Earth’s Process

Exogenic Processes- Exo = outside; Genic = origin. Exogenic processes are geomorphic processes
that occur on the Earth’s surface, primarily due to the energy from the Sun, leading to changes in
landforms through weathering, erosion, transportation, and deposition. These processes are external
and act on the surface of the Earth’s crust.

Weathering- is the process where rocks and other materials on the Earth’s surface are broken down
by the effects of weather and climate

Physical or Mechanical Weathering is the breaking down of rocks without changing their chemical
composition. It’s caused by physical forces rather than chemical reactions.

The main forces that cause physical weathering are:

1. Gravitational Forces: These include the weight of rocks above (overburden pressure), the
weight of rocks themselves (load), and the side-to-side movement (shearing stress).
2. Expansion Forces: These happen when rocks expand because of temperature changes,
growth of crystals, or activities of animals.
3. Water Pressure: This occurs during cycles of wetting (when rocks absorb water) and drying
(when rocks release water).

Types of Physical Weathering:

1. Unloading and Expansion: When the weight from above is removed (usually because of
erosion), the rock underneath can expand and break apart. This can create large, smooth,
rounded rock formations called exfoliation domes.
2. Temperature Changes and Expansion: Rocks expand when they heat up and contract when
they cool down. This constant change can cause the outer layers of rock to peel off, creating
smooth, rounded surfaces.
3. Freezing, Thawing, and Frost Wedging: Water gets into cracks in the rock, freezes, and
expands, making the cracks bigger until the rock breaks. This is most effective in places
where the temperature goes above and below freezing often.
4. Salt Weathering: Salts within rocks can expand because of heat, water absorption, and salt
formation. This is especially effective in deserts where temperatures can get really hot (30-
50°C) and conditions alternate between wet and dry.

Chemical Weathering: This happens when the air or water chemically interacts with minerals in a
rock, changing their chemical composition. Common chemical weathering processes include
oxidation (reaction with oxygen) and hydrolysis (reaction with water), which can lead to the
formation of new minerals and the dissolution of original rock material.

1. Solution: This occurs when minerals dissolve in water or acids, forming a solution. The
solubility of a mineral determines how easily it can be dissolved. Soluble minerals like
nitrates, sulphates, and potassium are particularly susceptible to this process.
 2. Carbonation: This process involves the reaction of carbonate and bicarbonate ions with
minerals. Carbon dioxide from the atmosphere dissolves in water to form carbonic acid,
which then reacts with minerals like feldspar and carbonate minerals. For example, calcium
carbonates and magnesium carbonates dissolve in carbonic acid, leading to the formation of
caves as these minerals are removed without leaving residue.
3. Hydration: Hydration is the addition of water to minerals, causing them to expand. This
expansion can increase the volume of the material or rock, and over time, repeated hydration
can cause rocks to fatigue and disintegrate.
4. Oxidation and Reduction: Oxidation in weathering refers to the reaction of minerals with
oxygen to form oxides or hydroxides. Iron, manganese, and sulfur are commonly involved in
this process. For example, iron oxidizes to form rust, which has a characteristic red, brown, or
yellow color. Reduction occurs when oxidized minerals are placed in an environment lacking
oxygen, reversing the oxidation process.

Biological Weathering: Living organisms can contribute to weathering as well. Plant roots can grow
into cracks in rocks and pry them apart, while lichens and mosses can produce acids that chemically
break down rock surfaces. It can be either chemical or physical.

Physical Biological Weathering:

 Plant Roots: As plants grow, their roots can extend into small cracks in rocks. Over time, as
the roots grow thicker, they can exert significant pressure on the rock, causing it to fracture
and break apart. This is a physical process because it involves the mechanical breaking of
rock without altering its chemical composition.

Chemical Biological Weathering:

 Lichens and Mosses: These organisms can secrete organic acids as part of their metabolic
processes. When these acids come into contact with certain minerals in rocks, they can react
chemically to break down the rock’s surface. This is a chemical process because it involves
changes to the rock’s chemical structure.

Mass wasting, also known as mass movement, is the downhill movement of soil, rock, and
organic materials under the influence of gravity. It’s a key process in the shaping of landscapes and
can occur over a range of scales, from small soil creep to large landslides.

1. Slope Failures: These are sudden movements where material moves down a slope.

 Types of Slope Failures:

 Slumps: Imagine taking a spoonful of ice cream and flipping it upside down. The ice cream
rotates and settles with the curved part facing up, just like a slump. In nature, a slump is
when a chunk of earth or rock moves down a slope, rotating along a curved surface. The top
of the slump doesn’t get too mixed up, and it leaves a half-moon-shaped scar on the
slope. Slumps can be small or really big, covering a large area.
  Falls: Think of when you drop a pebble off a cliff, and it tumbles down. That’s a rock fall. If
the pebble brings down dirt, plants, and other rocks with it, that’s a debris fall. Rock falls can
start with just one rock or a whole bunch, and they can knock loose even more rocks on their
way down. This usually happens on very steep slopes or cliffs. At the bottom, you’ll often find
a pile of all the fallen stuff, called talus.
 Slides: Now, imagine a book sliding off a tilted shelf. That’s like a rock slide or debris slide.
Rocks or debris move down a slope, sliding along a flat surface like a layer in the earth or a
crack in the rock. These surfaces are like the shelf, and they’re already there before the slide
happens.

2. Sediment Flows: These involve the downhill flow of sediment mixed with water or air.

 Types of Sediment Flows:

o Slurry Flows: Contain about 20-40% water. They behave like a thick fluid and can
transition into streams with higher water content.
o Granular Flows: Have less than 20% water or may even be dry. Air trapped within
the particles allows them to flow like a fluid.

Factors Influencing Mass Wasting:

 Water Content: Affects the flow behavior and stability of the material.
 Slope Angle: Steeper slopes are more prone to failure.
 Vegetation: Roots can stabilize slopes, but also contribute to physical weathering.
 Weathering: Weakened material is more likely to move.

Erosion is the process by which natural forces move soil, rock, and other surface materials from one
location to another. It’s primarily caused by the action of water, wind, ice, and gravity.

 Erosion by Water: Water, especially in the form of waves, erodes coastlines by breaking
down rocks into smaller particles like pebbles and sand.
 Erosion by Wind: Wind transports dust, sand, and volcanic ash, sometimes forming large
sand dunes.
 Erosion by Ice: Glaciers erode land by picking up and carrying materials, ranging from small
grains to boulders, as they move.
 Erosion by Gravity: Gravity causes materials to move down slopes, contributing to erosion.

Deposition occurs when erosional agents like water, wind, ice, and gravity lose their energy and
settle the materials they’ve been carrying. This process is not driven by any specific agent but is the
result of the loss of energy during erosion. It plays a crucial role in forming new landscapes and
altering existing ones

 Water Deposition: At the mouth of a river, where it meets the ocean, soil and sediments are
deposited, forming new land known as a delta.
 Wind Deposition: Sand dunes are formed from sand deposited by wind when it loses
energy.
 Ice Deposition: Glaciers deposit the materials they carry when they melt.
Endogenic Processes

Volcanism: Vulcan: Roman God of Fire and the Forge Volcanism refers to the eruption of molten rock, or
magma, onto the surface of the Earth or a solid-surface planet or moon, where it forms lava, pyroclastics, and
volcanic gases through a break in the surface called a ven

1. Magma Chamber: Deep underground, this is where the magma is stored before an eruption.
It’s like a big underground pool of molten rock.
2. Conduit: This is the tube or pathway that magma travels through to get from the magma
chamber to the surface.
3. Vent: The vent is the opening at the surface of the volcano where the magma comes out. It’s
the volcano’s mouth.
4. Crater: Once the magma reaches the surface, it often erupts through the crater, which is a
bowl-shaped depression at the top of the volcano.
5. Lava Flow: After the eruption, the magma that reaches the surface becomes lava and flows
down the sides of the volcano.
6. Ash Cloud: During the eruption, the volcano can also spew out an ash cloud, which is a big
plume of ash that can go high into the sky.
7. Cone: The cone is the shape of the volcano itself, built up by layers of hardened lava, ash,
and rocks from past eruptions.

Magma is a complex mixture of molten rock found beneath the Earth’s surface. It’s composed of
various elements, primarily oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and
potassium. These elements are part of minerals that melt to form magma.

The formation of magma can occur through several processes:

 Decompression Melting: This happens when the pressure decreases but the temperature
remains the same, allowing the rock to melt. Imagine a bottle of soda: when you open it, the
decrease in pressure causes the gas to escape. Similarly, when the Earth’s mantle rises closer
to the surface, the pressure drops, and the rock can start to melt.
 Flux Melting: This involves the addition of certain substances that lower the melting point of
rocks. It’s like adding salt to ice; the salt lowers the freezing point, causing the ice to melt at a
lower temperature. In the Earth’s crust, the introduction of water or carbon dioxide can
trigger flux melting.
 Heat Transfer Melting: This occurs when hot magma rises from the mantle and heats up the
surrounding solid rock, causing it to melt. It’s similar to putting a chocolate bar next to
something warm; the heat from the warm object melts the chocolate.

Volcanic eruptions can be categorized mainly into two types based on their characteristics:

1. Effusive Eruptions: These eruptions are relatively gentle and involve the steady flow of lava
onto the surface. The lava is typically low in viscosity, meaning it’s runny and can travel far
from the volcano. Effusive eruptions form broad, gently sloping volcanoes like shield
volcanoes.
 2. Explosive Eruptions: In contrast, explosive eruptions are violent and can be extremely
dangerous. They involve the rapid release of gases and pyroclastic material, which includes
ash, lapilli, and volcanic bombs. These eruptions can create large ash clouds and pyroclastic
flows, and they’re associated with stratovolcanoes, which have steeper slopes.

