability of OB

Due to the distinctive and complicated character of organizations, OB is aware that it cannot
make broad generalizations applicable to all organizations and people. Each organization is
unique and has its own internal complexities, as well as external market, influences that
continuously mold it. Common trends are outlined, personnel traits, attitudes, and behaviors are
mapped, and steady internal organizational dynamics and outside market elements are taken into
consideration by OB. Even though it doesn't give a flawless science of prediction, OB aims to
create reasonably accurate forecasts and provides insightful analyses of organizational behavior,
while also acknowledging that neither individuals nor organizations can be generalized in the
same way.
From Diversity: (5 questions)

 Understand the history of diversity in the workplace

With the advent of numerous legislation and programs, the history of diversity in the workplace
has undergone significant changes. The Equal Pay Act, passed in 1963, sought to lessen pay gaps
between men and women performing comparable positions inside the same firm. However, it
first placed more emphasis on the concept of equality than equity, which is a crucial distinction.
While equity considers individual needs and contributions, equality treats everyone equally
regardless of their needs. Knowing the distinction between the two can help explain why some
people still feel that the laws are unfair.

 Understand each law presented in the class lecture slides

Equal pay Act (1963): According to skill, effort, working conditions, and responsibility, this law
mandates equal compensation for men and women performing equivalent jobs inside the same
organization. At first, equality was prioritized over equity.

The 1964 Civil Rights Act's Title VII: forbids discrimination on the grounds of race, color,
religion, gender, and national origin. Over time, it has been expanded to cover additional grounds
like pregnancy, sexual orientation, and gender identity.

Executive Order 11246 (1965): This mandate affirmative action by government contractors to
end historical exclusionary and discriminatory practices, including existing injustices. It
encourages businesses to use affirmative action strategies to combat discrimination.

The Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA, 1967) prohibits discrimination in the
workplace against people 40 years of age and older. It attempts to safeguard senior workers from
age-based prejudice.

Pregnancy Discrimination Act (1978): This Title VII amendment forbids discrimination based on
pregnancy, childbirth, or conditions related to those during those times.

The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), which was passed in 1990, outlaws discrimination
against people with disabilities in all employment-related decisions and also covers
discrimination against customers or clients. This point was made clear by the Barnes v. Gorman
decision, which demonstrated that businesses must prevent discrimination against both
employees and customers.

 Understand the different types of diversity initiatives

Initiatives for diversity include:

Programs for affirmative action: Designed to lessen the consequences of past and/or present
discriminatory hiring practices, particularly by giving minorities opportunities. These initiatives,
which can be optional or required, have developed over time.
Diversity and differences are valued Programs: Aim to alter people's attitudes and behaviors by
emphasizing the development of understanding in interpersonal relationships. They emphasize
the worth of every person, particularly members of minority groups.

Focus on altering organizational processes to create a setting suitable for leveraging

heterogeneity when managing diversity programs. These initiatives operate at the organizational
level, improving systems' sensitivity to the needs of minorities and fostering a climate that values
diversity.

 Understand each type of discrimination

Interpersonal discrimination, which takes place between persons at the individual or

interpersonal level, occurs when people treat others unfairly based on their membership in a
group.

Discriminatory results can result from an organization's norms, rules, and practices, which is
referred to as organizational discrimination.

Institutional Discrimination: Occurs when societal institutions, such as the criminal justice or
educational systems, provide various results for certain populations.

Cultural Discrimination: Occurs at the cultural or social level when one cultural group
establishes what values are appropriate for others, rewards conformity, and penalizes those who
don't follow.

 Understand stereotypes, stereotype threats, and prejudice

Stereotypes are generalizations or cognitive biases about members of social groupings that
frequently reflect overly simplistic and exaggerated thoughts or imagery. While stereotypes are
frequently overblown and can promote prejudice and discrimination, they can also be realistic.

Stereotype Threat is the sensation of concern in circumstances when one might confirm a
misperception about one's social group. Individuals who are subjected to stereotype threats may
perform poorly, experience anxiety, divert their focus, or become overly cautious.

Prejudice (or Bias): Prejudice or bias is an attitude appraisal of persons based on their
membership in a certain group. It can be either explicit (conscious and under your control) or
implicit (occurring without your knowledge). Though more difficult to identify, implicit biases
can affect behavior and judgment.

From Chapter 2 (Job Performance): (1 question)

 Understand OCBs and CWBs (and their subforms)

Employees who display organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs), which go above and
beyond the formal employment requirements, do so voluntarily and at their choice. OCBs
provide valuable contributions to the company without receiving any direct compensation.
Helping coworkers, displaying sportsmanship, volunteering for extra work, and going above and
beyond expectations are a few examples of OCBs.

