Process Control Lab

BIOPROCESS CONTROL
LABORATORY
MANUAL

Name :………………………….

USN :…………………………....

Semester:

…………………………:

DEPARTMENT OF BIOTECHNOLOGY
PES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
BANGALORE

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Process Control Lab

CONTENTS:

SL. NO. EXPERIMENT NAME PAGE NO.

1 Single Tank System 03

2 Non-Interacting System 06

3 Interacting system 09

4 Flow Process Analyzer 12

5 Pressure Process Analyzer 14

6 Temperature process controller 15

7 Dynamic Method of Estimation of Gas Liquid Mass 17

Transfer coefficient

8 Wheel Flow Meter 22

9 Thermometer (time constant) 24

10 RTD Module Trainer 27

11 Pressure Measurement Trainer 30

12 Thermocouple Characteristic Trainer 33

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EXPERIMENT – 1
SINGLE TANK SYSTEM

AIM:
To study the dynamics and compare theoretical response with actual response for a step input to a
single tank system.

APPARATUS:
Setup and stop clock.

THEORY:
Consider a single tank of uniform cross sectional area ‘A’ to which is attached a flow resistance ‘R’ such
as a valve, a pipe or a weir. Assume that q0, the volumetric flow rate through the resistance, is related to
head ‘h’ by the relationship

A resistance that has this linear relationship between flow and head is referred to as a linear resistance.
If a time varying volumetric flow ‘q’ of liquid of density ‘ρ’ enter the tank, the transfer function that
relates head to the flow can be analyzed thus

Mass flow in – Mass flow out = Rate of accumulation of mass in the tank. i.e.

(1)

(2)
Initially the process is operating at steady state, which means that

(3)

(4)
Steady State material balance can be written as

(5)
Subtracting (4) from (5)

(6)

Defining the deviation variable

(7)
taking laplace transforms

(8)
On rearranging

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(9)

where τ = AR

R → conversion factor relating h (t) to q(t). It is also called as steady state gain or amplifying factor.

Therefore

Transform of Q (t) = u (t); where u(t) is the symbol for step change of magnitude M.

Transform of Q (t) is Q(s) =

Combining the forcing function with (9)

(10)
the Laplace transform of the above equation can be written as

(11)

PROCEDURE:

1. Switch on the pump with inlet valve to the system slightly opened. (Bypass valve in kept partially
open).
2. Wait until steady state height is reached in the tank.
3. Note down the height and the corresponding flow rate.
4. Give a step input to the tank by suddenly opening the inlet valve and start the stop clock.
5. Note down the height Vs time until steady state is reached and the corresponding flow rate.

OBSERVATIONS:

Data:

Length of the Tank = …………….. m

Breadth of the Tank = …………….. m

Area of the Tank (C) = …………….. m2

Time Constant of Tank,τ = …………….. s

(R x C)

TABULAR COLUMN

a) Time Constant b) Response for a Step Change in Input

Sl.No Vol. Flow Rate Steady Height Sl. No. Height, m Time, sec.
qs (m3/s) hts (m)
1 1

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2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
6 6
7
MODEL GRAPH:
8
Plot a graph of hts Versus Qs and the slope of the
9
tangent drawn to the curve will represent the
value of R 10
11
12
hts(m)
13
R
14
15
16
qs (m3/s)
17

RESULT TABLE:
Time, h H= h-hs H Theoretical Q Theoretical
sec. cm m m m3/s

CALCULATIONS:
R value from the above said graph or plot a graph of H versus t and the
τ
time corresponding to 63.2% of final height gives time constant (τ) then use the equation R= ( / A).

A= area of the tank

M= initial flow rate-final flow rate
Theoretical =1- e-(t/τ)
H theoretical = MR Q theoretical
Theoretical value of time constant = ……… S. (From graph of H theoretical vs. t)
Experimental value of time constant = ………….. S. (From graph of H Vs. t)

RESULTS:
Report the Experimental and Theoretical Response of a Tank for a given change in Input.

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EXPERIMENT – 2
NON-INTERACTING SYSTEM
AIM:
To study the dynamics and compare theoretical response with actual response for a step forcing
function in a two tank non-interacting system.

APPARATUS:
Experimental setup, stop watch and bucket.

THEORY:
Very often, a physical system can be represented by several first order process connected in series.
Two possible piping arrangements are known. In one case, the outlet flows from tank 1 discharges
directly into the atmosphere before spilling into tank 2 and the flow through R1 depends only as h1. The
variation in h2 on tank 2 does not affect the transient response occurring in tank 1.

This type of system is referred to as non-interacting system. In contrast to this, the system is said to be
interacting because the flow through ‘R’ now depends on the difference between h1 and h2.

Non-Interacting System:
Assuming liquid to be of constant density the tanks to have uniform cross sectional area and the flow
resistance to be linear, our problem is to find a transfer function which relates h 2 to q i.e. h2(s)/Q(s). The
approach is to obtain a transfer function for each tank Q 1(s)/Q(s) and H2(s)/Q1(s) and combing these to
eliminate the intermediate flow Q1(s) and produce the desired transfer function.

A balance on tank 1 gives

A balance on tank 2 gives

The flow-head relationship for the two linear resistances is given by the expression.

Combining (1) and (3) and introducing the deviation variables give the transfer function for tank1; thus

Where Q1 = q1 – q1s; Q = q – qs
τ1 = R1A1
In the same manner, we can combine (2) and (4) to obtain the transfer function for tank 2; thus

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where H2 = h2 – h2s
τ = R2A2
Having the transfer function for each tank, we can obtain the overall transfer function H 2(s)/Q(s) by
multiplying (5) and (6) to eliminate Q1(s)

It is noted that overall transfer function of (7) is the product of two first order transfer function each one
of which is the transfer function of a single tank operating independently of the other. In the case of
interacting system, the overall transfer function cannot be found by simply multiplying together the
separate function.

