Delhi Technological University: Heat and Mass Transfer (ME-302) Group: M4

DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY
Bawana Rd, Delhi Technological University, Shahbad Daulatpur

Village, Rohini, New Delhi, Delhi 110042
Heat and Mass Transfer

(ME-302)
GROUP: M4
ASSIGNMENT-1
SUBMITTED TO- PROF. RS MISHRA

GROUP 1 (Roll No. 211 to 215)
TOPIC: Heat Exchanger and its applications
TOPIC: Mass Transfer
1) The tyre tube of a vehicle has a surface area of 0.62 m 2 and wall thickness of 10 mm.
The tube has air filled in it at a pressure of 2.2 bar. The air pressure drops to 2.18 bar in
period of 6 days. The solubility of air in the rubber is 0.075 m 3 of air /m3 of rubber at 1
bar. The volume of air in the tube is 0.034 m 3 and operating temperature is 300 K.
Calculate diffusivity of air in the rubber.
2) A rubber tube was used to transport hydrogen gas at 2.0 bar and 34°C. The inner and
outer diameters of rubber tube are 25 mm and 40 mm, respectively. Diffusion
coefficient of hydrogen in rubber is 2.2 × 10–8 m2/s and solubility of hydrogen in the
rubber is 3.12 × 10 –3 kg-mole of H 2 per m 3 of rubber at 1 bar. Calculate the diffusion
flux of hydrogen per metre length of tube. Assume concentration of hydrogen at the
outer surface of the tube is negligible.
3)
4)
Q5)
Q6)
Q7)
Q8)
Q9)
Q10)
Q11)

TOPIC: Radiation Integration and Lambda Expression
Q. The aluminum paint from Example 9.4 is used to cover the
surface of a body that is maintained at 27°C. In one installation,
this body is irradiated by the sun, in another by a source at 527°C.
Calculate the effective absorptivity of the surface for both con-
ditions, assuming the sun is a blackbody at 5800 K.
A. For the case of solar irradiation, we find from Table 9.1 for λ T = 3
μm * 5800 K = 17,400mmK = 17.4 * 10-3mK that
Eb (0 → λT )
= 0.98
σ T4
This means that 98% of the solar radiation falls below 3 μm and the
effective absorptivity is,
For the second condition with the source at 527°C (800 K), the
absorptivity can be calculated in a similar manner. However, the
calculation is the same as for the emissivity at 800K. Since ϵ λ= α λ ,
and ϵ = α in equilibrium. Hence, α = 0.744 for a source at 800 K.
Q. Determine the view factors F12 and F21 for the following
geometries:
1) Sphere of diameter D inside a cubical box of length L = D.

2) Diagonal partition within a long square duct.
3) End and side of a circular tube of equal length and diameter, L
= D.
Assumptions: Diffuse surfaces.
Solution:
1) sphere within a cube:
By inspection, F12 = 1
By reciprocity and summation:
2) Partition within a square duct:

From summation rule, F11 + F12 + F13 = 1 where F11 = 0
By symmetry F12 = F13
Thus, F12 = 0.5.
From reciprocity:
3) Circular tube:
from Fig. 12-43,
with r2 / L = 0.5 and L / r1 = 2, F13 ≈ 0.17.
From summation rule, F11 + F12 + F13 = 1 with F11 = 0, F12
= 1 - F13 = 0.83
From reciprocity,
Q. The temperature of the filament of a light bulb is 2500 K.
Assuming the filament to be a blackbody, determine the fraction of
the radiant energy emitted by the filament that falls in the visible
range. Also determine the wavelength at which the emission of
radiation from the filament peaks.
Solution
The visible range of the electromagnetic spectrum extends from 0.4
to 0.76 micro meter. Using Table 12-2:
which means only about 5% of the radiation emitted by the filament

of the light bulb falls in the visible range. The remaining 95%
appears in the infrared region or the “invisible light”.
Q. A black body at 3000 K emits radiation. Calculate the
following:
i) Monochromatic emissive power at 7 m wave length.
ii) Wave length at which emission is maximum.
iii) Maximum emissive power.
iv) Total emissive power,
v) Calculate the total emissive of the furnace if it is
assumed as a real surface having emissivity equal to 0.85.
Given: Surface temperature T = 3000K

Q.The energy received by a 2 2 m solar collector whose
normal is inclined at 45to the sun. The energy loss through
the atmosphere is 50% and the diffuse radiation is 20% of
direct radiation.

Q. The sun emits maximum radiation at λ = 0.52 μ. Assuming the
sun to be a black body, calculate the surface temperature of the
sun. Also calculate the monochromatic emissive power of the sun’s
surface.
Given: λ max = 0.52 μ = 0.52 x 10 -6 m

To find: (i) Surface temperature, T
(ii) Monochromatic emissive power, Ebλ
(iii) Total emissive power, E
(iv) Maximum emissive power, Emax
Q. The filament of a 75 W light bulb may be considered as a black
body radiating into a black enclosure at 700 C. the filament
diameter is 0.10 mm and length is 5 cm. considering the radiation,
determine the filament temperature .
Q. A furnace wall emits radiation at 2000 K.Treating it as black
body radiation, calculate

1. Monochromatic radiant flux density at 1mm wave
length.
2. Wave length at which emission is maximum and the
corresponding emissive power.

Q. Calculate the heat exchange by radiation between the
surfaces of two long cylinders having radii 120mm and 60mm
respectively. The axis of the cylinder is parallel to each other.
The inner cylinder is maintained at a temperature of 130°C and
emissivity of 0.6. Outer cylinder is maintained at a
temperature of 30°C and emissivity of 0.5.
Given: r1 = 60 mm = 0.060 m
r2= 120 mm = 0.12

T1 = 130°C + 273 = 403 K
e1 = 0.6
T2= 30°C + 273 = 303 K
e2 = 0.5
GROUP 4 (Roll No. 226 to 230 and 232)
TOPIC: Convection Boiling
Film Boiling of Water on a Heating Element

Water is boiled at atmospheric pressure by a horizontal polished copper heating element of
diameter D=5 mm and emissivity ε =0.05 immersed in water, as shown in Figure 10-17. If
the surface temperature of the heating wire is 350∘ C , determine the rate of heat transfer
from the wire to the water per unit length of the wire.
Water is boiled at 1 atm by a horizontal polished copper heating element. The rate of heat
transfer to the water per unit length of the heater is to be determined.
Assumptions: 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Heat losses from the boiler are negligible.
Properties: The properties of water at the saturation temperature of 100∘ C are

h fg =2257 × 103 J /kg and ρ l =957.9 kg /m3 (Table A-9). The properties of vapor at the film
∘
temperature of T f =( T sat + T s) /2=(100+ 350) /2=225 C=¿ 498 K (which is sufficiently close to
500 K ) are, from Table A-16,
3 ∘
ρv ¿ 0.441 kg/m C pv ¿ 1977 J /kg ⋅ C
μ v ¿ 1.73× 10 kg /m⋅ s k v ¿ 0.0357 W /m⋅ ∘ C
−5
Note that we expressed the properties in units that will cancel each other in boiling heat
transfer relations. Also note that we used vapor properties at 1 atm pressure from Table A-16
instead of the properties of saturated vapor from Table A- 9 at 250∘ C since the latter are at the
saturation pressure of 4.0 MPa .
Analysis: The excess temperature in this case is Δ T =T s −T sat =¿ 350−100=250∘ C , which is

much larger than 30∘ C for water. Therefore, film boiling will occur. The film boiling heat flux in
this case can be determined from Eq. 10−5 to be
[ ]
1/ 4
g k v ρv ( ρl− ρv ) [ hfg +0.4 C pv ( T s−T sat ) ]
3
q̇ film ¿ 0.62 ( T s−T sat )

μ v D ( T s−T sat )
¿ ¿
The radiation heat flux is determined from Eq. 10-6 to be
q̇ rad ¿ εσ ( T s −T sat )
4 4
¿ ¿
Note that heat transfer by radiation is negligible in this case because of the low emissivity of the
surface and the relatively low surface temperature of the heating element. Then the total heat
flux becomes (Eq. 10-7)
3 4 3 4 2
q̇ total =q̇ film + q̇ rad =5.93× 10 + × 157=5.94 × 10 W /m
4 4
Finally, the rate of heat transfer from the heating element to the water is determined by
multiplying the heat flux by the heat transfer surface area,
Q̇total ¿ A q̇ total =( πDL) q̇ total

¿ ¿ 933W
Discussion Note that the 5-mm-diameter copper heating element will consume about 1 kW of
electric power per unit length in steady operation in the film boiling regime. This energy is
transferred to the water through the vapor film that forms around the wire.
A 30-cm-long cylindrical heat pipe having a diameter of 0.6 cm is dissipating heat at a rate of
180 W, with a temperature difference of 3°C across the heat pipe, as shown in Figure 10–38. If
we were to use a 30-cm-long copper rod instead to remove heat at the same rate, determine
the diameter and the mass of the copper rod that needs to be installed.
A cylindrical heat pipe dissipates heat at a specified rate. The diameter and mass of a copper
rod that can conduct heat at the same rate are to be determined.
Assumptions: Steady operating conditions exist.
Properties: The properties of copper at room temperature are ρ=8950 kg /m3 and
∘
k =386 W /m⋅ C .
Analysis: The rate of heat Efjansfer Q through the copper rod can be expressed as
ΔT
Q̇=kA
L
where k is the thermal conductivity, L is the length, and Δ T is the temperature. difference
across the copper bar. Solving for the cross-sectional area A and substituting the specified
values gives
L 0.3 m
A= Q̇= (180 W )=0.04663 m2=466.3 cm2
k ΔT ( 386 W /m ⋅ C )( 3 C )
∘ ∘
Then the diameter and the mass of the copper rod become
1
A= π D2 ⟶ D=√ 4 A /π= √ 4 ( 466.3 cm2 ) /π =24.4 cm
4
m=ρV =ρAL=( 8590 kg /m3 )( 0.04663 m2) (0.3 m)=125.2 kg
Therefore, the diameter of the copper rod needs to be almost 25 times that of the heat pipe to
transfer heat at the same rate. Also, the rod would have a mass of 125.2 kg , which is
impossible for an average person to lift.
The heater for a steam boiler to produce saturated steam at 170°C is made of an electrical
heating element inside a 15 mm OD mechanically polished stainless steel tube. The power
input to the heater is 5 kW. If the surface temperature of heater not to exceed 175°C, find the
length of the heater.
Given: Boiling of water on polished stainless heater

∘
T sat ¿ 170 C , D ¿ 15 mm
P ¿ Q=5 kW , T s ¿ 175∘ C .
To find: Length of the heating element.

Assumptions:
(i) Steady state conditions,
(ii) Pool boiling.
Properties: Properties of saturated water and steam at 170∘ C from Table A-7
3
ρ ¿ 897.3 kg/ m , C p ¿ 4340 J / kg ⋅ K
kf ¿ 0.681 W /m ⋅ K μ ¿ 157.6 ×10−6 Ns / m2
3
Pr ¿ 1.0 , h fg ¿ 2049.5× 10 J / kg
3
ρv ¿ 4.119 kg /m , σ ¿ 0.04406 N / m
For mechanically polished stainless steel C sf =0.0132 and n=1.

Analysis: The temperature excess is
∘
Δ T e =T s−T sat =175−170=5 C
The heat flux during nucleate boiling

{ } [ ]
1 /2 3
g ( ρ− ρv ) C p ΔTe
q=μ h fg ×
σ C sf h fg Pr n
¿ 157.6 ×10 × ( 2049.5× 10 )

−6 3
[ ]
1/ 2
9.81×(897.3−4.119)
×
0.04406
[ ]
3
4340 ×5
× 3
0.0132 ×2049.5 ×10 ×1
¿ 74,325 W /m2
The heat transfer rate is given by
or 5000 ¿ 74325× π × 0.015 L

or L ¿ 1.43 m. Ans.
Water is boiled at a rate of 30 kg/h in a copper pan, 30 cm in diameter, at atmospheric

pressure. Estimate the temperature of bottom surface of the pan, assuming nucleate boiling
conditions. Also determine peak heat flux.
Given : The evaporation of water in a copper pan.
ṁe ¿ 30 kg /h , D ¿ 30 cm=0.3 m
p ¿ 1 atm, T sat ¿ 100∘ C .
To find:
(i) The temperature of bottom surface of the pan.
(ii) Critical heat flux.
Assumptions:
(i) Steady state conditions.
(ii) Pan bottom surface is polished copper.
(iii) Pan bottom surface at uniform temperature.
Properties: Saturated water at 100∘ C ,
The heat flux is
q ¿
During nucleate boiling, the heat flux is given by eqn. (11.53)
[ ] [ ]
1 /2 3
g ( ρ−ρ v ) Cp ΔT e
q=μ h fg ×
σ C sf hfg Pr n
Using numerical values and taking C sf =0.0130 for water-polished copper interface, and n=1,
from Table 11.1,
266,083.5=279× 10 × ( 2257 ×10 )

−6 3
[ ]
1 /2
9.81 ×(957.9−0.595)
× −3
58.9× 10
[ ]
3
4217 × ΔT e
×
0.0130 × 2257× 103 × 1.76
−4 3
or 266,083.5=629.703× 399.30× 5.445× 10 Δ T e
3 ∘
or Δ T e =1943.27 or Δ T e =12.47 C
The temperature of the bottom heated surface
T s=T sat + ΔT e =100+12.47
∘
¿ 112.47 C . Ans.
(ii) The peak (critical) heat flux for nucleate boiling is determined by using relation
1/ 4
q max =¿ 0.149 ρ1/v 2 h fg [ σg ( ρ−ρ v ) ] 0.149× ¿
¿
EXAMPLE 10-6 The condenser of a steam power plant operates at a pressure of 7.38 kPa.
Steam at this pressure condenses on the outer surfaces of horizontal pipes through which
cooling water circulates. The outer diameter of the pipes is 3 cm, and the outer surfaces of the
pipes are maintained at 30∘ C (Fig. 10-32). Determine (a) the rate of heat transfer to the cooling
water circulating in the pipes and (b) the rate of condensation of steam per unit length of a
horizontal pipe.
SOLUTION Saturated steam at a pressure of 7.38 kPa (Table A-9) condenses

FIGURE 10-32 on a horizontal tube at 30∘ C . The rates of heat transfer and condensation are to.
be determined
Schematic for Example 10-6.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The tube is isothermal.

Properties The properties of water at the saturation temperature of 40 ∘ C corresponding to
7.38 kPa are h fg =2407 × 103 J / kg and ρ v =0.05 kg / m3 . The properties of liquid water at the
film temperature of T f =( T sat + T s) / 2=¿ (40+30)/2=35∘ C are (Table A-9)
ρl ¿ 994 kg /m 3 C pl ¿ 4178 J /kg ⋅ ∘ C

μl ¿ 0.720× 10−3 kg /m⋅ s k l ¿ 0.623 W /m⋅ ∘ C
Analysis (a) The modified latent heat of vaporization is
h¿fg ¿ hfg +0.68 C pl ( T sat −T s )

¿ ¿
Noting that ρ v ≪ ρl (since 0.05 ≪ 994 ), the heat transfer coefficient for condensation on a
single horizontal tube is determined from Eq. 10-31 to be
[ ] [ ]
¿ 3 1 /4 1/ 4
g ρl ( ρl−ρv ) h fg k l 2 ¿
g ρl hf k l
3
h ¿ hhorizontal =0.729 ≅ 0.729
μ ( T sat −T s ) D μ1 ( T sat −T s ) D
¿ ¿
The heat transfer surface area of the pipe per unit of its length is A s=πDL=¿
π (0.03 m)(1 m)=0.09425 m 2. Then the rate of heat transfer during this condensation process
becomes
Q̇=h A s ( T sat −T s )=( 9292 W /m2 ⋅ ∘ C ) ( 0.09425 m2 ) ¿
(b) The rate of condensation of steam is
Q̇ 8578 J /s
ṁcondensation = ¿ = =0.00360 kg /s
h fg 2435 ×103 J /kg
Therefore, steam will condense on the horizontal tube at a rate of 3.6 g /s or 12.9 kg /h per
meter of its length.
[ ] [ ]
¿ 3 1 /4 1/ 4
g ρ l hf k l
3
¿ ¿
2
π (0.03 m)(1 m)=0.09425 m . Then the rate of heat transfer during this condensation process
becomes
Q̇=h A s ( T sat −T s )=( 9292 W / m2 ⋅ ∘ C ) ( 0.09425 m2 ) ¿
Q̇ 8578 J /s
h fg 2435 ×103 J /kg
EXAMPLE 10-7 Condensation of Steam on Horizontal Tube Banks
Repeat the proceeding example problem for the case of 12 horizontal tubes arranged in a
rectangular array of 3 tubes high and 4 tubes wide, as shown in Figure 10-33.
SOLUTION (a) Condensation heat transfer on a tube is not influenced by the presence of other
tubes in its neighborhood unless the condensate from other tubes drips on it. In our case, the
horizontal tubes are arranged in four vertical tiers, each tier consisting of 3 tubes. The average
heat transfer coefficient for a vertical tier of N horizontal tubes is related to the one for a single
horizontal tube by Eq. 10-33 and is determined to be
1 1
h horiz, N tubes = h
1 / 4 horiz, 1 tube
= 1/ 4 ( 9292 W / m2 ⋅ ∘ C ) =7060 W /m2 ⋅ ∘ C
N 3
Each vertical tier consists of 3 tubes, and thus the heat transfer coefficient determined above is
valid for each of the four tiers. In other words, this value can be taken to be the average heat
transfer coefficient for all 12 tubes.
The surface area for all 12 tubes per unit length of the tubes is
2
A s=N total πDL=12 π (0.03 m)(1 m)=1.1310 m
Then the rate of heat transfer during this condensation process becomes
Q̇=h A s ( T sat −T s )=( 7060 W / m2 ⋅ ∘ C ) ( 1.131 m 2 ) ¿
(b) The rate of condensation of steam is again determined from
Q̇ 79,850 J /s
h fg 2435 ×103 J /kg
Therefore, steam will condense on the horizontal pipes at a rate of 32.8 g /sper meter length of
the tubes.
The condenser of a steam power plant operates at a pressure of 7.38 kPa .
Steam at this pressure condenses on the outer surfaces of horizontal pipes through which
cooling water circulates. The outer diameter of the pipes is 3 cm, and the outer surfaces of
the pipes are maintained at 30∘ C (Fig. 10-32). Determine (a) the rate of heat transfer to the
cooling water circulating in the pipes and (b) the rate of condensation of steam per unit
length of a horizontal pipe.
Saturated steam at a pressure of 7.38 kPa (Table A-9) condenses

FIGURE 10-32 on a horizontal tube at 30∘ C . The rates of heat transfer and condensation are to.
be determined
Schematic for Example 10-6.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The tube is isothermal.

