Why Concentrated Solar Power?

Components of a CSP
Maximum Concentra;on?
Concentra;on with parabolic trough
Other concentrator technologies
Losses and efficiency
Thermodynamic cycle

Main sources :
Concentra;ng solar power : principles, developments and applica;ons Lovegrove and Stein, 2020
Advanced CSP teaching materials, Günther at al.
Nonimaging op;cs, Winston et al., 2005

Basic concepts of Concentrated solar power (CSP) are covered in this presentation. The focus is on parabolic trough that are the topic of the problem based learning.
Much more is covered in the references given on the slide. The first is an extensive book on CSP. It is available online through the BST. The second is a chapter of a
series. It is dedicated to parabolic trough and available on the moodle site of the course. It might be useful to work on the problem The last one is a more fundamental
book. It provides a thorough demonstration of étendue (see section on maximum concentration) and its conservation.
Why Concentrated Solar Power?
Components of a CSP
Maximum Concentra;on?
Concentra;on with parabolic trough
Other concentrator technologies
Losses and efficiency
Thermodynamic cycle
 Why Concentra;ng Solar Power?
With a Direct Normal Irradia;on (DNI) of 1000 W/m^2, equilibrium
temperature is …

At equilibrium for a black body

✏ T 44= 1000
1000 W/m^2 ✏ T = 1000

T = 367 K

Good for solar hea;ng but not for energy produc;on

Incoming solar rays on a flat plate increase its temperature. Neglecting all other effects, and assuming a black body behaviour, the plate is at equilibrium when the
incoming energy is balanced but the outgoing energy due to radiation at the temperature of the plate. Considering a DNI of 1000 W/m^2 which is realistic at ground level,
the balance leads to a temperature of the plate fo 367K, i.e. slightly below 100°C. For producing electricity with a thermodynamic cycle, this is insufficient as the Carnot
efficiency is quite low with a hot source at 100°C and a cold source at around 40°C. So without concentration, the solar energy can be usefully harvested for low
temperature thermal applications like the production of domestic hot water. An equipment to produce hot water is illustrated on the slide. This is a common equipment
seen on the roofs of many sunny countries. In Belgium such thermal solar panels can produce around 60% of the domestic hot water needs of a family throughout the
year, winter being the less favorable period for such a production.
As a summary, solar radiation must be concentrated before producing heat for a thermodynamic cycle.
Why Concentrated Solar Power?
Components of a CSP
Maximum Concentra;on?
Concentra;on with parabolic trough
Other concentrator technologies
Losses and efficiency
Thermodynamic cycle
 Several key components from the sun to the electrical
energy

Concentrating the solar energy is a first step in the production of electricity. The radiation are concentrated on a receiver that can be a pipe containing a liquid or a gas, a
porous solid, a flow of particles, etc. The choice depends on the type of CSP technology. For a parabolic trough, the receiver is a pipe as illustrated in the slide. Most
commonly, a heat transfer fluid takes up the energy in the form of sensible heat (a delta T) with limits as the fluid is organic and cannot sustain very high temperatures.
Part of the collected energy can be stored in a storage system. Usually it is made of molten salt that heats up when storing energy or cools down when releasing energy.
If not stored, the energy is conveyed by the heat transfer fluid to the thermodynamic cycle. It produces steam in the boiler. The steam drives a turbine and an alternator
producing electricity. The efficiency of the cycle depends on the CSP technology. The higher the temperature, the better the efficiency.
The efficiency of the system depends on the efficiency of the different steps. There are optical losses in the collector and between the collector and the receiver. There
are thermal losses in the receiver and during the transport of heat to the thermodynamic cycle. If storage is included, there are also thermal losses. Finally, the conversion
of heats to work is limited by thermodynamics.
Why Concentrated Solar Power?
Components of a CSP
Maximum Concentra;on?
Concentra;on with parabolic trough
Other concentrator technologies
Losses and efficiency
Thermodynamic cycle
 Maximum concentra;on between collector and receiver