Generalization for several non-interacting system in series the block diagram is equivalent to

To obtain the overall transfer function, we simply multiply together the individual transfer functions, thus

It is noted that the step response of a system consisting of two first order system is S-Shaped and that
the response changer very slowly just after introducing step input. This sluggishners or delay is
sometimes called transfer lag and is always present when two or more First order systems are
connected in series for a single first order system, there is no transfer lag.

PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the reservoir tank with the water.
2. Partially open the valves HV1, HV2 and HV3.
3. Start the pump and adjust the flow rate to a particular value.
4. Allow the levels in the two tanks to reach the steady values and note down the heights of water in
the two tanks.
5. Give a step input by suddenly changing the inlet flow rate and start the stop watch simultaneously.
6. Note down the height of water in the both the tanks until a new steady state is reached.
7. Plot a graph of Height versus time.
8. Time corresponding to 63.2% of final height gives time constant (τ) i.e. (H 1 Vs. t gives τ1 and H2 Vs .t
gives τ2).
9. Compare τ1 and τ2 with τ2 theoretical by plotting a graph of H2 theoretical versus t.

OBSERVATIONS:
Data:

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Tank – 1 Tank – 1

Diameter = m Diameter = m

Area = m2 Area = m2

OBSERVATION TABLE : RESULT TABLE:

Time, h1 h2
sec. cm cm

H1= h1 -h1s H2= h2- h2s H2 Theoretical Q2 Theoretical

m m m m3/s

CALCULATIONS:
Calculation of area:

1. Area of the first tank, =……………...m2

2. Area of the second tank, =…………… m2

Calculation of time constant:

3. τ1 and τ2 values from graph (time corresponding to 63.2% of final height gives time constant (τ)
i.e. H1 Vs. t gives τ1 and H2 Vs .t gives τ2).
4. Resistances R1= τ1/ A1 and R2=τ2/A2

5. Plot h1s Vs q1s and h2s Vs q2s for the two tanks and obtain the slopes ( ) and ( ) calculate
the time constants i.e. τ1 = A1R1 and τ 2 = A2R 2.

Calculation of Magnitude M
6. Calculate the magnitude of step change ie. M = final flow rate – initial flow rate.

Calculation of H2 theoretical
7. H2 therotical = MR2 Q2theortical

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8.
(Assuming Over Damping)

Plot H2theortical and H2 Vs. t and compare the experimental and calculated values’

RESULTS:
Report the Experimental and Theoretical Response of a Tank for a given change in Input.

EXPERIMENT – 3
INTERACTING SYSTEM

AIM:
To study the dynamics and compare theoretical response with actual response for a step forcing
function in a two tank interacting system.

APPARATUS:
Experimental setup, stop watch and bucket.

THEORY:
To illustrate an interacting system we shall derive the transfer function for the system shown in figure
below.
q0

1
2
q2

The analysis is started by writing mass balances on the tanks as was done for the non interacting case.
The balances on tank1 and tank2 all the same as before and are given by q – q 1 = A1dh1/dt and q1 – q2
= A2dh2/dt.

However the flow - head relationship for R2 is the same as before and expressed as q2 = h2/R2 using Q
– Q1 = A1dh1/dt and Q1 – Q2 = A2dh2/dt

Transforming these equations

Q(s) – Q1(s) = A1SH1(s)

Q1(s) – Q2(s) = A2SH2(s)
R1Q1(s) = H1(s) – H2(s)

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R2Q2(s) = H2(s)

The analysis has produced a algebraic equations containing five unknowns. These equations may be
combined to eliminate Q1, Q2 and H1 and arrive at the desired transfer function

The equation does not produce correct result for the interacting system. The term
interacting is often referred to as loading. The second tank is said to load the first tank. The unit step
change for the transfer function can be obtained from the equation

PROCEDURE:
1. Fill the reservoir tank with the water.
2. Partially open the valves HV1and HV2.
3. Start the pump and adjust the flow rate to a particular value.
4. Allow the levels in the two tanks to reach the steady values and note down the heights of water
in the two tanks.
5. Give a step input by suddenly changing the inlet flow rate and start the stop watch
simultaneously.
6. Note down the height of water in the both the tanks until a new steady state is reached.
7. Plot a graph of Height versus time.
8. Time corresponding to 63.2% of final height gives time constant (τ).
9. Compare τ1 and τ2 with τ2 theoretical by plotting a graph of H1 theoretical vs. t and H2 theoretical vs. t.

OBSERVATIONS:Data:
Tank – 1 Tank – 1

Diameter = m Diameter = m

Area = m2 Area = m2

OBSERVATION TABLE RESULT TABLE

h1 h2
Time, sec.
cm cm

H1= h 1 -
H2= h2- h2s H2 Theoretical Q2 Theoretical
h1s
m m m3/s
m

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CALCULATIONS:

Area of the first tank, =……………...m2; Area of the second tank,

=…………… m2

; ; τ1 = A 1 R 1 ; τ2 = A 2 R 2 ; ; H2theoretical= R2AQ2theoretical

Calculate value of H2theoretical:

(A = final flow rate – initial flow rate)

GRAPH:
Plot H2 theoretical and H2 vs. t and compare the experimental and calculated values.

RESULTS:
Report the Experimental and Theoretical Response of a Tank for a given change in Input.

