1ST SLIDE

How can the human machine — this strange, lovable, complex machine called Man, with its mortal
body, and its eternal soul — be made to function well? The answer is also simple: follow the
instructions of its Maker. Unless this is done, the human machine will become a futile, senseless
object, utterly incapable of fulfilling its destiny. These instructions from the Maker — we call the Law.”
— Justice Edgardo Paras, Civil Code of the Philippines Annotated, Vol. I From Eternal Law to Natural
Law According to Thomas Aquinas, the universe is governed by Divine Reason through an eternal law.

Explanation: This can be understood that Justice Edgardo Paras' passage emphasizes the idea that
humans are intricate beings with both physical and spiritual dimensions. To lead a meaningful and
purposeful life, one must adhere to moral or divine guidance, which is referred to as "the Law." Failure to
do so may result in a life lacking purpose and fulfillment. This perspective highlights the integration of
ethics, morality, and religion into the framework of human existence and societal norms.

Everything that is part of the universe partakes of the eternal law. The eternal law particular to humans
is called “natural law.”

2ND SLIDE

Life and Background: Thomas Aquinas was born in Italy and became a Dominican friar. He received
education at various universities, including the University of Paris.

Summa Theologica: Aquinas is most famous for his monumental work, the "Summa Theologica." This
work is a comprehensive and systematic exploration of Christian theology and philosophy. It addresses a
wide range of topics, including the existence of God, ethics, human nature, and the relationship between
faith and reason.

Natural Theology: Aquinas argued for the existence of God through a combination of philosophical
arguments and theological insights. He believed that reason and faith could coexist harmoniously, and he
sought to demonstrate that reason could lead to an understanding of God's existence and attributes.

Aristotelian Influence: Aquinas was heavily influenced by the philosophy of Aristotle. He integrated many
of Aristotle's ideas into Christian thought, contributing to the development of Scholasticism—a school of
thought that sought to reconcile faith and reason.

Ethics and Morality: Aquinas developed a moral theory known as natural law ethics. He believed that
moral principles could be derived from human nature and that these principles could guide ethical
decision-making.
3RD SLIDE

By the nature of man, he will know what he ought to be and ought to do. Aquinas’ philosophy, in the
words of Joseph Glanvil, is “Aristotle sainted.” Thanks to Islamic commentators like Averroes, Aquinas
was able to get hold of the works of Aristotle and adopt its natural philosophy to Christian doctrine in his
five-volume work, Summa Theologica.

What differentiates Aquinas from Aristotle and the secular philosophers of natural law is his argument
for the necessity of divine law, or law coming from divine revelation. While natural law is enough to
guide man to his “natural ends,” divine law is needed for him to realize his “supernatural ends.” Because
of the uncertainty of human reason and the variety of philosophies, Aquinas argued that God has to
reveal his true nature through sacred inspiration and interventions in history.

Human law and justice are also not always effective or correct, so there must be a divine law to which
people can ultimately appeal to. Under the same God, man has natural equality with his fellow man.
We can discern how our interior conscience can convict us, for there is a judge who supervises our
interior acts even if no one sees. Those who do not recognize divine law still has natural law in their
human nature. We have a natural ability to tell right from wrong.

4TH SLIDE

In Question 94 of the Summa, Aquinas explained that the precepts of natural law refer to five natural
inclinations. Our primary inclination is to do good and avoid evil; by good, meaning that which helps
sustain our being, towards self-preservation, which is the secondary inclination.

The third natural inclination is to perpetuate ourselves, which is why we have sexual instincts that are
meant for procreation. Yet even if lust is natural, so are shame and self-restraint, and the exercise 65 of
reason to control sexual passions.

The fourth is to live in community with other men, in families, groups, and societies. The fifth is to use
our reason and will, that is, to know the truth and to make our own decisions. Similarly, the Islamic
scholar Averroes, in his treatise Justice and Jihad, referred to the five maqasid or higher intents of the
Islamic sharia to protect religion, life, property, offspring, and reason, which are goals or purposes
obvious to man. Another Islamic scholar, Al-Ghazali, referred to these as “basic goods” for the benefit or
interest of all (“maslaha”).

5TH SLIDE

From Natural Law to Human Law Natural law is a general guide with which human law must fill in the
details and the gaps through statutes. Natural law, as a general law of right, does not change because
human nature stays the same. If human nature will change, then man will no longer be the same
species. What changes are the application of natural law to particular cases, and the observance and
articulation of it, in human law. For example, the principles of natural reason like the doctrine of self-
defense do not change, but the legal application and expression do. Change in human conditions, human
errors or corrections, customs, habits, and passions can make the human order of things to vary.
Human law is rightly changed as long as conductive to the common weal. Furthermore, what is legal
can be dispensed with in exceptional emergency cases, for “necessity knows no law” (S.T., I-II, Q. 96,
A.6). It is, however, important that there must be clear evidence of the benefit to be derived, or there is
extreme urgency, before departing from a law that has long been considered right and just and has been
part of custom. Without the sense of necessity or urgency, the binding power of the law can be
diminished by the prevailing custom.

6TH SLIDE

Yet human law can also be a manifestation of a new custom. “Accordingly,” Aquinas said, “custom has
the force of law, abolishes law, and is the interpreter of law” (S.T., Q. 97, A.3). Custom is a source of law.
The immediate effect of law is to bring upon its subjects something to obey, or a duty.

As a corollary, it gives a right or the moral power to do things. Aquinas explained that right can be two
things: natural right or positive right. Natural rights are those that each man must give to another man
out of equality. Meanwhile, a positive right is borne by agreement, either by private agreement
among individuals, or by public agreement, by the ruler and the community. Another Dominican,
Francisco de Vitoria, revolutionized the concept of natural law into a universality of rights. Since all
humans share the same nature, no group of people has dominion over another because “in the
beginning, everything was common to all.” Vitoria, a founding member of the School of Salamanca,
questioned European colonialism and the Spanish conquests of indigenous Americans as a violation of
equal rights to life and liberty.

Contemplating the works of Aquinas, the Jesuit Francisco Suarez also questioned the “divine right” of
kings where a ruler is only accountable to God. Suarez argued that no man-made law can override
natural rights to life and liberty.