Counterproductive Work Behaviors (CWBs) are deliberate actions that obstruct the achievement
of organizational goals. CWBs might include behaviors like stealing, sabotage, substance
misuse, impoliteness, harassment, bullying, and social isolation. They have a negative effect on
the organization.

Subforms of OCBs and CWBs: There are various subforms of OCBs and CWBs. OCBs, for
instance, can be interpersonal, benefiting coworkers, or organizational, benefiting the entire
organization. Property deviance (damaging organizational assets), production deviance
(decreasing productivity), and interpersonal deviance (misrepresenting coworkers) are examples
of CWBs. These subforms represent the numerous citizenship behaviors and unproductive
behaviors that employees may display.

 Understand what a job analysis is and what the key elements are

Job analysis is the practice of compiling comprehensive data regarding a particular job inside a
company. It considers both the job's internal and external influences. Job analysis's essential
components are as follows:

Identifying and listing the tasks, responsibilities, duties, and other activities related to the
position. This should take into consideration the characteristics necessary for success, the nature
of the job, and any existing positions that are similar.

Each highlighted activity is given a score depending on how significant, frequent, and pertinent it
is to the accomplishment of the work. This makes it easier to decide which tasks are essential for
the work.

Retaining Critical Activities: The tasks that received the highest ratings in terms of significance
and applicability are included in the organization's performance standards.

From Chapter 4 (Job Satisfaction): (1 question)

 Understand the differences between moods and emotions

Moods:

Moods are modest emotional states that last a fair amount of time. They typically last for hours
or even days and are less intense and more widespread.

Moods are often of a modest intensity. They might be mildly favorable (pleasant) or mildly
unfavorable (unfavorable).
Cause: Moods are not directly related to or brought on by particular events. They can be
impacted by a range of events, and their causes are frequently obscure and ambiguous.

Facial Expressions: Because moods frequently lack distinctive facial expressions, it can be
challenging to tell someone's mood just by looking at them.

Emotions:

Emotions are stronger, more fleeting, and more focused feelings. They often have a clear target
and corresponding action and are typically triggered by a certain occurrence.

Compared to moods, emotions are often stronger and fleeting, lasting only a few seconds at
most.

Cause: A specific event or stimulus sets off an emotion, which is then followed by a particular
action or reaction.

Face: Different facial expressions are virtually usually linked to specific emotions. For instance,
common emotions with recognizable facial expressions are anger, disgust, fear, happiness,
sadness, and surprise.

Emotional contagion is a phenomenon whereby emotions are imitated or "caught" by others, and
it is illustrated by the chapter notes. Both micro-expressions (little facial expressions) and macro-
expressions (obvious facial expressions) are recognized and imitated subconsciously by
individuals. This idea emphasizes how strongly contagious emotions are and how they can
spread from one person to another, impacting the emotional climate at work or in social settings.

From Chapter 5 (Stress): (1 question)

 Understand the difference between stressors and strains

Stressors are the conditions or demands that serve as catalysts, elicit a sense of urgency, and
stress a person's capacity. These are the primary stressors that set off the stress reaction. Tight
deadlines, an excessive workload, role conflicts, unclear job requirements, and daily problems
that interfere with regular work activities can all be stressors in the workplace. Strains, on the
other hand, are the unfavorable effects or results of going under stressors. These can show
themselves in a variety of ways, including physical difficulties (elevated heart rate, tense
muscles), mental health issues (anxiety, depression), and behavioral disorders (binge eating, drug
usage). The effects of prolonged or intensive exposure to stresses on a person's performance,
general health, and well-being are known as strains.

 Understand the difference between hindrance and challenge stressors

Job demands that impede goal advancement or the accomplishment of personal and professional
objectives are known as hindrance stresses. Role conflicts, role uncertainty, role overload, and
daily inconveniences are a few examples. These pressures are frequently viewed as obstacles that
prevent success. At work, obstruction pressures can cause feelings of dissatisfaction and
inadequacy, which could have a detrimental impact on job performance. Contrarily, challenge
stressors are demanding that people see as chances for development, education, and success.
Time constraints, work intricacy, and a high level of responsibility are a few examples. Although
seen as hard, challenge stressors are seen as attainable and aid in human growth. Employees
frequently see stressors in the form of challenges as good since they might result in better work
output and personal development.