EXPERIMENT – 4
FLOW PROCESS ANALYZER
AIM:
To determine the optimum PID controller parameters (Kc, τI, τD) by Ziegler – Nichols Rules for a Flow
Process Analyzer.

THEORY:
The selection of a controller type (P, PI, PID) and its parameters (Kc, τ I, τD) is intimately related to the
model of the process to be controlled. The adjustment of the controller parameters to achieve
satisfactory control is called tuning. The process of tuning can vary from a trial & error attempt to find
suitable control parameters for good control to an elaborate optimization calculation based on a model
of the process and a specific criterion for optimum control. The typical criterion for good control is that
the response of the system to a step change in the set point or load should have minimum overshoot,
one quarter (1/4) decay ratio, minimum rise time and minimum settling time.

Ziegler – Nichols Rules

These rules were first proposed by Ziegler and Nichols (1942), who were engineers for a major control
hardware company in the US. Based on their experience with the transients from many types of
processes they developed a closed-loop tuning method still used today in one form or the other.

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The rules are presented below, and are in the form that one would use for actual application to a real
process.
1. After the process reaches a steady state at the normal level of operation, remove the integral
and the derivative modes of the controller, leaving only proportional control.
2. Select a value of proportional gain (Kc), disturb the system, and observe the transient response.
If the response decays, select a higher value of K c and again observe the response of the
system. Continue increasing the gain in small steps until the response first exhibits sustained
oscillations. The value of gain and period of oscillation that correspond to the sustained
oscillation are the ultimate gain (Kcu) and the ultimate period (Pu).
3. From the values of Kcu and Pu as found in the previous step, use the Ziegler – Nichols rules
given in table below to determine controller settings.
The Ziegler – Nichols rules generally provide conservative and safe controller settings. The Ziegler –
Nichols settings should be considered as only approximate settings for satisfactory controller. Fine-
tuning of the controller setting is usually required to get an improved control response.

PROCEDURE:
1. Ensure that all the cables are connected between IBM PC and Flow Process.
2. Apply air pressure more than 25 PSI to the pressure regulator (PR) and the set regulator output
pressure to 20 PSI by varying air regulator, which forms the pneumatic input to I/P converter
( current to pressure converter).
3. Select the Flow Process Analyzer Software in the IBM PC, and select the proportional controller
from the menu bar.
4. Enter the process parameters into the data entry menu.
5. Check whether the controller output is 100% before you switch on the motor.
6. Switch on the Pump and select your desired speed by varying the variable speed control knob.
7. Select a value of proportional gain (Kc), disturb the system, and observe the transient response.
8. If the response decays, select a higher value of K c and again observe the response of the
system. Continue increasing the gain in small steps until the response first exhibits a sustained
oscillations. The value of gain and period of oscillation that correspond to the sustained
oscillation are the ultimate gain (Kcu) and the ultimate period (Pu).
9. From the values of Kcu and Pu as found in the previous step, use the Ziegler – Nichols rules
given in table below to determine controller settings

Table: Ziegler-Nichols controller settings

Controller Gc (s) Kc τI τD
P Kc 0.5 Ku ---- ----

PI 0.45 Ku ----
Kc x τD

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PID 0.6 Ku
Kc x τD

P – Proportional Controller; PI – Proportional Controller; PID – Proportional-Integral-Derivative

Controller, τD = 0.01.

RESULT:
The optimum controller parameters (Kc, τI, τD) based on Ziegler-Nichols rules are as shown in the
table.

Experiment – 5
PRESSURE PROCESS ANALYZER

AIM:
Study of a closed loop response to a step change in input for control system using various control
modes

THEORY:
The Analysis of the various control modes can be illustrated by considering the example of the behavior
of a typical feed back control system by comparing the response to the disturbance in the load variable.
The variation of the deviation of the controlled variable with time for different control modes can indicate
the practical motivation for the addition of the different control modes for a control system as shown in
figure below, which gives the comparison of various modes of control. Each control mode has a definite
characteristic which is helpful in selecting the type of controller. The function of the controller is to
minimize the magnitude of the error which is generated because of the disturbance in the load variable
or in the set point.

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The following comments apply to each mode of control

1. The Proportional (P) control has maximum offset because of the maximum deviation of the
controlled variable. The stabilization time is considerably high because it has no stabilizing
influence. The response of P Control is oscillatory.
2. The Proportional-Derivative (PD) controller has almost the same offset as that of Proportional
controller. The PD control has least deviation and it produces smallest error because the value
of gain or proportional sensitivity is higher. The stabilization time or time required to cease the
oscillations is smallest in PD control. The response of PD control is non-oscillatory.
3. The Proportional-Integral (PI) controller eliminates the offset and it has maximum deviation. The
PI controller has longer stabilization time because of unstabilizing influence of the integral
response. The response of PI control is oscillatory.
4. The Proportional-Integral-Derivative control also eliminates the offset and it has the less
deviation then PI control because of the addition of the derivative action. The PID controller has
considerable stabilization time because of the integral action. The response of PID control is
less oscillatory.

PROCEDURE:
1. Ensure that all the cables are connected between IBM PC and Pressure Process Controller.
2. Run the “Process Controller Software” (Start-Program Files-Process Control Software)
3. Select the desired type of controller (P, PI, PD, or PID).
4. Enter the process parameters (Set-Point, Gain).
5. Tune the process parameters proportional gain (KP), Integral gain (KI) and derivative gain (KD)
to maintain the controlled variable at set point.
6. View the response for different types of control action (P, PI, PD, and PID).
7. Plot the response for different types of control action at definite time intervals.
8. Report the characteristic of a under damped control system.