collector

receiver
4
✏ T = 1000
theta is the acceptance angle
of the collector
T = 367 K

Gr
Co = op;cal concentra;on ra;o
G0
Ac
Cg = geometrical concentra;on ra;o
Ar

Before defining the maximum concentration possible, concentration ratios must be defined. There are two definitions for the concentration ratio. The first one is the ration
of the the radiation flux at the receiver compared to the radiation flux at the collector. It can be defined globally or at specific locations of the receiver. Indeed, the
concentration ratio is not necessarily uniform on the receiver. The second definition is easier to grasp. It is based on geometry. It is the ratio between the surface of the
collector (called aperture) and the surface of the receiver.
Another important quantity is the acceptance angle. It is more difficult to understand. It is the angle (demi-angle in practice) around the normal to the collector within
which solar rays are captured by the collector and the receiver. Outside this angle, solar energy is lost. The acceptance angle is defined for the collector. There is also a
receiver spread angle that defines the angle within which solar rays can be captured by the receiver.
 Incoming solar flux ✏and étendue
T4 = 1000
✏ T 4 = 1000
✏ T 4 = 1000

T = 367 K367 K
T =
T = 367 K

Gr Gr Gr
Co = Co =
C =
G0 o G0 G0
Ac
Ac
Cgc =
A Cg A
=r
Cg = Ar
Ar ⇣ r⇣⌘2 ⌘
2
4⇡r4⇡r 2
r 2
G =GE
2= = E
0 E0 2 ⇣ =0⌘E0
4⇡r 4⇡R4⇡R2 r R R 2
G = E0 2
= E0
4⇡R(Rsin(✓ )) R2
2
G =GE= (Rsin(✓s ))
s
= E=0 sin2 2
(✓s(✓
) s)
0 E0 2 E0 sin
R
2 R 2
(Rsin(✓s )) 2
G = E0 = E20 sin (✓s )
for a given collector aperture,RAc the
2 E0 AEflux
c0sin is 2
(✓s )(✓s )
Ac sin

E0 Ac sin2 (✓s )

étendue

Considering the sun and the earth, one can calculate the irradiation at the earth surface based on the irradiation leaving the sun’s surface and the distance from sun to
earth. This also requires the diameter of the sun. The irradiance can then be expressed as a function of the half-angle, theta_s. View from the earth, the sun subtends a
half-angle, theta_s, of 0.00465 radians. E_0 is the black body emissive power at the sun’s surface. The irradiance, G, is a function of the square of the sine of the half-
angle. When multiply by an aperture surface, A_c, the product Ac x sin^2(theta_s) is called étendue. If the acceptance angle of the aperture is defined by theta (see slide
7 for the definition of the acceptance angle), one can define the étendue by the product : Ac x sin^2(theta). So it is not a concept linked to the sun. On the contrary, the
étendue is a general concept in optics. It is conserved in perfect optics as considered here. It means that whatever the optical system (except in case of scattering, etc.)
the étendue is a constant. This is the conservation of étendue.
Using the french word « étendue » might be surprising but this is the correct word even in English.
As a summary, for an optical system, the product Ac x sin^2(theta) is a constant.
 G = E0 22
= E0
E0 A4⇡R
c sin (✓s ) R
T = 367 K 2
(Rsin(✓
2 s )) 2
GA
=inEsin
0 (✓) =
2 sinE20(sin
Aout = ) (✓s )
Etendue is conserved in the concentrator
Gr
✏ T = 1000 4
R
Co = 2
sin2 (✓
E0 A=c sin (s ))
G0 Cg (3D) 2
sin (✓)
T = 367 K
Ac Ain sin2 (✓) =sin(
Aout sin2
) ( )
Cg = Cg (2D) =
GA
rr sin(✓)
Co =
G0 sin2 ( )
4⇡r2 ⇣r ⌘2 Cg (3D) =
sin2 (✓)
G = E0 Cg =2 A=c E0
4⇡R Ar R sin( )
Cg (2D) =
4⇡r ))2 2 ⇣ r ⌘2 sin(✓)
G (Rsin(✓
= E0 s2 = E0 2
G= E0 4⇡R
2
=ER0 sin (✓s )
R
2
(Rsin(✓s ))
G = E0 = E0 sin2 (✓s )
R2c sin2 (✓s )
E0 A
E0 Ac sin2 (✓s ) concerta;on
2 2
Ain sin (✓) = Aout sin ( ) increases the
Ain sin2 (✓) = Aout sin2 ( )
angular spread
sin2 ( )
geometrical CC
g (3D) = sin2 (2 )
g (3D) = sin
sin2 (✓)(✓)
concerta;on ra;os sin(
sin() )
in 2D and 3D CC g (2D) =
g (2D) = sin(✓)
sin(✓)