Properties The properties of water at the saturation temperature of 40 ∘ C corresponding to
7.38 kPa are h fg =2407 × 103 J / kg and ρ v =0.05 kg / m3 . The properties of liquid water at the
film temperature of T f =( T sat + T s) / 2=¿ (40+30)/2=35∘ C are (Table A-9)
ρl ¿ 994 kg /m 3 C pl ¿ 4178 J /kg ⋅ ∘ C

μl ¿ 0.720× 10−3 kg /m⋅ s k l ¿ 0.623 W /m⋅ ∘ C
h¿fg ¿ hfg +0.68 C pl ( T sat −T s )

¿ ¿
Noting that ρ v ≪ ρl (since 0.05 ≪ 994 ), the heat transfer coefficient for condensation on a
single horizontal tube is determined from Eq. 10-31 to be
[ ] [ ]
¿ 3 1 /4 1/ 4
g ρl hf k l
3
¿ ¿
π (0.03 m)(1 m)=0.09425 m 2. Then the rate of heat transfer during this condensation process
becomes
Q̇=h A s ( T sat −T s )=( 9292 W /m2 ⋅ ∘ C ) ( 0.09425 m2 ) ¿
Q̇ 8578 J /s
h fg 2435 ×103 J /kg
[ ] [ ]
¿ 3 1 /4 1/ 4
g ρ l hf k l
3
¿ ¿
2
π (0.03 m)(1 m)=0.09425 m . Then the rate of heat transfer during this condensation process
becomes
Q̇=h A s ( T sat −T s )=( 9292 W / m2 ⋅ ∘ C ) ( 0.09425 m2 ) ¿
Q̇ 8578 J /s
h fg 2435 ×103 J /kg
Condensation of Steam on Horizontal Tube Banks
Repeat the proceeding example problem for the case of 12 horizontal tubes arranged in a
rectangular array of 3 tubes high and 4 tubes wide, as shown in Figure 10-33.
Condensation heat transfer on a tube is not influenced by the presence of other tubes in its
neighborhood unless the condensate from other tubes drips on it. In our case, the horizontal
tubes are arranged in four vertical tiers, each tier consisting of 3 tubes. The average heat
transfer coefficient for a vertical tier of N horizontal tubes is related to the one for a single
horizontal tube by Eq. 10-33 and is determined to be
1 1
h horiz, N tubes = h
1 / 4 horiz, 1 tube
= 1/ 4 ( 9292 W / m2 ⋅ ∘ C ) =7060 W /m2 ⋅ ∘ C
N 3
Each vertical tier consists of 3 tubes, and thus the heat transfer coefficient determined above is
valid for each of the four tiers. In other words, this value can be taken to be the average heat
transfer coefficient for all 12 tubes.
The surface area for all 12 tubes per unit length of the tubes is
2
A s=N total πDL=12 π (0.03 m)(1 m)=1.1310 m
Then the rate of heat transfer during this condensation process becomes
Q̇=h A s ( T sat −T s )=( 7060 W / m2 ⋅ ∘ C ) ( 1.131 m 2 ) ¿
Q̇ 79,850 J /s
h fg 2435 ×103 J /kg
Therefore, steam will condense on the horizontal pipes at a rate of 32.8 g /sper meter length of
the tubes.
Estimate the peak heat flux for water boiling at normal atmospheric pressure.
The relevant thermo-physical properties are:
ρf (liquid) = 958.45 kg/m3 ; ρg (vapour) = 0.61 kg/m3
hfg = 2.25*104 J/kg ; σ = 0.0585 N/m
At the point of maximum heat flux:

(Q/A)max = 0.18 ρghfg((σ(ρf - ρg)g)/ρ2g)0.25(ρf/(ρf + ρg))0.5
Substituting values in above equation, we get:
(Q/A)max = 0.247 * 106 * 6.199 * 0.999
= 1.53 * 106 J/s m2
= 1.53 * 106 W/m2
Peak heat flux = 1.53 * 106 W/m2
An electric wire of 1.25 mm diameter and 250 mm long is laid horizontally and submerged in
water at 7 bar. The wire has an applied voltage of 2.2V and carries a current of 130 amperes.
If the surface of the wire is maintained at 200 oC, make calculations for the heat flux and
boiling heat transfer coefficient.
Electrical energy input to wire:

Q = V*I = 2.2 * 130 = 286 W
Surface area of the wire = A = πdl = π*0.00125*0.25 = 9.81*10 -4 m2
Therefore heat flux = q = Q/A = 286/(9.81*10-4) = 0.2915*106 W/m2
Corresponding to 7 bar pressure:

T = 165 oC
Then from energy balance:
Q = hAΔt
Therefore 286 = h * (9.81*10-4) * (200 – 165)
Therefore boiling heat transfer coefficient, h = (286/((9.81*10 -4)*(200-165)))
Water is to be boiled at atmospheric pressure in a mechanically polished stainless steel pan

placed on top of a heating unit, as shown in Figure 10–15. The inner surface of the bottom of
the pan is maintained at 108°C. If the diameter of the bottom of the pan is 30 cm, determine
(a) the rate of heat transfer to the water and (b) the rate of evaporation of water.
Water is boiled at 1 atm pressure on a stainless steel surface. The rate of heat transfer to the
water and the rate of evaporation of water are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Heat losses from the heater and the pan are
negligible.
Properties The properties of water at the saturation temperature of 100∘ C are σ =0.0589 N /m
(Table 10-1) and, from Table A-9,
3 3
ρl ¿ 957.9 kg/m h fg ¿ 2257.0× 10 J /kg
ρv ¿ 0.6 kg/m3 μl ¿ 0.282× 10−3 kg ⋅ m/s
Pr l ¿ 1.75 C pl ¿ 4217 J /kg ⋅ ∘ C
Also, C sf =0.0130 and n=1.0 for the boiling of water on a mechanically polished stainless steel
surface (Table 10−3 ). Note that we expressed the properties in units specified under Eq. 10−2
in connection with their definitions in order to avoid unit manipulations.
Analysis (a) The excess temperature in this case is Δ T =T s −T sat =¿ 108−100=8∘ C which is
relatively low (less than 30∘ C ). Therefore, nucleate boiling will occur. The heat flux in this case
can be determined from the Rohsenow relation to be
[ ][ ]
1/ 2 3
g ( ρ l− ρ v ) C pl ( T s−T sat )
[ ] (
1 /2
q̇ madeate =¿ μ l h fg
σ Csf h fg Pr
2 ( 0.282× 10−3 ) ( 2257 ×10 3) 9.81 ×(957.9−0.6) ¿×
4217(108
l 0.0589 0.0130 ( 2257 ×
¿
The surface area of the bottom of the pan is

2
A=π D /4=π ¿
Then the rate of heat transfer during nucleate boiling becomes
Q̇ boiling = A q̇nucleate =( 0.07069 m2 ) ( 7.20 ×104 W / m 2) =5093 W
(b) The rate of evaporation of water is determined from
Q̇ boiling 5093 J / s −3
ṁ evaporation = = =2.26 ×10 kg / s
hfg 3
2257 ×10 J / kg
That is, water in the pan will boil at a rate of more than 2 grams per second.
Peak Heat Flux in Nucleate Boiling
Water in a tank is to be boiled at sea level by a 1 -cm-diameter nickel plated steel heating
element equipped with electrical resistance wires inside, as shown in Figure 10-16. Determine
the maximum heat flux that can be attained in the nucleate boiling regime and the surface
temperature of the heater surface in that case.
SOLUTION Water is boiled at 1 atm pressure on a nickel plated steel surface. The maximum
(critical) heat flux and the surface temperature are to be determined.
Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 Heat losses from the boiler are negligible.
Properties The properties of water at the saturation temperature of 100∘ C are σ =0.0589 N /m
(Table 10−1 ) and, from Table A-9,
ρl ¿ 957.9 kg /m3 hf s ¿ 2257× 103 J /kg

3 −3
ρv ¿ 0.6 kg /m μ l ¿ 0.282× 10 kg ⋅ m/s
Pr l
¿ 1.75 C μl ¿ 4217 J /kg ⋅ ∘ C
Also, C st =0.0060 and n=1.0 for the boiling of water on a nickel plated surface (Table 10−3 ).
Note that we expressed the properties in units specified under Eqs. 10-2 and 10-3 in connection
with their definitions in order to avoid unit manipulations.
Analysis The heating element in this case can be considered to be a short cylinder whose
¿
characteristic dimension is its radius. That is, L=r =0.005 m . The dimensionless parameter L
and the constant C cr are determined from Table 10 - to be
( )
1/ 2
( )
g ( ρt −ρ v ) (9.81)( 957.8−0.6) 1 /2
L=L =(0.005) =2.00> 1.2
σ 0.0589
which corresponds to C c =0.12.

Then the maximum or critical heat flux is determined from Eq. 10−3 to be
q max ¿C cr h fξ [ σg ρ v ( p f − p v ) ]
2 1/ 4
¿ ¿
The Rohsenow relation, which gives the nucleate boiling heat flux for a specified surface
temperature, can also be used to determine the surface temperature when the heat flux is
given. Substituting the maximum heat flux into Eq. 10−2 together with other properties gives
[ ][ ]
1 /2 3
g ( ρl−ρv ) C pl ( T x −T sul )
q muckute =¿ μl h f g
σ b
Csf h f Pr l
g
[ ]
1/ 2
9.81(957.9−0.6)
1,017,200=¿ ( 0.282× 10 ) ( 2257 ×10 )
−3 3
∘
0.0589 =119 C ¿
[ 4217 ( T s−100 )
0.0130 ( 2257 ×10 ) 1.75
¿
3 ]
Discussion Note that heat fluxes on the order of 1 MW /m2 can be obtained in nucleate boiling
with a temperature difference of less than 20∘ C .
Condensation of Steam on a Vertical Plate

Saturated steam at atmospheric pressure condenses on a 2 -m-high and 3−m wide vertical
plate that is maintained at 80∘ C by circulating cooling water through the other side.
Determine (a) the rate of heat transfer by condensation to the plate and (b) the rate at
which the condensate drips off the plate at the bottom.
Saturated steam at 1 atm condenses on a vertical plate. The rates of heat transfer and
condensation are to be determined.
Assumptions -1. Steady operating conditions exist.
2. The plate is isothermal.
3. The condensate flow is wavy-laminar over the entire plate (will be verified).
4. The density of vapor is much smaller than the density of liquid, ρ v ≪ ρf .
Properties The properties of water at the saturation temperature of 100∘ C are

3 3
h fg =2257 ×10 J /kg and ρ v =0.60 kg /m . The properties of liquid water at the film
∘
temperature of T f =( T sat + T s) / 2=(100+ 80)/2=90 C are
3 ∘
ρl ¿ 965.3 kg /m C pl ¿ 4206 J /kg ⋅ C
μl ¿ 0.315 ×10−3 kg /m ⋅ s k l ¿ 0.675 W /m⋅ ∘ C
v l ¿ μ l / ρl=0.326 ×10−6 m2 /s ¿ ¿

¿
h fg ¿ hfg +0.68 C pl ( T sat −T s )
¿ ¿
For wavy-laminar flow, the Reynolds number is determined from Eq. 10-27 to be
[ ]
0.820
3.70 L k l ( T sat −T s) g
( )
1/3
ℜ=¿ ℜvertical, wavy = 4.81+
μl h¿fg vl2 ¿
¿
which is between 30 and 1800 , and thus our assumption of wavy laminar flow is verified. Then
the condensation heat transfer coefficient is determined from Eq. 10-25 to be
( )
ℜ ⁡k l g 1 /3
h ¿ h vertical, wavy =
1.08 ℜ −5.2 v 2l
1.22
¿ ¿
2
The heat transfer surface area of the plate is A s=W × L=(3 m)(2 m)=6 m . Then the rate of
heat transfer during this condensation process becomes
Q̇=h A s ( T sat −T s )=( 5848 W /m ⋅ C ) ( 6 m ) ¿

2 ∘ 2
(b) The rate of condensation of steam is determined from
Q̇ 7.02 ×105 J /s
ṁ condensation = ¿ = =0.303 kg/ s
h fg 2314 ×10 3 J /kg
What would your answer be to the preceding example problem if the plate were tilted 30°
from the vertical?
The heat transfer coefficient in this case can be determined from the vertical plate relation by
replacing g by g cos ⁡θ . But we will use Eq. 10-30 instead since we already know the value for
the vertical plate from the preceding example:
h=hinclined =h vert ¿
The heat transfer surface area of the plate is still 6 m2 . Then the rate of condensation heat
transfer in the tilted plate case becomes
Q̇=h A s ( T sat −T s )=( 5641 W /m2 ⋅ ∘ C ) ( 6 m2 ) ¿

5
Q̇ 6.77 × 10 J /s
ṁ condensation = ¿ = =0.293 kg/ s
h fg 2314 ×10 3 J /kg
GROUP 5 (Roll No. 231 to 236 excluding 232)

TOPIC: Condensation Expression
Q.1 A tube of outer diameter 3 cm (Do) and length 4 m (L) is maintained at an uniform
temperature of 35 °C (Tw) by the flow of cooling water through the tube. It is used to condense
steam at 65 °C (Tv). Assuming film condensation, determine the average heat transfer coefficient
over the entire length of the tube and rate of condensate flow for (i) vertical position based on
McAdams results and (ii) horizontal positions of the tube based on Nusselt's theory. Assume
flow as laminar flow.
1. Vertical tube
Average heat transfer coefficient,
The properties of the condensate at film temperature, Tf = (65 + 35)/2 = 50°C are
given by,
Condensate heat = Heat transfer at the surface of the tube
2. Horizontal tube
Mass flow rate,
The condensate flow rate with the horizontal tube is 2.18 times higher than with
the vertical tube.
Q.2 Saturated steam at a temperature Tv of 85°C condenses on the outer surface of 256
horizontal tubes (N) each of outer diameter 1.3 cm (Do) and arranged in a 16×16 array. Tube
surfaces are maintained at an uniform temperature (Tw) of 75 °C. Determine the total condensate
rate based on Nusselt's theory.
The properties of condensate at Tf = 85 + 75/2 = 80°C are
Kl = 0.668W/m K
μl = 355 × 10.6 kg/ms and g = 9.81m/s2
ρl = 974 kg/m3
hfg = 2309 kJ/kg
Heat flow rate in the array of tubes per metre length, Q = hm(NπDo)(Tv – Tw)
Q = 7977.6 × 256 × π × 0.03 × (85 – 75) = 1924.78 kW/m

Mass of condensate per metre length, m = Q/hfg
Q.3 Find Nusselt's heat transfer coefficient and the mass of condensate per hour if a vertical
square plate of side 40 cm is exposed to steam at atmospheric pressure. The plate is maintained
at an uniform temperature of 96 °C (Tw).
The properties of water at film temperature, Tf = (100 + 96)/2 = 98°C, are as follows:
Condensate heat = Heat transfer at the surface
Check for laminar flow

Q.4
5. A heat exchanger is to be designed to condense an organic vapour at a rate of 500 kg/min.
Which is available at its saturation temperature of 355 K. Cooling water at 286 K is available at a
flow rate of 60 kg/s. The overall heat transfer coefficient is 475 W/m2C Latent heat of
condensation of the organic vapour is 600 kJ/kg. Calculate 1. The number of tubes required, if
tubes of 25 mm outer diameter, 2mm thick and 4.87m long are available, and 2. The number of
tube passes, if cooling water velocity (tube side) should not exceed 2m/s.
6. A horizontal tube of 50-mm outer diameter, with a surface temperature of 34oC, is exposed to
steam at 0.2 bar. Estimate the condensation rate and heat transfer rate per unit length of the tube
9. A vertical plate 2.5 m high, maintained at a uniform temperature of 54oC, is exposed to
saturated steam at atmospheric pressure. a) Estimate the condensation and heat transfer rates per
unit width of the plate.
10. Saturated steam at 0.1 atm condenses with a convection coefficient of 6800 W/m2 .K on the
outside of a brass tube having inner and outer diameters of 16.5 and 19mm, respectively. The
heat transfer coefficient for water flowing inside the tube is 5200W/m2 .K. Assuming that the
mean water temperature is 30C, calculate the steam condensation rate per unit tube length
TOPIC: Resue of Boiling
Q1. An electric wire of 1.25 mm diameter and 250 mm long is laid horizontally and
submerged in water at 7 bar. The wire has an applied voltage of 2.2 V and carries a current of
130 amperes. If the surface of the wire is maintained at 200°C, make calculations for the heat
flux and boiling heat transfer coefficient.
Solution: Electrical energy input to wire,
Q = VI = 2.2 × 130 = 286 W
Surface area of the wire, A= πdl= π 0.00125 x 0.25= 9.81 x 10-4 m²
Heat flux, q Q A 286 9.81 x 10 = = = 0.2915 x 106 W/m²
(b) Corresponding to 7 bar pressure; tsat = 165° C. Then from energy balance Q = h A st 286 hx
(9.81 x 10-4) x (200 - 165)
Boiling heat transfer coefficient,
286 (9.81x10)×(200-165) h = 8330 W/m²-deg
Q2. Estimate the peak heat flux for water boiling at normal atmospheric pressure. The
relevant thermo-physical properties are
pf(liquid) = 958.45kg / (m ^ 3) h fg =2.25*10^ 6 J/kg and
Px(vapour) = 0.61 * kg / m ^ 3 sigma = 0.0585N / m
Solution : At the point of maximum heat flux, the recommended correlation is
Substituting the appropriate values,
=0.247*10^ 6 (6.199)(0.999)
= 1.53 x 106 J/s m² = 1.53 x 106 W/m².
Q3. A nickel wire of 1 mm diameter and 400 mm long, carrying current is submerged in a
water bath open to atmospheric air. Calculate the voltage at the burnout point, if at this
point the wire carries a current of 190 A
Solution: Boiling of water from submerged heated nickel wire
D = 1 mm, L = 400 mm ,p = 1 atm, Tsat = 100°C I = 190 A
To find: Voltage Vb at the burnout point.
Properties: The saturated water at 100°C
ρ = 957.9 kg/m3, ρv = 0.595 kg/m3 ,hfg = 2257 × 103 J/kg, σ = 58.9 × 10–3 N/m.
Analysis : At burnout point, the critical heat flux is given by Zuber, eqn.
qmax = 0.149 hfg ρv 1/2 [σ g (ρ – ρv)]1/4
= 0.149 × (2257 × 103) × (0.595)1/2 × [58.9 × 10–3 × 9.81 × (957.9 – 0.595)]1/4
= 12,58,012.5 W/m2
The electrical energy input to the wire
Q = qAs = VbI ⇒ 12,58,012.5 × (π × 0.001 × 0.4) = Vb × 190
Vb = 8.32 V.
Q4. Water is boiled at a rate of 30 kg/h in a copper pan, 30 cm in diameter, at atmospheric