As for the main types of volcanoes, they are:

1. Shield Volcanoes: These are effusive volcanoes with large, broad shapes and gentle
slopes, formed by the accumulation of fluid lava flows. They resemble a warrior’s shield lying
on the ground. An example is Mauna Loa in Hawaii.
2. Stratovolcanoes (Composite Volcanoes): These volcanoes have a steep, conical shape and
are built up by many layers of hardened lava, tephra, pumice, and volcanic ash. They are
known for both effusive and explosive eruptions. Examples include Mount Fuji in Japan
and Mount St. Helens in the USA.
3. Cinder Cone Volcanoes: These are the simplest and smallest type of volcano, built from
particles and blobs of congealed lava ejected from a single vent. They have steep sides and
usually erode away quickly. Paricutin in Mexico is a well-known cinder cone.
4. Lava Domes (Volcanic Domes): These are formed by the slow eruption of viscous lava and
often grow within the craters of larger stratovolcanoes. They can produce explosive
eruptions due to the pressure build-up from the thick magma. An example is Lassen Peak in
California.

Earthquakes and Seismic Waves Earthquakes result from endogenic processes within the Earth that
cause crustal movements, releasing energy as seismic waves. There are two main types of seismic
waves: body waves and surface waves.

Body Waves Body waves travel through the Earth’s interior and are of two types:

 P-waves (Primary waves): Compression waves that move materials in the same direction as
the wave travels which means they move the ground back and forth in the same direction as
the wave is traveling. This motion is similar to how a slinky moves when you compress and
release it. They are the fastest seismic waves and can pass through solids, liquids, and gases.
P-waves are the first to arrive during an earthquake.
 S-waves (Secondary waves): Shear waves that move materials perpendicular to the wave’s
direction. S-waves can only travel through solids and are slower than P-waves. They arrive
after P-waves and move the ground up and down or side to side.

Surface Waves Surface waves travel along the Earth’s surface and are of two types:

 Rayleigh waves: Cause the ground to move in an elliptical motion, similar to water waves.
They include up and down as well as side to side movements.
 Love waves: Cause horizontal shearing of the ground. They are typically faster than Rayleigh
waves and move the ground from side to side without vertical displacement.

Parts of an Earthquake The main parts of an earthquake include:

  Focus: The point within the Earth where the earthquake originates.
 Epicenter: The location on the Earth’s surface directly above the focus.
 Fault: A fracture in the Earth’s crust along which movement has occurred.

Alfred Wegener was indeed a pioneering German geophysicist and meteorologist. His
groundbreaking hypothesis, which he first presented in 1912, challenged the prevailing geoscientific
views of his time. In 1915, he published his seminal work, “The Origin of Continents and Oceans”
(“Die Entstehung der Kontinente und Ozeane” in German), where he detailed his theory of
Continental Drift.

Continental Drift Alfred Wegener proposed the continental drift hypothesis, suggesting that
continents were once joined in a supercontinent called Pangaea and have since drifted apart. His
hypothesis was supported by:

Supporting Evidence:

 Continental Jigsaw Puzzle: The coastlines of continents such as South America and Africa
have a complementary shape, suggesting they were once joined.
 Fossil Evidence: Identical fossils found on continents now separated by oceans indicate
these lands were once connected.
 Rock Structure: Similar rock formations and mountain ranges found on different continents
support the idea of a united landmass.

Contradictions:

1. Mechanism of Drift: Wegener’s inability to provide a convincing mechanism for the

movement of continents was a major point of contention.
2. Rate of Drift: The actual rate at which continents moved was not well understood, leading to
skepticism.
3. Resistance from the Geological Community: Many geologists of the time were resistant to
such a radical change in thinking without concrete evidence.

Vindication:

1. Modern Geology: Developments in geological science have since provided a wealth of

evidence supporting Wegener’s theory.
2. Advancement of Technologies: Technological progress has allowed for more precise
measurements and observations, such as:
o Sea Floor Spreading: The discovery of new crust being formed at mid-ocean ridges
and moving away supported the idea of continents drifting.
o Paleomagnetic and Tectonic Evidence: Studies of the magnetic properties of rocks
and the movement of tectonic plates provided the missing pieces to confirm
Wegener’s hypothesis.

Deformation of Earth’s crust is the change in shape or volume of the crust due to natural processes
such as plate tectonics, volcanic loading, or folding 1. One of the causes of deformation is differential
stress, which is the difference between the greatest and the least compressive stress experienced by
an object2. There are three types of differential stress: tensional stress, which stretches rock;
compressional stress, which squeezes rock; and shear stress, which results in slippage and
translation345.

The stages of deformation are elastic, inelastic, and failure. Elastic deformation is reversible and
does not change the internal structure of the material. Inelastic deformation is permanent and
involves changes in the bonds between atoms or molecules. Failure occurs when the material breaks
or fractures6.

The types of fracture depend on the material’s ability to withstand stress. Brittle materials break
easily under stress, while ductile materials deform plastically without breaking. Examples of brittle
materials are glass, ceramics, and some rocks. Examples of ductile materials are metals, rubber, and
some rocks6.

Types of folds are classified by their shape and orientation. A monocline is a fold with one steep
limb and one gentle limb. An anticline is a fold with an upward arch and older rocks in the core. A
syncline is a fold with a downward trough and younger rocks in the core 6.

Faults are fractures in the crust where rocks have moved past each other. Types of faults are
classified by the relative movement of the blocks on either side of the fault plane. A normal fault
occurs when the hanging wall moves down relative to the footwall, due to tensional stress. A reverse
fault occurs when the hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall, due to compressional stress. A
strike-slip fault occurs when the blocks move horizontally past each other, due to shear stress 6. The
hanging wall is the block above the fault plane, while the footwall is the block below it6.

Plate movements and boundaries are related to the theory of plate tectonics, which states that the
Earth’s crust is divided into rigid plates that move over a viscous mantle layer. There are three types
of plate boundaries: convergent, where plates come together; divergent, where plates move away
from each other; and transform, where plates slide past each other 6.

Features of the ocean floor include continental shelves, slopes, and rises; abyssal plains and hills;
mid-ocean ridges; trenches; seamounts; and coral reefs 6. Seafloor spreading is the process by which
new oceanic crust is formed at divergent boundaries by magma rising from the mantle and
solidifying6. Evidences of seafloor spreading include magnetic anomalies, age of oceanic crust, heat
flow, and sediment thickness6.

Earth’s History: Earth’s history spans over 4.5 billion years, from its formation to the present day 1. It
includes major events like the formation of the moon, the appearance of the first life forms, the rise
and fall of dinosaurs, and the evolution of humans 1.

Relative Dating: Relative dating is a method used to determine the chronological order of past
events by comparing rock strata. It doesn’t provide exact ages but allows us to understand the
sequence of geological events.
Law of Stratigraphy: Stratigraphy is the study of rock layers (strata). This refers to a set of principles
that geologists use to determine the relative ages of rock layers. The Law of Stratigraphy includes
several principles such as the Law of Superposition, which states that in an undisturbed sequence of
rocks, the oldest layers are at the bottom and the youngest are at the top 2.

 Law of Superposition: In an undisturbed sequence of rock layers, the oldest layers are at the
bottom, and the youngest are at the top 1.
 Law of Original Horizontality: Layers of sediment are originally deposited horizontally
under the action of gravity2.
 Law of Lateral Continuity: Layers of sediment initially extend laterally in all directions; in
other words, they are laterally continuous 3.
 Law of Cross-Cutting Relationships: If a geologic feature cuts across another, the feature
that has been cut is older4.

Laws of Unconformities: Unconformities are gaps in the geological record that represent periods
where no rock was deposited or where erosion removed layers. There are different types of
unconformities, such as disconformity, nonconformity, and angular unconformity 3.

 Unconformities: These are surfaces in rock layers that represent a gap in the geologic record
where deposition stopped, erosion removed previously formed layers, and then deposition
resumed5.
 Angular Unconformity: This occurs where horizontally parallel strata of sedimentary rock
are deposited on tilted and eroded layers, producing an angular discordance with the
overlying horizontal layers6.
 Nonconformity: A type of unconformity where sedimentary rocks lie above and were
deposited on pre-existing and eroded metamorphic or igneous rocks 6.
 Disconformity: An unconformity between parallel layers of sedimentary rocks which
represents a period of erosion or non-deposition 5.
 Paraconformity: A type of unconformity in which the sedimentary layers above and below
the unconformity are parallel, but there is no obvious erosional break between them 5.

Absolute Dating: Absolute dating methods provide an actual date or date range for rock layers or
fossils, often using radioactive decay. Common methods include radiometric dating techniques like
potassium-argon, uranium-lead, rubidium-strontium, and carbon-14 dating 4.

 Radiometric Dating: A type of absolute dating, radiometric dating measures the decay of
radioactive isotopes in rocks and organic materials. This method is based on the known and
constant rate of decay of radioactive isotopes into their radiogenic daughter isotopes 2.
 Potassium-Argon Dating: This method measures the ratio of radioactive argon to
radioactive potassium in rocks to determine their age. It’s useful for dating volcanic rocks and
can date materials from thousands to billions of years old 5.
 Uranium-Lead Dating: Uranium-lead dating is one of the oldest and most reliable
radiometric dating methods. It’s used to date zircon crystals in rocks and can determine ages
from about 1 million to over 4.5 billion years6.
  Rubidium-Strontium Dating: This method estimates the age of rocks by measuring the
amount of stable strontium-87 formed from the decay of unstable rubidium-87. It has a half-
life of approximately 50 billion years, making it suitable for very old rocks 7.
 Carbon-14 Dating: Carbon-14 dating is used to determine the age of organic materials up
to about 60,000 years old. It measures the decay of carbon-14 to nitrogen-14 8.

o Isotopes: These are variants of a particular chemical element that have the same
number of protons but a different number of neutrons. Isotopes of an element have
nearly identical chemical properties but different physical properties and atomic
masses3.
o Half-Life: In the context of radioactive decay, the half-life is the time required for half
of the radioactive atoms in a sample to decay. It’s a measure of the rate at which a
radioactive isotope decays2.

