Heat transfer

Long question answer

1) What is fin? Write some usages of fines?

Ans: A Fin is an extended surface that is used to increase the rate of convective heat transfer. Fins are
generally used on the surface where the heat transfer rate without the use of fins is insufficient to cool
or heat the body. The heat is transferred from the body to the fins by means of conduction, then this
heat from the fins is transferred away by convection.

As for the usages of fins, they are widely used in various fields:

Heat Transfer: Fins increase the surface area of an object, enhancing the rate of heat transfer to or
from the environment by increasing convection.

Cooling Systems: Fins are used in cooling systems of various machines and engines to dissipate heat
more effectively.

Electronics: Fins are used in heat sinks to cool electronic components by dissipating heat into the
surrounding air.

HVAC Systems: In heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems, fins are used to enhance
heat transfer.

Refrigeration: Fins are used in refrigerators and air conditioners to transfer heat from inside to the
outside environment.

1(b) If a fin is thin and long and tip loss is negligible, show that the heat transfer from the fin is
given by-

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2) Define thermal conductivity and how it measures?

Ans: Thermal Conductivity, denoted by the symbol `k` or sometimes `λ`, is a measure of a material's
ability to conduct or transfer heat. It is defined as the amount of heat transferred through a certain
thickness of a material per unit area per unit time for each unit temperature gradient.

The formula for thermal conductivity is given by:

 Thermal conductivity is typically measured in watts per meter kelvin (W/m.K)³. Materials with high
thermal conductivity are used in heat sinks, while materials with low values of `λ` are used as thermal
insulators.

ii) A 0.8 m high and 1.5 m wide double-pane window consists of two 4 mm thick layers of glass
(k= 78 W/m K) separated by a 10 mm wide stagnant air space (k= 0.026 W/m K). Determine the
rate of heat transfer through this window and the temperature of the inside surface, when the
room is maintained at 200 C and the outside air is at -100 C. Take the convection heat transfer
coefficient on the inside and the outside surfaces of the window as 10 and 40 W/m2 K
respectively.

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3) What is an isotropic solid?

Ans: An Isotropic Solid refers to a solid material for which physical properties are independent of the
orientation of the system. This means that the properties of the material, such as thermal
conductivity or electrical conductivity, are the same in all directions.

Examples of isotropic materials include glass, most polymers like plastic, metals like tungsten and
aluminum, and cubic crystals like diamond and garnet. These materials are often used in various
fields due to their isotropic properties.

(ii)Show that the temperature variation for heat conduction through a cylindrical wall having
uniform k is logarithmic.

Ans: The temperature variation in a cylindrical wall with uniform thermal conductivity k can be
derived from the heat conduction equation. In cylindrical coordinates, the heat conduction equation
simplifies to:
4) (i)Using lumped capacitance method for bodies of infinite thermal conductivity, proof that
Where, T is the average temperature of Billet, is the surrounding fluid temperature and the
other terms have their usual meanings.

Ans: The Lumped Capacitance Method is a simplification used in transient heat transfer systems
where the temperature of the body is assumed to be uniform at any point in time. This method is
applicable when the Biot number is less than 0.1.

The basic heat balance equation for a lumped capacitance system is given by-
5) Calculate the junction diameter of a copper thermocouple, initially at 250 C , which when
placed in a gas stream at 2000 C measures a temperature of 1980 C in 5 seconds. For copper,
ρ=8940 kg/m3, C= 384 J/kgK, k=390 W/mK and the convective heat transfer coefficient
=400 W/m2K.
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6) Shaw that the shape factor for two surfaces 1 and 2 connected by a refractory surface is given
By

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7) For two infinite parallel gray planes exchanging radiant energy, show-

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(ii) What is Solid angle? What do you mean by 1 Steragon?

Ans: A Solid Angle is a three-dimensional angular volume that is defined analogously to the
definition of a plane angle in two dimensions. It is the ratio of the area of the part of the spherical
surface subtended and the radius of the area of the part of the spherical surface subtended.

A Steradian can be defined as the solid angle subtended at the center of a unit sphere by a unit area
on its surface. For a general sphere of radius `r`, any portion of its surface with area `A = r^2`
subtends one steradian at its center. So, 1 Steradian is the solid angle subtended at the center of a
unit sphere by a unit area on its surface.