pressure. Estimate the temperature of bottom surface of the pan, assuming nucleate boiling
conditions. Also determine peak heat flux. To find : (i) The temperature of bottom surface of
the pan. (ii) Critical heat flux.
Given: The evaporation of water in a copper pan. me = 30 kg/h, D = 30 cm = 0.3 m p = 1 atm,
Tsat=100°C.
ρ = 957.9 kg/m3, ρv = 0.595 kg/m3, Cp = 4217 J/kg.K, hfg = 2257 × 103 J/kg.K, µ = 279 × 10–6
kg/ms, Pr = 1.76 σ = 58.9 × 10–3 N/m.
i)The heat transfer rate is
Q = mehfg
= (30 kg/h) × (2257 × 103 J/kg)
= 6771 × 104 J/h = 18,808.3 W
The heat flux is
q = Q/A = Q/(π/4)D2 =18,808.3/(π/4)X(0.3)2
= 266,083.5 W/m2
During nucleate boiling, the heat flux is given by eqn.
q = µ hfg [g(p-pv)/sigma]1/2 ×[Cp∆Te/csfhfgPrn]3
266,083.5 =279 × 10–6 × (2257 × 103) × [9.81×(957.9-0.595)/58.9×10-3]1/2×
[4217×∆Te/(0.0130×2257×103×1.76)]3
266,083.5 = 629.703 × 399.30 × 5.445 × 10–4 ∆T e 3
∆Te 3 = 1943.27 or ∆Te = 12.47°C
The temperature of the bottom heated surface
Ts =Tsat + ∆Te = 100 + 12.47 = 112.47°C.
(ii) The peak (critical) heat flux for nucleate boiling is determined by using relation
qmax = 0.149 ρv 1/2 hfg [σ g(ρ – ρv)]1/4
= 0.149 × (0.595)1/2 × 2257 × 103 × [58.9 × 10–3 × 9.81 × (957.9 – 0.595)]1/4
= 259403.78 × 4.85 = 1258012.5 W/m2
= 1.258 MW/m2.
Q5. The bottom of a copper pan, 0.3 m in diameter, is maintained at 118°C by an electric
heater. Estimate the power required to boil water in this pan. What is the evaporation rate?
Estimate the critical heat flux.
Solution: Known: Water boiling in a copper pan of prescribed surface temperature.
Find:
1. Power required by electric heater to cause boiling.
2. Rate of water evaporation due to boiling.
3. Critical heat flux corresponding to the burnout point.
Schematic:
Assumptions:
1. Steady-state conditions.
2. Water exposed to standard atmospheric pressure, 1.01 bar.
3. Water at uniform temperature Tsat=1000 C.
4. Large pan bottom surface of polished copper.
5. Negligible losses from heater and pan to surroundings.
Properties: saturated water, liquid (1000 C):ρl=1/vf =957.9kg/m3,
cp,l=cp,f=4.217kJ/kg⋅K,
μl=μf=279×10−6N⋅s/m2,
Prl=Prf=1.76,
hfg=2257kJ/kg,
mσ=58.9×10−3N/m.
saturated water, vapor (100°C): ρv=1/vg=0.5956kg/m3
Analysis:
1. From knowledge of the saturation temperature Tsat of water boiling at 1 atm and the
temperature of the copper surface Ts, the excess temperature ΔTe is

Ts−Tsat=118−100=180 C
qs′′=μlhfg[σg(ρl−ρv)]1/2(Cs,fhfgPrlncp,lΔTe)3
qs′′=μlhfg[σg(ρl−pv)]1/2(Cs,fhfgPrlncp,lΔTe)3
The values of Cs,f and n corresponding to the polished copper surface–water combination are

determined from the experimental resuls, where Cs,f=0.0128 and n = 1.0. Substituting
numerical values, the boiling heat flux is
qs′′=279×10−6 N⋅s/m2×2257×103J/kg ×[58.9×10−3N/m
9.8m/s2(957.9−0.5956)kg/m3]1/2×(0.0128×2257×103J/kg×1.764.217×103J/kg⋅K×18∘C
)3=836kW/m2
Hence the boiling heat transfer rate is
qs=qs′′×A=qs′′×4πD2
qs=8.36×105W/m2×4π(0.30m)2=59.1kW
Neglecting losses to the surroundings, all heat addition to the pan will result in water
evaporation from the pan. Hence
qs=m˙bhfg

where m˙b is the rate at which water evaporates from the free surface to the room. It follows
that
m˙b= qs / hfg =2257×103J/kg5.91×104W=0.0262kg/s=94kg/h
The critical heat flux for nucleate pool boiling can be estimated as:
qmax′′=Chfgρv[ρv2σg(ρl−ρv)]1/4
qmax′′=0.149hfgρv[ρv2σg(ρl−ρv)]1/4
Substituting the appropriate numerical values,
qmax′′=0.149×2257×103 J/kg×0.5956kg/m3
×[(0.5956kg/m3)258.9×10−3N/m×9.8m/s2(957.9−0.5956)kg/m3]1/4
qmax′′=1.26MW/m2
Q6. Saturated liquid n-butyl alcohol, C4H10O, is flowing at 161 kg/h through a 1-cm-ID
copper tube at atmospheric pressure. The tube wall temperature is held at 140°C by
condensing steam at 361 kPa absolute pressure. Calculate the length of tube required to
achieve a quality of 50%. The following property values can be used for the alcohol:
σ = 0.0183 N/m, surface tension
hfg = 591,500 J/kg, heat of vaporization
Tsat = 117.5°C, atmospheric pressure boiling point
Psat = 2 atm, saturation pressure corresponding to a saturation temperature of 140°C
ρv = 2.3 kg/m^3ρv=2.3kg/m3, density of the vapor
μv=0.0143×10−3 kg/m s, viscosity of the vapor
Answer:
ρl=737kg/m3
μl=0.39×10−3kg/ms
cl=3429J/kgK
Prl=8.2
kl=0.163W/mK
Csf=0.00305
hfgPrlnclΔTx=Csf[μlhfgq′′g(ρl−ρv)gcσ]0.33
The mass velocity is
G=(3600s/h)(161kg/h)π(0.01m)24=569kg/m2s
The Reynolds number for the liquid flow is
ReD=μlGD=(0.39×10−3kg/ms)(569kg/m2s)(0.01m)=14,590
The contribution to the heat transfer coefficient due to the two-phase annular flow is
hc=(0.023)(14,590)0.8(8.2)0.4(0.01m0.163W/mk)(1–x)0.8F
=1865(1–x)0.8F
Since the vapor pressure changes by 1 atm over the temperature range from Tsat to 140°C, we
have ΔPsat=101,300N/m2. Therefore, the contribution to the heat transfer coefficient from
nucleate boiling is
hb=0.00122[0.01830.5(0.39×10−3)0.29591,3000.242.30.240.1630.7934290.457370.4910.25
]×(140–117.5)0.24(101,300)0.75S
hb=8393S.
The calculation for 1/Xtt becomes
xtt1=(1–xx)0.9(2.3737)0.5(0.390.0143)0.1=12.86(1–xx)0.9
Since the liquid is at saturation temperature, the heat flux over a length Δl can be related to an
increase in quality by
m˙hfgΔx=q″πDΔl
Substituting the known quantities, we find

Δl=842,031q″Δx
hc=0.023[μlG(1–x)D]0.8Prl0.4DKlF
h=hc+hb
and q″=hΔTx
We can now prepare a table showing stepwise calculations that track the increase in quality,
from x = 0 to x˙=0.50 assuming that the steps Δx are small enough that the heat flux and other
parameters are reasonably constant in that step.
X Δx Xtt1 F hc ReT S Hb h q″ Δl (m l (m)

(W/ P (W/ )
m2K) (W/ (W/ m2)
m2 m2K)
K)
0 0
0.0 0.0 0.2 1.24 2291 1.8 0.80 672 9019 2029 0.04 0.04
1 1 06 9 1 8 27 1 1
0.0 0.0 0.9 2.56 4577 4.4 0.60 504 9623 2165 0.15 0.19
5 4 09 9 1 5 09 6 7
0.1 0.0 1.7 3.9 6692 7.1 0.46 392 10614 2388 0.17 0.37
5 8 9 8 2 20 6 3
0.2 0.1 3.6 6.41 9994 11. 0.33 278 12774 2874 0.29 0.66
9 9 1 0 19 3 6
0.3 0.1 6·0 9.01 1263 15. 0.26 219 14834 3337 0.25 0.91
0 7 94 2 7 55 2 9
0.4 0.1 8.9 11.9 1484 19. 0.22 184 16690 3755 0.22 1.14
3 8 4 51 6 23 4 3
0.5 0.1 12. 15.5 1669 22. 0.19 161 18310

86 9 5 6 2 6
Q7. A metal clad heating element 8 mm in diameter and emissivity ε = 0.95 is horizontally
submerged in a water bath. The surface temperature of the metal is maintained at 250°C
under steady state conditions. Estimate the power dissipation per unit length of the heater.
Assume the water is exposed to atmospheric pressure and is at a uniform temperature.
To find : Power dissipation per unit length for
the cylinder.
Properties : Saturated water liquid at 100°C (from
Table A-7)
ρ = 957.9 kg/m3, hfg = 2257 × 103 J/kg
Saturated water vapor at
Tf ≈ 250 + 100 / 2 = 175°C = 448 K
ρv = 4.808 kg/m3
Cpv = 2.56 kJ/kg.K,
kv = 0.0331 W/m.K
μv = 14.85 × 10–6 Ns/m2.
Analysis:
The excess temperature
ΔTe = Ts – Tsat = 250 – 100 = 150°C
According to pool boiling curve, at ΔTe = 150°C, heat transfer is due to both convection and
radiation the heat transfer rate is given by:
Q = hAΔTe = h(πDL) ΔTe
The heat transfer coefficient h is combined heat transfer coefficient for convection and
radiation effects and it is calculated as
h = hconv + (0.75) hrad
The convection coefficient by eqn. (11.57) in combination with eqn. (11.58)
= 425 W/m2.K
= 19.91 W/m2.K
Q8. The heater for a steam boiler to produce saturated steam at 170°C is made of an
electrical heating element inside a 15 mm OD mechanically polished stainless-steel tube. The
power input to the heater is 5 kW. If the surface temperature of heater not to exceed 175°C,
find the length of the heater.
Solution:
Given :
Boiling of water on polished stainless heater
Tsat = 170°C, D = 15 mm
P = Q = 5 kW, Ts = 175°C.
To find : Length of the heating element.
Assumptions :
(i) Steady state conditions,
(ii) Pool boiling.
Properties : Properties of saturated water and steam at 170°C from Table A-7
ρ = 897.3 kg/m3, Cp = 4340 J/kg.K kf = 0.681 W/m.K μ = 157.6 × 10–6 Ns/m2 Pr = 1.0, hfg =
2049.5 × 103 J/kg ρv = 4.119 kg/m3, σ = 0.04406 N/m
For mechanically polished stainless steel
Csf = 0.0132 and n = 1.
Analysis : The temperature excess is
ΔTe = Ts – Tsat = 175 – 170 = 5°C
The heat flux during nucleate boiling
= 157.6 × 10–6 × (2049.5 × 103) = 74,325 W/m2

The heat transfer rate is given by
Q = q πDL
or 5000 = 74325 × π × 0.015 L
or L = 1.43 m.
Q9. An electric wire of 1.5 mm diameter and 20 cm long is laid horizontally and submerged in
water at atmospheric pressure. The current flowing through the wire is 40 A, while voltage
drop is 16 V. Calculate the heat flux, heat transfer coefficient and excess temperature.
Use correlation: h= 1.54 (Q/A)3/4 = 5.58(AT)³.
Given: An electric wire:

D = 1.5 mm = 0.0015 m,
I = 40 A,
L = 20 cm = 0.2 m AV = 16 V.
To find:
(i) The heat flux ;
(ii) Heat transfer coefficient;
(iii) The temperature excess.
Analysis: The surface area of the wire:
A=D. L
2 4 2
A=π . ( 0.0015 ) . ( 0.2 ) m =9.42 ×10 m
Electrical power input to wire,
Q=∆ V . I=16 × 40=640W
(i) The heat flux,
Q 640 W 5 2
q= = =6.79× 10 W /m
A 9.42× 10 m 4 2
(ii) The heat transfer coefficient can be calculated by given correlation

h=1.54 . ¿
2
¿ 36,429.42W /m . K
(iii) The temperature excess can be calculated as
3
h=5.58 .(∆ T e )
∆ T e =¿
Q10. Calculate nucleate boiling heat transfer coefficient for water boiling on the tube, whose
wall temperature is maintained at 20°C, above saturation temperature. Assume water to be
at 20 bar.
Also calculate the heat transfer coefficient, when,
(a) Temperature is reduced by 10°C at 20 bar.
(b) Pressure is reduced by 10 bar at 20°C temperature difference.
Comment on the result.
To find: Nucleate heat transfer coefficient in given conditions and

(a) When temperature excess is 10°C at 2000 kPa.
(b) When pressure is reduced by 1000 kPa at 20°C.
Analysis: When the temperature excess is 20°C at atmospheric pressure;
The air heat transfer coefficient at 20°C:
3 2 3 2 2
h A =5.56 .(∆ T ) W / m K=5.56 (20) W /m K =44,480W / m K
p 0.4
and at 20 bar, h p =h A { }
p0
h p =( 44,480 ) . ¿
(a) When temperature excess is reduced to 10°C at 20 bars.

∆ T =10 ℃
The heat transfer coefficient of air at 10°C:
h A =5.56 .(10)3 W /m 2 K =5560W /m2 K
The fluid heat transfer coefficient at 20 bar and 10°C:

0.4
p
h p =h A { }
p0
{ }
0.4
20
¿ ( 5560 ) =18,428.36 W /m 2 K
1
(b) When pressure is reduced by 10 bar at 20°C
Now the new pressure, p1=10 ¯¿

and temperature difference ∆ T =20 ℃
Hence, at 20°C the heat transfer coefficient h remains unchanged;
or
h A =5.56( 20)3 W /m2 K =44,480 W /m2 K
The heat transfer coefficient of fluid,

p 0.4
h p =h A { }
p0
10 0.4 2
¿ 44,480 × { } =1,11,728.7 W /m K
1

TOPIC: Rate of Heat
Q1. The inside temperature of a furnace wall (k = 1.35 W/m.K), 200 mm thick, is 1400°C. The
heat transfer coefficient at the outside surface is a function of temperature difference and is
given by h = 7.85 + 0.08 ∆T (W/m2.K) where ∆T is the temperature difference between outside
wall surface and surroundings. Determine the rate of heat transfer per unit area, if the
surrounding temperature is 40°C.
Solution
Given:
A furnace wall exposed to convection environment on one side.
k = 1.35 W/m.K
L = 200 mm = 0.2 m
T1 = 1400°C
T∞ = 40°C
h = 7.85 + 0.08 (∆T) (W/m2.K)
To find : Heat flux.
Analysis : Steady state heat transfer rate per unit area
k ( T 1−T 2 )
q= =h(T 2−T ∞ )
L
1400−T 2
1.35 × =( 7.85+ 0.08 ( T 2−40 ) ) × ( T 2−40 )
0.2
9450 – 6.75 T2 = 7.85 T2 – 314 + 0.08 (T2 – 40) 2 = 7.85 T2 – 314 + 0.08 × (T22 – 80 T2 + 1600)
0.08 T22 + 8.2 T2 – 9636 = 0
−8.2± √ 8.2 −4 ×0.08 ×9636
2
T 2=
2 × 0.08
T2 = 299.57 °C
k ( T 1−T 2 )
q=
L
1.35× ( 1400−299.57 )
q=
0.2
=7427.88 W Ans.
Q 2 A horizontal plate (k = 30 W/m.K) 600 mm × 900 mm × 30 mm is maintained at 300°C. The

air at 30°C flows over the plate. If the convection coefficient of air over the plate is 22 W/m2.K
and 250 W heat is lost from the plate by radiation. Calculate the bottom surface temperature of
the plate.
Solution
Given:
A horizontal plate k = 30 W/m. K,
A = 600 mm × 900 mm
Ts = 300°C
T∞ = 30°C
h = 22 W/m2.K
To find : Temperature of bottom surface of the plate.
Assumptions :
1. Steady state conditions.
2. One dimensional heat conduction in the plate.
3. Constant properties.
Analysis :
The surface area of the plate A = 600 mm × 900 mm = 5.40 × 105 mm 2 = 0.54 m2
Making the energy balance for the plate : Rate of heat conduction = Rate of heat convection +
Rate of heat radiation or
Qcond =Qconv + Qrad
kA ( Ti−Ts )
=hA ( Ts – T ∞ ) +250
L
Using numerical values :
Ti−300
30 ×0.54 × =22× 0.54 × ( 300−30 ) +250
0.03
250
Ti−300=0.03 ×3207.6+
30 ×0.54
Ti = 300 + 6.40 = 306.4°C. Ans.
Q 3 . A metal plate with dimension 5 m× 3 m with negligible thickness has a surface