Fossils: Fossils are the preserved remains or traces of ancient life. They can be body fossils, like
bones or shells, or trace fossils, like footprints or burrows. Fossils help us understand the history of
life on Earth9.

The geologic time scale is a system of chronological measurement that relates stratigraphy (the
study of rock layers) to time, and is used by geologists, paleontologists, and other Earth scientists to
describe the timing and relationships of events in Earth’s history 1. The scale is divided into several
hierarchical divisions from largest to smallest: eon, era, period, epoch, and age2.

Eons

 Hadean Eon (4.6 billion to 4.0 billion years ago): Named after Hades, the Greek god of the
underworld, this eon represents a time when there was no evidence of life on Earth 3.
 Archean Eon (4.0 billion to 2.5 billion years ago): Characterized by the formation of the
Earth’s crust and an abundance of oxygen in the atmosphere 3.
 Proterozoic Eon (2.5 billion to 541 million years ago): Known for the appearance of the
earliest life forms and significant geological and biological changes 3.
 Phanerozoic Eon (541 million years ago to present): This eon is marked by abundant fossil
evidence and is divided into three eras: Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cenozoic 1.

Eras

 Paleozoic Era (541 to 252 million years ago): Known for the development of marine life, land
plants, and the first amphibians1.
 Mesozoic Era (252 to 66 million years ago): The age of reptiles, including dinosaurs, and the
first mammals and birds1.
 Cenozoic Era (66 million years ago to present): The age of mammals, with significant
evolution and diversification of life forms1.
Periods (Paleozoic Era)

 Cambrian Period (541 to 485 million years ago): The explosion of life, with many major
groups of animals appearing for the first time 1.
 Ordovician Period (485 to 444 million years ago): Marine life flourished, and the first land
plants appeared1.
 Silurian Period (444 to 419 million years ago): Coral reefs developed, and the first vascular
plants emerged on land1.
 Devonian Period (419 to 359 million years ago): Known as the “Age of Fishes” and the
appearance of the first tetrapods1.
 Carboniferous Period (359 to 299 million years ago): Extensive forests of vascular plants
formed, leading to the formation of coal 1.
 Permian Period (299 to 252 million years ago): Ended with the largest mass extinction in
Earth’s history1.

Periods (Mesozoic Era)

 Triassic Period (252 to 201 million years ago): The first dinosaurs and mammals appeared 1.
 Jurassic Period (201 to 145 million years ago): The dominance of dinosaurs and the
appearance of the first birds1.
 Cretaceous Period (145 to 66 million years ago): Flowering plants emerged, and the period
ended with the extinction of dinosaurs 1.

Epochs (Cenozoic Era)

 Paleocene Epoch (66 to 56 million years ago): Mammals began to dominate the Earth 1.
 Eocene Epoch (56 to 34 million years ago): Early forms of many modern species appeared 1.
 Oligocene Epoch (34 to 23 million years ago): The first apes appeared 1.
 Miocene Epoch (23 to 5.3 million years ago): Modern plant families became recognizable 1.
 Pliocene Epoch (5.3 to 2.6 million years ago): The climate cooled, leading to the Ice Ages 1.
 Pleistocene Epoch (2.6 million to 11,700 years ago): Characterized by repeated glacial
cycles1.
 Holocene Epoch (11,700 years ago to present): The current epoch, which has seen the
development of human civilizations1.

The geologic time scale is a testament to the dynamic and ever-changing nature of our planet,
providing a framework for understanding the complex history of Earth and the life it supports. It’s a
fascinating subject that offers insights into the processes that have shaped our world over billions of
years.
UCSP

Social Aggregates

Social aggregates are collections of individuals who are in the same place at the same time but do
not necessarily have anything in common and may not interact with each other 1. They are different
from social groups, which involve regular interaction and shared characteristics among members 1.

Social Categories

Social categories refer to groups of people who share common traits or characteristics but do not
interact with one another2. Examples include teenagers, dancers, and teachers, who may share certain
attributes but do not know or interact with most others in their category 2.

Social Group

A social group is defined as two or more people who interact with one another, share similar
characteristics, and collectively have a sense of unity 3. This can range from small groups like families
to large groups like societies3.

Primary Group

Primary groups are characterized by intimate, face-to-face, and continuous relationships, often
playing a significant role in an individual’s social life and identity 4. Examples include close family and
friends4.

Secondary Group

Secondary groups are typically larger, impersonal, and goal-oriented, often formed to complete a
task or achieve a specific purpose5. They may include students in a classroom or employees in an
office5.

Reference Group

A reference group is a group to which an individual compares themselves, influencing their

behavior and attitudes6. It can be aspirational (one individuals wish to join) or non-aspirational (one
individuals wish to avoid)6.

Groupthink

Groupthink is a psychological phenomenon where people strive for consensus within a group, often
setting aside personal beliefs or adopting the opinion of the rest of the group 7. It can lead to
irrational or dysfunctional decision-making outcomes 8.
Kinship

Kinship is the web of social relationships that form an important part of human lives in all societies 9.
It includes relationships based on blood (consanguineal) or marriage (affinal) 9.

Types of Kinship

 Consanguineal kinship is based on blood, such as the relationship between parents and
children or siblings10.
 Affinal kinship is based on marriage, like the relationship between spouses 11.

Descent and Lineage

Descent refers to the tracing of kinship through an ancestor, while lineage is a group descended
from a common ancestor9Unilineal descent traces kinship through one gender only, either
patrilineal (father’s line) or matrilineal (mother’s line)9Bilateral descent traces kinship through both
parents9.

Marriage Across Culture

Different cultures have various marriage practices, such as:

 Endogamy: marrying within a specific social group11.

 Exogamy: marrying outside one’s social group11.
 Monogamy: marriage to one person at a time11.
 Polygamy: having multiple spouses11.

Post Marital Residency Rules

These rules dictate where a married couple resides:

 Patrilocal: with the husband’s family11.

 Matrilocal: with the wife’s family11.
 Bilocal: with either the husband’s or wife’s family 11.

Referred and Arranged Marriages

 Referred marriage: matchmakers help individuals find partners11.

 Arranged marriage: parents or community leaders choose a partner for the individual 11.
 Arranged marriages are a traditional practice in many cultures, where the marital partners are
determined by individuals other than the couple themselves, often involving family members
such as parents or community leaders. Here’s a detailed look at the types of arranged
marriages you’ve mentioned:
 1. Child Marriage
Child marriage refers to a formal marriage or informal union where one or both parties are
under the age of 181. It is a practice that is condemned by the United Nations due to its
harmful effects on children, especially girls 1. Child marriage often occurs when parents
arrange the marriage of their child long before the marriage takes place, with the
understanding that the marriage will be consummated in the future 2.
2. Exchange Marriage
Exchange marriage involves an arranged and reciprocal exchange of spouses between two
groups, often emphasizing unilineal descent and postmarital residence with the husband’s
family3. This form of marriage is common in societies with a strong emphasis on maintaining
lineage and alliances between families or groups 4.
3. Diplomatic Marriage
Diplomatic marriage, also known as a marriage of state, is a union between members of
different nation-states or power blocs, often within authoritarian societies 5. This practice
dates back to ancient times and is used to forge political or diplomatic alliances between
royal or political families5.
4. Modern Arranged Marriage
In a modern arranged marriage, the parents, with the consent of their child, select several
potential mates and organize meetings for their child to get to know them 6. The child is then
given a short time to decide whom they will marry, with the parents often having a say in the
choice7. This form of marriage has evolved to incorporate more choice for the individuals
involved, reflecting a blend of traditional values and modern preferences 6.

Kinship by Rituals

Compadrazgo is a form of ritual kinship originating in the medieval Catholic church, established
through rituals like baptism and marriage11.

The Family and the Household

The family is the basic unit of social organization, linked by marriage, blood relations, or adoption,
and performs various social roles11.

Definitions of Family by Sociologists and Anthropologists

 George Peter Murdock: A family shares a common residence, economic cooperation,

reproduces offspring, includes adults of both sexes in a socially approved sexual relationship,
and socializes children11.
 Kingsley Davis: A family’s relationship is based on consanguinity and kinship 11.
 Bronislaw Malinowski: A family institution passes down cultural traditions to the next
generation11.
 Talcott Parsons: A family develops and produces human personalities 11.
Structural Functionalism Theory
Structural Functionalism views the family as a fundamental institution that performs vital roles for
society123. It assumes the following about family:

1. Agent of Socialization: Families are the primary unit for socializing children, teaching them
societal norms and values.
2. Emotional and Practical Support: They provide love, comfort, and practical support like
food and shelter to their members.
3. Regulation of Sexual Activity: Families regulate sexual activity and reproduction, ensuring
societal norms are followed.
4. Social Identity: Family gives individuals a sense of belonging and identity within society.

Conflict Theory
Conflict Theory suggests that the family can perpetuate social inequality 4. It posits that:

 The family structure can reinforce economic inequality and sustain patriarchal systems.
 Family dynamics can lead to conflict and power struggles, impacting the broader society.

Symbolic Interactionist Theory

Symbolic Interactionism focuses on the interpersonal dynamics within the family 567. It emphasizes
that:

 Family interactions create shared understandings and meanings.

 Communication styles and social class influence family relationships and expectations.

Families and Households

The United Nations defines a family within a household based on blood, adoption, or marriage 8. A
household can be a single person or a group living together and sharing resources.

Nuclear and Extended Families

 Nuclear Family: Consists of parents and their children living together.

 Extended Family: Includes the nuclear family plus other relatives such as grandparents,
aunts, uncles, and cousins891011.

Blended or Reconstituted Families

Blended families, also known as reconstituted families, form when individuals with children from
previous relationships create a new family unit 12131415.