From Chapter 6 (Motivation): (2 questions)

 Understand each contemporary theory of motivation

Each of the modern theories of motivation covered in the presentation offers distinctive insights
into what motivates people to work hard and accomplish their goals at work. The importance of
fairness in distribution, procedure, interpersonal relationships, and information quality is
emphasized by equity theory. According to this argument, when injustices are felt, people may
change their inputs or outputs, distort their perceptions, select different referents, or even decide
to abandon their jobs. However, equity theory has drawbacks since people tend to disregard
equity when it benefits them. On the other side, expectation theory is based on the idea that effort
results in performance, which results in results. It emphasizes how feedback, work complexity,
and goal commitment, along with particular, difficult goals, encourage people to perform at their
best. This approach is supplemented by goal-setting theory, which contends that deliberate goal-
setting enhances task performance. Employees perform more intelligently and productively when
given specific, challenging goals with feedback mechanisms. Additionally, the presence of
psychological empowerment at work promotes intrinsic motivation by ensuring that work is
meaningful, autonomous, competent, and perceived as having an influence. Finally, behavior is
driven and reinforced through consequences according to the reinforcement theory. By using
classical conditioning, operant conditioning, or social learning, consequences can be used to
either encourage or dissuade particular behaviors.

 Understand the difference between classical and operant conditioning

The two primary associative learning methods of classical conditioning and operant conditioning
have different mechanisms and applications. The main focus of classical conditioning, as
demonstrated by Pavlov's studies with dogs, is the connection between a conditioned stimulus
and a conditioned response. The classic illustration is how, when combined with the introduction
of food (unconditioned stimulus), the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus) trained dogs to
salivate (conditioned response). Operant conditioning focuses on how behaviors are influenced
by the results that follow them, as shown by Skinner's research with mice. Here, the chance of a
behavior is increased or decreased by linking it to positive or negative reinforcement or
punishment. Opportunistic behavior operates on the environment in contrast to classical
conditioning, with the outcomes determining the behavior.
  Understand the different types of justice

In the context of equity theory, there are four categories of justice that people take into account
while assessing their situation. In order to determine whether the outcomes are equitable or just,
distributive justice considers the distribution of results. The fairness of the processes or
procedures used to decide outcomes is the subject of procedural justice. Interactional justice,
often known as interpersonal justice, is concerned with treating others fairly in social situations.
The fairness of the information received or given during the decision-making process is referred
to as informational justice. These diverse types of justice influence people's motivation and
responses to disparities as well as how they perceive fairness and equity in their working
environments.

From Chapter 9 (Personality and Values): (1 question)

 Understand the differences between the Big Five Taxonomy and the Myers
Briggs

Two different methods of comprehending and classifying personality exist in the Big Five
Taxonomy and the Myers-Briggs personality test. The Openness to Experience,
Conscientiousness, Extroversion, Agreeableness, and Neuroticism (commonly shortened as
OCEAN) scale is used by the Big Five Taxonomy to categorize people. Since each of these
characteristics is measured over a continuum, people can fall at different positions along the
spectrum for each characteristic, resulting in a distinctive profile. The Big Five is thorough and is
excellent at foretelling widespread actions in typical circumstances. It is valued as a useful tool
for evaluating personality because of its high test-retest reliability and favorable psychometric
features. The main difference is that the Big Five offers a complex profile rather than
categorizing individuals.

The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, on the other hand, divides people into one of 16 personality
types based on four preferences: extraversion versus introversion, sensing versus intuition,
thinking versus feeling, and judging versus perceiving. Contrary to the Big Five, Myers-Briggs
categorizes everyone into one of these 16 personality types without considering nuance.
Although the Myers-Briggs is uncomplicated and simple to grasp, its use in personnel selection
is debatable due to its limits and poor test-retest repeatability. The degree of categorization and
method used for gauging personality are what set the two apart.

 Understand the six dimensions of Hofstede's framework

The cultural values framework developed by Hofstede provides insightful information on

cultural differences and how they affect social behavior. It has six essential dimensions. High
power gap indicates comfort with large power inequality. Power distance assesses acceptance of
hierarchical power structures. The difference between individualism and collectivism can be seen
in how individualistic societies encourage individual aspirations and successes while prioritizing
collective interactions. Masculinity vs. Femininity evaluates whether societies emphasize
connections, sensitivity, and care for others (feminine) or power, riches, and material items
(masculine). Uncertainty With high uncertainty avoidance preferring structure and low
uncertainty avoidance being more receptive to change, avoidance examines how civilizations
deal with ambiguity. Short-term versus long-term The term "orientation" refers to a society's
perspective on time, where "long-term orientation" is concerned with the future and "short-term
orientation" is concerned with current survival. Indulgence vs. Restraint, which looks at attitudes
toward instant pleasure, contrasts societies that seek these experiences with ones that suppress
immediate needs. These factors aid in our comprehension of how cultural values affect behavior
in many circumstances, such as organizations and intercultural relationships.