Y(t) A Response Time limit

C
Set Point

B T

tr Time Response Time

(Rise time)

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Figure: Response of a Second order Under-Damped System

(Over shoot = A/B ; Decay Ration = C/A )

TABLE: Characteristics of a Second Order System

Controller Overshoot Decay Rise Response Period of Offset

Ratio Time Time Oscillation
(sec) (sec) (sec)
P
PI
PD
PID

RESULT:

1. The response of the Pressure Process Analyzer for different modes of controller action is as
shown in figure.
2. Report the Characteristic parameters of the second order system .

EXPERIMENT – 6
TEMPERATURE PROCESS CONTROLLER

AIM:
Study of Two Position and Proportional Control Using Process Control Software for a Temperature
Process.

THEORY:
Two Position Controllers

As the name indicates two position signifies the output signal is either zero or 100 %. This is often
referred as On-Off or Open–Closed controller. This controller acts drastically as it attempts to correct
any error present in the system by shifting the output from one extreme to the other. That is when the
measured variable value is above the desired variable value the output signal is zero and when the
measured variable is below the desired variable value the output signal is at its maximum value.
But in actual controllers, there is small interval or differential gap between the points at which the output
signal changes from zero to maximum or vice versa. In this the output signal does not go to its

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maximum value until the measured variable decreases to the lower line and does not go to zero until
the measured variable passes the upper line.
The tuning parameters for a Two Position controller are
1. Differential Gap: Differential gap is the region in which the control causes the manipulated
variable to maintain its previous value until the controlled variable has moved slightly beyond
the set point. Small differential gap is not preferred as it will introduce oscillations and reduces
the life of the final control element.

2. Time Delay: This is the Delay given to the controller between successive corrective actions.

Proportional Controller

Two position controller applied to a process results in a continuous oscillation in the quantity to be
controlled. This draw back can be over come by a continuous control action which could maintain a
continuous balance of the input and output. A mode of control which accomplishes this task is known as
“Proportional Control”. It is also know as “Throttling”, “Gradual” or “Modulating” Control action.
Proportional control can be defined as “A controller in which there is a continuous linear
relation between the value of the controlled variable and the position of the final control element within
the proportional band”
i.e. the proportional controller produces an output which is proportional to the error ‘e’.
The tuning parameters for a proportional control are
1. Proportional Band (PB): Proportional band or throttling range is defined as the percent deviation
in measurement of its full scale required to give 100% final actuating element (Thyristor unit)
deviation. Narrow Band proportional control gives a comparatively large corrective action to the
final actuating element for a small change in the measurement. For a wide Proportional Band
the corrective action to the final actuating element is small and therefore the offset will be large.
Usually Narrow Proportional Band is preferred. If Proportional Band is Zero the controller
behaves as a Two Position Controller.

2. Proportional Gain (KP): It is the proportional control factor which is used to determine the

proportional band. .

3. Time Delay: This is the Delay given to the controller between successive corrective actions.

PROCEDURE:

1. Ensure that all the cables are connected between IBM PC and Pressure Process Controller.
2. Run the “Process Controller Software” (Start-Program Files-Process Control Software).
3. Select the desired type of controller (Two Position or P).
4. Enter the process parameters (Set-Point, Gain, PB).
5. Tune the process parameters proportional gain (KP, Time Delay) to maintain the controlled
variable at set point.

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6. View the response for different types of control action (Two Position and P).
7. Plot the response for two different types of control action at definite time intervals.

RESULT:
Report the response of the temperature controller process for a given change in Set point.

EXPERIMENT – 7
DYNAMIC METHOD ESTIMATION OF GAS LIQUID MASS TRANSFER COEFFICIENT
AIM:
To determine oxygen mass transfer co-efficient in a given batch Fermenter.

APPARATUS AND REAGENTS REQUIRED:

Aeration equipment (air pump), thermometer, DO meter, glassware, batch reactor, Sodium sulphite,
Cobalt chloride (COCl2 . 6 H2O)

THEORY:
Aerobic Fermenter is supplied with sterile air to favor aerobic fermentation reactions. Oxygen present
in air needs to diffuse into cellular system enhance aerobic reactions; therefore the study of gas-liquid
mass transfer in cellular system has become vital for any Bioprocesses.
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The cells present in the fermentation broth consume oxygen during aerobic fermentation. Oxygen
required for aerobic fermentation is supplied by sparingly compressed sterile air into the Fermenter.
The supplied oxygen needs to be primarily solubilised in the Fermenter broth before getting consumed
by the cells for fermentation to take place. It is found that the solubility rate of oxygen in the Fermenter
broth is low when compared with the consumption rate of oxygen by the cells.

When the oxygen transfer ability in the Fermenter is exceeded by the ability of the organism within the
fermentation broth to consume oxygen, production is limited.
The driving force for oxygen transfer in a Fermenter is the difference in oxygen concentration in the air
bubble and the liquid in the Fermenter.
Oxygen transfer is usually limited by either gas transfer at the air/water interface of diffusion within the
aqueous system. The agitation caused by mechanical aeration results in so much convective mass
transfer that diffusion is rarely limiting in these systems, although it certainly can be limiting in passively
aerated lagoons.
Metcalf and eddy provided a schematic representation of gas transfer, based on the two film theory.
Slightly soluble gases encounter primary resistance to the transfer in gaseous film.
For each film, the rate of mass transfer of oxygen per unit time, dN/dt can be represented by Ficks Law
as;

where DL is the diffusion coefficient through the film

A = Surface area for diffusion
ΔC and ΔL are concentration gradient and film thickness respectively
Gas transfer can be expressed on the basis of concentration as follows

Where V represents volume

Since many parameters are difficult to estimate, we usually substitute ‘K L a’ for , thus we can

write
Where KLa is the overall gas transfer coefficient (time-1)
CS = Saturation concentration of gas in solution (mg/l)
CL= Concentration of gas in solution (mg/l)
Integrating the above equation within the limits, we get

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Co = Initial oxygen concentration (mg/l)

Ct = Oxygen concentration at time ‘t’ (mg/l)

The above equation is in the linear form, a plot of Vs t will give a straight line with slope
of KLa.