Kinship of Politics: Political Dynasties and Alliances

Political kinship refers to the practice of passing political power among family members, often seen
in political dynasties and alliances1617181920. These dynasties can have significant influence on both
local and national politics.
Political Organization
Political organization refers to the way a society creates and maintains a system of power, authority,
and governance. It encompasses the structures, roles, and institutions that shape how decisions are
made and how power is exercised and distributed within a society 12.

Bands

A band is the simplest form of political organization, typically consisting of a small group of families
or individuals who are related by blood or marriage. Bands are often:

 Egalitarian: There is no formal class or status hierarchy, and all members have equal access
to resources3.
 Kinship-based: Relationships and marriage ties are the primary means of social cohesion.
 Nomadic or semi-nomadic: Many bands are hunter-gatherers who move with the seasons
to follow food sources.
 Consensus-driven: Decisions are made collectively, often through discussion and agreement
among all adult members4.

Band Fissioning and Social Velocity

As bands grow in size, they may experience internal conflicts that can lead to band fissioning, where
the band splits into smaller groups. This process is sometimes driven by social velocity, the
tendency for individuals or families to leave and form new bands due to social discord rather than
resource scarcity5.

Tribes

A tribe represents a more complex form of political organization that arises from the growth and
diversification of bands. Tribes often exhibit the following characteristics:

 Acephalous: They lack centralized leadership or hierarchies, making them stateless societies 6.
 Sodalities: These non-kinship-based groups, such as councils or elder gatherings, help
manage conflicts and maintain social order across the tribe 7.
 Village Headman: A respected individual who may coordinate community activities and
represent the tribe in dealings with outsiders 8.
 Egalitarianism: Despite increased complexity, tribes generally maintain an egalitarian ethos,
with no significant economic class differentiation 3.

Chiefdoms: Defined and Differentiated

A chiefdom is a form of political organization where formal leadership is vested in members of a
select family, often with a paramount chief at the helm 12. This system is more defined and hierarchical
than the informal structures governing bands and tribes.

Hierarchical Social Structure

Chiefdoms exhibit a hierarchical social structure with social classes differentiated by power levels
relative to the ruler12. Class mobility is possible, typically through extraordinary achievements or
tasks. Social status within chiefdoms can also be influenced by marriage, age, and sex 12.

Simple vs. Complex Chiefdoms

  Simple Chiefdoms: These are characterized by a central village or community led by a single
family. Surrounding smaller communities are headed by subsidiary leaders who are
subservient to the central ruler1.
 Complex Chiefdoms: Comprising several simple chiefdoms, they are ruled by a single
paramount chief residing in a paramount center. This structure is highly hierarchical, with a
class system where elites demand tributes from commoners as part of a "tributary system" 1.

Tributary System and Redistribution

In complex chiefdoms, the tributary system involves commoners paying tributes, such as agricultural
crops and produce, to the elites and lesser chiefs, who in turn owe tribute to the paramount
chief2. The paramount chief performs rituals and redistributes material goods, awarding titles and
symbolic rewards, thereby reinforcing their authority 2.

Political Instability
Research indicates that chiefdoms are prone to cycles of disintegration and reintegration, making
them highly unstable political entities12. This instability can arise from internal conflicts, succession
disputes, or external pressures.

Nations: Imagined and Abstract

 Imagined Communities: Benedict Anderson describes nations as imagined because

members of a nation will never know most of their fellow-members, yet in the minds of each
lives the image of their communion1. This concept emphasizes the psychological bond that
connects people of a nation, regardless of their physical location 1.
 Abstract Nation: Paul James views nations as abstract entities, suggesting that a nation is an
impersonal construct that individuals can identify with, despite not having a tangible
presence2. This perspective acknowledges the subjective nature of national identity 2.

States: Sovereign Political Units

 Definition: A state is a sovereign entity with a defined territory, permanent population, and a
government that exercises control over its territory 345.
 Nation-State: When the majority of a state’s citizens share the same national identity, the
state is referred to as a nation-state 3. However, many states are home to diverse cultural
identities, leading to the existence of nations within states 3.

Nations within States: Cultural Identity and Governance

 Cultural Identity: The recognition of diverse cultural identities within a state can lead to the
formation of nations within states, where distinct groups maintain their unique cultural
attributes67.
 State Governance: The governance of such diverse cultural identities can be challenging, as
it requires balancing the preservation of cultural heritage with the promotion of national
unity89.
Discrimination and Nation-Building

 Discrimination: Nations within states may face discrimination, especially if there is a

dominant national group that imposes its culture and practices on others 1011121314.
 Nation-Building: The process of nation-building involves cultivating a sense of nationalism
and a common national identity, which can sometimes lead to the marginalization of unique
cultural attributes of other national groupings 1516

Authority and Legitimacy

 Authority: It is the power to make decisions and issue commands that are binding 12.
Authority is necessary for leaders to effectively govern and manage a political community.
 Legitimacy: This is a moral and ethical concept that justifies the use of power. Legitimacy is
not inherent in authority; it must be earned or recognized by the community 12.

Max Weber’s Types of Legitimate Authority

Max Weber, a prominent sociologist, identified three types of authority based on their sources of
legitimacy345:

 Traditional Authority: Derived from long-established customs and social

structures. Examples include monarchical rule and the leadership of elites in a chiefdom 678.
 Charismatic Authority: Based on the exceptional personal qualities or charisma of an
individual, which can inspire devotion and obedience. This type of authority can sometimes
override cultural, traditional, or legal standards 9101112.
 Rational-Legal Authority: Draws legitimacy from formal rules and laws enacted by the
state. This form of authority is prevalent in modern states and underpins the power of
government officials13141516.

The Role of Authority in Governance

Authority plays a crucial role in the governance of societies, providing the framework within which
leaders operate and make decisions that affect the community. The type of authority present in a
society can shape its political, social, and legal structures.

Challenges to Authority
Authority can be challenged when it is perceived as illegitimate or when it is obtained through
improper means such as violence, electoral fraud, or when leaders lack the necessary qualifications 12.

The Nature of Religion:

 Definition: Religion originates from the Latin word “religo,” meaning to bind or obligate. It
encompasses adherence to beliefs about life’s profound mysteries 1.
 Durkheim’s View: Emile Durkheim described religion as a system of beliefs and practices
related to sacred things, creating a moral community or Church 2.
 Characteristics by Durkheim:
 o Sacred vs. Profane: A distinction between everyday life (profane) and the revered
(sacred)2.
o Belief and Faith: Acceptance of sacred things without evidence 2.
o Rituals: Organized practices to stimulate faith, such as festivities and ceremonies 2.
o Community: Gathering of faithful members to form religious communities 2.

Sociological Perspectives:

 Karl Marx: Viewed religion as the “opium of the people,” used to maintain an unequal social
system3.
 Max Weber: Considered religion a significant factor in the rise of capitalism, influenced by
the Calvinist doctrine of predestination3.

Religious Patterns:

 Supernaturalism: Belief in non-material forces affecting the physical world 4.

 Animism: Belief in nature spirits and ancestor worship 4.
 Totemism: Belief that natural elements can influence life 4.
 Theism: Belief in divinity4.
 Polytheism vs. Monotheism: Belief in multiple gods (polytheism) or a single god
(monotheism)4.

Churches

 Definition: Churches are large, formalized organizations often integrated into society and
sometimes linked with the state12.
 Characteristics:
o Hierarchical Structure: Clear organizational hierarchy1.
o Professional Class: Developed bureaucracy within the church 1.
o Rules and Regulations: Formulation and implementation of governance rules 1.

Denominations

 Definition: Denominations are less formal than churches and have a large membership. They
often recruit members from other churches 34.
 Examples: Protestant and Christian denominations like Baptists, Methodists, Lutherans; Sunni
and Shi’a in Islam34.

Sects

 Definition: Sects often reject the beliefs of larger religions and promote strict doctrines. They
are less formal and lack a structured leadership 56.
 Development: Arise from dissatisfaction within a denomination, leading to the creation of a
new sect56.

Cults and New Religious Movements

  Definition: Cults are small groups with beliefs outside mainstream traditions, often led by a
charismatic leader78.
 Terminology: The term “cult” can be derogatory; “new religious movements” is a more
neutral term78.
 Societal Perception: The label “cult” varies by society and culture, and what is considered a
cult in one region may be recognized as a religion in another 78.

 Monotheistic Religions: These religions believe in the existence of a single divine being.
Examples include Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. They originated in Western Asia and
have billions of followers worldwide.
 Polytheistic Religions: These religions believe in multiple deities or gods. Examples are
Hinduism and Buddhism, which originated in South Asia and also have hundreds of millions
of followers around the world.

Judaism: It is a monotheistic religion that began with Abraham and is based on the Hebrew
Bible, including the Torah or Pentateuch. God in Judaism is supreme, accessible, and acts in
human history. The Jews call their sacred temples as synagogues

Christianity:

 Origin: Derived from the Greek word christos, meaning “anointed,” Christianity is based on
the life and teachings of Jesus Christ.
 Beliefs: Christians believe in one God as the creator and sustainer of all, who is active in
human history. The doctrine of the Trinity describes God as three equal persons in one deity:
the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.
 Texts: The Bible is the sacred text, consisting of the Old and New Testaments.
 Main Groups: The three main groups are Orthodox Christianity, Protestantism, and Roman
Catholicism.

Islam:

 Origin: The word Islam comes from the Arabic aslama, meaning “surrender.” It emphasizes
the belief in one God, Allah, and Muhammad as His final messenger.
 Beliefs: Muslims follow the Qur’an, which is considered the literal word of God revealed to
Muhammad.
 Practices: The Five Pillars of Islamic Faith are central to Muslim practice, including the
Shahada (profession of faith), Salat (prayer), Zakat (almsgiving), Sawm (fasting during
Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).
 Main Groups: The two main branches are Sunni and Shi’a, with differences in leadership
beliefs after Muhammad’s death. Sufism is a mystical movement within Islam.