As étendue is conserved, the geometrical concentration ratio can be theoretically defined for 3D (point concentration like paraboloid) and 2D (linear concentration like
parabolic trough). The 2D case has not been discussed before but conservation of étendue can be extended to it. In that case the sin^2 is replaced by sin. It is a question
1
a angle versus solid angle. More on this in the book on nonimaging optics mentioned on the first slide or on the web.
As said in the slide, the concentration increases the angular spread.

1
 4⇡R R
2 2
Ain sin
2
(✓) = A out sin
2
( )
Ain sin (✓) =s )) 2
Aout sin ( )2
(Rsin(✓
G = E0 = E0 sin (✓s )
Maximum concentra;on of solar rays R2
Cg (3D) =
sin
2
sin ( 2)
2
( )
Cg (3D) = 2 sin (✓)
E0 Ac sinsin (✓2s(✓)
)
sin( )
Cg (2D) = sin( ) 2
The maximum is obtained when
AinC theta
g (2D)
sin 2 = Ais
(✓) = outlimited
sin ( ) to
the solar angular spread,
sin(✓)
sin(✓)
theta_s = 0.0047 radians and when
2
the receiver spread is pi/2
sin ( )
Cg (3D) =
sin2 (✓)
1
Cg,max (3D) = 1 = 46250
Cg,max (3D) = sin sin( ) = 46250
2 (0.00465)
2 (0.00465)
sin
Cg (2D) =
sin(✓)
1
Cg,max (2D) 1
Cg,max (2D) = = sin(0.00465) = 215
= 215
sin(0.00465)

1
Cg,max (3D) = = 46250
sin2 (0.00465)
Based on thermodynamics arguments, we should find back the source
temperature (here based on(2D)
a DNI 1
Cg,max = of 1000 W/m^2)
= 215
sin(0.00465)
✓ ◆0.25
1000 ⇥ 46250
= 5344 K

Considering an acceptance angle for the collector as small as possible, i.e. the half-angle of the sun and a spread of pi/2 for the receiver, on gets the maximum
concentration possible. It is 46250 for the 3D case and 215 for the 2D case. So linear collector cannot concentrate as much as the point concentrator like solar tower and
dish concentrator. Decreasing further the acceptance angle would lead to a higher 1concentration
1 ratio but on a smaller incoming irradiation as part of the solar irradiation
would not be transferred to the receiver.
The maximum could have been obtained through thermodynamic. One cannot create a temperature higher than the source temperature, i.e increasing the exergy of the
flux without the addition of work. So the maximum equilibrium temperature of the receiver should be that of the sun. By applying the max concentration ratio, 46250, to a
DNI of 1000 W/m^2, one obtains a temperature of 5344K. This is not the exact sun temperature that is closer to 6000K. Indeed, a DNI of 1000W/m^2 includes losses in
1
the atmosphere.
Why Concentrated Solar Power?
Components of a CSP
Maximum Concentra;on?
Concentra;on with parabolic trough
Other concentrator technologies
Losses and efficiency
Thermodynamic cycle
 Four parameters to define a parabolic trough

