Module 5: Lecture 2

FLAT PLATE COLLECTORS

STATIONARY COLLECTORS
 Solar energy collectors are distinguished by their motion: stationary,
single-axis tracking, and two axis tracking.
 Stationary collectors are permanently fixed in position, and don’t track
the sun
 Three main types:
i. Flat –plate collector (FPC):
Concentration ratio 1, temperature range 30 – 800C
ii. Evacuated tube collector (ETC) :
Concentration ratio 1, temperature range 50 – 2000C
iii. Stationary compound parabolic collector (CPC):
Concentration ratio 1- 5, temperature range 60 -2400C
 Flat –Plate Collector (FPC)
Main components:
- Transparent cover(Glazing):
commonly one or more sheets of
glass or similar
- Absorber plate: flat, corrugated
or grooved plates to which tubes
or fins are attached, usually
coated with a high-absorptance,
low-emittance layer
- Headers or manifolds: Pipes and
ducts to admit and discharge
thermal fluid
- Insulation: at back and sides of
collector to minimize heat losses
- Container: casing surrounding
components to protect from dust
and moisture
Glazing Material & Properties:
i. Glass is widely used because its transmissivity is up to 90 % for
shortwave radiation and ~ 0% for long wave infrared
ii. Glass with low iron content has transmissivity of solar radiation τ=0.85 -
0.9 at normal incidence while ordinary window glass has higher iron
content and lower transmissivity for solar radiation
iii. Transmissivity of direct solar radiation varies considerably with angle of
incidence
iv. Plastics also possess high shortwave transmittance , but their long wave
transmittance could reach τ=0.4; they generally suffer from ultraviolet
radiation, and deteriorate and change dimensions at high temperatures.
However, plastic thin films are much lighter than glass, completely
flexible and are not broken by hail or stone
v. Anti-reflective coatings and surface texture can improve transmission
significantly
vi. Panel collectors, do not possess
glazing and are cheap collectors used for
small temperature rise such as swimming
pool applications. They normally use plastic
absorber plates, as displayed below.

Plastic collector absorber plate

Absorbing Plates
• The collector plate is designed to absorb as much of the incident
radiation as possible, while losing as little heat as possible to above
atmosphere through glazing, and downward through back of casing.
• Energy collection is maximized by use of a selective surface, which
possesses high absorptiveness, α , to short wave radiation and low
emittance,ε, of re-radiated long wave radiation.
• α depends on nature and color of coating and on incident angle. Black
is the preferred color.
• Typical selective surfaces consist of a thin upper layer, created by
electrolytic or chemical treatment, which features high short-wave α
but relatively transparent to long-wave radiation; deposited on a
surface with low ε for longwave radiation.
• The cheapest absorber coating is the non-selective matt black paint,
and is limited to operating temperatures less than 400C above
ambient.
 Collector Construction
Water Systems:
A good thermal bond must exist
between tubes and absorber plates.
Common materials for collector
plates are copper, Al, and stainless
steel.
Back insulation is made from FG or
mineral fiber mat that will not outgas
at elevated temperatures
Cu tubes are most common because
of their high conductivity and
superior resistance to corrosion.

Fig (a) shows a bonded sheet design; Fig (b, c ) tubes are soldered, brazed to
upper or lower surfaces of sheets or strips of copper. (d) shows extruded
rectangular tubing to increase area of HT between tube and plate
Air Systems
Major diff between air and water
collectors is the need to design
absorber to overcome the lower h
between air and absorber plate, e.g
by use of fins or extended
surfaces(e), metal or fabric
matrices(f),thin corrugated metal
sheets(g), or porous absorbers(with
selected surfaces for high
performance).

Transpired air collectors used for heating in buildings(g) consist of a

perforated blackened metal sheet placed in front of a south facing building
wall; a fan forces air to pass through perforation holes to heat the air.
Thermal capacity of air is much lower than water, so large volume flow rates
are required.
 Collector Energy Losses