Hinduism

 Belief Systems: Hinduism is a complex amalgamation of religious, philosophical, and cultural

ideas and practices1.
 Samsara: Hindus believe in the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, known as samsara 1.
  Moksha: The ultimate goal is to achieve moksha, or liberation from samsara 1.
 Deities: Key gods include Brahma (the Creator), Shiva (the Destroyer), and Vishnu (the
Preserver), among others1.
 Sacred Texts: The Vedas, Upanishads, and Brahmanas are important texts, with the Vedas
containing hymns and ritual instructions1.

Buddhism

 Origins: Founded by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in the 6th century BCE 2.
 Middle Path: Buddhism teaches the Middle Path, avoiding both indulgence and extreme
asceticism2.
 Four Noble Truths: Central teachings include the Four Noble Truths, which outline the
nature of suffering and the path to its cessation 2.
 Eight-Fold Path: The path to ending suffering includes right understanding, intention,
speech, action, livelihood, effort, mindfulness, and concentration 2.
 Sacred Texts: The Tripitaka, composed of the Vinaya Pitaka, Sutra Pitaka, and Abhidharma
Pitaka, is the primary scripture2.

The separation of Church and State in the Philippines is a constitutional mandate that ensures
religious freedom and the secular nature of governance. Here’s a detailed explanation with
subsections on the subject:

Constitutional Guarantee

 Article II, Section 6: The 1987 Philippine Constitution explicitly states the inviolable
separation of Church and State1.
 Implications: This separation prohibits the imposition of a state religion, allows for personal
choice of religion, and provides freedom to express religious and political views 1.

Historical Context

 Spanish Period: Contrasts with the Spanish-imposed Catholicism as the state religion during
1565-18981.
 Modern Era: Ensures that no single religion is favored by the state and that individuals have
the liberty to practice their chosen faith 1.

Religious Freedom and Political Affairs

 Non-Intervention: The State cannot dictate or interfere with religious practices, nor can the
Church intervene in State politics1.
 Freedom of Expression: Citizens can freely express their views on religious and political
matters without fear of persecution1.

Legal Provisions and Exceptions

  Tax Exemptions: Charitable institutions and religious organizations are exempt from
taxation under certain conditions1.
 Public Funding: Prohibition on the appropriation of public funds for the benefit of any
religion, with specific exceptions1.

Supreme Court Rulings

 Estrada vs. Escritor: Established the doctrine of benevolent neutrality-accommodation,

allowing for some religious accommodations2.
 Benevolent Neutrality: Recognizes religious freedom as an inalienable right and allows for
accommodations under certain circumstances 2.

Formal Education

 Definition: Formal education is institutionalized, intentional, and planned by an education

provider. It typically occurs in a structured environment like schools or universities 1.
 Curriculum: It includes a set curriculum with a course outline, specific number of sessions,
and assessments1.
 Personnel: Delivered by trained teaching and non-teaching personnel 1.
 Objective: Aims to provide continuity in learning and contribute to societal development 1.

Nonformal Education

 Definition: Nonformal education is any organized educational activity outside the formal
system. It’s flexible, learner-centered, and often participatory 2.
 Examples: Includes adult night schools, community-based workshops, vocational training,
and programs for out-of-school youth34.
 Objective: Addresses the need for adaptability and lifelong learning, as emphasized by
futurist Alvin Toffler5.

Importance of Adaptability in Education

 Changing World: The rapid pace of change requires individuals to adapt, unlearn, and
relearn to stay relevant67.
 Toffler’s View: Alvin Toffler highlighted the importance of learning as a continuous process,
crucial for thriving in the 21st century589.

Holistic Approach in Education

 Whole-Person Focus: A holistic approach integrates emotional, social, ethical, and academic
needs in education1011.
 Benefits: Supports the development of well-rounded individuals who can contribute
productively to their communities1213.
Sociological Perspectives on Education

Sociology examines education through various lenses, each offering insights into how education
influences and is influenced by society.

Manifest Functions of Education

Manifest functions are the intended and recognized outcomes of education. They include:

 Socialization: Schools are pivotal in teaching societal norms and values. From a young age,
students learn to navigate social roles and relationships, preparing them for adult life 1.
 Transmission of Culture: Education transmits cultural heritage, ensuring continuity. Subjects
like history and literature help students understand their society’s values and aspirations 2.
 Social Control: Schools enforce conformity to societal rules through reward and punishment
systems, instilling respect for authority3.

Latent Functions of Education

Latent functions are the unintended or less recognized outcomes of education. They encompass:

 Networking: Schools provide opportunities for forming lasting personal and professional
relationships4.
 Group Work Skills: Education fosters collaboration and teamwork, essential skills in the
workplace4.

Conflict Perspective on Education

The conflict perspective views education as a means to perpetuate social inequalities. It suggests that
educational institutions can limit opportunities for less powerful groups, reinforcing disparities based
on gender, class, or race5.

Educational Inequality and Tracking

Tracking refers to the practice of sorting students into different educational paths based on their
abilities or achievements. This can exacerbate inequalities, as students from disadvantaged
backgrounds may be placed in lower tracks, limiting their future opportunities 6.

 Productive Citizenry: Education aims to prepare individuals to create opportunities and

environments that contribute to the community’s betterment 2. It emphasizes the importance
of jobs and families in strengthening society’s basic units 3.
 Self-Actualization: According to Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, self-actualization is the
ultimate goal of human development. It involves realizing one’s potential and fulfilling the
desire for self-fulfillment4.
  Transmission of Cultural Heritage: Education plays a crucial role in communicating
knowledge, language, and science, thereby preserving cultural heritage and facilitating the
integration of subcultures.
 Social and Cultural Innovations: Educational institutions serve as platforms for creativity
and innovation, helping to bring about social change and cultural advancements.

The provided text outlines the goals and functions of education in the 21st-century world, focusing
on productive citizenry and self-actualization. Here’s a summary with subsections:

 Transmission of Cultural Heritage Education reinforces communication and knowledge,

passing down language, science, and cultural values.
 Selection of Social Roles It provides experiences and alternatives for individuals to choose
from a wider selection of roles within the family and society.
 Integration of Subcultures Education functions as a social control mechanism, integrating
subcultures and identities, particularly within religious contexts.
 Source of Innovations It encourages creativity among young people, fostering social and
cultural innovations.
 Productive Citizenry Education aims to create an environment where individuals can
become productive, contributing to the community’s betterment through work and family.
 Self-Actualization Based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, it refers to the fulfillment of one’s
potential and the desire to actualize oneself.

Self-actualized people are those who have fulfilled their potential and have reached the highest level
of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. They possess several distinctive characteristics, which include:

 Peak Experiences: They often have moments of intense joy, ecstasy, and wonder, which can
be transformative1.
 Appreciation of Life: They maintain a fresh outlook on life, experiencing a continuous sense
of appreciation, wonder, and awe1.
 Acceptance: They accept themselves and others as they are, without guilt and with an
understanding of human nature1.
 Problem-Centering: They are focused on solving problems outside themselves and are
motivated by a sense of personal responsibility and ethics 1.
 Spontaneity: They are spontaneous in thought and action, open to new experiences, and
unconventional1.
 Autonomy and Solitude: They value independence and privacy, needing time alone to
develop their potential1.
 Realism: They have realistic perceptions of themselves, others, and the world around them 1.

These characteristics enable self-actualized individuals to live fulfilling lives, contributing positively to
society while also pursuing personal growth and development. They are not only concerned with
their own well-being but also with the betterment of society and the world at large.
Primary Education as a Human Right

 Universal Declaration: Education is a fundamental human right, free and compulsory at the
primary level1.
 UNESCO’s Role: UNESCO emphasizes education as essential for freedom and empowerment,
with legal obligations for Member States1.
 Philippines’ Implementation: The Philippines actualizes education as a right, with
mandatory school attendance and mother tongue-based instruction initiatives 1.
 Challenges: Despite the mandate, some Filipino children do not complete elementary
schooling due to various barriers1.

Social Inequality: The Heart of Sociology

Social inequality is a fundamental concept in sociology that refers to patterns of unequal access to
social resources, which can be observed globally. It is often manifested through social stratification,
where individuals occupy different layers or strata within a social hierarchy. These strata are not
neutral; they define the range and domains of a person’s social capital, both actual and symbolic.

Subsections:

 Defining Social Inequality: It reflects differences in abilities, efforts, and outcomes among
individuals1.
 Social Stratification: People are categorized into different social layers based on their status
and access to resources23.
 Sociological Interest: The omnipresence of social inequality is a central topic in sociology,
leading to the development of sophisticated methodological techniques and theories 1.
 Naturalization of Inequality: Social forces often make inequality seem natural, obscuring its
socially constructed nature1.

Related Subjects from Web Search:

 The Sociology of Social Inequality: An overview of how social inequality is organized by

hierarchies of class, race, and gender, affecting access to resources and rights 1.
 Social Stratification: How societies categorize people based on factors like wealth, income,
education, and power, and the implications for social mobility 2.
 Sociological Perspectives on Social Inequality: Different theoretical approaches to
understanding social inequality, including functionalist and conflict theories 14.

Social inequality is not just an academic concept; it has real-world implications, influencing
individuals’ life chances and societal structures. It is a dynamic and complex phenomenon that
sociology seeks to understand and address. The discipline’s contribution is to demystify the “natural”
appearance of inequality and provide ways to confront its various manifestations.

The Context of Social Desirables

The concept of social desirables refers to the aspirations for wealth, power, and prestige that
individuals in a society often seek. The ability to achieve these desirables is significantly influenced by
one’s birth circumstances, which include ascribed traits such as sex, ethnicity, social class, religious
and political milieu, and physical appearance. These ascribed traits can limit an individual’s potential
to achieve their goals, but some may evolve into achieved traits as the individual grows and makes
life choices.