8) i) Explain how the shape factor with respect to itself if the surface is concave, convex and flat?

Ans: The Shape Factor or View Factor is a measure of the proportion of the radiation which leaves
surface 1 that strikes surface 2.

- For a flat or convex surface, the shape factor with respect to itself is zero. This is because for any
part of a flat or convex surface, one cannot see any other part of the same surface.

- A concave surface, on the other hand, has a shape factor with respect to itself. This is because the
radiation energy coming out from one part of the surface is intercepted by another part of the same
surface. The shape factor of a surface with respect to itself is denoted by `F_{1-1}`.

These properties of shape factors are crucial in the study of radiative heat transfer between surfaces.
(ii) Show that ,

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(9) (ii) Define emissivity of a surface. Explain Kirchhoff’s Law?

Ans: The Emissivity of a surface, denoted by `ε`, is a measure of the effectiveness of a surface in
emitting energy as thermal radiation. It is a dimensionless quantity that ranges from 0 to 1. An
emissivity of 1 implies that the material is a perfect emitter, while an emissivity of 0 implies that the
material is a perfect reflector.

Kirchhoff's Law states that for a body of any arbitrary material emitting and absorbing thermal
radiation in thermodynamic equilibrium, the emissivity `ε` is equal to the absorptivity `α`. In simpler
terms, for an arbitrary body emitting and absorbing thermal radiation in thermodynamic equilibrium,
the emissivity is equal to the absorptivity. This law is also valid in order to satisfy the Second Law of
Thermodynamics.

10) Two parallel gray planes have emissivities of 0.8 and 0.7 and are maintained at 8000C and
15000C. What is the net radiant energy exchange? What would be the reduction in heat
transfer if a radiation shield of polished aluminum ( ε =0.04 ) is placed between them?

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(10) (ii) Show that-

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11) Show that for parallel flow heat exchanger

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(ii) Show that for Counter flow heat exchanger-

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12) Water (cp=4.187 kJ/kg K) is heated at the rate of 1.4 kg/s from 4000 C to 7000 C by an oil (
cp=1.9 kJ/kg K) entering at 1100 C and leaving at 600 C in a counter flow heat exchanger. If
U0 =350 W/m2K, calculate surface area required.

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13) Using the same entering fluid temperatures and the same oil flow rate, calculate the exit
temperatures of oil and water and the rate of heat transfer, when the water flow rate is halved.

Ans: In a heat exchanger, if the flow rate of the water is halved, the water will spend more time in
the heat exchanger. This means it will absorb more heat from the oil, causing the exit temperature of
the water to increase.

Conversely, because the water is absorbing more heat, the oil will lose more heat, causing the exit
temperature of the oil to decrease.

The rate of heat transfer can be calculated using the formula:

Since the flow rate of the water is halved, the rate of heat transfer from the oil to the water will also
decrease. However, because the water is absorbing more heat (due to its increased residence time in
the heat exchanger), the overall rate of heat transfer may remain the same.

Please note that these are general trends and the exact values would depend on the specific
properties of the oil and water, as well as the design of the heat exchanger. To calculate the exact exit
temperatures and heat transfer rate, you would need to solve the energy balance equations for the
heat exchanger. This typically requires knowledge of the specific heat capacities and flow rates of the
oil and water, as well as the heat transfer coefficient and the surface area of the heat exchanger.
14) A steam pipe made of steel (k = 58 W/mK) has i.d. of 160 mm and o.d. of 170 mm. The
saturated steam flowing through it is at 300°C, while the ambient air is at 50°C. It has two
layers of insulation, the inner layer (k = 0.17 W/mK) is 30 mm thick and the outer layer (k =
0.023 W/mK) is 50 mm thick, the heat transfer coefficients on the inside and outside walls
are 30 and 5.8 W/m2K respectively. To find: The rate of heat loss per unit length of the pipe.