Solar radiation incident on the surface of the collector is partly

delivered to the thermal fluid(useful energy), but the rest is
returned back to the environment through all modes of HT, and is
considered a loss, Qloss .
It can be expressed in terms of plate temperature Tp ,ambient
temperature Ta , and either an effective thermal resistance, RL or an
overall heat transfer coefficient UL , as follows:
Qloss = (Tp – Ta )/RL = UL Ac (Tp –Ta )
UL = 1/(RL AC ) is the sum of the heat transfer coefficients from
all sides and faces of the collector.
RL represents heat transfer resistance from absorber plate to
ambient.
 FPC Analysis
• Flat plate collectors utilize both the direct and diffuse components of
radiation.
• The main performance indicator is collector thermal efficiency, ηth ,
defined as ratio of useful energy delivered to total solar radiation incident
on collector aperture.
• Total incident solar radiation, is the sum of beam, diffuse and ground-
reflected. Using the isentropic model on an hourly basis for an inclined
plate, the total incident radiation on glazing is
Ib Rb + Id [1+cos(β)]/2 +ρG(Ib +Id ) [1-cos(β)]/2
the absorbed radiation S is thus obtained by multiplying each term with
the appropriate (τα) to yield:
S=Ib Rb (τα)b + Id(τα)d [1+cos(β)]/2 +ρG(Ib +Id ) (τα)G [1-cos(β)]/2
(τα)n can be found from properties of cover and absorber, then next slide
is used to obtain (τα) at given incidence angle; for diffuse and ground
reflected radiation the effective incidence angles θe,d , θe,G are derived from
the empirical relations:
θe,d = 59.68 - 0.1388 β + 0.001497 β2
θe,G = 90 - 0.5788 β + 0.002693 β2
 Typical (τα)/(τα)n
curves for 1-4 covers

Alternatively:
When measurements of incident solar radiation on a tilted surface It is
available, we can use:
S=(τα)av It , with (τα)av ≈ 0.96 (τα)b (subscript b representing Beam component)
Thermal network and
corresponding
electrical network for
a single-cover
collector.

Notation: Ac = collector area (m2)

hc,p-g = convection hc between absorber plate and glass cover(w/m2K)
εP = infrared emissivity of absorber plate
εg = infrared emissivity of glass cover
• Heat loss from absorber plate to glass:
Ac (TP4  Tg4 )
Qt , P  g  Ac hc , P  g (TP  Tg ) 
(1 /  P )  (1 /  g )  1
• Linearizing radiation term:
Ac (TP4  Tg4 ) Ac (TP2  Tg2 )(TP2  Tg2 ) Ac (TP2  Tg2 )(TP  Tg )
  (TP  Tg )
(1 /  P )  (1 /  g )  1 (1 /  P )  (1 /  g )  1 (1 /  P )  (1 /  g )  1
 Ac hr , P  g (TP  Tg )

 (TP2  Tg2 )(TP  Tg )

Where hr , P  g 
(1 /  P )  (1 /  g )  1

hence
Qt,P-g = Ac (hc,P-g +hr,P-g )(Tp –Tg ) = (Tp – Tg)/RP-g

For β < 600, hc,P-g (Holland et al.,1976) is derived from(+ represents positive values
only): 
hc , P  g L 1708 
 1708[sin(1.8 )]1.6   Ra  cos(  ) 
0.333

Nu   1  1.446[1  ] 1       1
k Ra  cos(  )  Ra  cos(  )   5830  
• Where g ' L3 (TP  Tg ) , and
Ra  Pr
2
L=distance between plate and glass-cover
β’ is volumetric expansion coefficient= 1/T for ideal gas.
all fluid properties evaluated at mean gap temperature (TP + Tg )/2.

• For vertical collectors, hc,P-g (Shewen et al.,1996) is derived from:

0.5
hc , P  g L   0.0665 Ra 0.333 
2

Nu   1    
  1  (9600 / Ra )
0.25
k  

• Similarly, heat loss from glass cover to ambient air and radiation exchange
with sky(assuming Tsky ≈ Ta )is expressed by:

Qt,g-a = Ac (hc,g-a +hr,g-a ) (Tg –Ta )= (Tg –Ta )/Rg –a

• For two collector covers, heat transfer between lower glazing and top one
is described by :
Qt,g1-g2 =Ac (hc,g1-g2 + hr,g1-g2 )(Tg1 –Tg2 ) = (Tg1 –Tg2 )/Rg1-g2
• The second cover introduces the extra resistance in series Rg1-g2 .
Iteration is required to evaluate temperature dependent properties,
particularly hr, g1-g2 .
• Klein,1975,presented following empirical equation for design, which
avoids iteration :
1 2 2
 (TP  Ta )(TP  Ta )
Ut  
ng 1 2n  f  1
 g  ng
C  TP  Ta 
0.33
1  P  0.05ng (1   P ) g
  
TP  ng  f  hW

where f= (1- 0.04 hW +0.0005hW 2 ) (1+0.091 ng ),

C= 365.9(1-0.00883 β+0.0001298 β2)
A rough empirical value of the wind heat transfer coeff, hw is the larger of
5 W/m2K and: 8.6V 0.6
hW 
L0.4
• Heat lost from bottom of collector , first crosses insulation layer by
conduction, and then by combined convection and radiation; latter can be
neglected because of low bottom casing temperature. Hence, heat loss
coefficient for bottom, Ub is given by: 1
Ub 
tb 1

kb hc ,b  a
Where tb, kb and hc,b-a are back insulation thickness, conductivity, and
convection heat loss coefficient from back to ambient respectively.
The loss from back of plate is usually less than 10% of upward loss. Typical
values of Ub = 0.3- 0.6 W/m2K; it applies over an area Ab
• Similarly, heat loss coeff from collector edges is estimated from:
1
Ue 
te 1

ke hc ,e  a

• Typical values of Ue = 1.5 -2.0 W/m2 K; it applies over an area Ae and not Ac
.
 Example I of FPC analysis