From Chapter 8 (Part 1: Learning and Decision Making): (1 question)

 Understand programmed vs. unprogrammed decisions

Automatic, intuitive responses to situations are known as programmed decisions, and they rely
on the knowledge and experience of the person making them. Even while intuition is useful, it
works best in specific circumstances and should be combined with other types of knowledge for
sound decision-making. Non-programmed decisions necessitate thorough consideration and
assessment, particularly in challenging, novel circumstances. The rational decision-making
model considers all potential options in an effort to maximize outcomes. This approach,
however, makes the often-impossible assumptions of perfect information and decision-making.
Real-world decision-making is influenced by cognitive limits, incomplete information, and time
constraints, which causes people to look for solutions that will satisfy their requirements and
constraints. This is known as bounded rationality.

 Understand the rational decision making model vs. bounded rationality, as well
as how their steps differ

The rational decision-making model and constrained rationality are two opposing but
fundamentally different theories of how people make decisions in companies.

The rational decision-making model provides a methodical approach to decision-making, which

is sometimes portrayed as an idealized process. It assumes that people can recognize and
evaluate all potential options objectively, have access to complete and unbiased information, and
will select the option that has the most utility. This paradigm views decision-making as a rational
and objective process that is characterized by a careful analysis of all available possibilities and a
concentration on achieving the best results.

Bounded rationality, on the other hand, acknowledges the constraints that individuals encounter
in the real world while making judgments. Humans have limited cognitive abilities, information
is frequently inaccurate or prejudiced, and time pressures can be big problems. The idea of
"satisficing" is introduced by bounded rationality as a counterargument to the goal of
maximizing results. Instead of relentlessly pursuing perfection, satisficing means looking for
answers that are adequate and suitable for the situation at hand.

From Chapter 8 (Part 2: Learning and Decision Making):

 Nothing from Part 2 will show up on your exam

From Chapter 13 (Part 1: Power & Politics): (3 questions)

 Understand the five (six) bases of power

Formal and personal power are two categories for the six bases of power:

Coercive Power: This power stems from the capacity to punish or instill fear of unfavorable
outcomes. For instance, a manager with the authority to discipline or fire workers has coercive
power.

Reward Power: This power results from the capacity to offer incentives or rewards. One
illustration is a manager who can encourage workers by giving them pay hikes, incentives, or
promotions.

Legitimate power, which is often referred to as formal authority, comes from one's place in the
organizational hierarchy. For instance, a CEO of a firm has legal authority because of their
position of formal authority.

Expert Power: A person's knowledge, abilities, or competence determine their level of expertise.
A qualified professional or subject matter expert has expert power. An IT department's tech guru
would be an example.

Being admired, respected, or liked by others gives one the ability to refer to others. Referent
power is typically present in charismatic people. A well-liked team leader who has their
followers gladly following them is a classic example.

Informational Power: This contentious form of authority centers on the manipulation of certain
information. Informational power is possessed by those who hold exclusive, crucial information,
yet it can be transient because sharing the information weakens the power. The "Master of
Whispers" from Game of Thrones is a great example of informational power since his only real
power comes from the information and secrets he holds and leverages over other people.

 Understand when each influence tactic is more/less effective

Depending on the circumstance, influence tactic may be more or less successful:

Because they encourage internalization, which causes the target to match their views and
behaviors with the request, consultation, inspirational appeals, rational persuasion, and
collaboration are frequently quite effective. For instance, a project manager might persuade team
members by demonstrating how their efforts would help the business succeed. Apprising,
Legitimacy, Personal Appeals, and Ingratiation are somewhat successful because they typically
result in obedience. In order to comply, a target must agree to carry out the required action while
acting impassively. An illustration of this may be a worker who uses flattery (ingratiation) to get
the approval of their superior.

 Understand the difference between political behaviors and political perceptions

Political behaviors include actions taken by staff members to manipulate others for their own
benefit, such as rumor-mongering, information-withholding, or impression-managing. These
behaviors may be in line with the objectives of the group or organization, thus they are not
always bad.

Political perceptions, on the other hand, are arbitrary judgments made by workers regarding the
extent of self-serving behavior at their workplace. The sense of widespread self-serving activity
in the organization is indicated by high politics perceptions, whereas low politics perceptions
imply the lack of such behavior. Within the same organization, perceptions might differ
significantly between people.