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(16) A plastic pipe (k = 0.5 W/mK) of i.d. 3 cm and o.d. 4 cm carries a fluid of average
temperature 100°C and h = 300 W/m2K. The rate of heat transfer per unit length is 500 W/m.
To find: (i) The outside surface temperature of pipe, (ii) the overall heat transfer coefficient
based on outside area.
17) A furnace wall has the inside surface temperature of 1100°C, while the ambient air
temperature is 25°C. The wall consists of 125 mm thick refractory bricks (k = 1.6 W/mK),
125 mm thick firebricks (k = 0.3 W/mK) and 12 mm thick plaster (k = 0.14 W/mK). There is
an air gap which offers a thermal resistance of 0.16 K/W. The heat transfer coefficient on the
outside wall to the air is 17 W/m2K. To find: (a) The rate of heat loss per unit area of wall
surface, (b) the interface temperatures throughout the wall, and (c) the temperature of the
outside surface of the wall.

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18) The roof of an electrically heated home is 6 m long, 8 m wide, and 0.25 m thick, and is made
of a flat layer of concrete whose thermal conductivity is k 0.8 W/m • °C (Fig.). The
temperatures of the inner and the outer surfaces of the roof one night are measured to be
15°C and 4°C, respectively, for a period of 10 hours. Determine (a) the rate of heat loss
through the roof that night and (b) the cost of that heat loss to the home owner if the cost of
electricity is $0.08/kWh.

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19) Two large aluminium (k = 240 W/mK), each 2 cm thick, with 10 mm surface roughness are
placed in contact at 105 N/m2 pressure (Fig.) with the outside surface temperatures of 390 °C
and 406°C. The thermal contact resistance is 2.75 × 10–4 m2K/W. To find: (i) The heat flux,
(ii) the temperature drop due to contact resistance, and (iii) the contact temperatures.

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20) A steam pipe (o.d. = 10 cm, Ts = 500 K, ε = 0.8) passing through a large room at 300 K. The
pipe loses heat by natural convection (h = 15 W/m2K) and radiation. To find: (i) The surface
emissive power of the pipe, (ii) the total radiation falling upon the pipe, and (iii) the total rate
of heat loss from the pipe.
21) Steam at 350°C flowing in a pipe (k = 80 W/mK) 5 cm i.d., 5.6 cm o.d. is covered with 3 cm
thick insulation (k = 0.05 W/mK). Heat is lost to the surroundings at 5°C by natural
convection and radiation with combined h = 20 W/m2K and hi = 60 W/m2K. To find: (i) The
rate of heat loss from the pipe per unit length, (ii) the temperature drops across the pipe and
the insulation.

22) Water is heated while flowing through a 1.5 cm × 3.5 cm rectangular cross-section tube at a
velocity of 1.2 m/s. The entering temperature of the water is 40°C, and the tube wall is
maintained at 85°C. Determine the length of the tube required to raise the temperature of
water to 70°C. Properties of water at the mean bulk temperature of 55°C are: ρ = 985.5
kg/m3; cp = 4.18 kJ/kg K, ν = 0.517 × 10–6 m2/s, k = 0.654 W/m K and Pr = 3.26.

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23) Nitrogen gas at 0°C is flowing over a 1.2 m long, 2 m wide plate maintained at 80°C with a
velocity of 2.5 m/s. For nitrogen, ρ = 1.142 kg/m3, cp = 1.04 kJ/kgK, ν = 15.63 × 10–6 m2/s
and k = 0.0262 W/mK.
To find: (a) The average heat transfer coefficient and (b) the total heat transfer from the plate.
24) Water at 10°C flows over a flat plate (at 90°C) measuring 1 m × 1 m, with a velocity of 2
m/s. Properties of water at 50°C are ρ = 988.1°C, ν = 0.556 × 10–6 m2/s, Pr = 3.54 and k =
0.648 W/mK. To find: (a) The length of plate over which the flow is laminar, (b) the rate of
heat transfer from the entire plate.

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25) What is monochromatic emissive power?

Ans: The monochromatic emissive power is the energy emitted by a black body at a given
wavelength in all directions per unit area per unit time. It is expressed in the units of watts per
square meter per micrometer (W/m²·µm). The relationship between the monochromatic emissive
power of a black body and the wavelength of radiation at a particular temperature is given by
Planck's distribution law.

(ii) Derive the expression for Radiant heat exchange between two black bodies separated by a
non-absorbing medium as

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26) (ii) Prove that F12A1=F21A2

Ans: The equation F12A1 = F21A2 is known as the reciprocity theorem in radiative
heat transfer. It states that the view factor F12 from surface 1 to surface 2
multiplied by the area A1 of surface 1 is equal to the view factor F21 from surface 2
to surface 1 multiplied by the area A2 of surface 2.