Subsections:

 Ascribed Traits: Characteristics individuals are born with, which can limit their opportunities
and social mobility123.
 Achieved Traits: Traits that individuals gain through their efforts and choices, reflecting
personal achievements123.
 Impact of Birth Circumstances: How one’s birth situation affects their ability to control their
life and attain social desirables4.
 Challenges for Marginalized Groups: Difficulties faced by those born into poverty,
patriarchal societies, with disabilities, or as cultural/religious minorities 5678.

Social Desirables: Availability and Accessibility

Social desirables are resources deemed valuable by society, which can be tangible, like wealth, or
intangible, like prestige. The availability and accessibility of these resources are central to
understanding social inequality.

Subsections:

 Availability vs. Accessibility: Availability refers to the presence or scarcity of resources,

while accessibility concerns the means of obtaining them 1.
 Wealth, Power, and Prestige: These are traditional social desirables that determine an
individual’s social standing and class status23.
 Sociological Perspectives: Different sociologists, including Karl Marx and Max Weber, have
varying views on social class and the role of social desirables 23.

Karl Marx’s View:

 Economic Stature: Marx focused on wealth in relation to the ownership of the means of
production2.
 Class Struggle: He believed in the existence of two opposing classes: the bourgeoisie
(owners) and the proletariat (workers)2.

Max Weber’s View:

 Multidimensional Class Status: Weber considered wealth, power, and prestige as separate
yet interrelated components of social standing 3.
 Broader Class Spectrum: He provided a more diversified classification of class, including
propertied upper class, white-collar workers, petite bourgeoisie, and manual workers 3.
The web page provides a detailed explanation of Forms of Capital and Inequalities, as well as
Social Mobility and Inequality. Here are the key takeaways:

 Forms of Capital:
o Societies distribute resources unevenly, leading to social inequality.
o Three forms of capital are identified: economic (material assets/income), cultural
(education/status), and social (networks/associations).
o These forms of capital often overlap and can convert into one another.
 Social Mobility:
o Social mobility allows individuals to move within or between social strata.
o It is influenced by the type of stratification system, with open systems allowing more
mobility through education and effort.
o Closed systems, like caste systems, can severely limit mobility.

The page emphasizes that social inequality is a societal construct rather than a result of natural
differences, and social mobility is a key factor in overcoming the limitations of one’s birth conditions.

Types of Social Mobility and Their Impact on Social Equality

Social mobility is the movement of individuals or groups within the social hierarchy of a society. It is
a key factor in determining the level of social equality and can take various forms:

Subsections:

 Absolute Social Mobility: This occurs when individuals end up in a different social stratum
than their parents, which can lead to changes in the overall social structure 1.
 Relative Social Mobility: It refers to the likelihood of achieving a certain social status
compared to others, regardless of structural changes 2.
 Structural Mobility: A type of mobility that results from changes in society’s structure, often
leading to shifts in the distribution of statuses 3.

Factors Affecting Social Mobility:

 Wealth, Prestige, and Power: These dimensions, as outlined by Max Weber, play a
significant role in social stratification and mobility 4.
 Intervening Variables: Gender, race, ethnicity, and age can influence an individual’s social
mobility and the valuation of income or wealth 5.

Social Equality and Inequality:

 Access to Capital: Inequality in access to social, political, and symbolic capital can hinder
collective action and social mobility6.
 Desirability of Social Equality: A democratic society values social equality, but numerous
sources of inequality can challenge its realization 7.
Addressing social inequality is a multifaceted endeavor that involves both legislative measures and
cultural transformation. Here’s a detailed breakdown of the two main approaches:

Policy Legislation

Policy legislation is a powerful tool for fostering gender equality and protecting the rights of
marginalized groups. In the Philippines, several laws have been enacted to promote the rights of
women and protect the rights of persons with disabilities (PWDs):

 Gender Equality: The Magna Carta of Women was signed into law in 2009, providing for
the protection and promotion of the rights of women, including equal opportunities in
education, employment, and political participation 1.
 LGBT Rights: While there are no specific laws that promote the rights of the LGBT
community in the Philippines, there have been discussions and proposals to enact such
legislation2.
 Indigenous Peoples’ Rights: The Indigenous People’s Rights Act seeks to protect the
rights of cultural communities by recognizing their ancestral domains and promoting their
economic, social, and cultural well-being3.
 Persons with Disabilities: Laws such as the Magna Carta for Disabled Persons and the
Accessibility Law aim to create job opportunities and promote the employment of PWDs,
including providing reasonable accommodations in the workplace 45.

Cultural Transformation

Cultural transformation involves changing societal perceptions and attitudes towards women, LGBT
individuals, ethnic minorities, and PWDs. Educational initiatives and media representation play a
crucial role in combating stereotypes and discrimination:

 Educational Initiatives: Programs like UNESCO’s efforts to end discrimination in education

and the Council of Europe’s focus on combating gender stereotypes through education are
examples of how educational policies can promote equality and challenge stereotypes 67.
 Media Representation: Media campaigns and content that challenge stereotypes and
promote diversity can influence public opinion and foster a more inclusive society 89.

By combining legislative action with cultural initiatives, societies can make significant strides towards
reducing social inequality and ensuring that all individuals have the opportunity to participate fully
and equally in all aspects of life.

Global inequality is a multifaceted issue that encompasses disparities in wealth, power, and influence
among states, often rooted in historical events and current geopolitical dynamics. Here’s a detailed
explanation with subsections on related subjects:

Historical Roots of Global Inequality

The legacy of colonialism has left a lasting impact on global inequality. Former colonies often find
themselves in a dependent relationship with their former colonizers, leading to economic, cultural,
and political influences that persist long after independence 12345.

Economic and Strategic Disparities

States with abundant resources or strategic importance can exert more leverage on the global stage.
Conversely, states that rely on official development assistance may be subject to policy
conditionalities imposed by donor countries or organizations 6789.

Military Imbalance and Inequality

Military strength can be a significant source of inequality. Nations with superior military capabilities
can dominate or intimidate those with weaker defenses, as seen in territorial disputes like the one in
the West Philippine Sea between China and the Philippines 2.

Influence of Transnational Entities

Transnational corporations and organizations, such as the World Bank, IMF, and ADB, wield
significant power and can influence the economies and policies of countries where they operate or
provide loans1011121314.

Mechanisms to Address Global Inequalities

Regional groups like ASEAN aim to provide collective strength to address regional inequalities.
However, the policy of noninterference can limit the effectiveness of such groups in resolving
disputes among member states1516171819.

Bilateral Treaties and Global Inequality

Bilateral treaties can reinforce unequal relations between states, as they often reflect the interests of
the more powerful nation. For instance, defense agreements may provide security but also
perpetuate dependency20212223.

International Treaties on Global Issues

International treaties and agreements on issues like climate change, transnational crime, and
development are tools for cooperation and standard-setting among nations. Violations of these
agreements can be addressed through international legal mechanisms like the ICJ 24252627.

In conclusion, global inequality is a complex issue influenced by historical, economic, military, and
institutional factors. While there are mechanisms in place to address these disparities, their
effectiveness can vary based on the willingness of states to cooperate and uphold international
norms.
Ang mga sitwasyong pangwika sa Pilipinas ay sumasalamin sa iba’t ibang konteksto kung saan
ginagamit ang wika sa pang-araw-araw na buhay. Narito ang detalyadong pagsusuri sa bawat isa:

Sitwasyong Pangwika sa Telebisyon

Sa telebisyon, ang wikang Filipino ay karaniwang ginagamit bilang lingua franca. Ang mga programa
ay naglalayong makaakit ng mas maraming manonood sa pamamagitan ng paggamit ng wikang
madaling maunawaan at nakakaaliw1.

Sitwasyong Pangwika sa Radyo

Sa radyo, ang wikang Filipino ay malawakang ginagamit, lalo na sa mga programang pang-umaga.
May mga istasyon din na gumagamit ng rehiyonal na wika o Ingles, depende sa target na audience 2.

Sitwasyong Pangwika sa Pahayagan

Ang pahayagan ay gumagamit ng wikang Filipino para sa mga tabloid na mas binibili ng masa,
habang ang broadsheets ay karaniwang nasa wikang Ingles. Ang mga headline ay madalas na
sensasyonal at nakakaakit ng pansin3.

Sitwasyong Pangwika sa Pelikula

Ang mga pelikulang Pilipino ay madalas na may pamagat sa Ingles ngunit ang wikang ginagamit sa
loob ng pelikula ay Filipino. Ito ay upang makaakit ng mas maraming manonood at magbigay aliw 4.

Sitwasyong Pangwika sa Text

Sa pagte-text, karaniwan ang paggamit ng “code-switching” o pagpapalit-palit ng Ingles at Filipino,

pati na rin ang pagpapaikli ng mga salita o paggamit ng daglat 5.

Sitwasyong Pangwika sa Social Media at sa Internet

Sa social media at internet, Ingles pa rin ang pangunahing wika ngunit marami na ring impormasyon
at kaalaman ang nasusulat sa wikang Filipino. Ang mga post at komento ay madalas na pinag-iisipan
dahil maraming tao ang makakabasa nito6.

Sitwasyong Pangwika sa Kalakalan

Sa larangan ng kalakalan, Ingles ang higit na ginagamit sa mga boardroom ng malalaking kompanya
at korporasyon, lalo na sa mga multinational companies 7.
Sitwasyong Pangwika sa Pamahalaan

Sa pamahalaan, ang wikang Filipino ay ginagamit sa mga transaksiyon, komunikasyon, at

korespondensiya sa iba’t ibang ahensya. Madalas din itong gamitin sa SONA at iba pang
mahahalagang okasyon8.

Sitwasyong Pangwika sa Edukasyon

Sa edukasyon, ang wikang Filipino ay ginagamit bilang wikang panturo mula K hanggang Grade 3,
samantalang ang Ingles at Filipino ay itinuturo bilang magkahiwalay na asignatura sa mas mataas na
antas9.