temperature of 300°C. One side of it looses heat to the surroundings air at 30°C. The heat
transfer coefficient between plate surface and air is 20 W/m2.K. The emissivity of the plate
surface is 0.8. Calculate. (i) Rate of heat loss by convection. (ii) Rate of heat loss by radiation.
(iii) Combined convection and radiation heat transfer coefficient.
Solution
Given:
A thin metal plate surface exposed to convection and radiation environment.
A = 5 m × 3 m = 15 m2
Ts = 300°C = 573 K
h = 20 W/m2. K
T∞ = 30°C = 303 K
ε = 0.8
To find:
Assumption:
The Stefan Boltzmann’s constant σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2. K4
Analysis :
(i) Convection heat transfer rate from the plate surface
Qconv = hA(Ts – T∞) = 20 × 15 × (300 – 30) = 81,000 W. Ans.
(ii) Radiation heat transfer rate from the plate
Qrad = εσA(Ts4 – T∞4) = 0.8 × 5.67 × 10–8 × 15 × (5734 – 3034)
= 67,612 W. Ans.
(iii) Combined convection and radiation heat transfer coefficient Total heat transfer rate
by convection and radiation
Q = Qconv + Qrad = 81,000 + 67,612 = 148, 612 W
It can be expressed as: Q = hcomb A(Ts – T∞)
148,612 = hcomb × 15 × (300 – 30)
hcomb = 36,694 W/m2. Ans
Q4. A black metal plate (k = 25 W/m.K) at 300°C is exposed to surrounding air at 30°C. It
convects and radiates heat to surroundings. If the convection coefficient is 25 W/m2.K, what is
the temperature gradient in the plate ?
Solution
Given: An iron plate convects and radiates heat to surroundings.
k = 25 W/m.K Ts = 300°C = 573 K
T∞ = 30°C = 303 K
h = 25 W/m2 Qconv T = 30°C
To find: Temperature gradient in the plate.
Assumptions: 1. Steady state conditions. 2. Black metal plate is black body for radiation. 3.
Stefan Boltzmann constant, σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4.
Analysis : The energy balance for the metal plate is given as
Heat conducted through the plate = Heat convection from the surface + Heat radiated from the
surface i.e.,
Qcond =Qconv + Qrad
or – kA dT/dx = hA(Ts – T∞) + σA(Ts4 – T∞4)
Using numerical values
– 25 × dT/dx = 25 × (573 – 303) + 5.67 × 10-8 × (5734 – 3034)
= 25 × 270 + 5.67 × 10-8 × 9.937 × 1010
= 6750 + 5634.34 = 12384.34
or dT/dx = – 12384.34/25
dT/dx = – 495.37°C/m Ans
Q5. The temperature distribution across a wall, 1 m thick at a certain instant of time is given as :
T(x) = 900 – 300 x – 50 x2 where T is in degree Celsius and x in metres. The uniform heat
generation of 1000 W/m3 is present in wall of area 10 m2 having the properties ρ = 1600
kg/m3, k = 40 W/m. K and C = 4 kJ/kg. K (a) Determine the rate of heat transfer entering the
wall (x = 0) and leaving the wall (x = 1 m).
Solution Given:
Temperature distribution across a wall T(x) = 900 – 300 x – 50 x 2
g0 = 1000 W/m3,
A = 10 m2,
L = 1 m,
ρ = 1600 kg/m3,
k = 40 W/m. K,
C = 4 kJ/kg = 4000 J/kg K
To find:
(i) The rate of heat transfer at left face (x = 0)
(ii) The rate of heat transfer at right face (x = L).
Assumptions:
1. One dimensional conduction in x direction.
2. Medium with constant properties.
3. Uniform internal heat generation at the rate of g0 W/m3.
Analysis:
Since the temperature distribution is given as :
T(x) = 900 – 300 x – 50 x2
and temperature gradient
dT
=−300−100 x (° C /m∨K /m)
dx
(i) Using boundary condition of prescribed heat flux entering the left face of the wall :
dT
qx = 0 = – k
dx x=0
= – k (– 300 – 100 x) x = 0
qx = 0 = – (40 W/m.K) × (– 300 K/m)
= 12,000 W/m2
The heat entering the left face
= A qx=0 = 10 × 12,000 = 1,20,000 W
= 120 kW. Ans.
(ii) Similarly using temperature gradient, the heat flux at the right face:
dT
qx = L = – – k
dx x=L
= – k (– 300 – 100 x) x = L
or qx = L = – 40 × (– 300 – 100 × 1) = 16,000 W/m2
The heat leaving the right face = A qx = L = 1,60,000 W
= 160 kW. Ans
Q6. At a certain time, the temperature distribution in a long cylindrical tube with an inner
radius of 250 mm and outside radius of 400 mm is given by T(r) = 750 + 1000 r – 5000 r2 (°C)
where r in metres. Thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity of the tube material are 58
W/m.K and 0.004 m2/h, respectively. Calculate: Rate of heat flow at inside and outside surfaces
per unit length. Solution
Given:
Temperature distribution in hollow cylinder:
T(r) = 750 + 1000 r – 5000 r2 (°C)
k = 58 W/m. K,
α = 0.004 m2/h
r1 = 250 mm = 0.25 m,
r2 = 400 mm = 0.4 m
To find:
Rate of heat flow per metre length at r = r1 and r = r2.
Assumptions:
(i) No heat generation within the element.
(ii) Heat flow in radial direction only.
(iii) Constant properties.
Analysis:
For given temperature distribution in cylinder, the temperature gradient at any radius r:
dT
=1000−10000 r
dx
Rate of heat transfer at inside surface (r = r1)
dT
Qr=r1 = – k A
dx r=r1
= – k × 2πr1 × L [1000 - 10000r] r= r1
Q
=−58 ×2 π × 0.25×[1000−10000 × 0.25]
L
= 13.66 × 104 W/m. Ans.
(In radial outward direction)
Rate of heat flow at outer surface (r = r2)
dT
Qr=r2 = – k A
dx r=r2
= – k × 2πr2 × L × [1000 – 10000 × r] r=r 2
Q
=−58 ×2 π × 0.4 ×[1000−10000× 0.4 ]
L
= 4.37 × 105 W/m. Ans.
(In radial outward direction)
Q7. A cylindrical nuclear fuel rod of 50 mm diameter has uniform heat generation of 5 × 107
W/m3. Under steady state conditions, the temperature distribution in the rod is given by
T(r) = 800 – 4.2 × 105 r2,
where T in deg. celsius and r in metres. The fuel rod properties are : k = 30 W/m.K, ρ = 1100
kg/m3 and C = 800 J/kg . K (a) What is the rate of heat transfer per unit length of rod at its
centre and outer surface?
Solution
Given:
A cylindrical nuclear fuel rod with uniform heat generation.
g0 = 5 × 107 W/m3,
ro = 25 mm = 0.025 m
The temperature distribution in the rod
T(r) = 800 – 4.2 × 105 r2
and properties
k = 30 W/m.K,
ρ = 1100 kg/m3,
C = 800 J/kg.K
To find: Rate of heat transfer per unit length of rod at its centre and outer surface.
Assumptions:
1. Heat generation rate is uniform throughout the nuclear rod.
Analysis : The temperature distribution in the nuclear fuel rod is given by
T(r) = 800 – 4.2 × 105 r2
Its first order derivative with respect to r is:
dT/dr = – 8.4 × 105r (i)
and second order derivative w.r.t. r is :
d2T/dr2= – 8.4 × 105 …(ii)
The heat transfer rate per unit length in the rod is :
Q dT
=−k 2 π (r )
L dr
At centre of the rod (r = 0)
Q/L r=0 = – 30 × 2π × [0 × (– 8.4 × 105 × 0)]
= 0. Ans
At outer surface of the rod (ro = 0.025 m)
Q/L r=ro = – 30 × 2π × [0.025 × (– 8.4 × 105 × 0.025)]
= 98960.2 W/m. Ans.
Q8. The composite wall of an oven consists of three materials, two of them are of known
thermal conductivity, kA = 20 W/m.K and kC = 50 W/m.K and known thickness LA = 0.3 m and
LC = 0.15 m. The third material B, which is sandwiched between material A and C is of known
thickness, LB = 0.15 m, but of unknown thermal conductivity kB. Under steady state operating
conditions, the measurement reveals an outer surface temperature of material C is 20°C and
inner surface of A is 600°C and oven air temperature is 800°C. The inside convection coefficient
is 25 W/m2.K. What is the value of kB?
Solution
Given: A composite wall of an oven with
kA = 20 W/m.K, kC = 50 W/m.K
LA = 0.3 m, LC = 0.15 m
LB = 0.15 m, Ti = 600°C
To = 20°C, T∞ = 800°C
hi = 25 W/m2.K
To find: The thermal conductivity kB.
Assumptions:
(i) Steady state heat conduction in axial direction only.
(ii) Constant properties.
Analysis:
The heat transfer rate per unit area in the slab can be calculated by considering convection at
inner side.
Q/A = hi (T∞ – Ti ) = 25 × (800 – 600)
= 5000 W/m2
Further this heat is conducted through composite wall, therefore ;
Q Ti−¿
=
A La Lb Lc
+ +
ka kb kc
600−20
5000=
0.3 0.15 0.15
+ +
20 kb 50
0.018+ 0.15/kb = 0.116
kb= 1.53 W/m.K. Ans
Q9. Two M.S. (k = 52 W/m.K) circular rods I and II are interconnected by a sphere III as shown in
Fig. 3.15. The respective cross-sectional areas of rods are AI = 12.5 cm2 and AII = 6.25 cm2. The
system is well insulated except for end faces of rods. Under steady state conditions following
data are known. T∞1= 77°C,T∞2 = 3°C, h1 = 25 W/m2.K, T1 = 60°C, T3 = 10°C, Temperature T3 is
measured at a point 7.5 cm from the right face of rod II. Find the heat transfer coefficient h2.
Solution
Given:
Two M.S. Rods connected by a sphere
k = 52 W/m.K, L = 7.5 cm
A1 = 12.5 cm2, A2 = 6.5 cm2
T∞1 = 77°C, T∞2 = 3°C
h1 = 25 W/m2.K.
To find: Heat transfer coefficient at right face h2.
Assumptions:
(i) One dimensional heat flow.
(ii) No contact thermal resistance at interfaces.
(iii) Constant properties
Analysis:
The heat flow at the left face
Q = h1A1 ( T∞1 – T1) = 25 × (12.5 × 10–4) (77 – 60)
= 0.53125 W.
Since system is insulated on its lateral surfaces, therefore, in steady state, same heat will flow
at right end of the rod. Applying electrical analogy for heat flow, in the right side of rod and its
ambient
T 3−T ∞2
Q=
L 1
+
kA 2 h 2 A 2
0.075 1 7
+ =
0.0338 0.000065 h 2 0.5312
h2 = 140.42 W/m2.K. Ans

Q10. An uninsulated steam pipe is passed through a room in which air and walls are at 25°C.
The outer diameter of the pipe is 50 mm and surface temperature and emissivity are 500 K and
0.8, respectively. If the free convection heat transfer coefficient is 15 W/m2.K, what is the rate
of heat loss from the surface per unit length of pipe ?
Solution
Given:
An uninsulated pipe exposed to room air
T∞ =Tw = 25°C = 298 K Ts = 500 K,
D = 50 mm = 0.05 m
ε = 0.8, h = 15 W/m2.K.
To find: Heat loss per unit length of pipe.
Assumptions:
1. Steady state conditions.
2. Heat loss by radiation and convection only.
3. Stefan Boltzmann constant, σ = 5.67 × 10–8 W/m2.K4.
Analysis :
i) Heat loss from the pipe by convection is given by
Qconv = hAs (Ts – T∞) = h(πDL)(Ts – T∞)
or Qconv / L = 15 × (π × 0.05) × (500 – 298)
= 476 W/m
ii) Heat loss per unit length of pipe by radiation is given by
Qrad/ L = σε(πD)(Ts4 – T∞4)
= 5.67 × 10–8 × 0.8 × (π × 0.05) × (5004 – 2984)
= 389.13 W/m
Total heat loss from pipe surface per unit length:
Q/L = Qconv/L +Qrad/L= 476 + 389.13
= 865.13 W/m. Ans

TOPIC: Film wise and drop wise condensation
Q. The overall heat transfer coefficient for a shell and tube heat
exchange for clean surfaces is Uo = 400 W/m2K. The fouling factor
after one year of operation is found to be 1/200 m 2K/W. What will be
the heat transfer coefficient at that time?
Solution
UO = Uwithout fouling = 400 W/m2k
F = 1/2000 m2K/W
So, We know that
1/Uwith fouling = 1/Uwithout fouling + F
1/Uwith fouling = 1/ 400 + 1/ 2000
On calculation
Uwith fouling = 333 W/m2K
Q. Air at 20oC flows over a flat plate at 60oC with a free stream velocity
of 6 m/s. Determine the value of the average convective heat transfer
coefficient up to a length of 1 m in the flow direction.
Solution
Fluid temperature Tinf = 20oC
Plate temperature Tw = 60oC
Velocity U = 6 m/s
Length L = 1 m
Reynolds number Re = U x L / v
= 6 x 1 / 16.96 x 10-6
Re = 3.53 x 105 < 5 x 105
Since Re < 5 x 105, flow is laminar

For flat plate, laminar flow
Local Nusselt number
Nux = 0.332 x (Re)0.5 x (Pr)0.5
Nux = 175.27
We know
Local Nusselt number Nux = hx x L / K
175.27 = hx x 1 / 26.56 x 10-3
Local Nusselt number = 4.65 W/m2K

Average heat transfer coefficient (h) = 2 x hx
= 2 x 4.65
= 9.31 W/m2K
Q. A vertical plate 2.5 m high, maintained at a uniform temperature of

54oC, is exposed to saturated steam at atmospheric pressure.
a) Estimate the condensation and heat transfer rates per unit width of the
plate.
b) If the plate height were halved, would the flow regime stay the same or
change?
Sol. Assumptions: (1) Film condensation, (2) Negligible non-condensables

in steam.
Properties: Table A-6, Water, vapor (1 atm): Tsat = 100°C, hfg = 2257
kJ/kg; Table A-6,
Water, liquid (Tf = (100 + 54)°C/2 = 350 K): ρl = 973.7 kg/m^3 , kl = 0.668
W/m⋅K, μl = 365 × 10-6 N⋅s/m^2 , cp,l = 4195 J/kg⋅K, Prl = 2.29, νl = μl / ρl
= 3.75 × 10^-7 m^2/s.
The
condensation rate decreases nearly linearly with increasing surface

temperature. The inflection in the upper curve (L = 2.5 m) corresponds to
the flow transition at P = 2530 between wavy-laminar and turbulent. For
surface temperature lower than 76°C, the flow is turbulent over the 2.5 m
plate. The flow over the 1.25 m plate is always in the wavy-laminar region.
The fact that the 2.5 m plate experiences turbulent flow explains the height-
rate relationship mentioned in the closing sentences of part (b).
Q. A horizontal tube of 50-mm outer diameter, with a surface

temperature of 34oC, is exposed to steam at 0.2 bar. Estimate the
condensation rate and heat transfer rate per unit length of the tube.
Sol. Assumptions: (1) Laminar film condensation, (2) Negligible non-
condensibles in steam. Properties: Table A-6, Saturated steam (0.2 bar):
Tsat = 333K, ρv = 0.129 kg/m^3 , hfg = 2358 kJ/kg; Table A-6, Water, liquid
(Tf = (Ts + Tsat)/2 = 320K): ρl = 989.1 kg/m^3 , cp,l = 4180 J/kg⋅K, μ l =
577 × 10^-6 N⋅s/m^2 , kl = 0.640 W/m⋅K.
Q. Saturated steam at a temperature Tv of 85°C condenses on the
outer surface of 256 horizontal tubes (N) each of outer diameter 1.3
cm (Do) and arranged in a 16×16 array. Tube surfaces are maintained
at an uniform temperature (Tw) of 75 °C. Determine the total
condensate rate based on Nusselt's theory.
Sol. Average heat transfer coefficient,
[ ]
1/ 4
g ρ2l h fg K 31
h́=0.725 since ρv ≪ ρl
μ l ( T v −T w ) N Do
Kl = 0.668W/m K
μl = 355 × 10.6 kg/ms and g = 9.81m/s2
ρl = 974 kg/m3
hfg = 2309 kJ/kg
Therefore, h́ ¿
Heat flow rate in the array of tubes per metre length, Q = hm(NπDo)(Tv –

Tw)
Q = 7977.6 × 256 × π × 0.03 × (85 – 75) = 1924.78 kW/m

Mass of condensate per metre length, m = Q/hfg
3
1924.78× 10
¿ +3
=0.8 kg /s . m
2309× 10
Q. Find Nusselt's heat transfer coefficient and the mass of

condensate per hour if a vertical square plate of side 40 cm is
exposed to steam at atmospheric pressure. The plate is maintained at
an uniform temperature of 96 °C (Tw).
Sol
[ ]
3 2 0.25
hfg K 1 ( ρl−ρ v ) g ρl
h́=0.943
μ l ( T v −T w ) L
The properties of water at film temperature, Tf = (100 + 96)/2 = 98°C, are

as follows:
3
ρl=960 kg / m K l =0.68 W / mK
−4
μl=2.82×10 kg/ ms L=a=0.4 mh fg =2255 kJ /kg
¿ ¿
Condensate heat = Heat transfer at the surface
hA ( T v −T w )
Therefore, m ¿ hfg
¿ ¿
Check for laminar flow
4 h́ L ( T v −T w )
ℜ ¿
hfg μ l
¿ ¿ 103.62 (Laminar flow) .
Q. A 0.013-m-OD, 1.5-m-long tube is to be used to condense steam at
40,000 N/m2, Tsv 349 K. Estimate the heat transfer coefficients for this
tube in (a) the horizontal position and (b) the vertical position.
Assume that the average tube wall temperature is 325 K.
Sol
(a) At the average temperature of the condensate film [Tf = (349 + 325) / 2 =
337K] the physical property values pertinent to the problem are
K = 0.661W / m
U = 4.48 * 10 ^ 4 * Ns / (m ^ 2)
PI = 980.9kg / (m ^ 3)
Cpl =4184 J/kg K
hfg =2.349*10^ 6 J/kg
Pv = 0.25kg / (m ^ 3)
[ ]
3 4
pl ( pl− pv ) g h fg k
h c=c
Du ( Tsv−Ts )
substituting the values
hc = 10.680 W/m2K
(b) In the vertical position the tube can be treated as a vertical plate of area
pi*DI and according to the average heat transfer coefficient is
Hc = 4239 W/m2K
Q. Determine whether the flow of the condensate in above question part (b) is
laminar or turbulent at the lower end of the tube
Sol
The Reynolds number of the condensate at the lower end of the tube can
be written as
2 3
4 Tc 4 p g d
ℜ= =
u 3 u2
Substituting for d yields
[ ]
3
4 p2 g 4 ukL ( Tsv−Ts ) 4
ℜ=
3u
2
( g h fg p 2 )
Substituting the values
Re = 564
Since the Reynolds number at the lower edge of the tube is below 2000, the flow
of the condensate is laminar
Q. A tube with an outer diameter of 3 cm (Do) and length of 4 m (L) is
maintained at a uniform temperature of 35 °C (Tw) by the flow of
cooling water through the tube. It is used to condense steam at 65 °C
(Tv). Assuming film condensation, determine the average heat
transfer coefficient over the entire length of the tube and rate of
condensate flow for (i) vertical position based on McAdams results
and (ii) horizontal positions of the tube-based on Nusselt's theory.
Assume flow as laminar flow.
1. Vertical tube
The properties of the condensate at film temperature, Tf = (65 +

