Ethics

Pre- Final Reviewer

Unit 3
Natural Law

Lesson 1: The LGBTQ+ Questions

- In October 2016, Pantaleon Alvarez, Speaker of the House of Representatives, proposed a bill to
amend the Family Code to legalize same-sex unions.
- However, before the bill could be formally proposed, other legislators expressed their refusal to
support it.
- Reasons for this refusal ranged from deeming seeing two men kissing unsightly to judging the
LGBT community as "irregular" and deemed unnatural. This highlights the common tendency to
justify actions based on perceived "naturalness."
- The term "natural" can be used to refer to intuition, common behaviours, or to justify certain
actions based on natural world similarities.
- For example, a woman might claim that eating insects is "unnatural" but never did.
- The term can also be used to appeal to instinctual or corporeal factors, such as urination.

Lesson 2: St. Thomas Aquinas and the Christian Context

St. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

Thomas Aquinas, a Dominican friar and a key figure in the Roman Catholic Church, is credited with
shaping the understanding of the Christian faith. His work, Summa Theologiae, is a comprehensive work
that discusses many significant points in Christian theology. Aquinas's central truth is that we are
created by God and are destined to return to Him. The work is divided into three parts: God, human life,
and Jesus as our Saviour.

The Context of the Christian Story

The first part discusses God's goodness, might, and creative power, acknowledging that our limited
intellect cannot fully comprehend Him. The second part deals with human life and the pursuit of
happiness, which ultimately rests on God Himself. Salvation is only possible through God's grace, which
is incarnate in Jesus.

The second part of the story focuses on human life and it’s striving toward God. However, the idea that
living a good life leads to God may be misunderstood as a simple exhortation to follow church doctrine
or sacred Scriptures. Instead, the ethics of Aquinas are more complex and coherent than the divine
command theory.

The Context of Aquina's Ethics

Aquinas's ethics focus on the pursuit of happiness, emotions, and dispositions. He discusses how
our actions are related to habits and how we develop good or bad habits, contributing to moral
virtue and vice. Aquinas believes that the Christian life is about developing God-given capacities
into virtue. He believes that there is a conscience within us that directs moral thinking, but this
conscience must be informed and grounded in an objective basis for morality. We are called to
heed the voice of conscience and maintain a life of virtue, but there is a need for a clearer basis
for ethics. Aquinas' moral theory requires the judicious use of reason, grounded in human nature
itself, rather than unthinking obedience to religious precepts.
Lesson 3: The Greek Heritage

Neoplatic Good

Aquinas' ethics emphasize the pursuit of happiness, emotions, and dispositions and how our actions are
related to habits and contribute to moral virtue and vice. He believes that the Christian life is about
developing God-given capacities into virtue and that a conscience within us must be informed and
grounded in an objective basis for morality. Aquinas' moral theory requires the judicious use of reason
grounded in human nature rather than unthinking obedience to religious precepts. Plato, a Greek
philosopher, introduced the notion of a supreme and transcendent good in his work, The Republic. The
good is seen as real as and more real than anything else, like the sun and the growth of plants and
animals. This idea of the good continued through Neoplatonists like Plotinus and inspired later thinkers,
allowing it to be thought of as a creative and loving God. The text provides a clearer restatement of the
idea that everything else in the universe is derived from the power of this singular good, and all beings
come forth and rest in it.

Aristotelian Being and Becoming

Aristotle's concept of beings consists of four parts: material, formal, efficient, and final. A being
is a corporeal entity with a specific material basis, such as form, which makes it unique. It does
not simply emerge from nothing but comes from another being, such as parents or a tree. An
efficient cause involves something bringing about another being's presence. The final cause of a
being is its apparent end or goal. Understanding these four causes helps us understand any being,
as they are not unchanging. The four days of change in a being allow us to explain the processing
of potential and actions. This understanding contributes significantly to our understanding of
beings and their potential.