The view factor, also known as the configuration factor, is a measure of the
fraction of the radiation leaving surface 1 that strikes surface 2 directly. It
depends on the geometry and orientation of the two surfaces.

The reciprocity theorem is a consequence of the conservation of energy. It

ensures that the total energy leaving one surface equals the total energy arriving
at the other surface.

This theorem is fundamental in the analysis of radiative heat transfer between

surfaces. It simplifies the calculation of view factors in complex geometries, as it
reduces the number of view factors that need to be determined independently.

(iii) Derive Rayleigh–Jeans’ Law and Wien’s Law from Planck’s law of thermal radiation.

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27) A long steel rod 20 mm in diameter is to be heated from 427OC to 538OC. It is placed
concentrically is a long cylindrical furnace which has an inside diameter of 160 mm. The
inner surface of the furnace is at a temperature of 1093OC and has an emissivity of 0.85. If
the surface of the rod has an emissivity of 0.6, estimate the time required for the heating
operation. Take the density of steel as 7800kg/m3 and its specific heat 0.67kj/kgK.

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28) An enclosure measures 1.5 m × 1.7 m with a height of 2 m. The walls and ceiling are
maintained at 250°C and the floor at 130°C. The walls and ceiling have an emissivity of
0.82
and the floor 0.7. Determine the net radiation to the floor.
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29) Two very large parallel planes with emissivities 0.3 and 0.8 exchange radiative energy.
Determine the percentage reduction in radiative energy transfer when a polished
aluminium radiation shield (e = 0.04) is placed between them.

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30) In an open heart surgery under hypothermic conditions, the patient’s blood is cooled
before the surgery and rewarmed after wards. It is proposed that a concentric tube
counterflow heat exchanger of length 0.5 m is to be used for this purpose, with a thin-
walled inner tube having a diameter of 55 mm. If water at 60OC and 0.1 kg/s is used to
heat blood entering the exchanger at 18OC and 0.05 kg/s, what is the temperature of the
blood leaving the exchanger and the heat flow rate. Take U0 = 500 W/m2 K, cp of blood =
3.5 kJ/kg K and cp of water = 4.183 kJ/kg K.

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31) A 4 kg/s product stream from a distillation column is to be cooled by a 3 kg/s water
stream in a counterflow heat exchanger. The hot and cold stream inlet temperatures are
400K and 300K respectively, and the area of the exchanger is 30 m2. If the overall heat
transfer coefficient is estimated to be 820 W/m2K, determine the product stream outlet
temperature, if its specific heat is 2500 J/kgK and the coolant outlet temperature.

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32) After a long time in service, a counterflow oil cooler is checked to ascertain if its
performance has deteriorated due to fouling. In the test a standard oil flowing at 2.0 kg/s
is cooled from 420 K to 380 K by a water supply of 1.0 kg/s at 300 K. If the heat transfer
surface is 3.33 m2 and the design value of the overall heat transfer coefficient is 930
W/m2 K, how much has it been reduced by fouling? Take cp of oil as 2330 J/kgK and cp of
water as 4174 J/kgK

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33) A counterflow heat exchanger is employed to cool 0.55 kg/s (cp = 2.45 kJ/kg°C) of oil
from 115°C to 40°C by the use of water. The inlet and outlet temperatures of cooling water
are 15°C and 75°C, respectively. The overall heat transfer coefficient is expected to be 1450
W/m2 K. Using the NTU method, calculate the following: The mass flow rate of water, (b)
the effectiveness of the heat exchanger and (c) the surface area required.

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34) Derive the expression for heat transfer in parallel flow heat exchanger with proper
diagram.
(ii) What is overall heat transfer coefficient and fouling factor?
Ans: The Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient is a measure of the total resistance to heat
transfer. The process of heat transfer could include conduction, convection, and/or radiation.
It is usually denoted by `U` and its units are W/m²K or Btu/(hr-ft²-°F). The overall heat
transfer coefficient can be calculated as the reciprocal of the overall resistance to heat
transfer.
The Fouling Factor represents the thermal resistance introduced by the fouling layer, which
is an undesirable accumulation of material on the heat transfer surfaces. Fouling can be
caused by a variety of factors including impurities in raw water, salts present in water,
formation of algae, and the reactive nature of the passing fluid¹. The fouling factor is
denoted by `Rf` and is calculated as the reciprocal of the heat transfer coefficient of the
fouling layer¹. Its units are m²·°C/W or hr·ft²·°F/Btu.