35)/2 = 50°C are given by,
Condensate heat = Heat transfer at the surface of the tube

2. Horizontal tube
Mass flow rate,
The condensate flow rate with the horizontal tube is 2.18 times
higher than with the vertical tube.
Q. Saturated steam at a temperature Tv of 85°C condenses on the
outer surface of 256 horizontal tubes (N) each with an outer diameter
of 1.3 cm (Do) and is arranged in a 16×16 array. Tube surfaces are
maintained at a uniform temperature (Tw) of 75 °C. Determine the total
condensate rate based on Nusselt's theory.
Kl = 0.668W/m K
μl = 355 × 10.6 kg/ms and g = 9.81m/s2
ρl = 974 kg/m3
hfg = 2309 kJ/kg
The heat flow rate in the array of tubes per meter length, Q =
hm(NπDo)(Tv – Tw)
Q = 7977.6 × 256 × π × 0.03 × (85 – 75) = 1924.78 kW/m

Mass of condensate per meter length, m = Q/hfg
TOPIC: Unsteady State Expression
Q.1 A long pipe of 0.6 m outside diameter is buried in earth with axis at a depth of 1.8 m . the
surface temperature of pipe and earth are 95∘ C and 25∘ C respectively. Calculate the heat loss
from the pipe per unit length. The conductivity of earth is 0.51 W /mK .
Given
0.6
r= =0.3 m
2
L=1 m
∘
T p=95 C
Earth
T e =25 C D=1.8 mk =0.51 W /mK Find
∘
Heat loss from the pipe (Q/L)

Solution
We know that
Q
=k ⋅S ( T p −T e )
L
Where S=¿ Conduction shape factor ¿
2 πL
( )
ln ⁡
2D
r
2 πx 1
¿
(
ln ⁡ )
2 x 1.8
0.3
Q
S=2.528 m =0.51 ×2.528(95−25)
L
Q
=90.25 W /m
L
Q2) The temperature at the inner and outer surfaces of a boiler wall made of 20 mm thick steel
and covered with an insulating material of 5 mm thickness are 300∘ C and 50∘
C respectively. If the thermal conductivities of steel and insulating material are 58 W /m0 C and
0.116 W /m0 C respectively, determine the rate of flow through the boiler wall.
−3
L 1=20 ×10 m
0
k 1=58 W /m C
−3
L2 =5× 10 m
k 2=0.116 W /m0 C
0
T 1=300 C
T 2=500 C
Find
(i) Q
Solution
( ΔT ) overall T 1−T 3
Q= =
Σ Rth Rth 1−Rth 2
−3
L1 0.20 ×10 0
10−4 C / W
Rth 1= = =3.45 X
k1A 58 ×1
−3
L2 5 ×10 0
Rth 2= = =0.043 C /W
k 2 A 0.116 × 1
300−50
Q= =5767.8 W
3.45 ×10−4 +0.043
Q=5767.8 W
Q3. Determine the heat transfer through the composite wall shown in the figure below.
Take the conductive of A , B , C , D & E as 50,10,6.67,20∧30 W /mK respectively and assume
one dimensional heat transfer. Take of area of A=D=E=1 m2 and B=C=0.5 m2 .
Temperature entering at wall A is 800∘ C and leaving at wall E is 100∘ C .
Given:
∘
T i=800 C
∘
T o=100 C
k A =50 W / mK
k B =10 W /mK
k c =6.67 W /mK
k D=20 W / mK
k E =30 W /mK
2
A A =A D= A E =1 m
2
A B =A C =0.5 m
Find
(i) Q
Solution
( Δ T ) overall
Q=
Σ R th
LA
Rth 1=RthA =
kA A
Parallel
1 1 1 R +R
= + = thB thC
R th2 RthB RthC R thB RthC
RthB R thC
Rth 2=
R thB + R thC
LB
R thB =
kB A B
L
RthC = C
kC A C
L
Rth 4=R thE = E
kE AE
LD
Rth 3=RthD =
k D AD
¿
1
RthB = =0.2 K /W Rthc =¿ 1 =0.2969 K /W ¿
10 ×0.5 6.67 ×0.5
RthB R thC 0.2× 0.299 0.0598

Rth 2= = = R =0.1198 K /W
R thB + R thC 0.2+0.299 0.499 th 2
LD 1
Rth 3=RthD = = =0.05 K / W
K D A D 20 ×1
LE 1
Rth 4=R thE = = =0.0333 K /W
K E A E 30 × 1
T i−T o 800−100
Q= = =3137.61 W
∑ R th 0.02+ 0.1198+ 0.05+0.0333
Q=3137.61 W
Q4.)A wall furnace is made up of inside layer of silica brick 120 mm thick covered with a layer of
magnesite brick 240 mm thick. The temperatures at the inside surface of silica brick wall and
outside the surface of magnesite brick wall are 725∘ C and 110∘ C respectively. The contact
thermal resistance between the two walls at the interface is 0.0035∘ C/w per unit wall area. If
thermal conductivities of silica and magnesite bricks are 1.7 W /m∘ C and 5.8 W /m∘ C ,
calculate the rate of heat loss per unit area of walls.
Given:
−3
L1=120 ×10 m
1.7 W
k 1= 0
m C
L2=240 ×10−3 m
5.8 W
k 2= 0
m C
0
T 1=725 C
0
T 4 =110 C
∘
0.0035 C
( th ) contact
R =
W
2
Area =1 m
Find
(i) Q
Solution
( ΔT ) overall T 1−T 4
Q= =
Σ Rth Rth1+ ( R th ¿ cont ¿+ Rth 2
Here T 1−T 4 =725−110=615∘ C
L 1 120 × 10−3
R th1= = =0.07060 C /W
k1A 1.7× 1
L 2 240× 10−3
R th2= = =0.0414 0 C /W
k2A 5.8 ×1
615 2
Q= =5324.67 W /m
0.0706+0.0035+0.0414
Q=5324.67 W /m
Q5) A alumininm sphere mass of 5.5 kg and initially at a temperature of 290∘ Cis suddenly
immersed in a fluid at 15 ∘ C with heat transfer co efficient 58 W / m2 K .
Estimate the time required to cool the aluminium to 95∘ C for aluminium take ρ=2700
3
kg /m , c=900 J /kgK , k =205 W /mK .
Given:
M =5.5 kg
T 0=290+ 273=563 K
T n=15+ 273=288 K
T =95+273=368 K
2
h=58 W /m K
k=205 W /mK
3
ρ=2700 kg/m
c=900 j/kgK
To find:
Time required to cool at 95∘ C(τ )
Solution
mass m
Density =ρ= =
v olume v
m 5.5
V= =
p 27+ 0
−33
V =2.037 ×10
For sphere,
R
Characteristic length Lc =
3
4 3
Volume of sphere V = π R
3
√ √
3 3 V 3 3 × 203× 10−2 R=0.0786 m L = 0.0786 =0.0262 m Biot number kt
R= ¿ c Bi= c
4π 4π 3 k
58× 00262
¿
205
−3
B1=7.41 ×10 <0.1
Bi <0.1 this is lumped heat analysis type problem.
T −T ∞
=e
[ −ħ
c Lc p
×τ
]
T 0−T ∞
368−288 [ √601 ×0,11262× 22⋅60 × 1 ]
58
=e
536−288
τ =1355.4 sec
Q6) When 0.6 kg of water per minute is passed through a tube of 2 cm diameter, it is found to
be heated from 20∘ C to 60∘ C . the heating is achieved by condensing steam on the surface of
the tube and subsequently the surface temperature of the tube is maintained at 90∘ C .
Determine the length of the tube required for fully developed flow. Given:
Mass, m=0.6 kg /min ¿ 0.6/60 kg/ s =0.02 m¿ Inlet temperature, T ¿=20∘ C ¿ Outlet temperature, T ¿=6
¿ ¿ mi mo
Solution:
T mi +T m 0 20+ 60 ∘
Bulk mean temperature =T m= = =40 C
2 2
Properties of water at 40 ∘ C :
(From H.M.T Data book,
3
P=995 kg/m
−6 2
V =0.657 ×10 m / s
Pr=4.340
K =0.628 W /mK
C p=4178 J /kgK
Mass flow rate, ṁ=ρAU

0.01
m U=
U= π velocity, U =0.031 m/s
ρA 995 × ¿ ¿
4
Let us first determinc the type of flow
UD 0.031 ×0.02
ℜ= =
v 0.657 ×10−6
ℜ=943.6
Since Re ¿ 2300, the flow is laminar.

For laminar flow,
Nusselt Number, Nu=3.66
23
We know that
hD
Nu=
k
h× 0.02
3.66=
0.628
2
h=114.9 W /m K
Heat transfer, Q=mc p Δ T

Q=mc p ( T ma−T mi ) ¿ 0.01 ×4178 ×(60−20) Q=1671.2 W We know that Q=hA Δ T
Q=h× π × D× L× ( T w −T m ) 1671.2=114.9 × π ×0.02 × L ×(90−40) Length of tube, L=4.62 m
Q7) Two large plates are maintained at a temperature of 900 K and 500 K respectively. Each
plate has area of 6 2. Compare the net heat exchange between the plates for the following
cases.
(i) Both plates are black
(ii) Plates have an emissivity of 0.5
Given:
T 1 =900 K
T 2=500 K
2
A=6 m
To find:
(i) ( Q 12 )rat Both plates are black E=1
(ii) ( Q12 )rat. Plates have an cmissivity of E=0.5
Solution
Casc (i) E1=E 2=1
Aσ ( T 1 −T 2 )
4 4
( Q12 )net ¿
1 1
+ −1
E 1 E2
¿ ¿
[( ) ( ) ]
4 4
900 500
6 × 5.67 −
100 100
( Q12 )net =
1 1
+ −1
1 1
Casc (ii) E1=E 2=0.5
Aa ( T 41−T 42 )
( Q12 )net = 1 1
+ −1
E1 E2
[( ) ( ) ]
4 4
900 500
6 ×5.67 −
100 100
¿ net =
1 1
+ −1
0.5 0.5
( Q12 )net =67300 W
Q8) Two rectangular surfaces are perpendicular to each other with a common edge of 2 m. the
horizontal plane is 2 m longs and vertical plane is 3 m long. Vertical plane is at 1200 K and has
an emissivity of 0.4. the horizontal plane is 189 C and has a emissivity of 0.3 . Determine the net
heat exchange between the planes.
Solution:
Q 12=?
Q12=¿
Here
¿ A1=¿ Area of horizontal plane ¿ XY =2× 2=4 m2
A2=¿ Area of vertical plane ¿ ZX=3 ×2=6 m2
Both surfaces have common edge for which
Z 3 Y 2
= =1.5 and = =1
X 2 X 2
From HMT data book the shape factor F 1−2 =0.22
(( ) (
1200 4 18+273
) ) Q =61657.7 W
4
4 × 5.67 −
100 100
Q12= 12
1−0.4
0.4
+
1
0.22
+ (
1−0.3 4
0.3 6 )
Q9) In a fabrication process, steel components are formed hot and then quenched in water.
Consider a 2.0-m-long, 0.2-m-diameter steel cylinder (k 40 W/m K, 1.0 10
5 m2 /s), initially at 400°C, that is suddenly quenched in water at 50°C. If the heat transfer
coefficient is 200 W/m2 K, calculate the following 20 min after immersion:
1. The center temperature
2. The surface temperature
3. The heat transferred to the water during the initial 20 min
ANS
hc∗Ro
Bi= =0.5
k
Since the cylinder has a length 10 times the diameter, we can neglect end effects. To determine
whether the internal resistance is negligible, we calculate first the Biot number
at
Fo= 2
=1.2
ro
2
Bi ∗Fo=0.3
s
Q=cp ( 3.14 ) r o2 ( Ti−¿ ) =4.4∗107
m
T ( ro ,t )−¿
=0.8
T ( 0 , t )−¿
So we get surface temp ratio = 0.28
Thus temperature after 20 mins,
T ( ro , t )=0.28∗350+50=148 C
And amount of heat transferred Q = 0.61*2*4.4*10^7/(3600) = 14.9 kWh
Q10) A large concrete wall 50 cm thick is initially at 60°C. One side of the wall is insulated. The
other side is suddenly exposed to hot combustion gases at 900°C through a heat transfer
coefficient of 25 W/m2 K. Determine (a) the time required for the insulated surface to reach
600°C, (b) the temperature distribution in the wall at that instant, and (c) the heat transferred
during the process. The following average physical
Properties are given: kg = 1.25 W/mK c = 837 J/kg K p = 500 kg/m a = 0.30 x 10-5 m2/s
ANS
At x=0 ,
Ts−¿
=0.357
Ti−¿
And reciprocal of biot no
Ks
¿ =0.10
Hl
At midplane , Fourier number is 0.70
2
0.7∗0.5
Thus, t= = 5833 s = 16.2 hours
0.3∗10(−5)
Now, according to temperature distribution with distance
The heat transfer er unit area of wall
'' −1.758∗108 s
(
Q =cpL Ti−¿ = )
m2
Negative sign indicates increase in internal energy and heat flow into the wall.

TOPIC: Fins and their applications
QUESTION 1
A very long, 25 mm diameter copper rod (k = 380 W/(mC)), extends horizontally from a plane
heated wall at 150°C. Temperature of surrounding air is 30°C and heat transfer coefficient
between the surface of the rod and the surroundings is 10 W/(m 2K).
1. Determine the rate of heat loss from the rod
2. How long the rod should be to be considered as infinite?
3. Draw the temperature profile along the length of the rod.
Solution. Since it is stated that it is a very long rod, we will take L as So, relations
derived for an infinitely long fin apply.

Data:
D := 0.025 m L := ∞ m k := 380 W/(mC) To := 150°C Ta := 30°C h := 10
W/(m2C)
Heat transfer rate from the rod:
First, let us calculate the parameter m:
We have: where, P is the perimeter and Ac is the area of cross section.
Then, (define the area of cross section of the rod)

i.e. Ac = 4.909 × 10−4 m2 (area of cross section of the rod)
and, P: = πD, m (define the perimeter of the rod)
i.e. P = 0.079 m (perimeter of the rod)
Therefore,
i.e. m = 2.052 m−1 (parameter.)

Now, apply Eq. 6.4 for heat transfer from a a very long fin:

Qfin = k·Ac ·m·θo …(6.4)
i.e. Qfin: = k·Ac ·m· (To − Ta)
Substituting values: Qfin = 45.931 W (heat loss rate from the fin.)
Length of rod required to consider it as infinitely long:

An infinitely long fin has no heat transfer from its end since the end temperature tends
to the ambient temperature as the length tends to infinity. Therefore, comparing the
expressions for Q for an infinitely long fin and a fin with insulated at its end, i.e.
we see that they are equivalent when tan h (m · L) is equal to 1.

It is seen that at (m· L) = 5, tan h (m· L) is almost equal to 1.
Therefore, the rod can be considered as infinitely long, if: m· L > 5, or L > (5/m): 5
To draw the temperature profile in the rod:

We need the equation for temperature profile.
Eq. 6.3 gives the temperature profile for a very long fin:
Therefore, T(x) := Ta + (To − Ta) · exp(− m· x) (equation for temperature profile in the

rod)
We use Mathcad to draw the temperature profile. First, define a range variable x,
varying from 0 to say, 2.5 m, with an increment of 0.1 m. Then, choose x-y graph from
the graph palette, and fill up the place holders on the x-axis and y-axis with x and T(x),
respectively.
QUESTION 2
Aluminium square fins (0.5 mm x 0.5 mm) of 1 cm length are provided on the surface of
an electronic semiconductor device to carry 46 mW of energy generated by the
electronic device and the temperature at the surface of the device should not exceed
80°C. The temperature of the surrounding medium is 40°C. Thermal conductivity of
aluminium = 190 W/(mK) and heat transfer coefficient h = 12.5 W/(m2K). Find number of
fins required to carry out the above duty. Neglect the heat loss from the end of the fin.
Solution. This is the case of fin, insulated at its end, since by data, there is no heat
loss from the end of the fin. Therefore, Eq. 6.7 for temperature distribution and Eq.
6.8 for heat transfer rate, are applicable.
Data:
Qtot := 0.046 W L: = 0.01 m w := 0.0005 m t := 0.0005 m k := 190 W/(m
K) To := 80°C Ta := 40°C h := 12.5 W/(m2 K)
Let us first calculate heat transferred from one fin; then, knowing the total amount of
heat to be transferred, we can find out the total number of fins required.
Fin parameter m:
We have
Now, Ac := w·t, m2 (define area of cross section of fin)

i.e. Ac = 2·5 × 10−7 m2 (area of cross section of fin)
and, P := 2 · (w + t), m (define perimeter of fin sectior)
i.e. P = 2 × 10−3 m (perimeter of fin section)
Therefore,
i.e. m = 22.942 m−1 (fin parameter m)

Also,
θo := To − Ta (define excess temperature at the base)
i.e.
θo = 40°C (θ at the base, i.e. at x = 0)

Applying Eq. 6.8 for heat transfer rate from a fin with insulated end:
we get: Qfin = 9.82818 × 10−3 W (heat transfer per fin)

Therefore, number of fins required to carry 46 mW:
QUESTION 3
Estimate the energy input required to solder together two very long pieces of bare
copper wire 0.1625 cm in diameter with a solder that melts at 195°C. The wires are
positioned vertically in air at 24°C and the heat transfer coefficient on the wire surface is
17 W/m²-deg. For the wire alloy, take the thermal conductivity 340 W/m-deg.
Solution:
The physical situation approximates as two infinite fins with a base temperature of
195°C in an environment at 24°C with the given value of surface coefficient.
π 2 π
Cross-sectional area, Ac = d = ¿
4 4
Perimeter, P=π ×0.001625=0.0051 m
m=
√ √
hP
k Ac
=
17 × 0.0051
335 ×2.073 ×10
−6
=11.17 m
−1
Heat dissipation from an infinity long fin is
Qfin ¿ k Ac m ( t 0−t a )
¿ ¿ 1.3228 W
Therefore, the energy input required for two wires is 2.645 W
QUESTION 4
A rod of 10mm square section and 160mm length with thermal conductivity of 50 W/m-
deg protrudes from a furnace wall at 200°C, and is exposed to air at 30°C with
convection coefficient comment on the result. Adopt a long fin model for the
arrangement.
Solution:
Heat dissipation for an infinity long fin is:
Q=k A c m ( t 0−t a )
Where m=
√ √
hP
k λc
=
20 ×(4 × 0.01)
50 ×(0.01 ×0.01)
=12.649 m
−1
Q=50 ×(0.01 ×0.01)× 12.649×(200−30)=10.75 W
For the long fin model, the temperature distribution is