PROCEDURE:
1. Prepare 2% Sodium sulphite (approx 5lit) solution and add upto the mark indicated.
2. Fit the membranes on the lower part of the electrolyte tube with a ring. Avoid wrinkles. Fill 7.5 % KCl
solution into the electrolyte tube. Insert electrode into electrolyte tube and screw the gland cover ring.
Make sure that, the electrolyte tube does not contain any air bubble. If any air bubble is present, refill
electrolyte and refit.
3. Insert the probe in the fixed point and connect the probe to the DO meter.
4. Make sure that the oxygen concentration is zero in the fermenter using DO meter (operation of DO
meter is given)
5. Switch on the stirrer and maintain constant stirring speed and allow the air at constant flow rate.
6. Start the stopwatch and note down the dissolved oxygen content for every one minute, until it reads
constant value. Constant value represents saturation condition.

7. Calculate oxygen mass transfer coefficient using by drawing graph Vs t.

OBSERVATIONS:
Calculation of Air flow rate

(d1 = 6 mm and d2 = 3 mm, Cd = 0.62; H = h1+h2)

Where A1 = Area of Orifice pipe = =……..……m2

A2 = Area of Orifice = =…..………m2

DATA:

1. Air Flow Rate =

2. Initial Concentration of the Oxygen in water (Co) =
3. Temperature of the water =

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TABULAR COLUMN:
Sl Time Dissolved O2 Sl Time Dissolved O2
No: (min) Concentration No: (min) Concentration
(mg/l) (mg/l)
- -
(mg/l) (mg/l)
1 10

2 11

3 12

4 13

5 14

6 15

7 16

8 17

9 18

MODEL GRAPH:

 C C 
C  ln  s 
(mg/l)  C s  Co 
KLa

t (min) t (min)

RESULT:
The Oxygen Mass Transfer Coefficient = ……………….min-1

APPENDIX:
Estimation of Oxygen using DO meter

PROCEDURE TO OPERATE DO METER

Prepare a 7.5 % solution of potassium chloride in water and 2% sodium sulphite solution. Fit the
membrane on the lower part of the electrolyte tube with a ring. Avoid wrinkles. Fill 7.5 % KCl solution
into the electrolyte tube. Insert electrode into electrolyte tube and screw the gland cover ring. Make sure

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Process Control Lab

that, the electrolyte tube does not contain any air bubble. If any air bubble is present, refill electrolyte
and refit. The probe is now ready for use.

OBSERVATIONS:

Room temperature
= ,°C
Water temperature = ,°C
Sodium sulphite solution temperature = ,°C
Standard DO content from table-I = ,ppm
Altitude correction factor from table-II =
DO of the standard = ppm X Correction factor

TABLE 1: STABILITY OF OXYGEN

Temperature Dissolved O2, Temperature Dissolved O2,

, °C ppm , °C ppm
6 12.5 27 8.1
7 12.2 28 7.9
8 11.9 29 7.8
9 11.6 30 7.7
10 11.3 31 7.5
11 11.1 32 7.4
12 10.8 33 7.3
13 10.6 34 7.2
14 10.4 35 7.1
15 10.2 36 7.0
16 09.9 37 6.9
17 09.7 38 6.8
18 09.5 39 6.7
19 09.3 40 6.6
20 09.2 41 6.5

TABLE II

ALTITUDE CORRECTION FACTOR TABLE

Altitude, Correction Correction

Altitude, m
m Factor Factor
0 1.00 5403 0.82
542 0.98 6065 0.80

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1094 0.96 6744 0.78

1688 0.94 7440 0.76
2274 0.92 8204 0.74
2864 0.90 8939 0.72
3466 0.88 8694 0.70
4082 0.86 10472 0.68
4756 0.84 11273 0.66

EXPERIMENT – 8
WHEEL FLOW METER

AIM:
To verify the linearity of current flow in a wheel flow meter.

THEORY:

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Process Control Lab

The turbine flow meter is used to measure the liquid, gas and very low rates. It works on the basic
principle of turbine. It consists of a multi bladed rotor (turbine wheel) which is mounted at right angles to
the axis of the flowing liquid. The rotor is supported by ball and sleeve bearing on a shaft which is
retained in the flow meter housing by a shaft support section. The rotor is free to rotate about its axis.
The flowing fluid impinges on the turbine blades imparting a force to the blade surface which causes
the rotation of the rotor. At a steady rotational speed, the speed of the rotor is directly proportional to the
fluid velocity and hence to volumetric flow rate. The speed of the rotor is monitored in most of the meter
by a magnetic pick up coil which is fitted to the inside of the meter housing. The magnetic pick up coil
consists of a permanent magnet with coil, winding which is mounted in close proximity to the rotor but
internal to the fluid channel. As each rotor blade passes the magnetic pick up coil. It generates a
voltage pulse which is a measure of flow rate and the total number of pulse can be given a measure of
the flow rate and the total number of pulse can be given a measure of the total flow. The electrical
voltage pulse can be totaled, differenced and manipulated by digital technique, so that a zero error
characteristic of digital handling is provided from the pulse generator to the final read out. The k factor