A parabolic trough (a trough = une auge, un abreuvoir) is defined by a parabola shape and a linear dimension, L. The parabola can be defined by its focal length, the
aperture width and the rim angle. Two of these las three parameters are sufficient to fully characterise the parabola. One the parabola and the receiver size are defined,
one can determine the concentration ratio of the parabolic trough.
 Excluding the length, the parameters are linked so only
two must separately defined

This slide illustrates the link between the aperture, the focal distance and the rim angle. It also shows different shape for the parabolic trough. In practice, the second
geometry is the most representative of actual shape in CSP units.
 sin(✓)
sin( )
Cg (2D) =
1sin(✓)
Cg,max C
(2D) = 1 = 215
the size of the receiver is chosen to capture all the sun
g,max (3D) =
sin(0.00465)
sin2 (0.00465)
= 46250

✓ ◆0.25 1
rays (2D) = 1
1000C⇥ 46250 = 215
g,max
Cg,max (3D) = = 5344 =
sin(0.00465)
1
K 46250
Cg,max (3D) = sin2 (0.00465) = 46250
✓ ◆0.25
2 (0.00465)
sin
1000 ⇥ 46250
2rsin(✓s1) = 5344 K
Cg,max (2D)
d == 1 = 215
Cg,max (2D) = cos( R)
sin(0.00465) = 215
2rsin(✓s )
sin(0.00465)
✓ d =◆0.25 R )
1000 ⇥ 46250 ◆cos(
✓ 0.25
1000 ⇥ 46250
Ac W ⇥ L= 5344
sin(2KK)
C = = ==5344 r
g
Ar d⇥L 2sin(✓s )
2rsin(✓s )
dd== 2rsin(✓s )
To maximize
cos(the
cos( R)
R )
concentra;on ra;o for a flat
AAc c W W⇥
⇥LL sin(2 rr))
sin(2
CgCg= ==
receiver:
= =
AAr dd⇥
r ⇥LL 2sin(✓s ))
2sin(✓ s

=
⇡
r,opt =
r,opt 4
14
1
Cg,opt ⇡ 100

as an exercise, derive the different parameters for a cylindrical receiver

1
1
It can shown that the receiver size required to catch the solar irradiation with it half-angle, theta_s, is d. Demonstration is based on the most extreme case, i.e. irruption at
the rim of the parabola as shown in the figure. Based on the receiver size the geometric concentration ratio is defined. W is the aperture of the parabola while L is the
length of the parabolic trough and some identical for the collector and the receiver. The concentration ratio, C_g, is given on the slide. By maximising it as a function of
the rim angle, one obtains an optimum for a rim angle of 45°. The concentration ratio is around 100 in this case. With a cylindrical receiver (a pipe) placed a focal point,
the optimum rim angle becomes 90°. In practice, the angle used is 80° as a trade off between maximising the concentration ratio and the cost of the parabolic trough.
Why Concentrated Solar Power?
Components of a CSP
Maximum Concentra;on?
Concentra;on with parabolic trough
Other concentrator technologies
Losses and efficiency
Thermodynamic cycle
 Solar tower

Shouhang 10MW solar tower plant

Solar tower allows very high concentration ratio and thus higher temperature for the steam and a better thermodynamic efficiency. They are based on individually
controlled flat reflectors located around the tower.
 Fresnel concentrator

source : Klaus Poeler (researchgate)

Fresnel concentrator are similar to parabolic trough but using the principle of Fresnel lenses. The collector is composed of flat reflectors disposed o the ground and
focusing on a pipe where the heat transfer fluid circulates.
 Dish concentrator