θ T −T a −
= =e
θ0 T 0 −T a
At x=80 mm=0.08 m
mx=12.649 ×0.08=1.01192
1−30 −101192
=e =0.3635
200−30
∘
T =0.3635 ×(200−30)+30=91.8 C
At x=158 m=0.158 m ; mx=12.649 × 0.158=1.9985
τ −30 −1.9985
=e =0.1355
200−30
∘
T =0.1355 ×(200−30)+30=53.04 C
Heat conducted upto any length is worked out by taking the difference of total heat and
heat conducted at that section.
Heat convected up to 0.08 m length ¿ 1075−k A e m ( t 0.08−t a )
¿ 10.75−50 ×(0.01 ×0.01)× 12.649(91.8−30)=6.84 W
684
Which is ×100=63.63 % of total heat dissipation.
10.75
Heat convected upto 0.158 m length
¿ 1075−k A c m ( t 0.08 −t a )
¿ 10.75−50 ×(0.01 ×0.01)× 12.649(53.04−30)=9.293 W
y .43
Which is ×100=86.4 % of total heat dissipation.
10.75
QUESTION 5
A fin has 5mm diameter and 100mm length. The thermal conductivity of fin material is
400Wm-1k-1. One end of the fin is maintained at 130ºC and its remaining surface is
exposed to ambient air at 30ºC. If the convective heat transfer coefficient is 40Wm -2K-1,
the heat loss (in W) from the fin is?
Solution:
. Fin diameter, d = 5 mm
Fin length, L = 100 mm
k = 400 W/mK
T0 = 130°C, T∞ = 30°C
h = 40 W/m2K
∴ Heat loss from fin Q = √kAhP (T0 - T∞) tanh ml
where P = πd = 3.14 × 5 × 10– 3 = 0.015
A= (π/4)d²=(π (5 × 10– 3)2
1.96 × 10– 5 m 2
∴ m = √hp / kA = √(40 × 0.0157) / (400 × 1.96 × 10– 5) = 8.949

∴ ml = 8.949 × 0.100 = 0.895
∴ Q = √40 × 0.0157 × 400 × 1.96 × 10– 5(T0 - T∞) tanh (0.895) = 5.0 W
QUESTION 6
The heat loss from a fin is 6 W. The effectiveness and efficiency of the fin are 3 and
0.75, respectively. The heat loss (in W) from the fin, keeping the entire fin surface at
base temperature, is?
Solution:
Given:
Qlose = 6W,
ε = 3, η = 0.7
Ηfin = qactual / qmaximum possible
Qmax = 6/0.75 = 8 watt
QUESTION 7
Which of the following arrangement of pin fins will give higher heat transfer rate from a
hot surface?
6 fins of 10 cm length
12 fins of 5 cm length
The base temperature of the fin is maintained at 200°C and the fin is exposed to a
convection environment at 15°C with convection coefficient 25 W/m²-deg. Each fin has
cross-sectional area 2.5 cm², perimeter 5 cm and is made of a material having thermal
conductivity 250 W/m-deg. Neglect the heat loss from the tip of fin.
Solution:
The heat loss from n-fins is given by:
Q=nk A c m ( t 0 −t a ) tanh ⁡ml Where m=
Case I
√ √
hp
k Ac
=
25× 0.05
250 ×25 ×10
−4
=4.472 m
−1
n ¿6 and l=10 cm=0.1 m
ml ¿ 4.4772 ×0.1=0.4472
Q1 ¿ 6 [ 250 ×2.5 × 10 × 4.472×(200−15) tanh ⁡(0.4472) ]
−4
¿ ¿
Case I
n ¿ 12 and 1=5 cm=0.05 m

ml ¿ 4.4772× 0.05=0.2236
Q 2 ¿ 12 [ 250 ×2.5 ×10 ×4.472 ×(200−15)tanh ⁡(0.2236) ]
−4
¿ ¿
The arrangement II is to be preferred as it gives higher rate of heat transfer.
QUESTION 8
An array of 10 fins of anodized aluminium (k=180 W/m-deg) is used to cool a transistor
operating at a location where the ambient conditions correspond to temperature 35°C
and convective coefficient 12 W/m²-deg. Each fin measures 3 mm wide 0.4 mm thick 5
cm length and has its base at 60°C. Determine the power dissipated by the fin array.
Solution:
The length of the fin is represented by projection perpendicular to the plane of the pipe.
For a fin of rectangular cross-section,
√ √
12× ( 608 ×10 )
−1
P ¿ 2( b+ δ) 2 λP −1
=b × δ=3× 0.4=1.2 mm ¿ m¿= ¿ =19.44 m ¿
¿ ¿ k A c 180 × ( 12 ×10 )
−6
The arrangement corresponds to a fin with tip insulated and for that
Q ¿ nk A c m ( t 0 −t a) tanh ⁡ml
¿ ¿
∴ Heat loss from the array of 10 fins,
¿ 0.0786 ×10=0.786 W
QUESTION 9
A heating unit is made in the form of a vertical tube of 50 mm outside diameter and 1.2
m height. The tube is fitted with 20 steel fins of rectangular section with height 40 mm
and thickness 2.5 mm. The temperature at the base of fin is 75° C, the surrounding air
temperature is 20°C and the heat transfer coefficient between the fin as well as the tube
surface and the surrounding air is 9.5 W/m²K. if thermal conductivity of the fin material is
55W/mK, make calculations for the amount of heat transferred from the tube with and
without fin.
Solution:
(a) Heat flow rate from the tube surface without fin
Q1=hA Δ t=h × πdoH × ( t 0−t se )
9.5 ×(π × 0.05 ×1.2)×(75−20)=98.44 W
(b) Heat flow rate convicted from the base
Qb=h A b ( t 0 −t ac )
Where Ab =(π ×0.05 ×1.2)−20 (1.2× .0025)=0.1284 m2
∴ Qb=9.5 × 0.1284 ×(75−20)=67.09 W
Heat flow rate convicted from the fins,
Qf =nk Ac m ( t 0−t a ) tanh ⁡ml
Where Ac =¿ cross-sectional area of fin= ¿ 1.2× 0.0025=0.003 m 2
P= perimeter of fin =2(1.2+0.0025)=2.405 m
Then,
Qf ¿ 20 ×55 ×0.003 ×11.77 ×(75−20)tan ⁡h(11.77 × 0.04)

¿ ¿
∴ Heat flow rate from the take surface when fins are fitted,
Q2 ¿ Qb +Q f
¿ ¿
QUESTION 10
Example 5.20 A horizontal steel shaft, 30 mm diameter and 600 mm long, has its first
bearing located 100 mm from the end connected to the impeller of a centrifugal pump. If
the impeller is immersed in a hot liquid metal at 500° C, work out the temperature at the
bearing under the conditions: (a) the shaft is very long (b) the heat flow through the end
of the shaft is negligible and (c) the heat is transferred to the surroundings from the end.
The temperature and convection coefficient associated with the fluid adjoining the shaft
are 35°C and 68 kj/m²-hr-deg. For steel shaft, thermal conductivity k= 72 kj/m-hr-deg.
Solution:
For the circular shaft:
P πd 4
= =
Ac π 2 d
d
4
m=
√ √ √
hy
k Ac
=
4h
kd
=
4 ×68
72 × 0.03
=11.22 m−1
(a) For an infinity long fin
θ t x −t a −mx
= =e
θ0 t 0 −t a
Therefore, temperature t x at the bearing ( x=100 mm=0.1 m) is
tx ¿ t a + ( t 0−t a ) e−mx
¿ ¿ 35+ 465 ×0.3256=186.42∘ C
(b) For a fin with no heat loss from the tip end
θ i x −t a cosh ⁡m(1−x )
= =
θ0 z 0 −t a cosh ⁡ml
Therefore, temperature t x at the bearing ( x=100 mm=0.1 m) is
cosh ⁡m(1−x )
t x ¿ t a + ( t 0−t a )
cosh ⁡ml
¿ ¿

TOPIC: Critical Thickness
Ques.1: An electric cable of 20 mm diameter is insulated with rubber, which is exposed to
atmosphere at 30°C. Calculate the most economical thickness of rubber insulation (k = 0.175
W/m.K). When cable surface temperature with and without insulation is at 70°C. Also calculate
the percentage increase in heat dissipation and current carrying capacity when most
economical thickness is provided. Take heat transfer coefficient, h = 9.3 W/m2.K.
Solution
Given : An electric cable insulated with rubber d1 = 20 mm, r1 = 10 mm = 0.01 m T∞ = 30°C, Ts

= 70°C k = 0.175 W/mK, h = 9.3 W/m^2K
To find : (i) The critical thickness of insulation. (ii) Percentage increase in heat dissipation and
current carrying capacity with critical thickness insulation.
Assumptions : (i) Steady state conduction in radial direction only. (ii) No contact resistance at
interface. Analysis : (i) The critical radius of insulation
Rcr = k /h = 0.175 /9.3 = 0.188 m=18.81mm
Then critical thickness of insulation, Rcr –R1 =18.81-10=8.81mm
(ii) Heat dissipation rate per metre length from bare surface of pipe
Q1/L =2πR1h(Ts – T∞)
= 2π × 0.01 × 9.3 × (70 – 30) = 23.37 W/m
The heat dissipation rate with critical thickness of insulation can be calculated by electrical
analogy.
= 26.94 W/m
->Heat dissipation with bare cable
->Heat dissipation with insulated cable

Ques2 :An electric cable of 12 mm diameter is insulated to increase the current capacity. Due to
insulation the current carrying capacity is increased by 15% without increasing cable surface
temperature above 70°C. The environmental temperature is 30°C. Assume that the heat
transfer coefficient from the bare or insulated cable is 14 W/m2.K. Calculate the conductivity of
insulating material.
Solution
Given : An electric cable insulated to increase the current carrying capacity d = 12 mm, Ts =
70°C, T∞ = 30°C, h = 14 W/m2.K
To find : Thermal conductivity of insulation.
Assumptions : (i) Steady state heat transfer in radial direction. (ii) Heat loss from the cable or
insulation surface by convection only. (iii) 1 m long electrical cable.
Analysis : The heat dissipation rate per metre length of the bare cable
The heat dissipation rate with insulation will be maximum when,
Using for maximum heat dissipation rate from insulated cable
Considering 2nd and 3rd terms of equation

Thermal conductivity of insulating material is 0.2158 W/m.K
Question 3)
A copper wire of radius 0.5 mm is insulated uniformly with plastic (k = 0.5 W/m K) sheathing
1mm thick.The wire is exposed to atmosphere at 30°C and the outside surface coefficient is
8W/m²K. Find the maximum safe current carried by the wire so that no part of the insulated
plastic is above 75°C. Also calculate critical thickness of insulation.
For copper: Thermal conductivity = 400 W/m K, specific electrical resistance = 2 x 10-8ohm - m.
Solution)
Given,
r1=0.5mm = 0.5 x 10-³m (Radius of wire)

r2 = 1.5mm = 1.5 x 10-³m (Outer radius of insulation)
Kins=0.5W/mK (Thermal conductivity of insulation material)
t3= 30°C 303K (Atmospheric temperature)
h=8W/m2K (Convective heat transfer coefficient for surrounding a t1 = 75°C = 348K
(Temperature of inside surface of insulation)
K=400W/mK (Thermal conductivity of wire material)
p=2 x 100m (Specific electrical resistance)
L=1m (Length of wire) (Assuming)
To Find:
(1) (Safe current carried by wire)

(2) rc (Critical thickness of insulation)
Calculation for thermal resistance
Thermal resistance due to insulation
R1=In(r2r1)2nKinsL = In(1.50.5)2m x 0.5*1

R1 = 0.349 K/W
Thermal resistance due to convective layer
R2=1h.As = 18 × 2π × 1.5 × 10-3 × 1

R2= 13.262 K/W
Total thermal resistance
R=R1+R2=0.349+ 13.262
R=13.611 K/W
Heat transfer rate
Q=dtR= (t! 13)R (348-303/13.611

Q=3.306 W
Condition for safe current to flow through wire
Q=12Re = 12.p.LAC
3.306 = 12 × 2 × 10-8 × 14 × (0.5 × 10-3)2X1=5.697 A
Critical radius of insulation
rc = Kinsh=0.58
rc=0.0625m= 62.5mm ..Critical thickness = 62.5-0.5=62mm
Question 4)
An electric wire is tightly wrapped with a 1-mm thick plastic cover. The interface temperature
and the effect of doubling the thickness of the plastic cover on the interface temperature are to
be determined.
Solution)
Assumptions:
1 Heat transfer is steady since there is no indication of any change with time.
2 Heat transfer is one-dimensional since there is thermal symmetry about the centerline and no
variation in the axial direction.
3 Thermal properties are constant.
4 The thermal contact resistance at the interface is negligible.
5 Heat transfer coefficient accounts for the radiation effects, if any.
Properties:
The thermal conductivity of plastic cover is given to be k = 0.15 W/m°C.
Analysis In steady operation, the rate of heat transfer from the wire is equal to the heat
generated within the wire,
Q = We = VI = (8 V)(13 A) = 104 W
The total thermal resistance is
Then the interface temperature becomes
The critical radius of plastic insulation is

Doubling the thickness of the plastic cover will increase the outer radius of the wire to 3 mm,
which is less than the critical radius of insulation. Therefore, doubling the thickness of plastic
cover will increase the rate of heat loss and decrease the interface temperature.
Ques 5: A steam pipe of 10 cm ID and 11 cm OD is covered with an insulating substance k = 1

W/mK. The steam temperature is 2000 C and ambient temperature is 200 C. If the convective
heat transfer coefficient between insulating surface and air is 8 W/m 2K, find the critical radius
of insulation for this value of rc. Calculate the heat loss per m of pipe and the outer surface
temperature. Neglect the resistance of the pipe material.
Solution

QUES.6 A current of 1000 A is flowing through a long copper conductor (k = 390 W/m.K), 25
mm in diameter, having its electric resistivity of 1.08 µΩ cm. This rod is insulated to a radius of
17.5 mm with fibrous cotton (k = 0.058 W/m.K), which is further covered by a layer of plastic (k
= 0.42 W/m.K) and then it is exposed to surrounding air at 20°C with a heat transfer coefficient
of 20.5 W/m2.K. Calculate : (i) thickness of plastic layer, which gives minimum temperature in a
cotton insulation. (ii) the temperature of copper rod and maximum temperature in the plastic
layer for above condition.
Ques 7 A spherical thin-walled metallic container is used to store liquid nitrogen at 77 K. The
container has a diameter of 0.5 m and is covered with an evacuated reflective insulation system
composed of silica powder (k = 0.0017 W/m.K). The insulation is 25 mm thick and its outer
surface is exposed to ambient air at 300 K. The convective coefficient is known to be 20
W/m2.K. The latent heat of vaporization and density of liquid nitrogen are 2 × 105 J/kg and 804
kg/m3, respectively. (i) What is the rate of heat transfer to the liquid nitrogen ? (ii) What is the
rate of liquid boil-off?
GROUP 12 (Roll No. 269 to 276 excluding 272-274)
TOPIC: Composite structure
The concept of thermal circuit may also be extended for composite wall. Such wall may involve
any number of series and parallel thermal resistances due to layers of different materials.
Plane Slabs in Series
Consider a composite wall with three layers in series and convection heat transfer on both
boundary surfaces.
Heat transfer rate can be expressed as-
Q=¿¿
where, ¿
1 LA LB LC 1
Σ R th = + + + +
h1 A k A A k B A kC A h2 A
where, A=¿ area normal to heat transfer.