Mga Sitwasyong Pangwika sa Iba Pang Anyo ng Kulturang Popular

 Fliptop: Isang uri ng rap battle kung saan ang wikang ginagamit ay kadalasang Filipino, na
may halong balbal o kolokyal na salita.
 Pickuplines: Mga pabirong linya na karaniwang ginagamit para magpatawa o magpakilig,
kadalasang nasa wikang Filipino.
 Hugot Lines: Mga linyang nagpapahayag ng emosyon o damdamin, karaniwang ginagamit
sa social media, at madalas ay nasa wikang Filipino.

Register o Barayati ng Wikang Ginagamit sa Ibat Ibang Sitwasyon

 Jargon: Espesyalisadong bokabularyo na ginagamit sa isang partikular na larangan o

propesyon, maaaring sa Filipino o Ingles depende sa konteksto.

Ang kakayahang pangkomunikatibo ay isang mahalagang aspeto ng wika na tumutukoy sa

kakayahan ng isang indibidwal na gamitin ang wika nang epektibo at angkop sa iba’t ibang
sitwasyon. Ito ay hindi lamang tungkol sa kaalaman sa gramatika kundi pati na rin sa pag-unawa at
paggamit ng wika sa konteksto ng lipunan at kultura.

Kakayahang Lingguwistiko o Gramatikal

Ang kakayahang lingguwistiko o gramatikal ay tumutukoy sa kaalaman ng isang tao sa sistema ng

kanyang wika, kabilang ang ponolohiya, morpolohiya, sintaks, at semantika. Ito ang pundasyon ng
kakayahan ng isang tao na bumuo at umunawa ng tama at makahulugang pangungusap 1.

Dell Hymes at ang Communicative Competence

Si Dell Hymes, isang lingguwista at anthropologist, ay nagpakilala ng konsepto ng communicative

competence. Ayon kay Hymes, ang isang nagsasalita ng wika ay dapat hindi lamang magkaroon ng
kakayahang lingguwistika kundi pati na rin ang kakayahang gamitin ang wika nang angkop depende
sa sitwasyon23. Ang kakayahang ito ay sumasaklaw sa mas malawak na konteksto ng lipunan at
kultura4.

Kakayahang Pangkomunikatibo Ayon sa Iba Pang Lingguwista

Iba’t ibang lingguwista ay nagbigay din ng kanilang pananaw sa kakayahang pangkomunikatibo.
Halimbawa, ayon kay Bagaric et al. (2007), ang isang taong may kakayahan sa wika ay dapat
magtaglay hindi lang ng kaalaman tungkol dito kundi ng kahusayan, kasanayan, at galing sa
paggamit ng wikang naaangkop sa mga sitwasyong pangkomunikatibo 5. Ayon naman kay Dr. Fe
Otanes, ang paglinang sa wika ay nakapokus sa kapakinabangang idudulot nito sa mag-aaral na
matutuhan ang wika upang makapaghanapbuhay, makipamuhay sa kanilang kapwa, at
mapahalagahan ang kagandahan ng buhay5.

Ang kakayahang pangkomunikatibo ay mahalaga sa pag-unlad ng indibidwal at sa kanyang

pakikipag-ugnayan sa lipunan. Ito ay nagsisilbing tulay sa pagitan ng indibidwal at ng kanyang
komunidad, at nagbibigay-daan sa mas malalim na pag-unawa at pagpapahalaga sa kultura at
lipunan. Ang pag-aaral at pagpapahusay sa kakayahang ito ay isang patuloy na proseso na mahalaga
sa personal at propesyonal na paglago ng isang tao.

Ang kakayahang sosyolingguwistiko ay isang mahalagang aspeto ng komunikasyon na tumutukoy

sa kakayahan ng isang tao na gamitin ang wika sa iba’t ibang konteksto ng sosyal. Ito ay
kinabibilangan ng pag-unawa at paggamit ng wika na naaayon sa ugnayan ng mga kausap, ang
konteksto ng pinag-uusapan, at ang lugar kung saan ito nagaganap. Narito ang detalyadong
paliwanag at mga kaugnay na paksa:

Kakayahang Sosyolingguwistiko

Ang kakayahang sosyolingguwistiko ay sumasaklaw sa kakayahan ng isang indibidwal na makilala at

sumunod sa mga panlipunang tuntunin ng wika, tulad ng paggamit ng tamang antas ng pormalidad,
pagpili ng angkop na bokabularyo, at pagtugon sa mga pangangailangan ng kausap. Ito rin ay may
kinalaman sa pagiging sensitibo sa mga pagkakaiba-iba ng kultura at sa paggamit ng wika na akma
sa iba’t ibang sitwasyon.

Modelo ng SPEAKING ni Dell Hymes

Ayon kay Dell Hymes, ang epektibong komunikasyon ay nangangailangan ng pagsasaalang-alang sa

iba’t ibang aspeto na maaaring makaapekto sa pakikipagtalastasan. Binuo niya ang modelo ng
SPEAKING upang matulungan ang pagsusuri ng diskurso. Ang bawat letra sa SPEAKING ay
kumakatawan sa isang elemento ng komunikasyon:

 S (Setting): Ang lugar o pook kung saan nagaganap ang komunikasyon.

 P (Participants): Ang mga taong kasangkot sa komunikasyon.
 E (Ends): Ang layunin o pakay ng komunikasyon.
 A (Act Sequence): Ang takbo o daloy ng usapan.
 K (Keys): Ang tono o paraan ng pakikipag-usap.
 I (Instrumentalities): Ang tsanel o midyum na ginagamit sa komunikasyon.
 N (Norms): Ang mga panlipunang tuntunin na namamahala sa komunikasyon.
 G (Genre): Ang uri ng diskurso o paraan ng pagpapahayag.

Ang pag-unawa at paggamit ng mga elementong ito ay makakatulong sa pagpapabuti ng

kakayahang sosyolingguwistiko at sa pagiging epektibo sa komunikasyon sa iba’t ibang konteksto 12.
Ang komunikasyon ay isang mahalagang aspeto ng ating pang-araw-araw na buhay, at ito ay may
iba’t ibang antas at kakayahan. Narito ang detalyadong paliwanag sa Filipino:

TATLONG ANTAS NG KOMUNIKASYON

1. Intrapersonal: Ito ay ang komunikasyon sa loob ng isipan ng isang tao. Kasama dito ang
pag-iisip, pagmumuni-muni, at pagpapasya123.
2. Interpersonal: Ang komunikasyon na nagaganap sa pagitan ng dalawang tao o maliit na
grupo. Ito ay maaaring kasama ang pag-uusap, pagpapalitan ng ideya, at emosyon 123.
3. Pampubliko: Ito ay ang komunikasyon na nagaganap kapag ang isang tao ay nagsasalita sa
harap ng madla, tulad ng sa mga talumpati at presentasyon 123.

KAKAYAHANG DISKORSAL

Ang kakayahang diskorsal ay tumutukoy sa kasanayan ng isang tao na mag-ugnay-ugnay ng mga

salita o pangungusap upang makabuo ng isang makabuluhang teksto o usapan 456. Ito ay may
dalawang mahalagang bahagi:

1. Cohesion (Pagkakaisa): Ito ay ang paggamit ng mga cohesive devices tulad ng mga
pangatnig, panghalip, at iba pa upang magkaroon ng maayos na daloy ang teksto o
usapan78.
2. Coherence (Pagkakaugnay-ugnay): Ito ay ang lohikal na pagkakaugnay-ugnay ng mga
ideya sa loob ng isang teksto o usapan. Mahalaga ito upang ang mambabasa o tagapakinig
ay madaling makasunod at maunawaan ang mensahe 910.

DALAWANG URI NG KAKAYAHANG DISKORSAL

1. Kakayahang Tekstuwal: Ito ay ang kahusayan sa pagbasa at pag-unawa sa iba’t ibang

teksto, tulad ng mga akdang pampanitikan, gabay instruksyunal, at iba pang pasulat na
komunikasyon111213.
2. Kakayahang Retorikal: Ito ay tumutukoy sa kahusayan ng isang tao na makibahagi sa isang
kumbersasyon o talakayan111415.
3. Ang kakayahang pangkomunikatibo ay isang mahalagang aspeto ng pakikipag-ugnayan sa
iba. Ayon kina Canary at Cody (2000), may anim na pamantayan sa pagtataya ng kakayahang
ito. Narito ang detalyadong paliwanag ng bawat isa, kasama ang mga kaugnay na
impormasyon mula sa web:

1. Pakikibagay (Adaptability)

Ang pakikibagay ay ang kakayahang mabago ang pag-uugali at layunin upang maisakatuparan
ang pakikipag-ugnayan1. Ito ay kinakailangan upang makasali sa iba’t ibang interaksiyong sosyal
at magpakita ng pagiging kalmado sa pakikisalamuha sa iba 2.

2. Paglahok sa Pakikipag-usap (Involvement)

 Ang paglahok sa pakikipag-usap ay tumutukoy sa kakayahang gamitin ang kaalaman
tungkol sa anumang paksa sa pakikisalamuha sa iba3. Kasama rito ang kakayahang tumugon
at makaramdam kung ano ang tingin sa kanya ng ibang tao.
3. Pamamahala sa Pag-uusap (Management)
Ang pamamahala sa pag-uusap ay ang kakayahang pamahalaan ang isang pag-uusap 4. Ito
ay nangangahulugan ng pagkontrol sa daloy ng usapan at kung paanong ang mga paksa ay
nagpapatuloy at naiiba.
4. Pagkapukaw-damdamin (Empathy)
Ang pagkapukaw-damdamin ay ang kakayahang mailagay ang damdamin sa katauhan ng
ibang tao at pag-iisip ng posibleng mangyari o maranasan kung ikaw ay nasa kalagayan ng
isang tao5.