US department of Energy

Another form of concentrator is the dish. It focuses on a single point where heat can be collected or directly used like in the dish Stirling application.
Why Concentrated Solar Power?
Components of a CSP
Maximum Concentra;on?
Concentra;on with parabolic trough
Other concentrator technologies
Losses and efficiency
Thermodynamic cycle
 The losses depend on the size of the receiver and its
temperature

Losses are propor;onal to the temperature of the receiver

(convec;on and conduc;on) but also to the fourth power (radia;on)

A small receiver size limits the surface of exchange and thus the
losses

Once the irradiation is converted into heat in the receive, it is subjected to thermal losses. Usually, the receiver is a steel pipe surrounded by a glass pipe. Air is evacuated
between the two to reduce convection losses. First there are some losses due to reflection on the glass tube. As the temperature of the steel pipe increases, more and
more energy is lost by radiation. Part of them are reflected back to the steel pipe, the rest goes through the glass pipe and is lost. The glass pipe is also influenced by
convective losses by the air around it. Finally, there are conduction losses where the pipe are attached, connected, etc. Losses are proportional to the temperature for
convection and conduction and to the temperature a power 4 for the radiation. So increasing the temperature leads to a very rapid increase in the losses.
High concentration ratios are desirable as they reduce the size of the receiver and thus its losses. However, it leads to higher temperature and thus higher losses. There
might be a trade-off.
 A larger concentra;on ra;o reduces the losses even at
high temperature

This figure illustrates the benefits of increasing the concentration ratio in a specific, realistic, case. The receiver efficiency is the highest when the concentration ratio is
high. For realistic parabolic trough, C is around 100 and the efficiency decreases rapidly with the temperature.
Why Concentrated Solar Power?
Components of a CSP
Maximum Concentra;on?
Concentra;on with parabolic trough
Other concentrator technologies
Losses and efficiency
Thermodynamic cycle
 Rankine-Hirn cycle is the most common. a Heat
Transfer Fluid makes the link between the receivers
and the steam generator

Storage (molten salt) is usually added to increase opera;on ;me

This figure illustrates the layout of a CSP unit based on parabolic troughs. The temperatures are also given. They seems low but this is due to the temperature limit of the
Heat transfer fluid (HTF). Low temperatures also reduces the losses but here the constraint is the HTF. HTF is heated up in the parabolic trough from 295 to 395°C. This
energy can be stored in the molten salt reservoirs. There is a hot reservoir and a cold one. The heat is either stored or restored through a heat exchanger. The thermal
fluid is then cooled in the steam generator and the reheater to produce steam at the given conditions. The rest is a steam cycle with steam extraction to maximise the
efficiency.
 The opposing effects of higher efficiency for the
thermodynamic cycle at higher temperatures and higher
thermal losses

Considering the losses in the receiver and the thermodynamic efficiency of the cycle, one gets an optimum working temperature for every concentration ratios. This is the
most important trade-off to keep in mind when designing CSP units.
 The solar mul;ple characterises the nominal power of the
collector field and the size of the power block.

There are many design variables in CSP units. You can check them all, including economic variables, in the SAM tools for the NREL, see the link on moodle. One of such
parameter is the solar multiple, SM. It is the ration between the nominal thermal power of the solar field and the nominal thermal power of the thermodynamic cycle.
Above one, it means that the solar field harvest more power than needed in nominal conditions. This allows to store energy and to operate at nominal power more hours
per year. It is similar to the ratio between the PV panels power and the inverter nominal power as seen by professor De Jaeger. The solar multiple is around 1.15…1.3
when there is not thermal storage and above 2 when storage is included. It can go well above 2 depending on the storage size.
There are many other parameters like the alignment of the parabolic trough that you will discover in this PBL.
 The overall efficiency is low but the sun is a free source
of energy

This is an illustration of the overall efficiency of a typical CSP units. Efficiency might be low but solar energy is free. Designs are always based on economic constraints
detailed in the SAM tools but going well beyond the scope of the exercise.