 Understand each element of political skill

Political skills have many different facets, including social astuteness, interpersonal influence,
networking prowess, and apparent sincerity. A person with strong political skills can read and
adapt to the social context, successfully influence others, forge important connections, and keep
up an air of sincerity even when acting selfishly.

 Understand each type of impression management

Impression management refers to techniques for influencing how others see a person. There are
five: ingratiation (favors and flattery), self-promotion (gloating and grabbing the credit),
exemplification (looking devoted), supplication (faking incompetence), and intimidation (making
threats). Whether these strategies are tactical or strategic, forceful or defensive, and whether they
seek to create a short-term or long-term image, can all affect how effective they are.

From Chapter 13 (Part 2: Conflict & Negotiations): (1 question)

 Understand the difference between distributive and integrative bargaining

With distributive bargaining, negotiation is done in a competitive, lose-lose manner. This kind of
negotiation results in a zero-sum game where one party's gain equals the other party's loss
because the parties see the situation as a fixed pie. The emphasis is on allocating resources, and it
can be antagonistic, particularly when interests are directly at odds. The negotiation of pay
between an employer and employee, where they must concur on how to divide a set budget for
raises, is a classic example.

Contrarily, integrative bargaining is a cooperative strategy that benefits both parties. The parties
think that rather than just dividing the pie, there is space to add value. The focus is on locating
win-win solutions by discovering shared objectives and interests. This strategy calls for a
cooperative mindset and the readiness to consider original solutions. For instance, two businesses
may strive to combine resources and technologies to develop a new product that is advantageous
to both parties during a commercial partnership agreement.

 Understand the difference between functional and dysfunctional conflict

Within an organization, functional conflict has a positive function. It can increase problem-
solving, decision-making, and creativity. When opposing viewpoints and ideas collide and are
freely and constructively debated, this form of conflict frequently results. It provokes change,
encourages innovation, and advances progress. An illustration is a team's constructive
disagreement during a meeting that results in a more effective solution to a challenging issue.

On the other hand, dysfunctional conflict impairs organizational effectiveness and has
detrimental effects. Reduced productivity, increased stress, and a hostile workplace are all
possible outcomes. This kind of argument frequently results from personal grudges, poor
communication, or unresolved concerns. Dysfunctional conflict is a serious issue in businesses
since it inhibits collaboration and the culture of the entire firm.

From Chapter 15 (Organizational Structure): (2 questions)

 Understand the differences between a simple vs. bureaucratic organizational

structure

A bureaucratic organizational structure is very different from one that is simple in terms of both
design and traits. The lack of hierarchy in a simple structure makes it common in startups and
smaller businesses. Because there is little departmentalization in this organization, jobs are not
organized according to their duties or tasks. As a result, most employees in the company report
to a single manager or a small top management group. This structure places a high value on
adaptability, clarity, and accountability. On the other hand, larger and more established
organizations tend to have a bureaucratic structure. High specialization is evident, and jobs are
broken down into smaller parts. Complex departmentalization results from grouping these duties
based on their functions, goods, or services. Each employee in a bureaucratic organization has a
distinct supervisor, and there is a rigid chain of command. To ensure consistency and efficiency,
decision-making is centralized at the top of the hierarchy, and work is extensively formalized
and standardized.

 Understand elements 1-6 of organizational structure

Work Specialization (Division of Labor): Work specialization is the degree of task separation
within a job. It includes breaking complicated processes down into smaller, more focused steps
so that workers can become specialists in their respective professions. Although it increases
productivity, it may also result in a loss of autonomy and job happiness.

Departmentalization: For effective coordination, departments group occupations based on

functions, goods, geography, or other factors. This component makes sure that related tasks are
grouped together under one general heading, fostering collaboration and problem-solving.

Chain of Command: The chain of command identifies who reports to whom and serves as a
representation of the formal hierarchy within an organization. It helps maintain order and
responsibility by establishing clear lines of authority, although in contemporary companies, this
component may be less relevant due to evolving management practices.

The term "Span of Control" describes how many subordinates a manager can manage
successfully. A flatter organization with fewer levels of hierarchy as a result of a wider span of
control fosters more effective communication and decision-making.

Both centralization and decentralization give precision and control. Centralization includes
concentrating decision-making authority at the top of the organization. Decentralization, on the
other hand, gives decision-making power to lower-level managers, encouraging flexibility,
adaptation, and employee participation.

Formalization: The level of job standardization inside an organization is referred to as

formalization. Tasks are carried out consistently when formalization levels are high, which
leaves little possibility for employee autonomy. Greater discretion in job performance is possible
with low formalization.