(35) (ii) If a fin is thin and long and tip loss is negligible, show that the heat transfer from
the fin is-
(36) (ii) Explain why an insulated small diameter wire has a higher current carrying
capacity than an uninsulated one.

Ans: The current carrying capacity of a wire, also known as its ampacity, is the maximum amount of
electric current that a wire can safely carry without exceeding its insulation and conductor
temperature rating.

An insulated small diameter wire has a higher current carrying capacity than an uninsulated one
because the insulation reduces heat transfer from the wire to the surrounding environment. This
allows the wire to operate at a lower temperature, which reduces its electrical resistance and allows
more current to flow.

In contrast, an uninsulated wire loses heat more quickly to its surroundings, which can cause it to
operate at a higher temperature. This increases its electrical resistance, which in turn limits the
amount of current it can carry. Therefore, insulation plays a crucial role in enhancing the current
carrying capacity of a wire.

37) (i) What is an isotropic solid?

Ans: An Isotropic Solid is a type of material in which the physical properties are independent
of the orientation of the system. This means that the properties of the material, such as
thermal conductivity or electrical conductivity, remain the same regardless of the direction
in which they are measured.

Isotropic solids can be either amorphous, like glass and most polymers, or crystalline, like
cubic crystals. In the case of crystalline isotropic solids, the symmetries present within the
crystal system contribute to the isotropic nature of the material.

(ii)Why is there a negative sign in the Fourier’s law of heat conduction?

Ans: The negative sign in the Fourier’s law indicates that heat flows from regions of higher
temperature to regions of lower temperature, or from hot to cold. The negative sign also
ensures that the heat transfer rate, q, is positive when the temperature gradient, dT/dx, is
negative, and vice versa.

(iii) Define thermal diffusivity. What is its dimension? How does it differs from thermal
conductivity?

Ans: Thermal Diffusivity is defined as the rate of temperature spread through a material. It
measures the heat transfer from the hot material to the cold. The thermal diffusivity of a
material is given by the thermal conductivity divided by the product of its density and
specific heat capacity where the pressure is held constant. It is denoted by the letter D or α
(alpha), and its SI unit is m²/s.
Thermal Conductivity, on the other hand, is a measure of the ability of a material to conduct
heat through it. It tells about the speed at which thermal energy travels in a medium. The
thermal conductivity of a material is denoted by the symbol K, and its SI unit is W/mK.

The difference between thermal diffusivity and thermal conductivity lies in what they
measure. While thermal conductivity measures how effectively a material conducts heat,
thermal diffusivity describes how quickly heat spreads within a material. In other words,
thermal diffusivity represents the material’s ability to respond to changes in temperature.

38) Calculate the rate of heat loss through the vertical walls of a boiler furnace of size 4 m
by 3m by 3 m high. The walls are constructed from an inner fire brick wall 25 cm thick of
thermal conductivity 0.4 W/mK, a layer of ceramic blanket insulation of thermal
conductivity 0.2 W/mK and 8 cm thick, and a steel protective layer of thermal conductivity
55 W/mK and 2 mm thick. The inside temperature of the fire brick layer was measured at
600oC and the temperature of the outside of the insulation 600 oC. Also find the
temperature of the junction of brick and ceramic layers.
39) A 15 cm outer diameter steam pipe is covered with 5 cm high temperature insulation
(k=0.85 W/moC) and 4 cm low temperature insulation (k = 0.72 W/moC). The steam is at
500 oC and ambient air is at 40 oC. Neglecting thermal resistance of steam and air sides
and metal wall calculate the heat loss from 100 m length of the pipe. Also find
temperature drop across the insulation.

40) A long carbon steel rod of length 40 cm and diameter 10 mm (k = 40 w/mK) is placed in
such that one of its end is 400 oC and the ambient temperature is 30 oC. The flim co-
efficient is 10 w/m2K. Determine: (i) Temperature at the mid length of the fin,(ii) Fin
efficiency,(iii) Heat transfer rate from the fin,(iv) Fin effectiveness.