K= Tkf
Q

K- Pulse per unit volume; Tk - A time constant in min; Q - Volumetric flow rate in gpm;
f -------- Frequency in Hz

The turbine flow meter provides very accurately flow measurements over wide flow range. The
accuracy range is from + 1/4 to + ½ % and the repeatability is excellent ranging from ± 0.25% to as
well as ± 0.02%. The range ability of turbine meters is generally considered to be between 10:1 to
20:1 ,however in low flow range , it is often less than 10:1.The military type turbine meters have
achieved range abilities greater than 100:1. The turbine meters are widely used for military application.
They are effective in aero plane and airborne applications for fuel and cryogenic flow measurements.
ADVANTAGES:
(a) Good accuracy
(b) Provides excellent repeatability and range ability
(c) Fairly low pressure drop
(d) Easy to install and maintain
(e) Good temperature and pressure ratings
(f) Can be compensated for viscosity variations.

PROCEDURE:
1. Arrange the flow system set up in a suitable position with all necessary filling and piping
2. Connect turbine flow sensor to digital indication
3. Switch on the pump.
4. Release the valve of the gate and observe the rotameter reading in steps.
5. Observe the digital flow meter reading.

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6. Observe the sensor output in terms of mv.

OBSERVATION:
FLOW RATE (LPH) CURRENT (MV)

MODEL GRAPH

Current (mV)

Flow rate (LPH)

RESULT:
The linearity of current flow w.r.t flow rate is verified.

EXPERIMENT – 9
THERMOMETER (TIME CONSTANT)
AIM:
To determine the response to a step input of a thermometer and find time constant.

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Process Control Lab

APPARATUS: Thermometer, Thermostat, Stop watch, Beaker

THEORY:
i) All resistance to heat transfer resides in the film surrounding the bulb.
ii) The glass wall does not expand or contract during the transient response.
iii) All the thermal capacity is in the mercury
By applying the unsteady state energy balance,
Input rate – Output rate = Rate of accumulation
hA (x-y) = mc (dy/dt) -------------------------(1)
Where A = Surface area of bulb for heat transfer (m2)
m = mass of mercury in bulb (kg)
t = time (sec)
h = film co-efficient of heat transfer w/m2 0C.
Equation states that the rate of flow of heat transfer through the film resistance surrounding the bulb
increases the internal energy of mercury at same rate. The increase is manifested by a change in
temperature and we shall assume that h is constant for a particular installation of thermometer.
For steady state conditions,

-----------------------(2)
eq(1) – eq (2),

-----------------------(3)

Let

then from eq(1),

Taking laplace transforms,

-------------------(4)

Rearranging we have,

------------------------(5)

PROCEDURE:
1. Switch on the heater and wait to reach the steady temperature value of both liquid and note
down the temperature.

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2. Note down the steady state value of room temperature by thermometer

3. Give the step input by introducing the thermometer to both the liquids
4. Note down the temperature rise with time until the thermometer reaches s steady state value.
5. Note down the decrease in temperature with time by exposing the thermometer to room
temperature

Time (sec) Thermometer Y(t) = Y- Y1s

reading, Y (ºC)

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
Y1s = Yintial steady state value ( room temperature)

MODEL GRAPH :
Increase in temperature

Temperatur
e (ºC)

Time (s)

Decrease in temperature

Temperature
(ºC)

Time (s)

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Decreasing temperature

 Y (t ) 
 ln 1 
 A  Slope

Time (s)
Maximum value

Y (t )
A

Time (s)

RESULT:
1. The time constant of thermometer when the temperature is increased is _______ S
2. The time constant of thermometer when the temperature is decreased is _______ S

EXPERIMENT ---10
RTD MODULE TRAINER
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AIM:
To study the characteristics of temperature Vs voltage and the accuracy of the signal conditioning
board.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
1. ITB-006CE Unit.
2. Water Bath.
3. Thermometer.
4. Multimeter.
5. Power Chord.

THEORY:
Temperature measurement is one of the earliest areas of metrology and its use in control and
instrumentation is significant. This being one of the most important concepts, we have released this
ITB-006CE card in our series of Instrumentation Trainer Boards, which would help the students to bring
out their ideas in a very simple way.

TEMPERATURE MEASUREMENT:
There are, in general, four types of sensors based on the following physical properties, which are
temperature dependent:
1. Expansion of a substance with temperature, which produces a change in length, volume or pressure.
In its simplest form this is the common mercury-in-glass or alcohol-in-glass thermometer.
2. Changes in contact potential between dissimilar metals with temperature; thermocouple.
3. Changes in radiated energy with temperature; optical and radiation pyrometers.
4. Changes in electrical resistance with temperature, used in resistance thermometers and thermistors.
The fourth property is used in our design to create a sensor. Resistance thermometry requires a resistor
properly mounted to create a sensor and a means of measuring the resistance of the sensor.

RESISTANCE TEMPERATURE DETECTORS

Resistance Temperature Detectors or RTDs for short, are wire wound and thin film devices that
measure temperature because of the physical principle of the positive temperature coefficient of
electrical resistance of metals. The hotter they become, the larger their resistance.

They, in the case of Platinum known variously as PRTs and PRT100s, are the most popular RTD type,
nearly linear over a wide range of temperatures and some small enough to have response times of a
fraction of a second. They are among the most precise temperature sensors available with solution and
measurement uncertainties or ±0.1 °C or better possible in special designs. Usually they are provided
encapsulated in probes for temperature sensing and measurement with an external indicator, controller
or transmitter, or enclosed inside other devices where they measure temperature as a part of the
device's function, such as a temperature controller or precision thermostat.