Lesson 4: The Essence and Varieties of Law

Essence

As rational beings, we have free will and the capacity for reason to judge between possibilities
and direct our actions towards achieving the ends or goods that we desire. However, just because
we think a certain end is good does not necessarily mean it is indeed good. It is necessary to
think carefully about who we truly are and not solely focus on our own good.

We must consider the common good, which is good for both our own and others' ends. The
determination of the proper measure of our acts can be referred to as law. For example, traffic
rules are a simple example of how laws can be made to promote universal happiness. Laws can
be made by the whole people or a public person who has cared for the common good or is tasked
with concern for the community.

On a larger scale, laws can be enforced and communicated to ensure compliance. In an ideal
sense, law is a form of restriction and direction of human actions in such a way that the common
good is promoted. Aquinas's summary of this point is that the definition of law may be gathered
and is nothing else than an ordinance of reason for the common good, made by someone who has
cared for the community and promulgated.

In thinking about a vast community, it is possible that there is someone in charge of this
community, guiding all toward their common good and directing all with His wisdom. This
understanding of the law and its role in promoting the common good is crucial for a more just
and balanced society.

Varieties

God, through His wisdom, is the Creator of all beings and directs their actions towards His will.
This divine wisdom, known as the eternal law, refers to what God wills for creation and how
each participant in it is intended to return to Him. All things partake in the eternal law, and
humans are part of this law due to their capacity for reason.

The natural law, which consists of the precepts of the natural law, is determined by our human
nature and the natural inclinations given to us by God. By reflecting on our human nature, we
can determine the rules and measures that should guide our actions. Human law, on the other
hand, refers to instances where human beings construct and enforce laws in their communities.

Aquinas suggests that there is a form of happiness proportionate to our human nature that can be
obtained through our natural principles. However, there is also a supernatural happiness that can
be obtained through the power of God alone. Divine law, which is often confusing, refers
specifically to instances where we have precepts or instructions from divine revelation.

Aquinas' natural law theory is rooted in a Christian vision but bases morality on human nature.
He claims that every rational creature knows the eternal law in its reflection and that anyone
from any religious tradition can determine what is ethical by looking at the nature shared with
fellow human beings. This universal scope dispels any complications over an overtly religious
presentation.

Lesson 5: Natural Law

In Common with Other Beings

Aquinas emphasizes the unique nature of humans and their shared desire to preserve their being.
He argues that it is according to the natural law to preserve human life, which is a violation of
the natural law. Murder, for example, is considered unethical, while taking one's own life, even
in the form of physician-assisted suicide, is considered acceptable. However, acts that promote
life continuation are considered ethical, as they align with the natural law.

In Common with Other Animals

Aquinas argues that humans share a natural inclination towards sexual intercourse and
reproduction, similar to animals. This connection leads to contentious ethical debates, such as
abortion and the morality of care for the young. Contraception is rejected as it inhibits
procreation, while any sexual act that doesn't result in offspring is considered deviant. The
homosexual act is considered an unnatural crime, as it is contrary to sexual intercourse. The
question remains whether animals naturally engage in heterosexual intercourse, as Aquinas
believed, and whether there is a necessary connection between sexual intercourse and
procreation. The ethical debates surrounding these issues continue to evolve.

Uniquely Human

Aquinas' text emphasizes the importance of reason, epistemic concern, and social concern in
moral valuation. He argues that while our other inclinations are good, being rational is the
defining part of human nature. He emphasizes that we should exercise our reason to determine
whether our actions contribute to or detract from the common good.

Aquinas also acknowledges that being rational means thinking carefully about how our actions
may or may not violate our nature. He suggests that adding additions to the natural law, such as
obeying traffic rules or paying taxes, can be a proper extension of the natural law. Aquinas
believes that nothing hinders a change in the natural law by way of addition, as reason can find
many things that benefit individual and communal human life.

In summary, Aquinas emphasizes the importance of reason, epistemic concern, and social
concern in moral valuation. He encourages individuals to exercise their reason and consider the
appropriateness of their natural inclinations when making human laws