5. Bisa (Effectiveness)
Ang bisa ay tumutukoy sa kakayahang mag-isip kung ang pakikipag-usap ay epektibo at
nauunawaan6. Ito ay mahalaga upang matiyak na ang mensahe ay naiparating nang maayos
at naintindihan ng kausap.
6. Kaangkupan (Appropriateness)
Ang kaangkupan ay ang kakayahang maiaangkop ang wika sa sitwasyon, sa lugar na
pinangyarihan ng pag-uusap, o sa taong kausap 7. Ito ay mahalaga upang matiyak na ang
komunikasyon ay naaayon at angkop sa konteksto.

Ang pananaliksik ay isang mahalagang proseso na naglalayong magbigay ng mga bagong kaalaman
at solusyon sa iba’t ibang larangan. Sa ibaba, tatalakayin natin ang mga layunin at katangian ng
mabuting pananaliksik batay sa mga konsepto at depinisyon mula sa iba’t ibang awtor.

Layunin ng Pananaliksik

Ayon sa iba’t ibang awtor, ang pananaliksik ay may mga sumusunod na pangunahing layunin:

1. Klaripikasyon at Resolusyon ng Suliranin:

o Ayon kay Good (1963), ang pananaliksik ay isang maingat, kritikal, at disiplinadong
inkwiri na naglalayong klaripikasyon at resolusyon ng mga suliranin 1234.
2. Sistematikong Pag-aaral:
o Ayon kay Parel (1996), ito ay sistematikong pag-aaral o imbestigasyon ng isang
bagay na layuning masagot ang mga katanungan 5627.
3. Preserbasyon at Pagpapabuti ng Kalidad ng Pamumuhay:
o Ang pangunahing layunin ng pananaliksik ay ang preserbasyon at pagpapabuti ng
kalidad ng pamumuhay ng tao89101112.
4. Pagtuklas ng Bagong Kaalaman:
o Ayon kina Calderon at Gonzales (1993), ang pananaliksik ay naglalayong makatuklas
ng bagong kaalaman hinggil sa mga batid nang penomena at makahanap ng mga
sagot sa mga suliraning hindi pa nalulutas ng umiiral na metodo at
impormasyon131415716.

Mga Katangian ng Mabuting Pananaliksik

Ang mabuting pananaliksik ay dapat taglayin ang mga sumusunod na katangian:

1. Sistematiko:
o May sinusunod na proseso o magkakasunod-sunod na mga hakbang tungo sa
pagtuklas ng katotohanan1718.
2. Kontrolado:
o Lahat ng baryabol na sinusuri ay kailangang mapanatiling konstant upang maiugnay
ang anumang pagbabago sa eksperimental na baryabol 1718.
3. Empirikal:
o Kailangang maging katanggap-tanggap ang mga pamamaraang ginagamit sa
pananaliksik, maging ang mga datos na nakalap1718.
4. Mapanuri:
o Ang mga datos ay kailangang suriin nang kritikal upang hindi magkamali ang
mananaliksik sa paglalapat ng interpretasyon sa mga datos 1718.
5. Lohikal, Obhetibo at Walang Pagkiling:
o Ang pananaliksik ay dapat naglalahad ng mga impormasyong nakabatay sa opinyon
o kuro-kuro ng mananaliksik nang walang pagtatangkang baguhin ang resulta ng
pananaliksik1718.
6. Gumagamit ng Metodong Statistikal at Quantatibo:
o Ang mga datos ay dapat mailahad sa pamamaraang numerikal at masuri sa
pamamagitan ng istatistikal na tritment1718.

Ang pananaliksik ay isang mahalagang proseso na naglalayong mapabuti ang kalidad ng

pamumuhay ng tao sa pamamagitan ng pag-aaral at pag-unawa sa iba’t ibang aspeto ng lipunan at
kultura. Narito ang detalyadong paliwanag at mga subseksyon ng iba’t ibang uri ng pananaliksik:

Kuwalitatibong Pananaliksik

 Nonnumerical: Ang kuwalitatibong pananaliksik ay hindi nakabatay sa numerikal na datos.

Sa halip, ito ay gumagamit ng mga open-ended surveys, panayam, at detalyadong
deskripsyon upang bigyang interpretasyon ang mga datos.
 Penomenolohiya: Nakatuon sa buhay na karanasan ng mga kalahok ukol sa isang
penomenon. Layunin nito na direktang imbestigahan at isalaysay ang mga karanasang ito.
 Etnograpiya: Pag-aaral ng isang penomenon sa konteksto ng kulturang nananahan sa
lipunan. Nagbibigay ito ng malalim na kaalaman ukol sa sistemang politikal, ekonomiko, at
kultural ng isang lipunan.

Kuwantitatibong Pananaliksik

 Numerical na Datos: Nakatuon sa pagkolekta at pagsusuri ng numerical na datos.

Ginagamit ang mga structured research instrument upang makakuha ng obhetibong
panukat.
 Deskriptibong Pananaliksik: Pag-aaral na nagpapakahulugan sa kasalukuyang katotohanan
na may kinalaman sa kaligiran at kalagayan ng anumang paksa.
Ang bawat uri ng pananaliksik ay may kanya-kanyang layunin at pamamaraan na angkop sa paksa at
layunin ng mananaliksik. Mahalaga ang paggamit ng tamang uri ng pananaliksik upang makakuha
ng tumpak at makabuluhang resulta na magagamit sa pagpapabuti ng kalidad ng pamumuhay ng
tao.

Narito ang detalyadong paliwanag sa iba’t ibang uri ng pananaliksik na iyong hiniling:

Deskriptibong Pananaliksik

Ang Deskriptibong Pananaliksik ay isang uri ng pananaliksik na naglalayong ilarawan at bigyang-

kahulugan ang kasalukuyang katotohanan na may kinalaman sa kaligiran at kalagayan ng isang
paksa1234. Halimbawa nito ay ang pag-aaral sa persepsiyon ng mga mag-aaral sa Divorce Bill o ang
antas ng paggamit ng apat na core values ng UST ng mga guro sa kanilang pagtuturo.

Action Research

Ang Action Research ay isang uri ng pananaliksik na naglalayong lumutas ng isang tiyak na suliranin
sa isang programa, organisasyon, o komunidad567. Sa ganitong uri ng pananaliksik, kalimitang
kabahagi ang mga mananaliksik sa paksang pinag-aaralan.

Meta-Analysis

Ang Meta-Analysis ay isang estadistikal na pagsusuri na pinagsama-sama ang resulta ng maraming

siyentipikong pag-aaral121314. Maaari itong isagawa kapag maraming siyentipikong pag-aaral ang
sumasagot sa parehong katanungan.

Eksperimental na Pananaliksik

Ang Eksperimental na Pananaliksik ay isang uri ng pananaliksik kung saan ang mananaliksik ay
nakakamanipula ng isang malayang baryabol, nakokontrol ang iba pang may kaugnayang baryabol,
at sinusuri ang epekto sa isa o higit pang di malayang baryabol 1516179.

Sana ay nakatulong ang impormasyong ito sa iyong pag-unawa sa iba’t ibang uri ng pananaliksik.
Kung mayroon ka pang ibang katanungan o nais pang malaman, huwag kang mag-atubiling
magtanong.

Mga Hakbang sa Pagbuo ng Sulating Pananaliksik

Narito ang detalyadong paliwanag at mga kaugnay na paksa para sa bawat hakbang sa pagbuo ng
sulating pananaliksik:
 Pagpili ng Paksa Ang unang hakbang ay ang pagpili ng isang mabuting paksa na interesado
ka, angkop, makabuluhan, at napapanahon. Dapat ito ay hindi masyadong malawak at kaya
mong tapusin sa loob ng itinakdang panahon.
 Pagbuo ng Pahayag ng Tesis Ito ang pahayag na magsasaad ng iyong posisyon o layunin
sa pananaliksik. Dapat ito ay malinaw at direktang sumasagot sa mga tanong na may
kinalaman sa layunin ng iyong pananaliksik at sa iyong mambabasa.
 Paghahanda ng Bibliyograpiya Mangalap ng mga sanggunian tulad ng mga aklat, artikulo,
report, peryodiko, magasin, at web site. Gumawa ng card para sa bawat sanggunian na
naglalaman ng impormasyon tungkol sa awtor, pamagat, at detalye ng pagkakalathala.
 Paghahanda ng Balangkas Mahalaga ang pagkakaroon ng tentatibong balangkas upang
magbigay direksiyon sa iyong ideya at matukoy kung anong mga materyal pa ang kailangan.

 Pangangalap ng Tala o Note Taking Sa yugtong ito, kailangan mong balikan ang
tentatibong balangkas at card ng bibliyograpiya upang tukuyin ang mga sangguniang
kakailanganin mo. Maaari kang gumamit ng tatlong uri ng tala:
 Tuwirang Sipi: Ito ay direktang kinopya mula sa isang sanggunian at
nilalagyan ng panipi sa umpisa at dulo.
 Buod: Isang pinaikling bersyon ng isang mahabang teksto.
 Hawig: Binago ang mga pananalita ngunit nananatili ang pagkahawig sa
orihinal.
Paghahanda sa Iniwastong Balangkas o Final Outline Ayusin ang balangkas batay sa mga tala
at sangguniang nakalap upang maging gabay sa pagsulat ng iyong burador.

 Pagsulat ng Borador o Rough Draft Isulat ang introduksiyon, katawan, at konklusyon batay
sa balangkas. Ang introduksiyon ay maglalahad ng mga ideya sa kabuoan, ang katawan ay
maglalaman ng pinalawig na bahagi, at ang konklusyon ay maglalahad ng natuklasan.

 Pagwawasto at Pagrerebisa ng Borador I-proofread ang borador upang iwasto ang mga
pagkakamali sa gramatika, baybay, at iba pang aspeto.

 Pagsulat ng Pinal na Sulating Pananaliksik Matapos ang naunang walong hakbang, i-type
ang pinal na sulating pananaliksik gamit ang pormat na ibinigay ng iyong guro o institusyon.