The advantages of RTDs include stable output for long period of time, ease of recalibration and
accurate readings over relatively narrow temperature spans. They are active devices requiring an
electrical current to produce a voltage drop across the sensor that can be then measured by a
calibrated read-out device. The lead wires used to connect the RTD to a read out can contribute to the
measurement error, especially when there are long lead lengths involved, as often happens in remote
temperature measurement locations. Those calculations are straight forward and there exist 3-wire and
4-wire designs to help minimize or limit such errors, when needed.

Often the lead error can be minimized through use of a temperature transmitter mounted close to the
RTD. Transmitters convert the resistance measurement to an analog current or serial digital signal that
can be sent long distances by wire or rf to a data acquisition or control system and/or indicator. RTDs,
as mentioned above, work in a relatively small temperature domain, compared to thermocouple,
typically from about -200 °C to a practical maximum of about 650 to 700 °C.RTDs can be made cheaply
in Copper and Nickel, but the latter have restricted ranges because of non-linearities and wire oxidation
problems in the case of Copper. Platinum is the preferred material for precision measurement because
in its pure form the Temperature Coefficient of Resistance is nearly linear; enough so that temperature
measurements with precision of ±0.1 °C can be readily achieved with moderately priced devices. Better
resolution is possible, but equipment costs escalate rapidly at smaller error levels. All RTDs used in

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precise temperature measurements are made of Platinum and they are sometimes called PRTs to
distinguish them. RTD works on the principle that electrical resistance of the most metals increases
linearly with temperature.

FRONT PANEL DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
1. Patch the wires of RTD to the T1 and T2 terminals of the RTD input block.
2. Switch ON the ITB -006CE Unit.
3. Keep the switch in left direction and switch SW2 in external mode.
4. Now adjust the 'Zero' Potentiometer to read 0°C at the display. This is done for initial setup of the unit
and this adjustment should be left undisturbed.
5. Insert the RTD into the water bath and note the temperature without any heating at ambient
condition.
6. Keep the switch SW1 in left direction and switch SW2 in internal mode.
7. Place the multimeter in voltage mode across the T6 and T7 terminals.
8. Now, gradually start heating the water bath and note down the actual temperature, output voltage of
the unit and the displayed temperature simultaneously.
9. Repeat step 8 for different values of temperatures and tabulate the readings.
10. Plot the graph for Temperature Vs Voltage.
11. Calculate the % error and plot the graph for Temperature Vs %Error
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The first graph measures the linearity of the signal conditioning unit and the second graph measures
the accuracy.

TABULAR COLUMN:
Actual Output Voltage Displayed Temperature (°C) % Error
Temperature(°C) (V)

MODEL GRAPH
1. The graph between temperature and voltage are drawn.

2. The graph between temperature and % Error are drawn.

RESULT:
Thus the study of Temperature Vs Voltage and the accuracy of signal conditioning board were
Studied and the graph is drawn.

EXPERIMENT NO. 11
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PRESSURE MEASUREMENT TRAINER

AIM:
To study the characteristics of the pressure cell with respect to signal conditioned output voltage.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
i. ITB-16-CE Trainer
ii. Multimeter (V).

THEORY:
Measurement of pressure has high importance in the field of science and technology. Pressure
measurement can be done by using a variety of transmitter. Use of strain gauge for such a purpose can
be studied using this trainer. This pressure measurement trainer (ITB-16-CE) is designed to measure
the pressure of the cylinder by using a diaphragm as a primary transducer and strain gauge as a
secondary transducer.

Pressure Measurement
The term “pressure” refers to the force per unit area exerted by a fluid on a containing wall.

Principle of strain Gauges

If a metal conductor is stretched of compressed, its resistance changes on account of both length
and diameter of conductor change. Also there is a change in the value of resistivity of the conductor
when it is strained and this property is called piezo - resistive effect. Therefore, resistance strain gauges
are also known as piezo-resistive gauges. The strain gauges are used for measurement of strain and
associated stress in experimental stress analysis. Secondly, many other detectors and transducers,
notably the load cells, torque meters, diaphragm type pressure gauges, temperature sensors,
accelerometers and flow meters, employ strain gauges as secondary transducers. Strain gauges may
be attached to any elastic member on which there exists a suitable plane area to accommodate them.
This arrangement may then be used to measure pressure applied to deform or deflect the member,
provided that the resultant strain is large enough to produce detectible outputs. Here diaphragm is used
as the primary transducer.

FRONT PANEL DIAGRAM:

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FORMULA TO BE USED:

PROCEDURE:
1. Install the sensor setup and interface the 9 pin D connector with ITB-16-CE kit
2. Connect the multimeter in Volt mode across T5 and GND for the signal conditioned voltage
measurement.
3. Switch "ON" the module.
4. Initially, open the air release valve and exhaust the tank inlet air and nullify the signal
conditioned output voltage by using zero adjustment POT.
5. Now, close the opened air release valve and apply the pressure of 50 Psig to the cylinder and
adjust the display to 50 Psig by using gain adjustment POT.
6. After the gain calibration, open the air release valve and exhaust the tank inlet air.
7. Again, close the opened air release valve. By pressing the pump piston, the pump sucks the air
from atmosphere and supply it to the cylinder. Then, the pressure will be developed in the
cylinder and measure the signal conditioned output voltage (V) across T5 and GND.
8. Gradually increase the pressure the pump piston and note down the signal conditioned output
voltage (V) for corresponding gauge pressure.
9. Tabulate the readings and plot a graph between gauge pressure and signal conditioned output
voltage (V).

