The Breakdown of Government in the United Canadas: Issues and the

Path to Confederation (1855-1863)

Introduction (200 words)

The political climate in the United Canadas during the late 1850s and early
1860s was increasingly paralyzed by tensions and instability. As documented
by historians including J.M.S. Careless, W.L. Morton, Donald Creighton, and
R.C. Brown, the events of this period exposed major dysfunction within the
colonial government structure, ultimately leading reformers towards the
solution of Confederation. This essay will provide an in-depth examination of
the myriad political and economic struggles plaguing the Canadas, the failure
of attempted reforms and conciliatory measures, the contributions of
prominent political figures in the Confederation movement, as well as the
precipitating events and catalysts that highlighted the urgent need for drastic
constitutional change in the floundering colonies.

Political Discontent in the United Canadas (400 words)

The Act of Union in 1841 joined Upper and Lower Canada under one
legislature with the aim of assimilating the French population, but it failed to
resolve the fundamental political conflicts between the two colonies (Careless,
1954). An initially moderate reformist ministry formed by Robert Baldwin and
Louis-Hippolyte Lafontaine was unable to overcome these deep divisions. By
the 1850s, Clear Grit radicals led by George Brown were engaged in heated
battles with the conservative Family Compact faction in Upper Canada, while
in Lower Canada, the Parti Bleu and Parti Rouge Liberals vied intensely for
power (Brown, 1963). The highly dysfunctional political framework established
by the forced Union further aggravated tensions between the regions and
hampered governance.
The United Canadas operated under a hybrid system with an uneven
distribution of parliamentary seats and British-style cabinet government based
on the principle of "double majority" - a ministry had to have the support of a
majority of members from both sections. This allowed Lower Canada to wield
disproportionate power relative to its smaller population, while fuelling
representation by population calls in Upper Canada. The push and pull
between English and French interests within this unstable structure
contributed to wildly swinging ministries and recurrent political deadlock,
heightening calls for constitutional reform.

Economic Challenges and Regional Disparities (400 words)

In addition to deep political fractures, the united colony grappled with
pressing economic challenges that further strained relations between the two
Canadas. Upper Canada relied heavily on protective tariffs to nurture its
burgeoning industry, while Lower Canada demanded free trade policies
favourable to its agricultural interests (Creighton, 1972). Finding a balance
between these competing economic priorities proved exceedingly difficult
within the united legislature.
Significant regional inequalities also emerged between the rapidly
industrializing economy of Upper Canada centred in Toronto and Hamilton,
and the rural, natural resource-based economy of Lower Canada concentrated
along the St. Lawrence River. The railroad boom of the 1850s served to widen
this economic divide, as most railroad development focused on linking Upper
Canadian towns and cities, fueling its quick economic expansion. As Creighton
notes, this growing imbalance bred resentment in Lower Canada, which
staunchly resisted policies aimed at further developing Upper Canadian
interests over its own. With the two colonies pulled between starkly
contrasting economic priorities, the united government found itself
perpetually paralyzed and unable to pursue coherent economic policies
satisfactory to both sections.

Reforms and Failed Attempts at Resolution (400 words)

Despite concerted efforts at reform within the dysfunctional political
framework, the entrenched sectional divide continued to breed government
inertia. While the Baldwin-Lafontaine government had succeeded in
implementing the principle of responsible government in the colony, this key
reform did little to surmount the fundamental differences between English and
French Canada. Reformist leaders like George Brown and Antoine-Aimé
Dorion spearheaded demands for representation by population to address
Lower Canada's disproportionate share of seats, but these efforts to
redistribute power served only to heighten tensions.
In the early 1860s, the Great Coalition united unlikely political allies like John
A. Macdonald, George Brown and George-Étienne Cartier in government, but
their partnership soon collapsed over the representation by population issue
as neither side could reconcile their regional interests. The failure of the Great
Coalition underscored the futility of short-term conciliatory measures in
addressing the core political conflicts. Similarly, various committees formed to
investigate constitutional options between 1858-1864 generated proposals for
federalism and alternation of governments but all foundered due to distrust
between factions. The political machinery had essentially reached an impasse,
with parliamentary sessions routinely ending in partisan deadlock and bitter
recriminations.

The Role of Key Figures (300 words)

Certain leading political figures played an integral role in shaping the debates
and proposals leading up to Confederation. George Brown, through his Globe
newspaper, vociferously rallied public opinion in Upper Canada behind
representation by population as crucial for protecting Western interests
(Careless, 1954). Though branded a dangerous demagogue by opponents, his
agitation was critical in forcing the issue onto the political agenda.
John A. Macdonald emerged as the leading architect of Confederation,
devoting his political talents towards achieving an elusive compromise
between the interests of Upper and Lower Canada through adroit negotiation,
coalition-building and backroom deals. His pragmatism and recognition of the
need for accommodation was key. George-Étienne Cartier gave voice to Lower
Canada's concerns about retaining its linguistic, legal and cultural identity
within any union. His partnership with Macdonald persuaded many Lower
Canadians to accept Confederation as a means of ensuring their rights
(Creighton, 1972). Though representing diverse regional interests, they shared
the conviction that the status quo had to change to overcome paralysis.

Catalysts for Confederation (200 words)

The final catalysts were the months of legislative deadlock in 1863,
exacerbated by sectarian violence in the streets, that brought governance to a
halt and vividly exposed the bankruptcy of the political system (Morton, 1943).
Combined with renewed fears of American aggression against the Canadas
after the Civil War, these events underscored the urgent need for action. The
1864 Charlottetown and Quebec Conferences were swiftly organized to
discuss Confederation as a proposal to finally break the political logjam
through a union of British North American colonies.

Conclusion (100 words)

In conclusion, the dysfunctional government in the Canadas, mired by political
stalemates and growing regional tensions, led reformers to acknowledge that
substantial constitutional change was essential for the colony's future political
and economic success. As acute crises emphasized the need for drastic
solutions, key proponents coalesced around the Confederation proposal as a
means of surmounting the partisan quagmire, providing a foundation for a
new Canadian nation.

Bibliography
Brown, R.C. (ed.). (1963). Upper Canadian Politics in the 1850's. Toronto:
University of Toronto Press.
Careless, J.M.S. (1954). The Union of the Canadas 1841-1857. Toronto:
McClelland and Stewart.
Creighton, Donald. (1972). The Road to Confederation. Toronto: Macmillan of
Canada.
Morton, W.L. (1943). The Critical Years. Toronto: McClelland and Stewart.