T ∞ −T ∞
Q= 1 2
Then, 1 LA LB LC 1
+ + + +
h1 A k A A k B A k C A h2 A
Alternatively, the heat transfer rate associated with each layer in composite wall can be
expressed as :
T ∞ −T 1 T 1−T 2 T −T 4 T 4 −T ∞
Q ¿ 1
= =¿= 3 = 2
1 LA LC 1
h1 A kA A kC A h 0 A
Heat Conduction Through Parallel Slabs
Conduction heat transfer can also occur through a wall section with two different materials in
parallel. material A has thermal conductivity kA and heat transfer area AA, while the material B
has thermal conductivity kB and heat transfer area AB. The temperature over left and right faces
are uniform at T1 and T2, respectively. The equivalent thermal circuit.
Since the heat is conducted through two different paths between the same temperature
difference, the total rate of heat transfer is sum of heat flow through areas A A and A B.
Q ¿ Q A +QB
¿ ¿
{ }
1 1
¿ ( T 1−T 2) +
L L
k A A A kB A B
L L
Using R A = and R B= ,
k A AA k B AB
( )
1 1 T 1−T 2
Then Q=( T 1−T 2 ) + =
RA RB R eq
1 1 1
where, = +
R eq R A R B
or
1 R A RB
Req = =
1 1 RA+ RB
+
R A RB
It is called the equivalent resistance of parallel resistances.
Composite Wall in Series and Parallel

Consider a composite wall with series and parallel configurations.
A E=¿ heat transfer area of layer E
A F =¿ heat transfer area of layer F
and A=A E + A F
The equivalent resistance of parallel resistances in Fig. 3.7 (b) can be calculated as :
1 1 1 k A k A
= + = E E+ F F
R eq R E R F LE LF
1
Req =
kE AE kF A F
+
LE LF
and total thermal resistance from Fig. 3.7(b)

R total =Σ Rth =R D + Req + R G
L 1 L
R total = D + + G
k D A k E A E k F AF kG A
+
LE LF
The total resistance can also be obtained from Fig. 3.7(c)
1 1
=¿
Σ Rth LD LE LG
+ +
k D A E k E AE k G AE
+1
LD LF LG
+ +
kD A F k F A F kG A F
Question-
1. The two insulation materials are purchased in powder form as A and B with thermal
conductivities 0.005 and 0.035 W/m.K, respectively. These materials were to apply over a 40
cm dia. Sphere as inner layer 4 cm thick and outer layer 5 cm thick, respectively. But due to
lapse of attention, the material B was applied as first layer and subsequently material A as outer
layer. Estimate its effect on conduction heat transfer.
Solution
Given: Two-layer insulation of a sphere

k A =0.005 W /m. K
k B=0.035W /m. K
d 1=40 cm, r 1=20 cm=0.2 m
r 2=20 cm+ 4 cm=24 cm=0.24 m
r 3 =r 2+ 5 cm=29 cm=0.29 m
To find: Effect of wrong arrangement of insulation.
Analysis: The heat flow rate through composite

sphere is expressed as
ΔT
Q=
R1 + R 2
Where,
r 2−r 1 r 3−r 2
R1= and R2=
4 π k 1 r1 r2 4 π r2 r3 k2
For proposed case
k1 = kA, k2 = kB
R1=13.263 K /W
R2=1.633 K /W
Then heat loss rate
ΔT
Q 1= =0.0671 ΔT W
13.263+1.633
When material get interchanged, then radii will also change.
Volume of material A,
4π 3 3
V A=
3
( r 2−r 1 ) =0.0244 m3
Volume of material B,
3
V B=0.04425 m
New radius of material B as r 2 B
4π 3
V B= ( r −r 3 )
3 2B 1
3
r 2 B =0.248 m
0.2648−0.2 K
R'1= =2.782
4 π × 0.2× 0.2648× 0.035 W
0.29−0.2648 K
R'2= =5.225
4 π × 0.29× 0.2648 ×0.005 W
and heat loss rate

ΔT
Q 1= =0.125 ΔT W
R'1 + R'2
Rate of heat loss increases with wrong arrangement of insulation. Percentage increase in heat
transfer.
0.125−0.0671
× 100=86.29 %
0.0671
Question
2. A plane wall is composite of two materials A and B. The wall of material A has a uniform heat
generation of 2.5 × 106 W/m3. Its thermal conductivity is 110 W/m.K and it is 60 mm thick. The
wall of material B has no heat generation and its thermal conductivity is 150 W/m.K and its
thickness is 20 mm. The inner surface of material A is well insulated, while the outer surface of
material of B is cooled by water stream at 30°C with convection coefficient of 1000 W/m2.K. For
steady state conditions
Sketch the temperature distribution in the composite wall.
Determine the temperatures of insulated surface of A and cooled surface of B.
Solution
Given : A composite wall of material A and B
g A =2.5 ×106 W /m 3
k A =110 W /m . K
L A =60 mm=0.06 m
g B=0
k B=150 W /m. K
LB =20 mm=0.02m
T ∞=30 ° C
h=1000W /m2. K
To find :
(i) Temperature distribution in the composite.
(ii) Temperature of insulated surface of A and
cooled surface of material B.
Assumptions :
(i) Steady state heat conduction in axial direction
only,
(ii) Negligible contact resistance at interface.
Analysis : (i) (a) The temperature distribution in
material A is given as
−g A x2
T A ( x)= +C1 x+C 2
2k A
It is parabolic temperature distribution in material A and it is subjected to boundary conditions
dt
At x = 0, the slope =0
dx
And at x=L A , T A ( x ) =T 2
(b) The temperature distribution in material B is given as
T B ( x )=C3 x+ C 4
It is a linear distribution between temperatures T 2∧T 3
(c) Large gradient near wall B due to water cooling.
(ii) The heat flux in wall material A can be calculated as
3 2
Q=g A LA =150 ×10 W / m
Since inner surface of material A is well insulated and hence under steady state, this heat must
be dissipated from outer surface of material B to water stream
Thus
q=h ( T 3−T ∞ )
Or
q
T 3= +T ∞=180 ∘C
h
It is the temperature of cooled surface of material B.
The temperature T2 at interface of two material can be calculated as
k B ( T 2−T 3 )
q=
LB
q LB
T 2= +T 3 =200∘ C
kB
Now temperature distribution in material A
2
−g A x
T A ( x)= +C 1 x+C 2
2k A
Subjected boundary conditions :
dt
At x = 0, the slope =0
dx
It gives C 1=0
And at x=L A , T =T 2
Or
2
−g A L A
T 2= + C2
2k A
1
g A ( L2A−x 2 )
T A ( x)= +T 2
2k A
The inner surface temperature of material A,
T 1=240.9 ∘C
3. A plane wall is a composite of three materials A, B, and C. The wall of material A has a heat
generation at the rate of 2 × 106 W/m3. The thermal conductivity of wall A is 190 W/m.K, while
its thickness is 50 mm.
The wall materials of B and C do not have heat generation with
KB = 150 W/m.K, LB = 30 mm. kC = 50 W/m.K., LC = 15 mm
The inner surface of material A is well insulated, while outer surface of material C is cooled by
water stream at T∞ = 50°C with convection coefficient h = 2000 W/m2K.
(i) Sketch the temperature distribution in the composite under steady state conditions.
(ii) Determine the temperature of insulated surface and cooled surface
Solution -
6 3
Given - g A =2 ×10 W /m ,
L A ¿ 50 mm=0.05 m
k A ¿ 190 W /m . K . ,
gB ¿ gC =0
kB ¿150 W / m. K
LB ¿ 30 mm=0.03 m
kC ¿50 W /m. K
LC ¿ 15 mm=0.015 n
T∞ ¿ 50∘ C ,
h ¿ 2000 W /m2 . K .
To find-
(i) Sketch the temperature distribution in the composite wall.
(ii) The temperature of cooled surface.
(iii) Temperature of insulated surface.
Assumptions-
(i) Steady state heat conduction in axial direction only.
(ii) (ii) Negligible contact resistance at interfaces.
(iii) Inner surface of material A is adiabatic.
(iv) Constant properties.
Analysis- (i) The temperature distribution in composite wall.
(a) Schematic and temperature distribution in the composite
(a) The wall material A has a parabolic distribution, since its temperature distribution is given by
−g A x2
T A (x )= +C1 x+ C2
2k
dT
(b) Since inner surface of material A is insulated i.e., slope =0 at the inner surface
dx
(c) The material B and C will have the linear slope, since their temperature distribution can be
expressed as
T (x)=C 3 x+C 4 .
kB
(d) The slope changes as =3 at the interface of materials B∣ and C .
kC
(e) Large gradient near the wall surface of C due to water cooling.
(ii) Temperature of cooled (right) surface: The heat flux in wall A can be calculated as
q ¿ g A L A =2× 106 ×0.05

¿ ¿
Since the inner side of material A is insulated, hence under steady state conditions, this heat
must be dissipated from outer surface of material C to water stream.
q ¿ h ( T 4 −T ∞ )
1× 105
T4 ¿ +50
2000
¿ ¿
(iv) Temperature of insulated surface - The temperature at the interface of wall A and B can
be calculated by resistance analogy as :
T 2−T 4
q ¿
LB LC
+
kB kC
T 2 −100
1× 105 ¿
0.03 0.015
+
150 50
¿ 1 ×10 ×5 ×10 +100=150 ∘ C
5 −4
T2
Now considering eqn. (i) for temperature distribution T A(x), with boundary conditions. The
boundary condition at left face of wall A.
At x = 0
The boundary condition at right face of wall A

At x = LA T = T2 = 150°C
C2 = 163.15°C
and the temperature distribution in wall A is
The temperature at the insulated face of wall A

at x = 0 T(x = 0) = 163.15°C
4. A steam pipe, 10 cm in outer diameter is covered with two layers of insulation material each
2.5 cm thick, one having thermal conductivity thrice the other. Show that the effective thermal
conductivity of two layers is approximately 15% less when better insulation material is placed as
inside layer, than when it is on the outside.
Solution-
Given : Two layers of insulation on a steam pipe.
d 1=10 cm , r 1=5 cm
r 2=5 cm+2.5 cm=7.5 cm
r 3 =7.5 cm+2.5 cm=10 cm
k 1=3 k 2
Analysis- The steady state heat transfer rate through composite cylinder
When better insulating matter ( k 2 ) is placed as inside layer,
2 π L(ΔT )
Q 1= =1.99× [ 2 π L k 2 (ΔT ) ]
( ) ( )
ln ⁡
7.5
5
+
ln ⁡
10
7.5
k2 3 k2
2 π L k i (ΔT )
Q1=
( )
ln ⁡
10
5
2 π L k i ( ΔT )
or 1.99× 2 π L k 2 (ΔT )=
0.6931
or k i=1.382 k 2
When effective insulation layer ( k 2 ) is placed as outside layer.
2 π L( ΔT ) 2 π L k 2 ( ΔT )
Q 2= =
() () ( ) ( )
ln ⁡
r2
r1
+
ln ⁡
r3
r2
ln ⁡
7.5
5
+ ln ⁡
10
3k2 k2 3 7.5
¿ 2.365 × [ 2 π L k ∘ ( ΔT ) ]
Effective thermal conductivity of two layer in this arrangement.
2 π Lk o (ΔT )
2.365 [ 2 π L k 2 ( ΔT )] ¿
( 105 )
ln ⁡
ko ¿ 1.639 k 2
% change in effective thermal conductivity
1.639−1.382
× 100=15.7 %
1.639
less, if better insulation material is placed as inside layer.
Q5 A thermos-pane window consists of two 5 mm thick glass (k = 0.78 W/m.K) sheets separated
by 10 mm stagnant air gap (k = 0.025 W/m.K). The convection heat transfer coefficient for inner
and outside air are 10 W/m2.K and 50 W/m2.K, respectively.
(a) Determine the rate of heat loss per m2 of the glass surface for a temperature difference of
60°C between the inside and outside air
(b) (b) Compare the result with the heat loss, if the window had only a single sheet of glass of
thickness 5 mm instead of thermos-pane.
Sol
Given
A thermos-pane glass window-
L1 =L3 = 5 mm = 0.005 m,
L2 = 10 mm = 0.01 m,
k1 = k3 = 0.78 W/m.K,
k2 = 0.025 W/m.K
h1 = 10 W/m2.K,
h2 = 50 W/m2.K
∆T = 1 T∞ – 2 T∞ = 60°C
Assumptions :
(i) One dimensional steady state heat flow.
(ii) Constant properties.
1 1 L
R1= = =0.10 K /W R2=R 4= 1 = 0.005 =0.00641 K /W
h1 A 10 ×1 k 1 A 0.78 ×1
L2 0.01 1 1
R 3= = =0.40 K /W R5= = =0.020 K /W
k 2 A 0.025 ×1 h 2 A 50 ×1
(a) The heat flow rate through the thermopane window is given by
ΔT T ∞ −T ∞
Q ¿ = 1 2
Σ R th R1+ R2+ R3 + R4 + R5
¿ ¿ 112.60 W /m2. Ans.
(b) If the window has a single sheet of glass of 5 mm thick, the total thermal resistance
Q6. The composite wall of an oven consists of three materials, two of them are of known
thermal conductivity, kA = 20 W/m.K and kC = 50 W/m.K and known thickness LA = 0.3 m and
LC = 0.15 m. The third material B, which is sandwiched between material A and C is of known
thickness, LB = 0.15 m, but of unknown thermal conductivity kB.
Under steady state operating conditions, the measurement reveals an outer surface
temperature of material C is 20°C and inner surface of A is 600°C and oven air temperature is
800°C. The inside convection coefficient is 25 W/m2.K. What is the value of kB ?
Given - A composite wall of an oven with

k A ¿ 20 W /m⋅ K , k C ¿ 50 W /m⋅ K
LA ¿ 0.3 m , LC ¿ 0.15 m
LB ¿ 0.15 m , Ti ¿ 600∘ C
To ¿ 20∘ C , T∞ ¿ 800∘ C
hi ¿ 25 W /m2 . K ¿ ¿
Assumptions : (i) Steady state heat conduction in axial direction only.
(ii) Constant properties. Analysis: The heat transfer rate per unit area in the slab can be
calculated by considering convection at inner side.
Q
¿ hi ( T ∞−T i )=25×(800−600)
A
¿ ¿
Further this heat is conducted through composite wall, therefore,
Q T i−T o
¿
A L A L B LC
+ +
k A k B kC
600−20
5000 ¿
0.3 0.15 0.15
+ +
20 k B 50
+0.15
0.018 =0.116
kB
¿ ¿
Q 7: The heat generation rate in a plane wall, insulated at its left face and maintained at a
uniform temperature T2 on right face is given as
where g0 and γ are constants and x is measured from left face. Develop an expression for
temperature distribution in the plane wall, and deduce the expression for temperature of the
insulated surface.
Solution:
Given : The heat generation rate in the wall as
Subjected to boundary conditions

At x = 0, (insulated face),
At x = L, (specified temperature), T = T2.
To find :
(i) An expression for temperature distribution, T(x), and
(ii) Temperature of insulated surface.
Analysis : (i) Governing differential equation in steady state
d T g (x)
2
+ =0
d x2 k
−γx
d 2 T −go e
=
d x2 k
Integrating with respect to x ,
−γx
d T −go e 1
= +C
dx k (−γ ) 1
where C1 is constant of integration.

Using first boundary condition i.e., at x=0 ,
d T
¿0
dx
( )
d T go e−γ ×0
¿ +C1=0
dx x=0 k γ
−g o
It gives C 1=
kγ
−γx
d T go e go g o −γx
∴ = − = [ e −1 ]
dx kγ kγ kγ
Integrating again with respect to x

T ( x)=
kγ −γ [
g o e−γx
−x +C2 ]
where C2 is constant of integration.
Using second boundary condition, i.e., at x=L , T =T 2
T 2= [
go e−γ L
kγ −γ
−L +C 2 ]
It gives C 2=T 2+ [
go e−γ L
kγ γ
+L ]
∴ T ( x )=
kγ −γ[
go e−γx g e−γ L
−x + o
kγ γ ] [
+ L +T 2 ]
g0 go
T ( x)= [ e−γ L−e−γ x ]+ [ L−x ]+T 2
k 2
kγ
It is the required expression.

(ii) Temperature at insulated surface i.e., x=0
g0 go L
T x=0= [ e−γ L−1 ]+ +T 2
k 2
kγ
Q 8: Two ends of circular rod of length 2L, perfectly insulated on its lateral surface are held at
same temperature T0. The left half of rod has uniform heat generation at the rate of g 0 W/m3,
while right half portion has no heat generation. Thermal conductivity of the rod material is
constant (independent of temperature). In steady state conditions
(a) Develop the expressions for the temperature distribution in the left and right portion of the
end. (b) Find the location of maximum temperature.
Solution:
Given-
Analysis-
(a) The governing equation in left half of the rod.
d 2 T L (x ) g o
+ =0
d x2 k
and temperature distribution in left portion of rod
2
−go x
T L (x)= +C 1 x +C 2
2k
The boundary condition

At x=0 , T L ( x)=T 0,
It gives C 2=T 0
2
−go x
Hence T L ( x)= +C 1 x +T 0
2k
The governing differential equation in right portion of the rod is reduced to
2
d T R (x)
2
=0
dx
and temperature distribution,
T R ( x )=C 3 x +C 4
With boundary condition

At x=2 L , T R (x )=T 0
It gives C 4=T 0−2 LC 3
Hence T R (x )=C 3 (x−2 L)+T 0 …(iv)
Due to symmetry, the temperature at mid-point
At x=L , T R (x)=T L ( x )
Therefore, equating eqns. (ii) and (iv),
[ −g o x 2
2k
+C 1 x +T 0 ] x= L
¿ [ C 3 ( x−2 L)+T 0 ] x=L
−g o L2
+C 1 L+T 0 ¿−C 3 L+T 0
2k
go L
C1 +C 3 ¿
2k
Also, at section x=L. Heat transfer rate from left ¿ Heat flow rate to right
QL =QR
or [
d T L (x)
dx ] [
x=L
=
d T R( x )
dx ]x=L
−go L
or + C1=C 3
k
g L
or C 1−C3 = o
k
Adding eqns. ( v) and ( vi), we get
3 go L
2 C 1=
2k
3 go L
It gives C 1=
4k
Subtracting eqns. (v) and ( vi), we get
go L
2 C3 ¿−
2k
go L
C3 ¿−
4k
or
Substituting the values of C 1 and C 3 in eqns. (ii) and (iv), respectively, we get
−go L
T R (x )= (x −2 L)+ T 0 ¿
4k
(b) The location of maximum temperature, the left portion will have maximum temperature,
therefore, differentiating equation (vii) w.r.t. x and equating it to zero
d T L( x ) go x 3 g o L
¿− + =0
dx k 4k
3
x ¿ L . Ans.
4
Q9. Calculate the maximum current that a 2 mm bare aluminium (k = 210 W/m.K) wire can
carry without exceeding a temperature of 225°C, when exposed in an ambient at 25°C with
heat transfer coefficient of 10 W/m3.K. Take electrical resistance of aluminium wire as 0.037
Ω/m.
Solution:
Given : An electric wire exposed to ambient air

d = 2 mm = 0.002 m,
r0 = 0.001 m
k = 210 W/m.K,
Tmax = 225°C
T∞ = 25°C,
h = 10 W/m2.K,
Re = 0.037 Ω/m.
To find : Maximum current carrying capacity of conductor.
Analysis : Wire is a solid cylinder and exposed to convection environment thus the temperature
distribution is given by eqn.
go 2 2 go r o
T (r )= (r −r ) + 2 h +T ∞
4k o
Location of maximum temperature
d T −go r cr
= =0
dr 2k
Then for T max,
225 ¿
Heat flow rate.
Q ¿ g o × V =go × ( π4 d × L)
2
¿ ¿
10. A steel pipe 3 cm in diameter has its outer surface at 200∘ C , is placed in air at 30∘ C with
heat transfer coefficient of 8.5 W /m2 . K . It is proposed to add insulation (k =0.07 W /m. K ) on
its outer surface to reduce the heat loss by 40%. Estimate the thickness of insulation required, if
pipe temperature and heat transfer coefficient remain unchanged.
Solution
Given- A steel pipe proposed for insulation layer
d1 ¿3 cm or r 1=1.5 cm=0.015 m

∘
Ts ¿ 200 C ,
T∞ ¿ 30∘ C
2
h ¿ 8.5 W /m . K
k ins ¿ 0.07 W / m2 . K
Q1 ¿ 0.6 Q b .
To find: The thickness of insulation.
Assumptions-
(i) Steady state heat conduction in radial direction only.
(ii) No contact resistance, when insulation is placed on steel pipe.
Analysis: The heat loss rate per metre of bare pipe surface
Qb
¿ 2 π r 1 h ( T s−T ∞ )
L
¿ ¿136.18 W / m
After addition of insulation, the heat loss is reduced by 40 %. Hence allowable heat loss is 60 %
only. Hence allowable heat loss,
Q1=0.6 Qb =0.6 ×136.18=81.71 W /m
Now from thermal network,