Note:
Practically, difficult to apply the pressure of 100 Psi by pressing the pump position. That‘s why apply the
pressure of 50 Psi to the cylinder and adjust the gain POT to 50 Psi display on the ITB-16-CE and the
voltage across the T5 and GND should be 2.5V.

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TABULAR COLUMN:
Gauge Pressure Signal conditioned output Displayed Pressure % Error
(Psig) voltage (V) (Psig)

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT
Thus the characteristic of the pressure cell with respect to the signal conditioned voltage was studied
and the graph was plotted.

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Process Control Lab

EXPERIMENT NO. 12
THERMOCOUPLE CHARACTERISTICS TRAINER

AIM:
PART A: To study the characteristics of thermocouple.
PART B: To study the characteristics of thermocouple without compensation.
PART C: To study the characteristics of thermocouple with compensation

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
i. ITB-05CE
ii. Thermocouple
iii. Water bath
iv. Thermometer
v. Digital multi meter
vi. Power Chord.

THEORY:
Temperature measurement plays a major role in industrial application. The various sensors which is
used to measure the temperature are thermocouple, RTD, Thermistor etc. Due to the salient features of
thermocouple, it is being widely used in industries. Based on the thermoelectric principle, it senses the
temperature of the medium. The two junction temperature difference is directly proportional to the
generated emf, which is a measure of temperature. This unit helps to study the characteristics of
thermocouple with and without compensation. Temperature compensation is performed by AD590
temperature sensor. From this compensation technique, anyone can calibrate the thermocouple for
desired temperature measurement.

THERMOCOUPLE: The thermocouple is one of the simplest and most commonly used methods of
measuring process temperatures. The operation of a thermocouple is based upon Seebeck effect which
states that when heat is applied to junction (hot junction) of two dissimilar metals, an emf is generated
which can be measured at the other junction (cold junction). The two dissimilar metals form an electric
circuit, and a current flows as a result of the generated emf as shown in Fig. I

Figure - 1
The emf produced is function of the difference in temperature of hot and cold junctions and is
given by:

SEEBACK EFFECT
Using solid state theory, the above mentioned situation may be analyzed to show that its emf can
be given by an integral over temperature.

Where,

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E = emf produced in volts;T1,T2 = Junction temperature in K;QA, QB = Thermal transport constants of

the two metals.This equation, which describes the see back effect, shows that the emf produced is
proportional to the difference in temperature and further, to the difference in the metallic thermal
transport constant. Thus, if the metals are the same, the emf is zero and if the temperatures are the
same, the emf is also zero. In practice, it is found that the two constants QA a nd QB are nearly
independent of temperature and that an approximate linear relationship exists as

E = α (T2-T1)
Where, α = Constant in volts / K ; T1,T2 = Junction temperatures in K
However, the small but finite temperatures dependence of QA and QB is necessary for accurate
considerations.

PART A: To study the characteristics of thermocouple

PROCEDURE:
1. Patch the two terminals of the thermocouple across T1 & T2.
2. Insert the thermocouple and thermometer into the water bath.

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Process Control Lab

3. Place the Multimeter (millivolts mode) across T3 and T4.

4. Switch ON the water bath and note the temperature in thermometer and mV in Multimerter.
5. Tabulate the readings temperature Vs mV and plot the graph.

TABULAR COLUMN:

Actual Temperature (°C) Thermocouple Output (mV)

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:
Thus the characteristic of thermocouple was studied and graph is plotted.

PART B: To study the characteristic of thermocouple without compensation.

PROCEDURE:
1. Patch the two terminals of the thermocouple across T1 & T2.
2. Position the switch ‘SW1' towards ‘NO’.
3. Switch ‘ON’ the unit and note the displayed temperature.
4. If there is any difference in displayed temperature at room temperature, adjust the offset knob
‘Zero’ to set 0°C in display.
5. Insert the thermocouple and thermometer into the water bath.
6. Switch ‘ON’ the water bath.
7. Note the actual temperature in thermometer and displayed temperature simultaneously.
8. Tabulate the reading and calculate %Error using the above formula.
9. Plot the graph actual Temperature Vs% Error.

TABULAR COLUMN:
Actual Displayed % Error
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

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Process Control Lab

FORMULA:

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:
Thus the characteristic of thermocouple without compensation was studied and graph is plotted.

PART C: To study the characteristics of thermocouple with compensation .

PROCEDURE:
1. Patch the two terminals of the thermocouple across T1 & T2.
2. Position the switch ‘SW1' towards downwards.
3. Switch ‘ON’ the unit and note the displayed temperature.
4. If there is any difference in displayed temperature at room temperature, adjust the offset knob
‘Zero’ to set 0°C in display.
5. Insert the thermocouple and thermometer into the water bath.
6. Place the multimeter across T7 & T8
7. Position the switch ‘SW1' towards the ‘NC’
8. Switch ‘ON’ the water bath.
9. Note the actual temperature in thermometer, voltage in multimeter and displayed temperature
simultaneously.
10. Tabulate the reading and calculate %Error using the above formula.
11. Plot the graph for
i. Actual Temperature Vs % Error.
ii. Actual Temperature Vs signal conditioner output.

TABULAR COLUMN:
Actual Displayed Signal conditioner % Error
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C) output (°C)

FORMULA:

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Process Control Lab

MODEL GRAPH:

RESULT:
Thus the characteristic of thermocouple with compensation was studied and graph is plotted.

38