Estimate top heat loss coefficient of following collector:

Collector area = 1m × 2m = 2 m2 ; Collector slope= 350

Number of Glass covers = 2; Thickness of glass cover=4 mm
Thickness of absorbing plate =0.5 mm
Space between glass covers= 20 mm
Space between inner glass cover and absorber = 40 mm
Mean absorber temperature, Tp= 800C = 353 K
Ambient air temperature = 150C= 288K
Absorber plate emissivity, εp =0.10; glass emissivity, εg= 0.88
Wind speed = 2.5 m/s
 Example I solution
• To start solution, the two glass cover temperatures need to be guessed,
and then corrected by iteration, until following equations are satisfied:
(hc,p-g2 +hr,p-g2 ) (Tp –Tg2 ) = (hc,g2-g1 + hr,g2-g1 ) (Tg2 – Tg1 )
=(hc,g1-a + hr,g1-a ) ( Tg1 –Ta )
Assuming that after several iterations Tg1 = 23.80C , Tg2 = 41.70C, then:

 (Tp  Tg 2 )(TP2  Tg22 ) 5.67 10 8 (353  314.7)(3532  314.7 2 )

hr , p  g 2  
1  p 1  g 2 1 1 0.1  1 0.88  1
 0.835W / m 2 K

Similarly:

 (Tg 2  Tg1 )(Tg22  Tg21 )

hr , g 2 g1   5.098W / m 2 K
1  g 2  1  g1  1
• For lack of data, we assume Tsky = Ta, hence:
hr,g1-a =εg1 σ(Tg1 + Ta )(Tg12 + Ta2 )= 4.991 W/m2 K

Next we calculate Ra for the air gap between plate and glazing 2:
Rap-g2 =g β’ Pr (Tp- Tg2 )L3/ν2 =132,648,
where L is gap width and β’ =1/T. Here the air properties were evaluated at
mean gap temperature, T= (Tp+Tg2)/2. From which:

k 1708 
 1708[sin(1.8  )] 1.6

  Ra  cos(  ) 
0.333

hc , P  g 2  (1  1.446[1  ] 1       1 )
L Ra  cos(  )  Ra  cos(  )   5830  
= 2.918 W/m2K.

Similarly, we calculate the Ra for the air gap g2-g1 :

Rag2-g1 = g β’ Pr (Tg2- Tg1 )L3/ν2 =10,904, from which

k 1708 
 1708[sin(1.8 )]1.6   Ra  cos(  )  0.333 
hc , g 2 g1  (1  1.446[1  ] 1       1 )
L Ra  cos(  )  Ra  cos(  )   5830  
=2.852 W/m2 K
• To calculate the wind generated hc from g1 to ambient, we use:
hc,g1-a = 8.6 V0.6 /L0.4
= 8.6 (2.5)0.6 / 20.4 =11.294 W/m2K
where L is length of plate.
To check whether or not we need to iterate we substitute in:
(hc,p-g2 +hr,p-g2 ) (Tp –Tg2 ) = (2.918+0.835)(353-314.7)= 143.7 W/m2
(hc,g2-g1 + hr,g2-g1 ) (Tg2 – Tg1 ) =(2.852+5.098)(314.7-296.8)=142.3 W/m2
(hc,g1-a + hr,g1-a ) ( Tg1 –Ta ) =(11.294+4.991)(296.8-288)=143.3 W/m2
which are close enough , so iteration will not be required.

Finally : 1
 1 1 1 
Ut     
h  h h  h h  h 
 c , p  g 2 r , p  g 2 c , g 2  g 1 r , g 2  g 1 c , g 1 a r , g 1 a 

= 2.204 W/m2K
 Example II
Repeat the previous example employing empirical equation for Ut
Solution:
f= (1- 0.04 hW +0.0005hW 2 ) (1+0.091 ng )
= (1-0.04×11.294+0.0005×11.2942)(1+0.091×2)=0.723,
C= 365.9 (1-0.00883 β+0.0001298 β2)
= 365.9 (1-0.00883 × 35 + 0.0001298 × 352) = 311
1  (TP2  Ta2 )(TP  Ta )
Ut  
ng 1 2n g  f  1
  ng
C  TP  Ta 
0.33
1  P  0.05ng (1   P ) g
  
TP  ng  f  hW

1 5.667  10 8 (3532  2882 )(353  288)

Ut  
2 1 2  2  0.723  1
 2
311  353  288 
0.33
1 0.1  0.05  2(1  0.1) 0.88

353  2  0.723  11.294
= 2.306 W/m2K, which differs by only4.6%