Heat loss per metre length of pipe
Q1 2 π ( ΔT )
¿
L ln ⁡( r 2 /r 1 ) 1
+
k ins r 2h
¿ ¿ 81.71 W /m
ln ⁡( r 2 /0.015 ) 1
or + =13.072
0.07 8.5 r 2
ln ⁡( r 2 ) 1 ln ⁡(0.015)
or + =13.072+
0.07 8.5 r 2 0.07
¿ 13.072−59.995=−46.923
or
ln ⁡( r 2 ) 1
+ + 46.923=0
0.07 8.5 r 2
It is a transcedental equation and can be solved by numerical methods, we get

−2
r 2=2.79× 10 m=2.79 cm
So required thickness of insulation ¿ 2.79−1.5=1.29 cm .
GROUP 13 (ROLL NO. 277-281)

TOPIC: Counter flow, Parallel flow and Simulation
LMTD for Counter flow heat exchanger- Derivation:
Q=U.A.(∆T)
(∆T)=Th-Tc
d(∆T)=dTh-dTc ……1
Finding eq. For dTh and dTc
dQ= m.c.dT
Applying eq. For hot fluid
dQ=-mh.ch.dTh (as -ve slope graph)
Ch=mn.cn
dQ=-ChdTh
dTh=-dQ/Ch …..2
For cold fluid

dQ=mcccdTc (-ve slope)
Cc=mccc
dQ=-Cc.dTc
dTc=-dQ/Cc …..3
By eq 1,2,3
d(∆T)= -(dQ/Ch)+(dQ/Cc) ….4

Finding eq for Ch and Cc
Q= mhch(Thi-Tho)
Q= Ch(Thi-Tho)
Ch=Q/(Thi-Tho) ….5
Q= mccc(Tci-Tco)
Q= Cc(Tci-Tco)
Cc=Q/(Tci-Tco) ….6
Putting 5 and 6 in 4 and solving we get
d(∆T)/∆T= - U.dA/Q(∆T1-∆T2)
Taking integration of above eq.
ln(∆T)T2T1 = [A]0A [-U/Q[∆T1-∆T2]]

Q=[U.A/ln(∆T2/∆T1)](-∆T1+∆T2) ….7
Q= U.A[∆T]lm [∆T]lm=LMTD
[∆T]lm=(∆T2-∆T1)/ln(∆T2/∆T1)
Counter flow
Q: Calculate log mean temperature difference for the following shell and tube heat exchanger for
two possible arrangements (i) counter-current and (ii) co-current flow patterns.Hot fluid in
temperature TH1 = 100 0C Hot fluid out temperature TH2 = 90 0C Cold fluid out temperature
TC2 = 50 0C Cold fluid in temperature TC1 = 30 0C
Sol: formula
LMTD= (∆T1 - ∆ T2)/ ln(T1/T2)
ΔT1 → the temperature difference between hot and cold fluids at one end of the heat exchanger
ΔT2 → the temperature difference between hot and cold fluids at the other end of the heat
exchanger (i) For counter current heat exchanger,
ΔT1 = TH1 - TC2 = 100 - 50 = 500C (At one end hot fluid enters and cold fluid exits.)
ΔT2 = TH2 - TC1 = 90 - 30 = 600C
(At the other end cold fluid enters and hot fluid exits.)
by definition given above, LMTD for counter current flow = (60-50) / ln(60/50) = 10 / 0.1823 =
54.850C.
(ii) For co-current heat exchanger,
ΔT1 = TH1 - TC1 = 100 - 30 = 700C (At first end hot and cold fluids enter the heat exchanger.)
ΔT2 = TH2 - TC2 = 90 - 50 = 400C
(At the other end hot and cold fluids exit the heat exchanger.)
by definition given above, LMTD for counter current flow = (70-40) / ln(70/40) = 30 / 0.5596 =
53.610C.
Q: Determine the heat transfer surface area required for a heat exchanger constructed
from a 0.0254-m-OD tube to cool 6.93 kg/s of a 95% ethyl alcohol solution
(cp 3810 J/kg K) from 65.6°C to 39.4°C, using 6.30 kg/s of water available at
10°C. Assume that the overall coefficient of heat transfer based on the outer-tube
area is 568 W/m2 K and consider each of the following arrangements:
(a) Parallel-flow tube and shell
(b) Counterflow tube and shell
(c) Counterflow exchanger with 2 shell passes and 72 tube passes, the alcohol flowing
through the shell and the water flowing through the tubes
(d) Cross-flow, with one tube pass and one shell pass, shell-side fluid mixed
SOLUTION: The outlet temperature of the water for any of the four arrangements can be
obtained from an overall energy balance, assuming that the heat loss to the atmosphere is
negligible.
Writing the energy balance as
and substituting the data in this equation, we obtain

(6.93)(3810)(65.6 39.4) (6.30)(4187)(Tc,out 10)
from which the outlet temperature of the water is found to be 36.2°C. The rate of
heat flow from the alcohol to the water is
The length of the exchanger for 72, 0.0254-m-OD tubes in parallel would be
This length is not unreasonable, but if it is desirable to shorten the exchanger, more
tubes could be used.
(d) For the cross-flow arrangement (Fig. 8.4), the correction factor is found
from the chart of Fig. 8.16 to be 0.88. The required surface area is thus 47.0 m2,
about 10% larger than that for the exchanger in part (c).
COUNTER FLOW
Q. A counter flow heat exchanger is used to cool 2200 kg/hr of oil (cp=2.5 kJ/kgK),
from 100°C to 35°C by the use of water entering at 17°C. If the overall heat transfer
coefficient is expected to be 1.5 kW/m2k, make calculations for the water flow rate, the
surface area required and the effectiveness of heat exchanger. Presume that the exit
temperature of water is not to exceed 85°C. Use NTU-effectiveness approach.
Q. A home air-conditioning system uses a counter flow heat exchanger to cool 0.8 kg/s of
air from 45°C to 15°C. The cooling is accomplished by a stream of cooling water that enters
the system with 0.5 kg/s flow rate and 8°C temperature. If the overall heat transfer
coefficient is 35W/m2K, what heat exchanger area is required? If the same air flow rate is
maintained while the water flow rate is reduced to half, how much will be the percentage
reduction in heat transfer? Use effectiveness-NTU approach.
Q. Fuel oil at the rate of 1.3 kg/s is heated passing through the annulus of a computer flow
double pipe heat exchanger from 20°C to 30°C by using hot water available from the
engine at 70°C. The water flows through a copper tube (OD=2.13 cm and ID=1.86 cm) with
a velocity of 0.76 m/s. The oil passes through the annulus formed by inner copper tube and
outer steel pipe (OD=3.34cm and ID=3 cm).
Fw (Fouling factor water side)=0.0004 m2 C/W
F0 (Fouling factor oil side)=0.0009 m2 C/W

PARALLEL FLOW
Q. The Engine oil at 150°C is cooled at 80°C in a parallel flow heat exchanger by water
entering at 25°C and leaving at 60°C. Estimate the exchanger effectiveness and the number
of transfer units. If the fluid flow rates and the inlet conditions remain unchanged, work
out the lowest temperature to which the oil may be cooled by increasing length of the
exchanger.
Q. A heat exchanger has 17.5 m2 area available for heat transfer. It is used for cooling oil at
200°C by using water available at 20°C. The mass flow and specific heat of oil are 10000
kg/hr and 1.9 kJ/kg K and the mass flow and specific heat of water are 3000kg/hr. and
4.187 kJ/kg K. if the overall heat transfer coefficient is 300 W/m2-K, estimate the outlet
temperatures of oil and water for parallel flow and counter flow arrangements (a) by using
LMTD method and (b) NTU method
GROUP 14 (Roll No. 501)
TOPIC: Heat Generation Derivations
One dimensional, steady state heat conduction is considered for following geometries:-
1) Slab
2) Cylinder
3) Sphere
1) One-Dimensional Heat Flow through a Slab with Heat Generation:-

i) When Temperature of Both Sides of Slab is Same:
Consider a slab of thickness ‘L’ and cross-sectional area ‘A’ through which heat flow takes place
in x-direction. A heat source located at the center of the slab is generating ‘qg’ amount of heat
per unit volume per unit time as shown in Figure 1.
Heat generated is conducted equally towards the sides of the slab through a distance ‘x’
measured from center of the slab along x-direction. Temperature of both sides of the slab is
same and is equal to T1 as same amount of heat is flowing from the center towards the sides of
the slab.
At the center of the slab x=0 and at the sides of the slab x= L/2. The general conduction
equation under the given conditions reduces to
Integrating equation (1) with respect to ‘x’, we get
Integrating equation (2) again with respect to ‘x’, we get
Using the boundary conditions,

At x = 0, , From equation (2), we get
At x = L/2, T = T1, From equation (3), we get

Substituting the values of and in equation (3), we get
Equation (6) represents temperature distribution equation in the slab having a heat generating
source present inside it.
Temperature will be maximum at the center of the slab where x = 0
Flow of heat can be expressed as:
Using equation (2), we can write

Substituting value of from equation (9) in equation (8), we get
Equation (10) represents flow from one of sides of the slab; therefore, total heat flow from
both the sides is expressed as
Total Heat Conducted form both sides of the slab = Volume x Heat generating capacity
Total Heat Conducted from both sides of the slab = Total Heat generated
Under steady state conditions, heat conducted at x = L/2 must be equal to convected from a
side to the atmospheric air. Therefore,
Substituting the value of T1 from equation (11) in equation (6), we get
Equation (12) represents temperature distribution. If one side of the slab is insulated
At one side, temperature distribution will be represented by equation (6) except that L/2 will be
replaced by L and is expressed as
ii) When Temperature of Both Sides of Slab are Different:

If the heat source present inside the slab generates heat q g per unit volume and heat
distribution in towards both slabs is not uniform then the temperature of both sides of the slab
will be different as shown in Figure 2.
The differential equation governing the heat flow through the slab is expressed as:
Integrating equation (13) with respect to ‘x’, we get
Integrating equation (4.14) again with respect to ‘x’, we get
Applying the boundary conditions,
At x = 0, T = T1, From equation (15), we get

C2 = T1 (16)
At x = L, T = T2, From equation (15), we get

Substituting the values of and in equation (15), we get
Subtracting T2 from both sides of the equation (18), we get

Dividing both sides of the equation (19) with T1-T2, we get
Equation (20) represents temperature distribution equation in the slab having a heat generating
source present inside it. In order to find out the location of maximum temperature in the slab
equation (20) is differentiated with respect to ‘x’ and equated equal to zero.
Equation (21) gives the location of maximum temperature in the slab. The equation
representing the maximum value of temperature is obtained by substituting the value of
maximum x /L from equation (21) into equation (20).
Flow of heat from one surface is given as
From equation (14) substituting the value of dT/dx, we get

Substituting the value of C1 from equation (17), we get
Similarly heat flow from the other surface
In case maximum temperature occurs inside the slab, heat will flow from both surfaces of the
slab and total heat flow will be given as:
QT = Q1+Q2
In case T1 is the maximum temperature, heat will flow towards x (+ve only) and heat lost will be
given as:
QT = Q2
2)One-Dimensional Heat Flow through a Cylinder with Heat Generation

i) A hollow Cylinder:
Consider a hollow cylinder of length L having inner and outer radii r 1 and r2 respectively in which
flow of heat is unidirectional along the radial direction. T 1 and T2 are temperatures of the inner
and outer surfaces of the cylinder respectively. In order to determine temperature distribution
and heat flow rate, a small element at radius r and thickness dr is considered. A heat source
present inside the strip is generating qg amount of heat per unit volume as shown in Figure 3.
Heat conducted into the element, Qr = -k(2 Π r L) dT/dr (23)
Heat generated in the element, Qg = 2 Π r L dr qg (24)
Heat conducted out of the element,

For steady state condition of heat flow
Heat conducted into the element + Heat generated in the element = Heat conducted out of the
element
Substituting the values of Qr and Qg from equations (23 and 24) in equation (26), we get
In order to find out the solution of the above equation, integrate it with respect to r
Integrating equation (4.28) again with respect to r, we get
C1 and C2 are constants of integration and the expressions for these constants can be found out
by using the following boundary conditions
At r=r1, T=T1 and at r=r2, T=T2
Subtracting equation (32) from equation (31), we get
Substituting the value of C1 in equation (31), we get

Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in equation (30), we get
Dividing both sides of equation (35) by T1-T2, we get

Multiplying and diving Right Hand Side of the above equation by r2, we get
Equation (36) represents temperature distribution inside a hollow cylinder with heat
generation.
ii) A Solid Cylinder

In case of solid cylinder, the governing equation remains same as equation (30)
Differentiating above equation with respect to r, we get
Applying the boundary conditions

Equation (37) represents temperature distribution equation in a solid cylinder with heat
generation. Maximum temperature will occur at r=r2, and will be expressed as
Dividing equation (37) by equation (38), we get
Heat flow through a solid cylinder is expressed as

Heat conducted = Volume of cylinder x heat generating capacity per unit volume per unit Time
For steady state conditions, heat conducted at r = r 2 must be equal to heat convected from
outer surface of cylinder to the surrounding fluid.
Heat Conducted = Heat convected
From equation (40), we can write
Tf is temperature of fluid surrounding the cylinder.
Substituting the value of T2 in equation (37), we get
3)One-Dimensional Heat Flow through a Sphere with Heat Generation

Consider steady state heat conduction through a hollow sphere having r 1 and r2 as inner and
outer radii respectively. Temperature of the inner and outer surfaces is T 1 and T2 respectively.
Heat is flowing from inner to outer surface as T1 is greater than T2 as shown in Figure 4.
The general conduction equation which governs the conduction heat transfer is written as
Since it is a case of one-dimensional, stead heat conduction through a wall of uniform
conductivity with heat generation, therefore,

Therefore, equation (41) reduces to
The above equation can be written as

Integrating equation (43) with respect to r, we get
Upon integrating above equation once more with respect to r, we get
Applying the first boundary condition i.e. at r = 0, dT/dr = 0 to equation (44), we get
C2 = 0 (45)
Applying the second boundary condition i.e at r = r2, T =T2 to equation (43), we get

Equation (47) represents temperature distribution equation in a solid sphere having a heat
source present inside it.
Heat flow rate through a sphere with heat generation can be determined by using the following
equation
Heat conducted = Volume of sphere x heat generating capacity

For steady state conditions, heat conducted through a sphere must be equal to heat convected
from outer surface of the sphere
Substitute the value of T2 from above equation in equation (47), we get

Delhi Technological University: Heat and Mass Transfer (ME-302) Group: M4

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DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY

Bawana Rd, Delhi Technological University, Shahbad Daulatpur

Heat and Mass Transfer

SUBMITTED TO- PROF. RS MISHRA

GROUP 3 (Roll No. 221 to 225)

1) Sphere of diameter D inside a cubical box of length L = D.

2) Partition within a square duct:

which means only about 5% of the radiation emitted by the filament

Given: λ max = 0.52 μ = 0.52 x 10 -6 m

Given: r1 = 60 mm = 0.060 m

r2= 120 mm = 0.12

Film Boiling of Water on a Heating Element

Properties: The properties of water at the saturation temperature of 100∘ C are

Analysis: The excess temperature in this case is Δ T =T s −T sat =¿ 350−100=250∘ C , which is

q̇ film ¿ 0.62 ( T s−T sat )

The radiation heat flux is determined from Eq. 10-6 to be

Q̇total ¿ A q̇ total =( πDL) q̇ total

Given: Boiling of water on polished stainless heater

To find: Length of the heating element.

For mechanically polished stainless steel C sf =0.0132 and n=1.

The heat flux during nucleate boiling

¿ 157.6 ×10 × ( 2049.5× 10 )

The heat transfer rate is given by

or 5000 ¿ 74325× π × 0.015 L

Water is boiled at a rate of 30 kg/h in a copper pan, 30 cm in diameter, at atmospheric

Given : The evaporation of water in a copper pan.

During nucleate boiling, the heat flux is given by eqn. (11.53)

266,083.5=279× 10 × ( 2257 ×10 )

T s=T sat + ΔT e =100+12.47

SOLUTION Saturated steam at a pressure of 7.38 kPa (Table A-9) condenses

Schematic for Example 10-6.

Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The tube is isothermal.

ρl ¿ 994 kg /m 3 C pl ¿ 4178 J /kg ⋅ ∘ C

Analysis (a) The modified latent heat of vaporization is

h¿fg ¿ hfg +0.68 C pl ( T sat −T s )

Q̇=h A s ( T sat −T s )=( 9292 W /m2 ⋅ ∘ C ) ( 0.09425 m2 ) ¿

(b) The rate of condensation of steam is

Q̇=h A s ( T sat −T s )=( 9292 W / m2 ⋅ ∘ C ) ( 0.09425 m2 ) ¿

(b) The rate of condensation of steam is

Saturated steam at a pressure of 7.38 kPa (Table A-9) condenses

Schematic for Example 10-6.

Assumptions 1 Steady operating conditions exist. 2 The tube is isothermal.

ρl ¿ 994 kg /m 3 C pl ¿ 4178 J /kg ⋅ ∘ C

Analysis (a) The modified latent heat of vaporization is

h¿fg ¿ hfg +0.68 C pl ( T sat −T s )

Q̇=h A s ( T sat −T s )=( 9292 W /m2 ⋅ ∘ C ) ( 0.09425 m2 ) ¿

(b) The rate of condensation of steam is

Q̇=h A s ( T sat −T s )=( 9292 W / m2 ⋅ ∘ C ) ( 0.09425 m2 ) ¿

(b) The rate of condensation of steam is

At the point of maximum heat flux:

Electrical energy input to wire:

Corresponding to 7 bar pressure:

Water is to be boiled at atmospheric pressure in a mechanically polished stainless steel pan

The surface area of the bottom of the pan is

Then the rate of heat transfer during nucleate boiling becomes

Q̇ boiling = A q̇nucleate =( 0.07069 m2 ) ( 7.20 ×104 W / m 2) =5093 W

(b) The rate of evaporation of water is determined from

ρl ¿ 957.9 kg /m3 hf s ¿ 2257× 103 J /kg

which corresponds to C c =0.12.

Condensation of Steam on a Vertical Plate

Assumptions -1. Steady operating conditions exist.

2. The plate is isothermal.